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Che
Who Changed the world Samuel Willard Crompton
World Almanac® Library
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Crompton, Samuel Willard. 100 military leaders who changed the world cm.
p.
—
who changed
(People
/
Samuel Willard Crompcon.
the world)
Includes index.
Summary:
Brief biographies of 100
through military
force, strategy,
men and women who attained greatness ability to command, relating the often
and/or the
harsh conditions and incredible odds each faced.
ISBN 0-8368-5470-5 1.
Generals
literature.
Generals.
[1.
One hundred
Title:
I.
Juvenile literature.
Military history
3.
literature.
Samuel Willard. IV.
bdg.)
(lib.
— Biography—
3.
4.
— Biography— —
Naval history
Military history.
leaders
II.
Juvenile
^Juvenile
Naval
4.
who changed the world. who shaped world history.
military leaders
00 military
1
^Juvenile literature.
Admirals.
2.
Admirals
2.
—
history.]
Crompton,
III.
Title.
Series.
U51.C743
2003
355'.0092'2—dc21
2002034335
(B)
This North American edition
published
first
in
2003 by
World Almanac® Library 330 West Olive Milwaukee,
WI
Street, Suite
This U.S. edition Books.
First
San Mateo,
©
2003 by World Almanac® Library Original edition © 1999 by Bluewood A Division of The Siyeh Group, Inc., P.O. Box 689,
published by Bluewood Books,
CA
94401.
Editors: Lee A. Schoenbart
Copy
editor:
100
USA
53212
and Heidi Marschner
Greg Aaron
Designer: David Price
World Almanac® Library World Almanac® Library Cover images from top Photo
credits:
Museum:
editor:
Jim Mezzanotte
art direction
to
and cover design:
Tammy
Gruenewald
bottom: George Washington, Bernard Montgomer)-, and Joan of Arc.
Bluewood Archives:
all
pages except: British
Museum:
40, 54; Imperial
104; National Archives: 78, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 92, 93, 98, 99, 101, 105, 53, 72;
War
90, 91, 100; Israel Information Agency: 35, 106; Library of Congress: 76, 77, 87, 103,
© Stapleton Collection/CORBIS:
55; U.S.
NYPL:
Army: 94, 107; U.S. Naval
25, 30, 36,
Institute: 80, 89,
95, 96, 97.
All rights reserved.
No
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or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Printed in the United States of America
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 07 06 05 04 03
About the Author: Samuel Willard Crompton College. Crompton's other books include; Battles
and
teaches
American and European history
at
Holyoke Community
100 Americans Who Shaped American History (Bluewood, 1998), 100
That Shaped World History (Bluewood, 1997), 100 Wars That Shaped World History {h\uewood, 1997), Cods
Goddesses of Classical Mythology (Barnes and Noble, 1998)
Crompton
holds degrees from
Massachusetts.
Framingham
State College
and Presidents of the United States (Smithmark,
and Duke
University.
He grew up and
lives in
1992).
western
Q
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280-337)
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370-410)
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Alaric the
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233-183
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PuBLius Cornelius Scipio (c.
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UADICC \^A DT"!:
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14
247-183
LhU
(C-.9,C)
Hannibal (c.
8.
r
S/^S'l
IdN A1,-WAL1U
IS.HAi.IU
20
cx
32
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the Conqueror
33
1027-1087)
27. "El Cid" (RoDRiGO Dl^z de Vivar)3^
406-453)
(c.
21
28.
466-511)
1043-1099)
Saladin (1
35
137-1193)
15. 16.
9. 3. 4. 5.
7.
8.
10.
11.
12.
13.
20.
17.
14.
18.
19.
ft
Y Y y Y
my nil »ii >
600
B.C.
A.D.
750
TABLE OF CONTENTS 29.
Richard the Lion-Hearted 36
30.
33.
43.
38
Khan
39
45.
40
I
46.
Robert Bruce
(c.
Edward the Black Prince 43
(c.
40.
49.
44
I
50.
45
51.
Arc
46
GusTAVUs Adolphus
58
Cromwell
59
(1599-1658)
the Conqueror
47
53.
Louis
II
de Bourbon
60
(1621-1686)
41. Francisco Pizarro
48
54.
1475-1541)
Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban 61
(1633-1707)
32-
24. 21.
56
57
Maarten von Tromp
52. Oliver
(1432-1481)
(c.
Albrecht von Wallenstein
(1597-1653)
1412-1431) II,
55
(1594-1632)
1358-1424)
Mehmed
54
(1583-1634)
38. Jan Ziska
39. Joan of
Drake
1539-1596)
48. Maurice of Nassau
42
(1354-1403)
(c.
53
(1567-1625)
Tamerlane
Bayezid
52
Oda Nobunaga
47. Francis
41
(1336-1405) 37.
The Duke of Alva
(1534-1582)
(1330-1376) 36.
51
(1508-1582)
(1274-1329) 35.
the Magnificent
I,
(1494-1566)
(1239-1307) 34.
50
1485-1547)
44. Suleiman
1215-1294)
Edward
HernAn Cort£z (c.
1176-1248)
32. KuBLAi (c.
37
1167-1227)
31. Subotai (c.
Babar 49
(1483-1530)
Genghis Khan (c.
Mohammed
42. Zahiruddin
(1157-1199)
22.
23.
27.
25.
28. 29.
31.
37. 34.
35.
38.
44.
40.
41. 26.
30.
42. 33.
y
y
V
V y
V
36.
39.
43.
ytty|ttttttt|
t
rm ym rm >
A.D.
751
1500
)
TABLE OF CONTENTS 55.
John Churchill
62
68.
56.
Peter the Great
63
69.
(1672-1725) 57.
64
Charles XJI
70.
Frederick the great
66
72.
Wolfe
67
73.
Scott
78
Helmuth von Moltke
79
David Farragut
80
(1801-1870)
Aleksandr Suvorov
68
74. Giuseppe Garjbaldi
81
(1807-1882)
(1729-1800)
George Washington
69
75.
Robert
Lee
E.
82
(1807-1870)
(1732-1799) 63.
77
(1800-1891)
(1727-1759)
62.
SimOn Bolivar
71. Winfield
65
(1722-1792)
61.
76
(1786-1866)
John Burgoyne
60. James
Karl von Clausewitz
(1783-1830)
(1712-1786) 59.
75
(1780-1831
(1682-1718) 58.
Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852)
(1650-1722)
Nathanael Greene
70
76.
Ulysses
S.
Grant
83
(1822-1885)
(1742-1786) 64. ToussAiNT L'Oltverture
77. William T.
71
Sherman
8'
(1820-1891) 65. Lazare Nicolas
Marguerite
72
78.
Carnot (1753-1823) 66.
Horatio Nelson
85
(1824-1863)
73
79.
Geronimo
86
(1829-1909)
(1758-1805) 67.
Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson
Napoleon Bonaparte
74
80.
(1769-1821)
Chief Joseph
87
(1840-1904)
67. 68. 50.
45.
46.
49.
51.
53.
52.
54.
55.
56. 57.
58.
59.
60.
63.
61.
64.
62.
69. 72. 66. 70.
65.
71.
47.
>1»
1501
»» »» >
1800
81.
Paul VON HiNDF.NBURG 88
Chiang Kai-shek
92.
82.
Heihachiro Togo 89
Heinz Guderian
93.
Ferdinand Foch
90
Erwin Rommel
94.
(1851-1929) 84.
Henri Philippe PEtain 91
MaoTse-Tung
95.
John Pershing
96. Georgi
92
Bernard Montgomery
103
93
Vo Nguyen
97.
104
Glap
(1912-)
Douglas MacArthur
94
98. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. 105
(1912-2002)
(1880-1964) 88. William Halsey, Jr.
95
MosHE Dayan
99.
(1882-1959) 89.
Zhukov
(1896-1974)
(1887-1976) 87.
102
(1893-1976)
(1860-1948) 86.
101
(1891-1944)
(1856-1951) 85.
100
(1888-1954)
(1848-1934) 83.
99
(1887-1975)
(1847-1934)
106
(1915-1981)
IsoRUKU Yamamoto
100. Norman
96
(1884-1943)
Schwarzkopf
107
(1934-)
90.
Chester Nimitz 97
91.
George Patton
TRIVIA QUIZ
(1885-1966)
108
SUGGESTED PROJECTS INDEX 109
98
(1885-1945)
108
89. 90.
97. 74.
73. 75.
91.
76. 77. 78.
80.
81.
82.
83.
85.
86.
88.
94.
98. 96.
99
100.
92.
79.
>i>i
1801
84.
87.
nil
93.
95
ym >
1950
ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS Adolphus, Gustavus,
Foch, Ferdinand
II
(50) AJaric the
Goth
(12)
Alcibiades (3)
Alexander the Great
(6)
Alfred the Great (21) Alva, the Attila the
Duke of (45)
Hun
(13)
Babar, Zahiruddin
19
Garibaldi, Giuseppe (74). ..p. 81
10
Genghis Khan (30)
p.
13
Geronimo
p.
28
Giap,
p.
52
Grant, Ulysses
p.
20
Greene, Nathanael (63)
(79)
Vo Nguyen
Guderian, Heinz (93)
(37)
p.
44
p.
22
Halsey, William,
p.
77
Hannibal
Simon
(70)
Bonaparte, Napoleon (67). p. 74
(97)
(76)
S.
BeUsarius (15) Boh'var,
Petain, Henri Philippe
p.
(58)
49
I
Pershing,
p.
II
p.
Bayezid
90 65
Frederick
Mohammed
(42)
p. p.
(83)
57
p.
p.
91
Peter the Great (56)
p.
63
p.
86
Philip
p.
12
p.
48
p.
16
p.
i6
104
p.
p. p.
II
(5)
Pizarro, Francisco
Pompey
70
Richard the Lion-Hearted
the Great (9)
(29)
Rommel, Erwin
(94)
32
Saladin (28)
95
Schwarzkopf Norman
p.
14
Hindenburg, Paul von
(100)
p.
30 41
Burgoyne, John (59)
p.
66
p.
85
Sherman, William
p.
77
Joseph, Chief (80)
p.
87
Sichelgaita
p.
31
Joan of Arc (39)
p.
46
...p.
23
Subotai (31)
p.
39
Suleiman
p.
82
(44)
Caesar, Julius
Canute
II
(10)
(24)
p.
Khalid ibn al-Walid (16)
Carnot, Lazare Nicolas
Khan
p.
72
Kublai
Charlemagne (20)
p.
27
Lee, Robert E.
Charles XII (57)
p.
64
L'Ouverture, Toussaint
p.
99
Marguerite (65)
Chiang Kai-shek
(92)
88
(32)
(75)
60
Tariq ibn Ziyad (17)
p.
24
Themistocles
94
Togo, Heihachiro (82)
p.
89
102
Tromp, Maarten (51)
p.
58
p.
61
p.
56
..p.
(1 l)p.
18
MaoTse-Tung
p.
p.
50
Martel, Charles (19)
p.
26
p.
59
Maurice of Nassau (48)
p.
55
(1)
Davis, Benjamin O.,
p.
8
(98)
Dayan, Moshe (99)
p.
105
p.
106
Drake, Francis (47)
p.
54
Edward
p.
40
I
(33)
Edward the Black Prince (35)
p.
42
"El Cid" (Rodrigo Diaz
de Vivar) (27) Farragut,
David (73)
de Bourbon (53)
Mehmed
II,
(95)
the
Conqueror
(40)
Jr.
51
25
MacArthur, Douglas (87)
Cyrus the Great
p.
..p.
21
Cromwell, Oliver (52)
the Magnificent
the Isaurian (18). ..p.
Clevis of the Franks (14)
(43)
I,
68
Leo
Hernan
32
JS
43
Louis
Cortez,
p. p.
Guiscard (25)
p.
76
Constantine the Great
84
Tamerlane (36)
62
...p.
T. (77). .p.
and Robert
71
p.
p.
II
7S
p.
(64)
III,
15
p.
Suvorov, Aleksandr (61)
Clausewitz, Karl von (69). .p.
Churchill, John (55)
p.
(8)
Scott, Winfield (71)
"Stonewall"
(78)
107
p.
p.
Thomas
35
Scipio, Publius Cornelius
Bruce, Robert (34)
(81)
101
p.
p.
Brian Boru (23)
Jackson,
(41)
83
100
p.
(84)
p.
(7)
92
37
(88).. ..p.
Sichelgaita (25)
p.
p.
Guiscard, Robert and
Jr.
John (85)
(2)
Vauban, Sebastien
p.
9
le
Prestre de (54)
Wallenstein, Albrecht von
p.
47
Moltke, Helmuth von
(49)
Washington, George (62)
..p.
69
p.
75
p.
79
p.
93
p.
33
Nelson, Horatio (66)
p.
73
Wolfe, James (60)
p.
67
Nimitz, Chester (90)
p.
97
Xenophon
p.
Oda Nobunaga
p.
53
Yamamoto, Isoruku
(72)
Montgomery, Bernard (86)
(46)
Wellesley, Arthur (68)
William the Conqueror (26)
(4)
p.
34
Otto the Great (22)
p.
29
Ziska, Jan (38)
p.
80
Patton, George (91)
p.
98
Zhukov, Georgi (96)
7
11
(89). ...p.
96
p.
45
p.
103
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Cyrus the Great 600-530
(c.
One
of
was born
southern part of present-day
Many stories
Iran.
but
parentage,
have circulated regarding his
most
seems
it
was the son and grandson of
known
a region
the throne of
of
tribes in
Cyrus
greatest warlords,
history's
in the
B.C.)
he
likely
men who
ruled
Anshan. Cyrus inherited
as
Anshan and gathered the other
Persis, located in the
modern-day
Iran.
He
province of Fars
led a revolt against his
overlord, Astyages, king ol the Medes. Joined
by forces from the
city
of Babylon, Cyrus and
his Persian warriors defeated the
Medes
Cyrus entered the Median
B.C.
550
in
capital
of
Ecbatana (modern-day Hamadan) and took the throne as king of Persia.
Two went
years after entering Ecbatana,
Cyrus
war against Croesus, the king of Lydia,
to
modern-day Turkey. Lydia had established
in
the
first
known
was reputed
coinage system, and Croesus be fabulously wealthy (the
to
expression "rich as Croesus" comes from this
Lydian king). Croesus consulted the Greek
which prophesied
oracle at Delphi,
attacked the Persians, a great empire
Cyrus the Great
that if he
would be empire stretching from the Indus River to
destroyed. Never thinking that the empire the oracle spoke of
might well be
fought Cyrus.
The
made Croesus
a prisoner
dom 546
of Lydia and B.C., the
own, Croesus
the
In
was prevented from marching eastward by
cities
on the
attacks
Instead
eastern coast
taking
his
hard-riding
turned
Persian
Susa
all
way to the Indus River and the foothills of the Hindu Kush Mountains. He returned to Ecbatana and moved against the city of the
Babylon, which had
of
his
control.
captured
the
Persian
king
now
Persepolis
The riders who
stood
a
world
state
Persian cities of at
the
center
were connected
of the empire.
lands
by express
traveled
Cyrus was buried
remained independent
C^yrus
and
The
on well-paved
roads to carry news throughout the empire.
simple tomb.
city,
ending the Babylonian dynasty.
The
where he was defeated
lasted long after his death.
eastward,
warriors
Cyrus
killed.
Cyrus the Great's concept of
Cyrus
his empire.
of marching toward Egypt,
tribes in central Asia,
and
his empire. B.C.,
on the northern section of
went north and met the nomadic Massagetai
allowing the Persian king to further
545
Cyrus
and took the king-
wealth for himself In
against the Persians. Cyrus swiftly captured the
expand
of Asia Minor.
then cast an eager eye toward Egypt, but he
of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) revolted
cities,
shores
eastern
Persians prevailed. Cyrus
all its
Ionian
his
benevolent the Persians.
controlled a vast
8
A
at
Pasargadae
fierce warrior
ruler,
in a relatively
but a wise and
he was called "Father" by
ZThemistocles (c.
.
524-459
B.C.)
Heroic patriot or double-dealing scoundrel?
The debate continues about Themistocles
A
(thehm-is-TOE-cleez).
of Athens,
native
Themistocles rose to become a champion of the lower classes in this Greek
493 and
archon, or magistrate,
B.C.,
at
2 miles (3.2
km) from
the
main
of ten generals
Athenians
the
at
where the
B.C.),
was defeated on
command
at
cal
483
led his states
est
had no choice but
to flee Athens. Themistocles
—
ban-
political
many of his
He
Magnesia-on-the-Meadows
politi-
Persia
convinced
Xerxes
another war.
his
later
who had changed
life,
Persians, even while
The
there. fled. les
I
fleet
entered to their
no one was
population had
Trusting Themistoc-
(who trusted
in the ora-
cle at Delphi), the
Athen-
ians fled to nearby towns,
while
Athenian
sailors
stood ready with their at the
fleet
Bay of Salamis. Battle of Salamis
Themistocles covinced
9
It
was
he led the Athenian forces
against them.
the Battle of Thermopylae,
surprise that
his bases.
discovered he sent information to the
winning
troops
sides in the last years
had always covered
"King of Kings," led an
enormous army and
to rule.
Themistocles, the Athenian politician and
he persuaded the
B.C.,
(ZERKS-eez), the Persian
Athens and found
he was tried
Minor and presented himself to Artaxerxes, the new Persian king. He became a trusted advisor, and the Persian leader gave him the town of
leader in Athens.
the Athenians to cooperate with other Greek
Xerxes's
B.C.,
Marathon, Themistocles
city-states in preparation for
to Greece. After
city-
crossed the Aegean Sea to Ephesus in Asia
again, Themistocles
B.C.,
Greek
who had been
of
480
in retreat, leaving the
hero in Greece, but in 476
general
In
army
For some time, Themistocles was the great-
the
two hundred warships. Believing that strike
(which
with their freedom.
Athenians to build between one hundred and
would
Lacking supplies
fleet.
he was nonetheless ostracized in 473 B.C. and
to rid the city of
In
rivals.
Persian
won an
ended with the ruin ol
major threat from Persia
used the process of ostracism
—
the
forti-
led
Following the lead
could only be brought in by ship), Xerxes soon
rocky beach.
a
became the dominant ishment
all-day naval battle that
of Athens.
who
threat.
bay,
ships
for cooperating with the Persians. Acquitted,
After the death ol Miltiades, first in
city
of a
narrow
Persian
of Marathon (490
Battle
first
less
in the
number of
of Themistocles, the Greeks fought and
in the
once began
He was one
would pose
he became an
fying Piraeus, a naval port that was located
Athenians to fight larger
which came
democracy
close to developing a true sixth century B.C. In
city,
his fellow
where the
Alcibiades 450-404
(c.
3,
Athens,
nephew
and
Pericles
was born
long-time
statesman
the Spartan king allowed Alcibiades to remain.
of the great
Alcibiades was soon allowed to present himself
(al-sih-BY-ah-dees)
Alcibiades in
B.C.)
to
great
disciple
a
briefly
the
philosopher Socrates, whose admonitions to
harmony were apparently young man. Alcibiades became
tary skill
wasted on the
are
for disregarding
with
serving
After
any moral code. distinction
Alcibiades
in
was elected one of the ten generals of Athens B.C.
Pericles
Peloponnesian
was
in
its
was
and
dead,
War between Athens and
Still, traitors
and
distrust,
the situation worse by seduc-
Sparta and crossed the Aegean Sea to Asia
Alcibiades
420
with
ing the king's wife. Discovered, he fled from
Batde of Delium
B.C.),
made
valued only mili-
truth.
the
life at
424
viewed
offer,
the
Athenian army (he saved Socrates' in
who
and who spoke the
generally
by the
Intrigued
to the king as a Spartan
seek balance and
known
enemies.
in
Minor,
the
Sparta
twelfth year. In favor of continuing
where he offered
services
his
to
Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, or governor. Still
made a
hoping to return
to Athens, Alcibiades
overtures that were rejected at
first.
Then
group of Athenian generals gave him com-
the war, Alcibiades convinced his fellow mili-
mand
tary leaders to send a large fleet to attack the
of Samos. Departing quickly from the Persian
city
of Syracuse,
Alcibiades was
a
Spartan
named one of
manders. The night before ever,
in
Sicily.
fleet's
comhow-
ally
the
his departure,
images of the god Hermes were mutilat-
ed. His political
enemies persuaded the gov-
court, Alcibiades took eral victories,
and
to Sparta,
sailed to Argos.
where he offered
based on the island
command and won
sev-
notably at Cyzicus, where sixty
B.C.,
Alcibiades returned to Athens and
was welcomed Alcibiades
as a hero.
went into voluntary
by
end
of
exile
in
made perma-
Thrace, and the exile was soon the
nent
then marched
won
a
his services to his
B.C.,
and the Spartan commander, Lysander,
Alerted to this danger, Alcibiades fleet
fleet
Spartan ships were destroyed or captured. In
407
ernment that Alcibiades was responsible, and an escort was sent to bring him home.
of an Athenian
He
left
the
the
Sparta
war.
complete victory over Athens in 404
demanded of
the
turned coat a times.
Asia
surrender
man who had
the
of three
total
Alcibiades
to
fled
where
Minor,
the
Persian satrap Pharnabazus
agreed to allow him safe
Pressured
residence.
by
Pharnabazus
Lysander,
had Alcibiades
slain
group of armed
men
by
a
at his
residence in Phrygia in the
same
year.
persuasive,
Death of Alcibiades
Handsome,
and unscrupu-
lous,
Alcibiades
brought
down by
his
double-dealing ways.
10
was
own
4xeiioplion 430-355
(c.
.
A
and
soldier
B.C.)
an
author,
Xenophon (ZEN-uh-ton) was born
He grew up
in Athens.
in the
tumult
of the Peloponnesian War, and by the time of Athens's defeat in 404
was disillusioned by the
home
In 401
city.
he
B.C.,
politics
of his
he accepted
B.C.,
an offer to join the army oi Cyrus the
Younger
424-401),
(c.
who
prince
Persian
a
recruited thirteen thou-
sand Greek mercenaries to fight with
him
against his older brother,
Artaxerxes
II
These
Persian-Greek
marched from Lydia Babylonia,
to
Tigris
now
troops
in Asia
land
a
and Euphrates
rivers in
serious opposition until he
miles (97
what
is
met
Xenophon
his
army on the plain at Cunaxa, 60 km) north of Babylon. The battle
went well Cyrus led
and was
Minor
between the
Cyrus the Younger met no
Iraq.
brother's
King
(ART-ah-ZERKS-eez).
for the Greco-Persian forces until
charge against his brother
a cavalry killed.
Defeated and leaderless, the
Greek mercenaries retreated from the
field to
Xenophon stepped
into
Why
yield to the
mercy of the enemy,
they had a chance to
if
way back
to Greece?
Becoming
the mercenaries, he guided ilous retreat
of hostile involved
know
make
the leader of
them on
their per-
The eight-month march The mercenaries did not
territory.
perils.
the terrain, and they were the
group of Greeks to
Xenophon
their
through 1,300 miles (2,092 km)
many
sea!
The
sea!"
They had
reached Chrysopolis on the Sea of Marmara,
from Byzantium. To
directly across
this day,
the leadership and tactics of
Xenophon have
been used
he
travel so
On
debate and
the
urged his fellow soldiers not to consider sur-
he asked,
"The
out
called
as a
model. In
fact,
is
considered
the inventor of the pattern of strategic retreat.
consider their options.
render.
concluded when the vanguard of the Greeks
first
large
deep into Asia.
led the Greeks past the ruins of
that
his return to Greece,
in its
war with the Persian Minor.
Asia
Xenophon was Agesilaus
II
He
learned
therefore
army (399-394
served with the Spartan
of
Xenophon
Athens had banished him.
Returning an
given
B.C.)
satrap (governor)
to
estate
Greece,
by
King
of Sparta.
During the next twenty
years,
wrote fourteen works. His best
Xenophon known are
Hellenika (seven volumes), a history of Greece
with a pro-Spartan (seven volumes)
bias,
and
Cyrus' Anabasis
and Cyrus Education
(eight
Nineveh, which had been the capital of the
volumes), an idealized biography of Cyrus the
Assyrian empire. Although only two hundred
Great (see no.
years
and
his
men had
founder of the Persian
He moved
its
and
his
Athenian citizenship was restored
The arduous journey was
369
B.C.
city's fall,
Xenophon
never heard of the city or
once-great people.
1),
empire.
had passed since the
11
to
Corinth in 371
B.C.,
in
Philip (382-336
5.
A
II
B.C.)
younger son of King Amyntas
III,
Philip did not expect to attain the throne of
Macedonia. Sent
an early age
at
as a hostage to
the Greek city-state of Thebes, Philip observed
the
firsthand
greatest
and following the death of
B.C.,
older brother, Perdiccas
of Macedonia in
of
Greek general was returned to Macedonia
of the time. Philip
by 359
deployments
military
Epaminondas, the
III,
own
his
his
he became king
right.
Philip turned the hard-riding, hard-drink-
ing Macedonians into a formidable fighting force.
He
lanx,
a
arrayed his farmer-soldiers in a pharectangular
tight,
battle
formation.
Soldiers in front held out long pikes, while soldiers within the
phalanx held shields over their
heads to protect the phalanx from arrows.
cavalry
elite
To
formation, he added a corps of
this tank-like
known
as the
horsemen were used
Companions. These
to terrify
and overwhelm
Adding technology to the battlePhilip also employed catapults and siege
the enemy. field,
towers. Philip fought side by side with his
and he
lost his right
against the
He
made
diplomacy
was
(358
this goal
B.C.)
in
secure.
by defeating the
what
later
II
being shot in the right eye
Athenian and Theban forces on the
Chaeronea
as well as war, Philip
sure that his throne
accomplished
Illyrians
eye in an early encounter
Greek republic of Methone.
Skillful in first
Philip
men,
became
in Boeotia. Prince
charge of the
Companions
Macedonia. Philip
for
left
that
won
the day
garrisons in both
Thebes and Corinth, but he declined in
field at
Alexander led a
to
do
so
Athens. Master of northern Greece, Philip
Yugoslavia and by taking the towns on the east
forced
coast of Macedonia. After expanding eastward
join the League of Corinth, with himself as
into Thrace, Philip turned south a "sacred war" against Thessaly.
and declared
The only
all
the leader.
thing
Philip
sacred to Philip, however, was the gaining of
province
territory
and
Athenian
prestige.
Seeing the menace Macedonia posed
Greek freedom, Demosthenes tried
the
Athenian
to
orator
feverishly to stir public sen-
timent against Philip, but his efforts came too late.
340
Athens B.C.
declared
war on
Philip
338
B.C., Philip
and
his eighteen-
year-old son Alexander (see no. 6)
who saw
met the
intended
to
of
Minor
Asia
and
orator
attack
the
Persian
The
(Turkey).
teacher
in Philip the leader
Isocrates,
Greece needed,
Family circumstances,
supported the plan.
however, prevented Philip from carrying out the plan.
The
in
without having made adequate prepa-
rations. In
the Greek city-states except Sparta to
greatest soldier of his
state-builder,
son,
Alexander,
his father's
12
Philip
day and
a true
was succeeded by
who
ultimately
formidable achievements.
his
surpassed
Alexander the Great
6
(356-323
.
Born the son
in
B.C.)
Macedonia, Alexander was
Pella,
of King Philip
hands of one of his own generals.
and
Alexander
then
devised
plan
(see
no.
5)
Olympias, an Epirean princess.
He
studied
"homonoia," bringing Macedonians, Greeks,
under the Greek philosopher Aristotle and
and Persians together into one ethnic group. In
from an
early age
II
mind Alexander came
showed both
and a
talent for leadership.
of age
at the Battle
a keen
of Chaeronea (338
B.C.),
where he led the Macedonian cavalry
in
336
Alexander became king of
field.
Macedonia
the death of his father in
after
B.C.
In the spring of thirty-five
334
B.C.,
Alexander and
thousand battle-hardened troops
crossed the Dardanelles into Asia Minor.
won
his first
Granicus River and proceeded to the
at the
He
engagement against the Persians
The Gordian Knot was
Knot.
knot of
a
thousand of
his soldiers to ten thou-
sand Persian women.
He
brought
his
men
all
and
their elephants
(it
was the
Gedrosian Desert, where to
hunger and
thirst.
Alexander
made
where he died caused
his
by drink.
of
all
Asia.
Alexander simply pulled out
his
sword and cut through the knot that had perplexed countless
men
among
common
Middle
East,
time the
Finally,
lives
capital
at
his vast
his top generals.
were
army of Darius
and the
III,
left
Greek became
much
ol the
and Hellenistic culture became to
the Tigris
rivers.
At the
Battle of Issus (333 B.C.), Alexander used the
mobility of his troops to confuse and defeat the
much
larger Persian army.
Alexander led
his
men
Lebanon and
into
spent seven months reducing the Phoenician city
of Tyre (TY-ree).
He
finally
conquered
that island city by building a causeway of earth
and
stones,
which
He
still exists.
then went to
Egypt, where high priests acclaimed god.
The Macedonian army
marched
into Persia proper,
fought and
won
left
him
as a
Egypt and
where Alexander
a second great battle with
Darius, this time at a site called Arabela (331 B.C.).
Darius escaped from the
field,
sued with a vengeance, and finally
was pur-
fell at
Aristotle
the
13
no
empire was
the "King of Kings"
ruler of the Persian Empire.
lost
Babylon,
Marching south, Alexander met the assembled
in
was probably
language throughout
dominant from Greece Euphrates
before him.
first
Since Alexander
divided the
many
after a fever that
A
man who
Indus
to the
326 B.C., Alexander's Macedonian soldiers demanded he lead them back to Persia. Angry, Alexander led them back by way of the harsh
male heir to succeed him,
legend had developed that the
way
Greeks had faced such animals).
cornel bark tied around the yoke of a chariot.
could untie the knot would become the ruler
the
River and fought a battle against Indian troops
city
of Gordium, where he cut the famous Gordian
for
one-day wedding ceremony, Alexander mar-
ried ten
a
charge that swept the Athenians and Thebans
from the
a
a
and
his pupil
Alexander
and
Hannibal
7
247-183
(c.
B.C.)
Son of Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal was born Phoenician city on the
in Carthage, tlie great
North
coast of
War (264-241
Africa, during the First Punic B.C.). In the war,
Rome
ed Carthage. After
took
Rome
defeat-
Sicily, Sardinia,
and Corsica away from Carthage, Hamilcar
made
Barca
his nine-year-old
Hannibal and establish a
son swear
his eter-
Rome.
nal hatred for
went
his father
new Carthaginian
to Spain to
empire. Following
and then of his brother-
the death of his father
Hannibal became supreme commander
in-law,
Spain and leader of the Barcids (the Barca
in
of a
new
rival,
declared war on Carthage in
218
B.C.,
Nervous about the
family).
Rome
rise
Second Punic War.
starting the
Hannibal led
thousand troops
thirty-five
and a number of elephants over the Pyrenees
He
and Alps.
many of
Hannibal
the elephants and
lost nearly all
his troops to the frigid conditions in
Hasdrubal's head was thrown into his camp.
the Alps, but he recruited Gallic tribespeople to join his attack
on Rome.
Having defeated Carthage
in the First
Punic
War, the Romans were supremely confident. To their astonishment,
Hannibal defeated them
at
the Ticinus River (218 B.C.) and the Trebia
won
River (218 B.C.) and
a major victory at
The
Lake Trasimene
(217
Cannae (216
B.C.)
was Hannibal's masterpiece.
He
lured the
Roman
of
own
his
wings
of
his cavalry
them.
swept around the Fifty
thousand
perished that day.
Roman Scipio
Battle
infantrymen to the center
and trapped
Romans
B.C.).
then caught them completely
lines,
unprepared when
armies led no.
(see
Carthaginian
by Publius Cornelius
meanwhile, conquered
8),
Spain.
Hannibal's
brother
Hasdrubal escaped from Spain with ten thousand
men and
followed
reached northern
Hannibal's
route
and
learned
of
his force his
having
Italy,
over
the
However, Hasdrubal was caught by two armies,
203
In
B.C.,
Carthage
Alps.
Roman
was destroyed. Hannibal
brother's
efforts
only
when
Roman (202
had
to
the
army, led by Scipio.
B.C.)
showed
successftilly
that Scipio
Battle of Zama
and the Romans style
of war-
was Hannibal and the
it
who were caught in Roman infantry and cavalry.
Carthaginians
between
the
against
city
The
copied Hannibal's
This time
fare.
Hannibal was recalled by
defend
Hannibal escaped from the
field
a
vise
and
per-
suaded the leaders of Carthage to seek peace.
He
retired to private life at the
and served B.C.
His
end of the war
as a magistrate for the ciry in
political foes in
Rome
that
more.
Rome demanded
196
Carthage persuaded
Hannibal was ready to
fight
once
that Carthage surren-
der Hannibal, but he fled to the court of
Antiochus
III
Antiochus to
of Syria. Hannibal encouraged fight
Rome, and
Roman-Syrian War (192-189 complete victory
for
the
the resulting
B.C.)
ended
in
Romans. Hannibal
then fled to the court of Prusias of Bithynia,
where he took poison rather than be taken oner by the Romans.
14
pris-
"
BPublius 233-183
(c.
Cornelius Scipio
B.C.)
came from one of
Scipio (SHEEP-ee-oh)
Rome's most distinguished noble
His
families.
who had the same name, was a Roman who fought against Hannibal (see no.
father,
consul
of the Second
7) in northern Italy at the start
Punic War. Scipio saved his
father's life at the
and
Battle of Ticinus River (218 B.C.)
Roman army
the remnants of the Battle of
Cannae (216
rallied
the
after
light cavalry ries.
leader's battle tacfast,
was the key to Hannibal's victo-
During the Second Punic War, Scipio
suaded the
Roman
Senate to
210
per-
him open
let
and captured
B.C.
Cartagena (New Carthage). Scipio revised
Roman
ditional
equipment of
his
maneuver quickly
He lightened the men and trained them to
in a
way
similar to that of
new
style
Carthaginians in Spain. By 206
had won control of nearly the returned
Scipio
march through
Rome and received the surname "Africanus. Many years later, he would be called Scipio him from
Africanus Major to distinguish
grandson,
Third
who
Punic
destroyed
War
(149-146
B.C.)
homeland
army
to in
the
take
North
brother Lucius Scipio, tory over Antiochus
who won
III
a crushing vic-
of Syria in the
Syrian War. Returning to
Rome,
Roman-
Scipio found
himself and his brother accused of accepting bribes
from Antiochus. The brothers were
acquitted in a
memorable
retired to his villa at
Bitter over the trial
trial,
Liternum
and Scipio
in
Campania.
and angry that
his
his
remains be interred
brought to Rome. The
at
Liternum and not
city's greatest
soldier felt
dishonored by an ungrateful public.
the
205
B.C.
defeated
who brought Roman camp. 202
plains of
but
He
also
Roman and
B.C.
a
Numidian
additional cavalry to the
B.C., Scipio
Zama. The
Scipio
204
earned the good
alliance of Masinissa,
prince
In
took a
two Carthaginian armies
brought against him.
and
Hannibal's
to
He
defused
met Hannibal on
battle
the
phants and catching them Masinissa's cavalry
the
was hard-fought,
power
of
the
Carthaginian lines by stampeding their in
a
vise
ele-
with
behind them. The student
had met the master and won. Scipio
dictated
harsh terms of peace
name
had come under suspicion, Scipio ordered that
Scipio
B.C.,
in
across the Mediterranean in
swiftly
will
war
Africa.
and
was named Scipio Africanus Minor.
After long debate, he obtained the Senate's
permission
his
Carthage in the
entire peninsula.
Rome
to
triumphal
of war-
defeated
consistently
Scipio
tra-
tactics.
the Carthaginians. Using this fare,
a
He went
second front, in Carthaginian Spain. to Spain as proconsul in
a
In 190 B.C., Scipio served as legate to his
he realized that the deployment of
tics,
honored with
B.C.).
Scipio admired Hannibal's success in battle.
Studying the Carthaginian
He was
Carthage, then returned to Rome.
Scipio and Hannibal at to
15
Zama
gPompey the Great 106-48
(c.
B.C.)
remnants of an army of former point of
115-53
Marcus
fact,
it
lion's force
67
Crassus
Licinius
(c.
was Pompey's good
moment when
tune to arrive at the
power
who had
had done most of the work of
B.C.)
defeating the rebels;
In
slaves
under the leadership of partacus. In
rebelled
for-
the rebel-
had been spent.
B.C.,
the Senate gave
at sea in order to deal
Mediterranean,
Pompey supreme
with pirates in the
who commanded
of one
a total
thousand ships and four hundred towns. masterful
Pompey
organizer,
defeated
months by capturing
pirates in four
A
the
their bases.
This great success was followed by
his
cam-
paign in Asia Minor against Mithridates VI,
king
the
of
Pompey
Pontus.
defeated
Mithridates, then besieged and captured the
When
Jewish capital of Jerusalem. to
Rome
the
in
62
greatest
he returned
Pompey was beyond doubt
B.C.,
military
leader
the
in
Mediterranean world.
Pompey formed
a triumvirate, or three-man
government, with Crassus and Julius Caesar. In
54
Pompey It
the Great
was Pompey's misfortune that
his great
military victories were eclipsed by those of Julius Caesar
(see
no.
10).
from the aristocracy In 83
in Rome, Pompey came
B.C.,
he became a
follower of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a patrician
who became During the
the unofficial dictator of
Social
Crassus was killed on a military expe-
sole consul in
return to
Wars between the
Rome.
followers
52
Rome
B.C.,
Pompey became
and he ordered Caesar
without
his
port
of
Dyrrhachium (modern-day Durres,
The two
Albania) and then pursued his foe.
Pompey won
armies clashed again at Pharsalus in 48
and then
crossed to Sicily and North Africa, where he
defeated
Marian
forces.
On
his
return
to
Rome, Pompey was honored with a triumph and awarded the title of Magnus (Great). Following
Roman
Sulla's
Senate sent
death
in
Pompey
78 to
Italy.
Pompey fled to Greece to assemble his forces there. The stage was set for a climactic showdown between the two greatest generals of the day. Pompey rebuffed Caesar's troops at the
of Sulla and those of Caius (KAI-us) Marius, several victories in Italy
to
army.
Caesar refused and instead invaded
Born
the son of Pompeius Strabo,
B.C.,
dition against the Parthians.
Pompey, who had the
larger army,
B.c:.
gambled
everything on a massive cavalry attack against Caesar's right flank.
When
Caesar's troops, backed by
on horseback,
the assault failed,
German mercenar-
scattered
Pompey's
forces.
B.C.,
the
ies
Spain.
He
Pompey escaped from Greece and went
to
fought and defeated Marian rebels there, and
Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered
he returned to
by followers of King Ptolemy XII 1.
Italy just in
time to defeat the
16
Caesar
Julius
n
1
lU. (100-44
B.C.)
Possibly the greatest military all
Born into an ancient Caesar was nonetheless
commander
on
time, Julius Caesar thrived
patrician
affiliated
oi
war. family,
with the ple-
beian (commoner) followers of Caius (KAI-us)
Marius
and
He
in his youth.
Maximus
rose swiftly in civil
becoming Pontifex
authority,
religious
(high priest) in 63 B.C. His military
unknown until 59 when he obtained he proconsulship of
however, was virtually
skill,
B.C.,
Cisalpine Gaul (the southern part of modern-
day France). astonished
quickly
Caesar
He conducted
ents.
who
those
thought they had known the extent of
his tal-
campaign (58
a
B.C.)
against the Helvetii in present-day Switzerland
and nearly annihilated the
some of
German
repel
Asked by
tribe.
the chieftains of southern Gaul to
Caesar
invaders,
against Ariovistus
and destroyed
marched
his army, pur-
suing the survivors to the Rhine River. Having involved himself in Gaul, Caesar slowly began to constrict the area of free
mous
circular vise grip.
the Beglai (in
52
first
B.C.,
in
an enor-
Roman
sailed
Said to have
where he carried
invasion of that land.
By
Caesar had most of Gaul within his
That same
Julius Caesar
against
modern-day Belgium) and
across the channel to Britain,
out the
Gaul
He campaigned
the Arverni
wept
at the sight.
Caesar then joined forces with the Egyptian princess,
Cleopatra,
and they defeated her
on the throne of
brother. Leaving Cleopatra
chief,
Egypt, Caesar went to Asia Minor, where he
Vercingetorix, organized a tribal confederacy
defeated Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates of
and
Pontus, in five days. Caesar then stated the
grasp.
carried
year,
out a massive war against the
Romans. Caesar escaped from spots before he
tight
several
ended the war and captured
now-famous words, came,
Vercingetorix at the Siege of Alesia.
Summoned Pompey in
his
(see no. 9),
January 49
his army.
by
B.C.,
Pompey
former
Caesar returned to at the
fled to Greece,
pursued him, and in 48 crushing victory over
B.C.,
Pompey
ally,
Rome
head of
where Caesar
Caesar
won
at the Battle
a
of
Pharsalus. Caesar pursued his foe to Egypt,
where the followers of King Ptolemy XIII presented
him with
saw,
I
"Veni,
the head of Pompey. Caesar
is
with
Vidi,
Vici," or,
Rome and was greeted He revised the
tremendous acclaim.
Roman
calendar (based
on
the calendar of
Egypt) and reorganized the government.
seemed nearly ready of
"I
conquered."
Caesar returned to
political
but he did so
I
Rome when
to
He
make himself emperor
he was struck
down by
a
group
of assassins on the floor of the Senate in 44
B.C.
The Roman Republic had come to an end, and Caesar's nephew Octavian became the first true emperor of Rome. 17
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nconstantine the Great .
280-337)
(c.
tumult led to a
cal
war by A.D. 308.
civil
Constantine married Fausta, the daughter of a
He
former augusti named Maximian.
had
later
to fight his brother-in-law Maxentius, the son
of Maximian and brother of Fausta, for the throne. Prior to meeting Maxentius, he experi-
enced a vision
which he was told he would
in
conquer under the sign of the Christian
won 312). He
Constantine Bridge (A.D.
Rome
of
cross.
of Milvian
Battle
entered the imperial city
He
triumph.
in
disband the
the
took
care
to
Praetorian Guard, which for
elite
had made and unmade emperors
centuries
before him.
As
ruler of the
Western
Roman
Empire,
Constantine came into conflict with Licinius,
who
Roman
ruled the Eastern
two men
came
finally
won
Constantine
battle
a
near Adrianople
(modern-day Greece) and became
Constantine
The
Empire.
to blows in A.D. 323;
sole ruler
of
the empire.
The man who made to
Rome was
born
became Yugoslavia.
After Constantine
Christianity acceptable
in Naissus in
what
later
Flavius Valerius Aurelius
Roman
ganized the alry troops
became emperor, he
reor-
army, recruiting more cav-
and turning the army into more of
The
Constantinus was the son of Constantius and
a field force than a fortification-based one.
Helena (who
mobile troops he created allowed the empire to
later
became
a
saint
of the
would have otherwise.
Catholic Church). Constantine grew up amid
survive longer than
the turmoil caused by the division of leader-
Constantine also changed the imperial
ship within the
Roman
Empire; there were two
augusti (rulers), each with a caesar (governor)
who
it
capital,
building the city of Constantinople (on the
border of present-day Greece and Turkey).
Roman
Most importantly, Constantine changed
Empires. Since his father was one of the two
imperial policy toward the Christian minority
ruled the Eastern and Western
Caesars,
Constantine was sent
as a
hostage to
the court of the other caesar, Galerius, a practice
meant
to ensure peace.
Galerius's
army.
He
then
escaped
from
Galerius and joined his father in Gaul; the two
went
to Britain to fight the Picts.
While they
were there his father died, and Constantine
was recognized
as a
new
313)
abolished
Christians.
Constantine served ably against the Persians in
caesar.
Galerius accepted Constantine as caesar of the lands north of the Alps, but further politi-
The
within the empire.
the
Edict of Milan (A.D.
persecution
official
of
Constantine presided over the
Council of Nicaea
(A.D.
325) which established
the official Nicaean Creed of the Church;
God
it
declared that
God
the Father,
and the Holy
Spirit
were inseparable from one
another. All Christians this
doctrine
Constantine self, just
18
fully
who
were
failed
labeled
the Son,
to follow
heretics.
accepted Christianity him-
prior to his death.
Goth
Alaric the
n
1
\i,
370-410)
(c.
who
the warlord
Alaric,
captured Rome,
was born on the island of Peuce,
Danube
of the
mouth
at the
River in present-day Romania.
In A.D. 390, he led a group of Visigothic tribes-
people south
Constantinople. Alaric's
at
advance was stopped by
command
the
who was
three days.
destroyed
ravaged
major
the
Temple
the
Demeter.
of
Roman
bribes offered by the Eastern
emperor placated
Alaric,
who
cities
then withdrew.
done
what
to control Illyricum in
so in
390
take,
Roman of
soon
Alaric
since
from which
used
fleet
He
was driven back
to port
Empire, which was centered
Rome.
invaded
Alaric
401 and again
in A.D.
on the Busento River
was repulsed by
killed the slaves
who had
who
forced
A.D.
him
to
retreat to Illyricum.
Stilicho
was murdered
408. Lacking
in A.D.
his skillful leadership, Italy lay
open
invasions. Alaric invaded Italy again laid siege to
tribute his
Rome. Both
troops,
to elect a
to future
and twice
times, he accepted
payments from the
city
and withdrew
although he forced the
puppet emperor
who
then
Romans named
Roman
Alaric
commander-in-chief of the
forces.
This confusing situation was typical
Roman Empire during its last fifty years, Romans and barbarians commingled
of the as
throughout the empire. In A.D. 410, the a surprise attack
this betrayal, Alaric
menced
Roman emperor sanctioned
on
Alaric's
camp. Furious by
moved on Rome and com-
his third siege
of the
city.
After three
weeks of inconclusive fighting, treachery ered the city to Alaric.
The
deliv-
Alaric the
Salarian Gate was
19
buried
Goth
His
him
no one would find and desecrate the
402-403. Both times he
Stilicho,
his
at a secret location
in southern Italy.
Western
in
more
died suddenly, just months after the assault
on Rome, and was buried
in the city
Italy
power
by a major storm.
Illyricum
to harass the
for
B.C.
Yugoslavia. This concession proved to be a mis-
as a base
itself in
marched south from Rome. He want-
became
later
to
people were
ed to move his tribe to North Africa, but
that
him
many
than eight hundred years, since the Gauls had
militum (master ok the soldiers) and allowed
title
for
news of this attack spread
and grandeur, had not been taken
men
gave Alaric the
city,
monuments
stunned. Rome, which had held
of magister
The emperor
When
other parts of the empire,
Alaric
Greece in A.D. 395. His
Alaric attacked
Only
troops under
ravaging the buildings and
tribe.
Gothic soldiers
and
Roman
of Flavins Stilicho,
from the Vandal
Roman
Eastern
the
against
Empire, centered
opened, and the Goths poured into the
so
grave.
1 I
n
AtCila
J.
(c.
No as
406-453)
name
military
much
the Hun
Hun. The Huns were
the
up
conjures
sheer terror as that of Attila a
waHike,
nomadic people from Central Asia
who
swept into the Black Sea and
Danube River regions around A.D. 370. The violent arrival of the Huns displaced many of the Visigothic and Ostrogothic were
tribespeople,
who
Rome
than
of a threat to
less
the Huns.
and
In A.D. 433, Attila er
his broth-
Bleda jointly inherited leadership
of the
from
tribe
their uncle.
The
Huns, who had already experienced were receiving an annual
success,
tribute
payment of seven hundred
Attila battles the Visigoths
pounds of gold from the Eastern
Roman Empire Attila
Roman
at first
with cementing his
over the area around
control
Then he turned
and Alan tribespeople. In A.D. 451, he
Constantinople.
in
was occupied
the
Danube.
his attention to the Eastern
Empire.
Attila
invasion
of the
eastern
many
Balkan provinces in A.D. 441. Because
Roman
the
forces
soldiers
were away
advanced rapidly and
won
in Sicily,
of
the
at
Theodoric was
Huns and
pillaged
several
cities
and seemed poised
twenty-one hundred pounds of gold and with-
itself
when
killed
to the
Danube.
He had
Bleda
his brother
around A.D. 445 and became
sole leader
of the Hunnish people.
The Huns A.D. in
a
447.
led
to his
the
offensive
mounted
and went
all
in
troops
campaign that was stopped only
Thermopylae
at
in Greece. Attila then turned east
the
way
to Constantinople,
he was halted. Even the ferocity of
from Pope Leo
The
I.
march and, with question
to
Italy.
Italian
march on Rome
substance of their con-
an indis-
it is
Attila to
men
do
the
Western
Roman
The
great
Pope Leo persuade
or did the lack of food for his
Attila
died in A.D.
453.
Popular legend
claims he burst a blood vessel
wedding
Deprived of
city.
so,
—did
horses convince Attila to retire?
where
his
his army, left Italy.
remains
the great walls of the
attack
losses.
northern
versation remains a mystery, but
of
to
heavy
Attila received a diplomatic visit
could not overwhelm the Romans, safe behind
Deciding
King
putable feet that afterward, Attila ceased his
returned
Attila
armies
of Chalons.
Battle
the emperor. Attila raised the annual tribute to
drew
The two
killed in the fighting, but the
their allies suffered
The Huns
and
general Aetius
In A.D. 452, Attila invaded northern
he
concessions from
Roman
by
led
led
where they clashed with
into Gaul,
Visigothic king Theodoric.
collided
an
led
them west
his
to the
his
leadership, the
into smaller groups
on the night
Gothic maiden, Hilda.
Huns broke
and never regained the
Empire, Attila raised an enormous army com-
prominence they had held luidcr
posed of Huns, Ostrogoths, Gepids, Heruli,
terror
20
of the western world.
Attila,
the
Clovis of the nranks
H
466-511)
(c.
.
Roman Gaul
disintegrated into sets of small
aged him to make war on the Ostrogothic
barbarian kingdoms around A.D. 400, but one
kingdom of
man
Clovis did just that, but his campaign (a.d.
reunited them, a Gaulish leader
Clovis of the Franks. Little
is
named
known of Clovis's
youth. His father was Childeric, leader of the
Clovis wanted to expand his tribal lands. First,
turned
he
and
east
tribe in A.D.
south and
married Clotilda,
brothers
The
who were
defeated
the
491. Then, he looked
Thuringian
niece
of two
of Burgundy.
joint kings
marriage had an unexpected effect because
Clotilda was a Christian. Slowly, she
He
worked
to
by King Theodoric.
led
509-510) yielded him expansion of his
Franks in northeastern Gaul. Childeric
Salic
died in A.D. 481, and Clovis took his position.
Italy,
Clovis died in Paris 5
1
1
to his ceaseless efforts. ever,
glory and
on November 27,
At that time, Gaul was
.
the
little
no
territory.
A.D.
due
His achievement, how-
was soon blunted;
kingdom amongst
largely united,
his four sons
divided
themselves. Clovis
three important legacies to the future
left
kingdom
of France: he created the Merovingian dynasty,
which
lasted
imtil
751;
A.D.
Orthodox Christianity the
he
made
official religion
of
his people;
and he created an
alliance with the
baptized as Christians, but held off himself
papacy
Rome
outlast even his
until A.D. 496. In that year, Clovis fought the
own
convert Clovis.
Swabian
allowed their children to be
in
tribe
important battle
an
in
that
would
dynasty.
at
Tolbiac. Prior to the battle, Clovis prayed to
the Christian
god and promised he would conwon. Clovis did
vert to Christianity if he
tri-
umph, and he became a Christian. He also required some three thousand of his followers to do the same. After repeatedly hearing the story of the crucifixion of Christ, his feelings were said to
be a combination of barbarian vengeance and Christian pathos.
"Had
valiant Franks," Clovis
I
been present with
was alleged
my
to exclaim,
would have revenged his injuries." Around A.D. 506, Clovis had permanently subdued the Swabians. He then turned his "I
attention south once series
tribes that held
won
more and launched
a
of campaigns against the Visigothic
power
in
southern France.
a major battle against
A.D. 507,
and soon
all
them
He
at Vouille in
of southern Gaul (with
the exception of the region that
is
present-day
Provence) was in his hands. Clovis's victories
attention.
The
brought him widespread Byzantine
Constantinople, Anastasius
honorary
title
of
Roman
I,
emperor
in
him
the
gave
Clovis
consul and encour-
21
15
505-565)
(c.
the greatest soldier of
Belisarius,
the Byzantine Empire, was born in
Germane, what served
in
became Yugoslavia. He the imperial bodyguard
in
Constantinople and developed a
in
Emperor Justinian
lifelong loyalty to
command
was given
Belisarius
Byzantine army Persian War. at
(il-IR-ee-ah),
Ilyria
later
Daras
He
Byzantine-
the
in
I.
of the
defeated the Persians
but was himself
in A.D. 530,
defeated at Calhnicum, Syria, in A.D.
53 1 This defeat was the only outright .
loss
of his
career.
was then recalled
Belisarius
the Nika Revolt
(a.D.
would otherwise have
to
down
Constantinople, where he put
532), which cost Justinian
his throne. In A.D. 533, Justinian sent
Belisarius to series
North Africa
hoped would had
to begin a
of campaigns that both restore lands the
men
empire
Belisarius
lost to the tribes there.
He
conducted
in Africa.
he cleared
sixteen
campaign thousand
King
brought
Constantinople
Gelimer
to
by
this
as a prisoner. Thrilled
success, Justinian sent his
trusted soldier to
Commanding
fight in Sicily
and
Italy.
eight thousand
men,
Belisarius recovered Sicily
and southern
Italy.
only
His greatest single success
came in A.D. 536, when he entered the city of Rome. The greatest city of the ancient world had fallen to numerous attacks since A.D. 410, but Belisarius had
now
now
reclaimed
it.
A new era
appeared to be dawning, one in which the
Eastern and Western
Roman Empires would
Belisarius
army.
He
until A.D.
Belisarius
was
recalled
and quickly sent eastward the Persians.
Minor Italy.
in A.D.
On
He
fight
against
repulsed their attack
on Asia
in
A.D.
to
542 and was transferred again
this, his
second mission to the
peninsula, Belisarius
and
capital.
Constantinople
to
made only slow
548 he asked
to be
to
Italian
progress,
recalled to
Constantinople. Belisarius repel
the
came out
Bulgar
Constantinople
tribe,
of
retirement
to
which threatened
in A.D. 559. In A.D.
563, he
was accused of conspiring against the emperor.
The
great Byzantine
commander
died, proba-
bly in Constantinople, in A.D. 565. Belisarius'
conquests were soon undone by other inva-
be reunited.
Within weeks of
Ravenna, the Ostrogothic
captured soldiers,
of North Africa of the Vandal
all
and
tribe
a brilliant
With only
his
was besieged by
entry
into
Rome,
a large Ostrogothic
sions, but his tial
achievements had been substan-
during his lifetime.
lasted
the most effective
538, then he marched north ami
Bvzaiuine armies.
withstood the
siege,
which
22
He was, beyond
commander
doubt,
to ever lead the
Khalid ibn al-walid 16
(?-642)
One
of the greatest military leaders to
fol-
low Islam, KJialid ibn al-Walid was actually a the
ot
foe
noble family in
a
Mohammed By
attacks.
prophet
the
of Mohammed's min-
Mecca,
the Battle of Uhud tor the enemies
won
Khalid
of
at the start
Born into
istry.
founder,
religions
Mohammed,
through a
Mohammed
and the Islamic
The
faith.
reasons
turnaround are unknown; he might
for his
have been swept up by the religious fervor
attended
that
Mohammed's Khalid
the
unsuccessful
Mohammed named him
God"
for
retreat.
steadfastness
his
him
in A.D.
to convert other
difficult
having spread Islam
prophet,"
Khalid on
Miisailima.
a
died that same year.
was
He
sent
Bekr.
of the Arab forces. Instead, he
subordinate position in the Syrian
Khalid followed
He
his orders
Khalid
later
served
as
He
his
Medina tomb was consecrated
a
directed the Battle
of Akraba, where Musailima and
most of
his
followers were killed.
Khalid waged a that totally tribes
pitiless
campaign
overwhelmed the
rebel
of Asad, Tamin, Ghatafani,
and Hanifa. By the middle of A.D. 633, the entire Arabian peninsula
of Abu Bekr and Mohammed.
lay at the feet
followers of
Khalid
paused
only
of
governor of part
died in A.D. 642, either in
Homs, and Homs.
to
with
city
of Syria, but never regained his former promi-
quell the followers of Musailima.
vengeance.
The new
removed Khalid from over-
The
Mohammed
rapidly than any-
Homs.
nence.
military mission
a
more
Arabs choose to follow the
Abu
the caliph king,
far
campaign, in which he captured the
in
true successor to
command
was given
power struggle immediately broke out among
"false
when
one expected. His fortunes changed, however,
or
Many
and made rapid
Syria
to
His greatest triumph came in A.D. 634,
died in June A.D. 632, and a
rival leaders.
had few diver-
he entered the venerable city of Damascus,
631, the prophet sent
Bedouin tribespeople on
rapidly before his
he was master of the
against the Byzantine armies there.
all
the Arabian peninsula.
Mohammed
headway
his
the
in
his
further his conquests, Khalid
to
caliph immediately
Khalid entered Mecca in triumph with
Mohammed, and
Ordered
pushed northwest
on
upon
way
year,
To
of scholars
sions or amusements; he lived to fight.
attack
"Sword of
surprise
entire Euphrates area. Khalid
when Abu Bekr
an
the Byzantine frontier in A.D. 630; return,
Within one
of
life.
led
the
today), the Persians gave
years
three
last
(and even
assaults.
of surprise
series
628 or 629, Khalid had and become a fervent believer in
A.D.
switched sides
River to wage war against Persian forces. surprise
the
briefly
View of Damascus
before pushing on to the Euphrates
23
ibn Ziyad
UTnria (?-720)
.
weakness to Tariq. The Berber leader
this
decided to see for himself, and on April 27, A.D. 711, he crossed the Pillars of Hercules
with seven thousand soldiers, nearly
of them
ail
Berber tribespeople rather than Arabs. Tariq
landed near a large rock that jutted out from
named "Jebel The Spanish later
the coast of Spain; the rock was Tariq" ("Tariq's
Rock").
changed those words to "Gibraltar."
The Berber
leader soon discovered that his
scouts had been correct. Visigothic Spain was
divided and offered
little
resistance
the
to
invaders. Tariq rapidly advanced northward,
and on July 19, A.D. 711, he fought the Battle of La Janda against the army of King Roderick, the
last
Christian king of Visigothic Spain.
won
Tariq
the battle
and moved on
to
occupy
the Visigothic capital of Toledo.
Learning of
Musa
his lieutenant's success,
crossed the Pillars ot Hercules with eighteen
thousand troops (most of them Arabs)
He met Tariq
A.D. 712.
his subordinate for
at Talavera
in
June
and scolded
having traveled so
and
far
conquered so much without orders to do
By
this time, the last Visigothic nobles
to the
mountain region of Asturias
in
had
so.
fled
northern
would later become the Christian kingdoms of Leon,
Spain, the area that center of the Castile,
Berbers
The man a
Nothing first
for
is
known of
appeared
a Berber
whom
Gibraltar
probably born
Berber,
in
and former
subordinate by
in
is
named was
North
Africa.
historical
slave
who was
record
as
appointed a
ibn Nusayr, the Arab
governor of Morocco. Tariq was
left in
charge
crossed
the
Arab reconnaissance party
narrow body of water between
North Africa and Spain,
Spain, further expanding the area of the
Musa was summoned by Damascus quest.
to return east
Musa and
and report on the con-
Tariq went to Damascus to-
gether, bringing a large
They reached
the caliph of
Syria
in
convoy of prisoners. February A.D.
715.
Caliph al-Walid lay dying, and his successor
of the city of Tangier. In A.D. 710, an
tral
world under the sway of Islam.
He
Tariq's early years.
the
Musa
and Navarre. Tariq and Musa had
pushed the Christians out of southern and cen-
called the "Pillars
Hercules" by the Greeks and Romans.
of
The
Arabs found Spain to be weak and reported
to either Musa or Tariq The two men ended their
showed no gratitude for their conquests. lives
in
complete
obscurity.
Thc\'
returned to Spain, most ol which
conquered under the banner ol
24
never
the\'
had
Mohammed.
.
the isaurian 18.
675-741
(c.
Destined to be the leader
Leo
who
sustained the
was
born
Byzantine
empire,
Germanicia
in northern Syria to a noble fami-
ly.
He moved
III
with his family to Thrace, on the
Marmara, where
eastern side of the Sea of
Europe and Asia come together. As
man, Leo II
in his
usurper.
assisted Byzantine
a
young
emperor Justinian
also
employed to
his
knowledge of the
Arabs came close to
foes. Still, the
terrain
outmaneuver and confuse victory,
his
and
only the severe winter of A.D. 717—718 pre-
vented the
fall
of the
city.
his fleet departed in the
sands
When Maslama
men and hundreds
of
and
summer, minus thouof
ships,
the Islamic armies lost their best chance to
Not only was
destroy the Byzantine Empire.
the Byzantine empire it
faced an
enormous
from the Arab forces that had recently
threat
Leo
and geography
attempt to recover the throne from a
divided internally, but
conquered most of the Middle
homeland
Leo's
in
Leo with
the
title
his peo-
busy building even stronger defenses
around Constantinople. the Arabs
worried;
in Syria.
rewarded
Justinian
East, including
Leo celebrated the victory and kept ple
city
in
lifetime,
his
He
need not have
not
did
return
to
and the future
the
sieges
of spartharius and sent him on a diplomatic
of Constantinople would
carried
out
mission to the Caucasus Mountains, but the
by Seljuk Turks and Ottoman Turks,
not
mission was frustrating and accomplished
lit-
by Arabs.
Following the death of Justinian
II,
tle.
Leo was made governor of the Anatolikonm province, the largest in Asia
Minor
(present-
day Turkey)
and was crowned emperor
ground,
new
its
own
III
right in
for the Byzantine
leader had a military back-
the
since
empire's
the
in his
was fortunate
It
Empire that
his
in
capital
Arabs city,
descended
on
the empire.
He
The
Arab
Maslama, and army
and
external.
until A.D.
under
802. Although
Constantinople,
city
siege.
year-long
717-718)
was a
fiercely
contest.
fought
Leo battled
back with the use of "Greek
fire,
combination of fur fire
"
to
enemy
a
sul-
and lime that
set
it
Use of "Greek
ships.
25
fire"
lasted
has often been
referred to as the Isaurian dynasty,
fleet
The
both internal
properly be called the Syrian dynasty.
to the area
siege (A.D.
foes,
The dynasty Leo founded
leader,
and placed the
Leo carried
had enabled the Byzantine
empire to withstand many
brought
an enormous
years,
died in A.D. 741, confident
very summer.
that
later
out a campaign against icon worship within
that his victories
Leo led the opposition to Theodosius
A.D. 717.
Famous
be
it
should
Charles Martel 19
(689-741)
Known
"Charles
as
Hammer," Charles Martel for his defeat of the
is
the
famous
Arabs
at
the
Battle of Poitiers in A.D. 732. Martel
was born out of wedlock
to Pepin
mayor of the palace of the Merovingian kingdom of of Heristal,
the Franks (in present-day France).
Following his
was
widow,
who
Martel
father's death,
imprisoned
by
his
father's
did not want any
rivals
to her family line.
Martel
army of
defeated
the
became the
sole
prison,
Austrasians,
Neustrian
723.
A.D.
in
from
escaped
raised an
and
He
army.
mayor of the palace By this time, the Charles Martel at Poitiers
Merovingian dynasty had declined
and
through
intermarriage,
mayor of
the palace conducted the true busi-
ness of the
or the Battle of Tours).
the
kingdom, though he lacked the
title
of king.
After seven days of maneuvering, the Arabs
made
their attack
on the Franks. The
Martel led campaigns against the Frisians,
Saxons (A.D. 719-738), Swabians
and Bavarians
725-728).
(a.d.
A
(A.D. 730),
diplomat
as
all-day
The Arabs could
battle resulted in a standoff
not break the steady lines of Frankish infantry
and
cavalry; the Franks
Arabs quickly enough to
could not pursue the strike a serious
blow
well as fighter, Martel sent Christian mission-
against them. Martel expected the battle to
Led by remarkable
resume the next day, but daybreak found
aries to the defeated tribes.
church leaders such
as St. Boniface, the
Apostle
camp
the enemy's
had
the Arabs
deserted;
of the Germans, the missionaries converted
fled
many of the tribespeople to who converted generally
celebrated in European history as the decisive
Christianity.
accepted
Those
Mattel's
leadership in northern and central France.
The most dramatic moment life
and
career
came
in
A.D.
Mattel's
of
732,
when he
turning point in Europe's wars against the Arabs,
Duke of
Eudes found
Aquitaine, in southern France.
his land
overrun by an invasion of
Arabs from across the Pyrenees. Martel
recruit-
that
had
the
the
collided
(19
at
km) northeast of
(the battle
is
12
miles
Moussais-la-Bataille, the
city
of Poitiers
called either the Battle of Poitiers
became known for
this
European
first
A.D.
"
mounted
Frankish
them south
armies
however, the
chronicles,
overall importance.
then
Hammer
stirrups
The two
Moslem
little
Martel
ed a large army of Prankish warriors and led to seek the Arabs.
hi
Battle of Poitiers figures as a small skirmish
responded to a request for help from Eudes, the
during the night. This victory has been
on
741,
their
having
victory.
"Charles
as
He and
military
force
Martel
halted
Arab expansion
dynasty that eventually was led by his
26
use
to
horses.
died
north of Spain and having founded a
Charlemagne
his
were probably
soldiers
(see no. 20).
in
new
grandson
on
Charlemagne
ZU.
(742-814)
Charlemagne (SHAR-leh-main) was the European warrior and king of the
greatest
Middle Ages. Born
in
Aachen (AH-ken),
in
The
wealthy
present-day Germany, he was a grandson of
Charles Martel (see no.
and the son of
19)
riches
found
crowned Charlemagne "King
III
of the Romans
on Christmas Day,
"
No
768, Pippin gave the northern half of his lands
Roman Empire had and as many people.
Charlemagne and the southern half
to
seized
his
Charlemagne
in A.D. 771.
brother's
lands
and
declared
himself sole king of the Franks. In A.D. 772, he
responded to a I.
call for
Charlemagne took
help from Pope Adrian
his
army
European leader since the controlled as
Lombardy
into
By A.D. 774, Charlemagne Lombards as well as the Franks.
years of his
life
brought Alcuin of York to
and gathered
a
team of other
Italy a
total
of
five
772 and A.D. 778. He also invaded Moslem Spain in A.D. 778. He fought the Moslems to a draw, but on his return home, his rear guard, led by Count Roland, was ambushed and destroyed by Christian Basques at Roncevalles.
Charlemagne's grief over the
of Roland and
his knights
ized in the great epic
was
poem
later
loss
memorial-
"Le Chanson de
Roland' ("The Song of Roland
"),
written in the
The
down
Prankish king put
revolts
in
new type of known as Carolingian minuscule, came into use. The present-day use of capital and lowercase
letters,
punctuation, and word
spaces dates from the Carolingian era.
Charlemagne died
in
A.D.
Tremendously successful during
Charlemagne was unable
Moslem
invaders — Viking, Magyar, and — from wreaking havoc on empire
after his death.
the
He
did, however, leave
and the idea of
united Europe.
both his rule and the Christian Charlemagne fought a number of grueling battles against the Saxons, which faith.
ended when Wittekind, the Saxon
accepted
Christianity
A.D.
in
lead-
785.
Charlemagne defeated the Bavarians along the
Danube retreat tral
River in A.D. 787, but he was forced to
from the Avar lands
in A.D.
791.
A cen-
Asian tribe which had migrated to central
Europe, the Avars had gained great wealth by extorting
payments
emperor
Constantinople.
riors
in
finally defeated
from
the
The
lifetime,
storm of
barbarian
tribes resisted
er,
his
to prevent a
where the Saxon, Bavarian, and Avar
finally
814, leaving a
troubled empire to his son, Louis the Pious.
but the greatest danger lay to the
Brittany,
East,
who
Books and manuscripts were copied; knowl-
a rich cultural heritage
thirteenth century.
He
Aachen
scholars
writing,
A.D.
ten
helped create the "Carolingian Renaissance."
was king of the
between
land
last
his court at
edge of Latin was renewed, and a
Charlemagne invaded
of the
much
to cultural enrichment.
(northeast Italy).
times
A.D. 800.
fall
Charlemagne devoted much of the
Charlemagne's brother Carloman.
Carloman died
Avar capital of
ruler.
Pope Leo
Pippin the Short. Prior to his death in A.D.
to
the
in
Khagan made Charlemagne an incredibly
Byzantine
Prankish war-
Charlemagm
the Avars in A.D. 795.
27
behind a truly
— Alfred the Great
Founder of the English navy, Alfred the Great was born
at
Wantage
in Berkshire, the
The boy
son of King Aethelwulft of Wessex. prince was sent to
Rome,
impressed
this
the
time with his
Alfred's father died,
brothers
came
trip
and
to
855.
eventual offense against the Danes. Believing that the
at the age
Alfred
at a
were a punishment from
raids
He
education.
time of
king himself translated Pastoral Care by Saint
The
and
peace ended in A.D. 876. Guthrum, a
he
Danish
to
brought an army
leader,
Wessex
into
many
of twen-
and
of
towns.
captured
important
its
Alfred
fled
fort
in
small
Somerset
crisis
From
for
a
the
marshes.
he
Danes
the
with small
were close
to
there,
harassed
Danish
whole.
a
invaders
of text
a series
Gregory the Great.
Anglo-Saxon England as
religious
important scholars
from Latin into Anglo-Saxon. The
became
Wessex and
program of
a
recruited
from the continent and began translations
his three older
lives
Danish
God, he embarked on
occupy the throne of
to
ty-four.
for
second
a
Alfred's surprise,
Wessex king
Roman
of
father, in A.D.
had short
all
To
reigns.
glory
He went on
Christianity.
Rome,
by
the "Eternal City," at
met Pope Leo IV and
the age of four; there he
was
4
(849-899)
21
He
raids.
gathered his forces
overrunning the
and emerged from
swamps
land.
Four
the
Anglo-Saxon
king-
a remarkable victory
entire
doms — Mercia,
over
Northumberland, East
and Wessex
Anglia,
remained, but
all
878.
of them
had
Danes under Aethelred's
first
fought the
In
A.D.
Alfred the Great
throne, Alfred fought nine gener-
engagements
against
made an
Danes
to give himself
his
kingdom room
Alfred married Eaihswith, a descendant of
with both Mercia and Wales.
respected
to
He
the
his fol-
peace
relations
built
new
that
had
first
English ships, trying to prepare for an
also built the
A.D.
892,
some 250
England. Alfred met and defeated the Danes
in battle after battle.
His guerrilla warfare
combined with the use
of
his
tac-
ships,
him to gain the upper hand quickly. By A.D. 897, the Danes had fled to East Anglia and Northumberland. allowed
Wessex and strengthened older ones
He
The
Danish ships brought the "great heathen army"
tics,
Mercian kings, and cultivated good
fallen into decay.
Guthrum and
lowers
In
to breathe.
forts in
Wessex.
the
unsatisfactory peace with the
and
were
surrendered
until his death in A.D. 891.
invaders. After losing the Battle of Wilton,
Alfred
the
Danes who
Danes then withdrew from
871, the year he came to the
al
at
A.D.
in
baptized as Christians.
his older brother
leadership.
Danes
Following
battle, those
faced dire peril.
Alfred had
the
Edington
win
to
At the time of
Wessex remained
Alfred's death, in A.D. 899,
free
Anglo-Saxon law and
28
and became the center of tradition.
OCto the Great (912-973)
.
The
Germany,
true imperial ruler of
first
Otto the Great was the son ot King Henry
known
as
Henry
I,
Though Henry
the Fowler.
was called "king of Germany, he was actually "
first
among
German dukes of
equals of the five
Swabia,
and
Bavaria
Saxony,
Franconia,
Lorraine.
Otto married Edgitha, the daughter
of Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Elder, in A.D.
Henry
King
929.
died
He was crowned
father.
936,
A.D.
in
and the dukes elected Otto
succeed his
to
Aix-la-Chapelle,
at
in present-day France.
From ate
the start, Otto was determined to cre-
an empire.
He
Saxony by
ruled
right
of inheritance, and he did away with the inde-
pendent duchy oi Franconia, reserving that
most successful endeavors
area for himself His
came through cooperation with Church.
He
treated
German
the Christian
bishops as
they
it
were counts or dukes, giving them land and titles.
owed
In return, they
allegiance to
and provided him with knights and
Otto
soldiers in
Otto the Great times of war.
Otto fought
maintain
to
German
the
hold on Lorraine, an area that was disputed by the Franks to the west.
He
Triumphant
his attention to the south.
French kingdom of Burgundy under
German
relations with the papacy,
Having secured
his west-
ward to
flank,
Otto turned
to the east
and
started
He gained Wends and
expand the German domains.
dominance
over
the
Slavic
A.D. 962,
Roman Emperor, gone
lands.
Magyar
tribe.
Located
Germany was
in present-day
the
Hungary,
the Magyars were a fierce warrior tribe that had
the
attacked Germany, France, pre-
sent-day Switzerland, and Italy in numerous raids. In A.D.
955, Otto met the Magyars
battle at Lechfeld, near
in
Augsburg, and utterly
defeated them. This victory earned
him
the
2,
had previously
of Charlemagne
(see
John turned against Otto when the German ruler wanted Italian
Otto used
his influence in Italy to
pope deposed and went so
nate his
own
candidate,
far as to
have
nomi-
who became Pope
Leo VIII.
Though he was
migrated from central Asia around A.D. 895.
The Magyars
good
no. 20). Pope
he saw that
greatest foe of Otto's
cultivated
a title that
to the descendants
Bohemia by
The
He
and on February
Pope John XII crowned him Holy
obtained recognition of German sovereignty in A.D. 950.
from
Europe, Otto turned
in central
deep into Prankish territory and brought the
influence (A.D. 940).
raids
the east.
campaign
led a
"Otto the Great" and ended the
title
secure in his lifetime. Otto's
ambitions led to great troubles for his successors,
who would
Italy to
united
fight
German
in
Germany and
empire. Otto died in
973 and was buried
29
both
hold their positions. Having formed a
in
May A.D.
Magdeburg Cathedral.
on Brian Boru Zu.
941-1014)
(c.
Boru was born near
Brian
County
Killaloe, in present-day
Clare,
He came from
Ireland.
the family of Dal Cais, which ruled over a small principality of
same name. His
the
in A.D. 951,
his
Mathgamain
brother
older
father died
and Brian and
began a struggle against the
Danes who held Limerick. For Brian
time,
and only
a
fifteen
men
were completely on their
own,
living as guerrilla warriors
with no
home
The
base.
broth-
ers
gathered their forces, howev-
er,
and defeated the Danes
at
the Batde of Sulcot (a.D. 967).
Mathgamain became king
of
Danish Warriors
Munster. Brian was catapulted to greater responsibility
when
his brother
was seized and murdered
in A.D. 976. Brian defeated the
Battle of Belach Lechta
Danes
at the
and defeated the men
consciously sought
Brian
and Otto the Great
of Desmond. Crowned king of Munster, Brian
Ulster in
more
Mael Sechnaill
high king,
During the next decade, the two kings sent raids against each others' lands. Brian
hundred boats (a.D. 984).
built
He and
on
his
had three
Shannon up to Loch
the River
men
sailed
Ree and ravaged much of the
territory
times,
and
in A.D.
997, Brian and the high king
agreed to meet on the shore of Loch Ree. divided
Ireland
between
them,
with
against
him; the
who
prerogatives of his
title.
Irish
The men of
One ry
of the greatest
battles in Ireland's histo-
was fought on Good
Brian,
who was
remained
Brian
fought
Friday, April 23, 1014.
seventy-three
in his tent, praying,
the
Battle
years
of Clontarf outside of
battle.
Althouhg
killing
some
Brian routed the Danes of
Glen
Mama
(A.D.
999).
at the Battle of
In
1002,
Brian
six
old,
while his soldiers
island.
Dublin and the Leinstermen
1014,
from the Danes.
Dublin. His son, Murchad, led the
resisted his rule.
Leinster
in
and they received promises of assistance
They
Irish
were not
truly exercised the
assuming control of the southern half of the
Both the Danes and many native
a
1005. Brian's very success brought
foes
and Dublin revolted against Brian
of
Meath. Each side attacked the other many
He made
(see no. 22).
used to having a king
II.
the
progression through the island and subdued
was
in a position to challenge the
imitate
to
kingly ways of Alfred the Great (see no. 21)
Brian's troops
Irish in the
won
the day,
thousand of the Leinstermen
and
their allies, Brian
last
moments of
the
Manx
was himself
killed in the
the battle by Brodir, chief of
Vikings. Brian's son was also killed,
replaced Mael Sechnaill as high king, ending
so the Irish victory led to further confusion of
a two-hundred-year family dynasty.
leadership.
30
Canute
M
994-1035)
(c.
.
Who
was
ll
remarkable man? Canute
this
II
in
1027
to
improve
his relations
Canute won the
with the papa-
many of
was from Denmark. His father was Sweyn
cy.
Haroldson, king of Denmark. During a cam-
English subjects by sending the main body of
paign against Anglo-Saxon England, Sweyn
his
and the Danish
died,
new
as their
acclaimed Canute
sailors
though he had an older
king, even
home
army home
thousand
Through
to
of
trust
Denmark; he kept only
"housecarls,
warfare, diplomacy,
three
bodyguards.
or
'
his
and
tact,
he had
country. Finding he
gained a widespread empire that ranged over
could not defeat the Anglo-Saxons, Canute
thousands of miles (km). Canutes fame and
brother back in the
returned to
He
Denmark and
gathered his forces.
returned to England in 1015 and
on
the
Anglo-Saxon
Ethelred
ruler
the
1016 and was replaced
Ethelred died in
Edmund
his son,
won
Canute died of England
in
Ironside.
II
The Danes
illness
even affection
—of
his subjects.
the Battle of Ashingdon in October and
war, King
Canute,
weeks
Edmund later,
acclaimed
was the to
futility ot
bargain with
a
London, and Northumbria,
Edmund
kept Wessex.
died just
and by 1017, Canute had been king
first
accomplish
of
England.
all
since
ruler
the
of
fall
He Rome
this feat.
Canute came older
struck
Compact of Olney. Canute
the
received Mercia,
while
Seeing the
year.
Edmund
fully
into
brother Harold died
power when 1019.
in
his
Now
Canute was king of Denmark and England. To consolidate his gains, he married Elfgifu, the
widow of King also
Ethelred,
in
1017.
He
maintained a consort of the same name,
Elfgifu of
Northampton.
The death of King Olaf II of Norway opened the way for Canute to expand even further.
He
fought against the Norwegians and
placed that country under the rule of his mistress
Elfgifu
and
their
Canute
son Sweyn.
maintained control of England, Denmark, and
Norway, making him one of the most powerful
monarchs of his
day.
Canute sought
to build alliances.
ried his sister, Estrith, to
Normandy. He went
to
Robert
I,
Rome on
He
the
mar-
duke of
Canute
a pilgrimage
31
Shaftesbury,
had shown how a military
leader could gain the respect
regained the "Danelaw" (northeast England)
by the end of the
at
1035. His empire did not long sur-
vive him, but he
Unready.
by
reputation spread.
made war
II
—and
perhaps
Robert Cuiscard & Sichelgaita
25
(c.
1015-1085) &(c. 1025-1090)
This warrior couple led
some of the most daring Middle Ages. Born
early
who was known
raids in
and
battles
Normandy, Robert,
Guiscard (which means
as
minor noble. Guiscard came of age
when tions
the
the
Norman
Conqueror
their
Viking ancestors, were
Guiscard carried out inva-
(see no. 26),
and the
Guiscard was
of
central
first
Mediterranean.
married to Alberada of
and Durazzo. Sichelgaita
the cities of Corfia
played an important role in the
Normans
Seeing some of the
flee!
"How
far will
Stand, and quit you like men!"
Shamed
by her words, the Normans turned, fought and
won
the batde.
Guiscard returned to
Gregory from a
Henry
cumbed
expand
to
to
and rescued Pope
his conquests
an epidemic
17, 1085. Sichelgaita
The
a
Italy
by the troops of Emperor
Guiscard went back to Greece and
IV.
was ready
siege
Lombard princess, in 1058. Like the Normans, the Lombards were a warrior people and Sichelgaita was foremost among them. She was a towering woman, imposing, muscular, and extremely courageous. She and Guiscard became true warrior partners. Guiscard met Pope Nicholas II at Melfi, Italy, in 1059. Guiscard bowed to the pope's he could marry Sichelgaita,
at
was with him
ical role for
held important towns there.
Guiscard and Sichelgaita took ten years to push
way down
expelled the
last
to the
bottom of
Italy;
they
Byzantines from Bari in 1071.
They also paved the way for a Norman invasion of Muslim Sicily, which would be carried out by Guiscard's brother, Roger the Great. Guiscard and
Sichelgaita
threatened
the
papal fiefdom of Benevento in 1074; in return,
The when Pope Gregory VII
they were excommunicated by the pope.
couple regained favor
decided he needed their assistance to fight against
Emperor Henry IV of the Holy Roman
Empire. Guiscard, Sichelgaita, and
was Guiscard's son by
his
Bohemund (who first
Pope Gregory VII
marriage),
crossed the Adriatic Sea to attack Byzantine
32
at his death.
the remaining five years of her
Pope Nicholas invested him with the lands of
their
suc-
warrior princess played an important polit-
southern Italy and urged him to root out the
who
when he
Cephalonia on July
authority and swore to protect papal interests.
Byzantines,
latter battle.
fleeing, she gal-
loped after them and shouted,
you
Buonalbergo, but he had the marriage annulled so
They captured
possessions in western Greece.
the
Norman conquest
the
led
sions in Italy
time
Europe. While William
in
fiercest
at a
warriors, only three genera-
removed from
England
of the
was the son of Tancred de Hauteville,
"astute"),
a
on
soldiers
their
life.
Free ebooks ==>
on William the Conatieror ZD.
1027-1087)
(c-
The man who changed England was born
in
history
the
of
Normandy.
Falaise,
William the Conqueror was the son of Duke Robert of Normandy. Though born out of wedlock, William became duke of in
1035 upon the death of
Normandy
his father.
He was
placed in the care of guardians for the next twelve years and was not able to assert his
power
when King Henry
1047,
until
I
of
France defeated rebellious vassals of William that were in
William
Channel that
had
Normandy.
cast
to
an eager eye across the English
Anglo-Saxon England,
fallen into
King Canute
a
country
confusion after the death of
King Edward the
(see no. 24).
Confessor admired the Normans, and he
promised
kingdom
his
William upon
to
his
two men were only cousins
death, although the
by marriage. Edward died
in
1066, and the
Anglo-Saxon witan (high council) gave the throne to Harold Godwinsson,
who was more
closely related to the king than William.
Furious over this rejection, William collect-
ed an army of
and waited England.
He
Norman
knights at the channel
winds
for the right
landed
at Pevensey,
to
cross to
seven thousand soldiers. William was fortunate that
Harold was diverted
to the
William the Conqueror
England with north fighting
Norman Conquest was William had to work for
not yet complete. five years to
subdue
an invasion of Danes. After defeating the
England. Resistance was strongest in the north,
Danes
and
at the Battle
marched south
of Stamford Bridge, Harold
to confront William.
The two
After an exhausting contest, William's
won
of
and
cavalry
foot
to
soldiers
the day. Harold was killed by an arrow.
London. As
ransacked that
men on
villages, the
march homes and
a destructive
his troops destroyed
Anglo-Saxon
remained began to
fade.
The
com-
Following the victory, William marched to Dover, then led his
1069
to 1070, he led a systematic rav-
master of England.
armies collided at Hastings.
bination
in
aging of that area. By 1072, he was indeed
resistance
William was
third
and
trolled.
New
rulers
Dol (1076) and Gerberoi (1079) on the border. He managed to keep what he
had acquired. At the time of his death, William ruled over
Normandy and England, a vast area later be the focus of much dissen-
would
1066.
sion between the
and crown were won, but the
of France and Anjou chal-
Norman
that
battle
phase of William's career
lenged his rights, and he suffered setbacks at
crowned king of England on Christmas Day,
The
final
involved holding on to the vast areas he con-
kings of England.
33
monarchy
in
France and the
"El Cid" (Roclrigo
2]
(c.
Diaz de Vivar)
1043-1099)
of Moslem
from
Zamora, and Alfonso returned
exile to claim the thrones
become
to
of Leon and
Cid had no choice but
Castile as Alfonso VI. El
a leading knight in the forces
of
his
former enemy. For the next nine years. El Cid remained
surrounded by knights
at court,
former
his
In
foes.
who had been he
1081,
angered
the king by capturing Garcia Ordonez, one
of Alfonso's El
King Alfonso banished
favorites.
Cid from the kingdom of Castile. El Cid's life for the next nine years resem-
bled that of Robin
Hood. Leading
a
band of
perhaps three hundred men, he was an outlaw, living in
El Cid
The born
hero of the reconquista was
greatest
town near Burgos. Son
in Vivar, a small
princes.
After being rejected, he went to the
Moslem
grew up
years.
Christian
I
of the
kingdom of Castile. Spain was
divid-
ed between several Christian kingdoms and the
Moorish
Moslem)
(Spanish
caliphate
Cordoba. The Moors had invaded Spain Ziyad
(see no. 17),
and
a religious
flared
son
among
ward of Sancho, the
1065, his
his three sons:
Alfonso
took
Upon
territories
Ferdinand's
under Sancho, Diaz became
Cid" (eil-SID;
sidi
is
now
Arabic for
Sancho and
El
Cid expanded
eastern section
their holdings
of Castile and then
turned against the two younger brothers. By
lived.
new
the
King Alfonso
The Moslem
of
city
al-Kadir,
and
a takeover
El
by
a
new
Cid immediately
army. His twenty-month siege ended on June 17, 1094,
when
the starving inhabitants of the
city surrendered.
Cid governed Valencia
El his
life.
He
confirmed ership,
exiled.
Their triumph was short-
Sancho was assassinated during the
siege
for the rest
of
allowed freedom of worship and
city dwellers in their property
subject to tribute payments,
own-
and he
turned the great mosque of the city into a
He
repulsed the Almoravid
invaders on the plain of Cuarte west of the city in
October 1094, and defeated them again
at
the Battle of Bairen in 1097.
The "Cantar
1071, they had defeated Garcia, and Alfonso
had been
led
its ruler,
him in 1092. The inhabitants awaited Moslem leadership, but
Christian church.
"lord").
on the
1086
in
two
killed
Castile,
and Garcia received
the foremost knight in Castile; he was "El
eldest
were divided
Sancho received
Leon,
Galicia. Serving
called
forces for
Moslem Spain by
to reconcile with El Cid.
in
its
placed the city under siege with his private as a
of King Ferdinand.
death in
invasion of
Valencia revolted against
Spain ever since
Diaz grew up
An
Almoravid dynasty
in
war between
Moslems and Christians had
the
of Saragossa and led
of
711 under the leadership of Tariq ibn
A.D.
He
areas.
two Christian
city
of King Ferdinand
kingdoms and Moslem
offered his services to
of a minor landowner, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar in the court
the contested borderlands between
the Christian
epic
poems of
approximately
34
de mio
the fifty
Cid,''
one of the
great
Middle Ages, was written years after El Cid's death.
— on
Saladin
/O.
(1137-1193)
The
hero
military
greatest
of the Arab
world, Saladin was a Kurd, born in Tikrit,
Mesopotamia (present-day from a prominent family;
Iraq).
his father
He came
Saladin
Jerusalem in triumph.
Baghdad. Saladin, "the
pressed
advantage and entered
his
who
Acting with unusual benevolence, Saladin allowed the Christian population to ransom
bounty of religion," interrupted
his
with payments of gold. His triumph was
itself
incomplete, however, because three Christian
on
the shore of the Mediterranean
theological studies to join his uncle, Shirkuh,
cities
on
Antioch, Tripoli, and Tyre
a
campaign against Egypt. That country
was ruled by the Fatmid caliphate, which
him. Christian Europe
orthodox Moslems such
new Arab
as Saladin
considered
Saladin led a heroic defense of the city
of Alexandria, Egypt, against a joint force oi Egyptians and Christian crusaders in
His uncle died
troops his
1169,
in
takeover of the Holy Land, and in
He
Egypt.
in
Nur ad-Din
died
in
and
to take over Syria.
could
not overcome the
of "Richard
skills
the
Jerusalem.
as
his
his
The two
kings therefore agreed to
a three-year truce, signed It left
September
Worn
visit
Damascus
his unification
Palestine,
Crusade (1095-1099).
Saladin called for a jihad (holy war) against
gathered an army
num-
ber of retainers and foot soldiers. Maneuvering
with
skill,
Saladin lured his Christian foes out
of the safety of the city of Jerusalem and onto
an arid stretch of land by the Sea of Galilee.
The
Battle of the
hills
by the water) was fought on July
Saladin
won
Horns of Hattin (two
a complete victory.
4,
He
large 1
187.
Horns of Hattin
treated
35
He
died
of the Arab world in the
face of the Crusader threat.
which Christians had conquered during the
He
city.
accomplishment
sultan
of twelve thousand cavalry and the same
the
for a rest.
there of a fever. His greatest
template an attack on the Christian-held land
two domains:
1192.
out from his battles and campaigns,
Saladin went to
was
2,
Jerusalem in Arab hands but guaranteed
Christian pilgrims the right to
the
resources in order
By 1176, he was
the Christians in 1187.
The
the
of both Egypt and Syria and was able to con-
that lay between his
battle
Lion-Hearted."
finished
1174, and Saladin
his
fight Saladin.
Saladin
English king, however, was unable to capture
the Moslem leader of Egypt. Grateful for work in eliminating the Fatmid heresy, Abbasid caliph in Damascus approved new position.
stretched himself
Acre to
the
had begun by ending the
uncle
at
of
Fatmid caliphate and establishing himself
First
against
oppose the
and King Philip Augustus of France arrived
1167.
and Saladin was
commander
named
immediately Syrian
— held out
rallied to
1191, King Richard of England (see no. 29)
heretical.
work
all
executed.
Moslem caliphate of whose name in Arabic
the armies of the
means
Knights Templar
Christian
the
and uncle
were advisers and soldiers of Nur ad-Din, led
King Guy of Jerusalem with dignity but had
on Richard the Lion-Hearted (1157-1199)
Norman
Richard was essentially a
he spoke French
more
far
A true warrior-king, ed
the
of
call
war intended the
to
in
1 1
87, Richard heed-
Third
the
Crusade,
Richard
(see no. 28).
with other Christian
rulers,
a
from
recapture Jerusalem
Arab leader Saladin
allied
and
knight,
readily than English.
including
King Philip Augustus of France and Emperor Barbarossa
Frederick
("Frederick
The
Beard") of Germany.
Red
the
three kings planned
the joint crusade together. Philip and Richard sailed
Holy Land while Barbarossa
the
to
marched overland. Barbarossa drowned
in
a stream in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey),
and most of his army turned back. After in the
whom
ol 2,600 prisoners
ter
Acre
captured
Christians
the
Holy Land, Richard ordered the slaughhe could not
afford to feed. Philip Augustus pled illness
returned
began
to
away
chip
to
and
where he immediately
France,
Richard's
at
lands
in
Aquitaine and Normandy. Richard outfought Saladin in two important battles, but he was
Richard the Lion-Hearted
The
greatest
Christian
Middle Ages was born of King Henry
Eleanor
that
157, the third child
in a
(southeast
France).
stormy household envi-
was vividly recreated
movie The Lion
From an
1
in
of the
Winter (released
early age, Richard
in
the
in 1968).
was the
favorite
child of his mother, but he also fought with his father
on numerous
occasions.
As duke of Aquitaine, Richard revolted 1173-1174 and again in
against his father in 1
188—1 189.
He was close
ond occasion when
to success
on the
father died,
his
sec-
leaving
duke of
Richard king of England
as well as
Aquitaine and Normandy.
He was crowned
England on September
3,
acclaimed
itself Feeling pres-
on
as a national
1189.
in
Though
hero by the English,
his
homelands,
he signed a truce with Saladin and returned
home.
of England and Queen
II
of Aquitaine
Richard grew up
ronment
in
warrior
unable to capture Jerusalem sure from Philip's incursions
Richard made the mistake of going through
Germany.
He was
spotted, captured,
ally
and held
who was an
prisoner by the duke of Austria,
of Philip Augustus. England was forced to
150,000 marks of
raise
Richard. Released in
only
briefly,
the
next
Richard
1
then went to
five
won
years
to
silver
ransom
194, he went to England
Normandy and
fighting
against
nearly every battle
spent
Philip.
and retook
all
the land and castles that had been lost in his
absence. a
He was
castle
of Chains
became
infected,
had spent only in
36
struck in the
left
shoulder by
crossbow arrow while trying to capture the
England
six
itself
in
Limoges.
The wound later. He
and he died ten days
months
of his ten-year reign
Genghis Khan (c.
no world leader has ever inspired
Possibly
more as
fear
1167-1227)
and dread
as
Temujin, better known
Genghis Khan. Born near the
Onon
River in
Kharismian leader
who had
died. Subotai pur-
army
present-day Mongolia, Temujin was the son of
defeated
of Kiev.
His father was poisoned by Tatar tribespeople
would be under the "Mongol yoke"
when Temujin was nine, and he grew up on his own in the fierce environment of the competing Mongol tribes. Early on, he set a pattern of
centuries
leadership both in diplomacy
and
in
1206, the huraltai (great assembly) of
battle. In
Mongols named him "Genghis Khan," or supreme leader. Genghis united the Tatar, Kereit, Naiman, and Merkit tribes into one fearsome band of
Mongol
warriors.
renowned
as
The Mongols had
warriors,
long been
but Genghis molded
more disciplined force that allowed them to win greater victories. Genghis developed a system of mobile horse columns which would encircle and entrap enemy forces and them
then
into a
kill
them using armor-piercing arrows.
Genghis began tery
his
campaign
for
world mas-
by attacking the Chin empire of northern
China.
The Chin people had long withstood
was,
however, drawn north to Russia, where he
Yesugei, chief of the Borjigin tribe of Mongols.
skillful
He
sued, but did not catch the prince.
a
large
The
led
by the princes
was that southern Russia
result
for three
and therelore would miss the
of the Renaissance
in
effects
Europe.
Genghis conducted another successful campaign in northern India. cities
He
ravaged
there belore returning to
Moslem
Mongolia
in
1224. Genghis then turned his attention to
China once more. He attacked the Hsi Hsia empire, located in north-central China. As the
campaign began, he
fell
on a hunting expedition. injuries
and a
fever
the height of his
from
He
his horse while
suffered internal
and died rather suddenly,
power and
at
prestige.
His Mongol warriors buried his body on a hill
in the Kentei
Mongolia. The
hill
Mountains of present-day was known
as the sacred
mountain of Burdan-kaldun, and
several
Genghis Khan's descendants would
later
of be
buried beside him. Trees then grew, obscuring the spot where he was buried. Today,
no one
invasions behind their Great Wall of China,
can identify the grave of one of the world's
but the Mongols outflanked the defenders and
greatest conquerors.
attacked the heartland of northern China.
Mongols captured the
city
The
of Peking in 1215,
showing that they could employ sophisticated strategies in siege warfare as well as in
on
the
open
combat
plains.
Genghis Khan then turned his wrath upon the Kharismian empire of present-day Afghanistan and Iran. After the Kharismian ruler
killed
Genghis's
envoys,
the
Mongols
attacked with a speed and ferocity that scarcely
seemed
possible.
Genghis besieged and cap-
tured Samarkand, the center of the empire; the
sack that followed was the worst of the
many
conducted by the Mongols.
Genghis sent (see no. 31),
his
north to
best
general,
Subotai
Genghis Khan
pursue the son of the
37
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became
Subotai
Genghis Khan's
one
of
most
(see no. 30)
trusted generals during the
Khan
war
Chin empire. After
the
against
destroyed the Kharismian
empire
in
Subotai went
Persia,
north in pursuit of the son of the
former Kharismian shah. They crushed Christian Georgia and entered the land of the Kiptchak
Turks
southern Russia.
in
Subotai
ravaged
before wintering
1223.
in
He
the
area
on the Black Sea
returned to central
Asia and completed the conquest
Battle of Liegnitz
of the Chin empire.
was made co-commander
In 1237, Subotai
(with Batu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan) of
Mongol
Led by King
camped on
Bela, the
the west
Hungarian army was
bank of the
river.
Seeing the
southern Russia. With
strength of his foe, Subotai retreated one hun-
Subotai acting as the military genius, and Batu
dred miles northeast and positioned himself on
power and importance of the
the east bank of the Sajo River. Bela followed
Mongols captured the December 1240, they
him, and on April 10, the Hungarians estab-
the
forces
representing the
Genghisid
Moscow
line,
area.
in
the In
lished a small bridgehead
Early in the
destroyed the Russian principality of Kiev.
had passed since he
In the sixteen years that
had been on the Black
Sea, Subotai developed an
extensive network of spies in eastern Europe. His
goal was to subdue the Christian
kingdom of
Hungary. Subotai was especially anxious to do this since the
Hungarians were the only peoples
who had
were
hit
The
eastern bank. 1 1
,
Bela's troops
by a massive Mongol attack on the
bridgehead. across
on the
morning of April
The Mongols
fought
way
their
and attacked the main Hungarian camp.
batde was evenly matched until Subotai
came seemingly out of nowhere with thousand men; they had crossed the
thirty-
river
south
to
of the Hungarians the night before. The hard-
acknowledge the overlordship of the Genghisid
fought battle turned into a tremendous rout. By
of Mongol-Turkic descent
yet
noon,
family in central Asia.
Four
"flying columns," or
ried out the invasion. Prince
army groups, Kaidu
led the
and
their allies at
(near Krakow).
With
first
sand Hungarians
Szydlow and Liegnitz
his
right flank covered,
Subotai plunged into Hungary with the three other columns. Following
Mongol
strategy to
perfection, the three
army groups rode by
ent routes, but
converged on the Danube
all
River by April 4, 1241.
Hungarian army was destroyed,
car-
group northeast into Poland; he defeated the Poles
the
and between
difi^er-
forty
thousand and seventy thou-
on December 1241, Subotai lost their lives
the
field.
learned
that
Ogedi Khan, son of Genghis Khan, had
died.
In
Mindftil of his duty to the
Mongol law code, him home would name a new
Subotai sent the princes he had widi to participate in the vote that
great khan. Subotai himself took leave of the
Mongol court and his tent
38
retired
to
die
on the steppes of northern
alone
Asia.
in
.
Khan
on
Kublai
jZ.
(1215-1294)
through 1,000 miles (1,600 km) ol ice-capped
mountains on the eastern border of present-
men
day Tibet. Only twenty thousand of the
He
survived the journey.
army
led another
south against the Sung empire, while his veter-
Yunnan traveled by a different route to By the time Mangu Khan died in 1259, Kublai had become a seasoned military leader. He emerged as the new khagan, or uni-
ans in
join him.
June of 1260.
versal ruler, in
Khan
Kublai
and
southward
turned
concentrated his force on the Sung empire of southern China.
While the northern Chin
and Hsi Hsia empires had been peopled by mixed ethnic backgrounds, the Sung empire was
and
fully
truly Chinese. Kublai
and thorough preparation
care
had become known
He
China.
Hangchow
which he
he slowly conquered
as
captured
Sung
the
1276, and the
in
showed the
for
last
capital
Sung
of
resis-
tance ended in 1279. Kublai thereby reunified
China
the
for
He
Kublai Khan
also ruled over
T
time since the
first
dynasty had fallen
the
in
tenth
ang
century.
80 percent of the
entire
Eurasian landmass, perhaps the largest empire
Although he trade,
is
prosperity,
generally associated with
and the
visit
Khan was indeed a warrior. His mother, Sorghagtani Beki, groomed all four of her sons as prospective heirs to the Mongol empire. Her husband Tolui had been passed Polo, Kublai
over in the succession, and she was determined that the sons.
A
same thing would not happen
fervent Nestorian Christian, Beki
influence
Mongol
to her
won
and the respect of much of the
elite.
satisfaction
She died
in
1252, having had the
of seeing Mangu, Kublai's older
brother, take the throne of the empire in 125
1
He
led
control of the
an epic expedition that took
kingdom of
Yunnan province
in
Ta-li (present-day
southwest China)
1252-1254. Kublai led
his
in
100,000 troops
history.
Kublai led his troops even further south.
Annam
invaded
(present-day
He
northern
Vietnam) and defeated the Pagon king of
Burma.
In
these
southern
Mongols faced elephants After
time.
winning
many
brought
their
when
the
victories,
north
to
they
China,
a fixture in Kublai's court.
Kublai sent an invasion Java in
invasions,
in battle for the first
elephants
where they became
fleet to
the island of
1293, but the mission was defeated
his Javanese
allies
turned against the
Mongols. Kublai died in 1294, having brought China
Kublai began his military career during the 1250s.
of human
in all
of Marco
to unity. His
body was brought
mountain
Mongolia
in
where he was ther,
39
laid to rest
Genghis Khan
to the sacred
called Burdan-kaldun,
next to his grandfa-
(see no. 30).
on
Edward
J J.
(1239-1307)
i
The most
skillful and ruthless ruler of his Edward "Longshanks" expanded the size
age,
of England
Born
peoples.
Provence.
Henry
He
neighboring
its
Westminster, Edward was the
at
of King
son
expense of
at the
and Eleanor of
III
Eleanor of Castile
married
Edward's the "Baron's
years
early
War
the
"
were
plagued
King Henry
that pitted
indirectly.
1298. Through the
most ambitious of
his
lords.
followed his admired
King Louis IX of France, on a crusade
to
Africa. Following the death of Louis,
Edward went
to
Syria,
then
returned
at the
Battle of Falkirk, but remarkably, the Scottish collapse.
1305 did not bring Scotland's acceptance of
Then he
1266.
Edward
use of archers and cavalrymen,
completely vanquished Wallace's army
III
war
North
skillful
in
Even the capture and execution of Wallace
the culminating victory in the
uncle.
Edward marched north
by
Edward won in
Edward's attempts to rule Scotland
independence movement did not
in 1254.
against
rated in the 1995 movie, Braveheart, resisted
to
in
English rule.
Edward marched time.
He
expanded kingdom
He had
to
Scotland one more
died near Carlisle, leaving a
much
Edward
III.
inaugurated some crucial English
tra-
to
his
son,
ditions that remain important today: the status
Europe. His father had died during the cru-
of
Edward put down a revolt in Aquitaine and made his way to London, where he was
Parliament to raise funds, and the sovereignty
sade;
crowned
the
prince
of Wales,
the
calling
of England over Wales and Scotland.
in 1274.
Edward faced an immediate challenge in
person of Llewelyn ap Gruffudd,
the
who
the leading prince of Wales,
acknowledge the English king
refused to
as his overlord.
Edward waged a series of fierce campaigns in the Welsh Wars (1277-1284), which ended with Gruffudd's death and the execution of his
Edward incorporated Wales
brother.
the kingdom, bringing English
fully into
common
law to
Wales. In 1301, his son became the prince of
Wales, a
title still
traditionally held
by the heir
apparent to the British throne. France and Scotland posed even greater threats to Edward's status as the great king his day.
A succession
crisis in
ing the death of King Alexander into Edward's hands.
He
of
Scotland, followIII,
played
declared his prefer-
ence for John de Baliol in the struggle for the Scottish
throne.
In
1296,
Edward invaded
Scotland, defeated the assembled clans, and
brought the Stone of Scone, the symbol of Scottish power, to England.
(It
sits
today
in
London's Westminster Abbey.) Sir
William Wallace,
The Parliament of Edward
who was commemo40
I
of
01
Robert Bruce
j4.
(1274-1329)
A
tenacious and resourceful fighter, Robert
Bruce braved
many dark
from English
rule.
hours to
Probably born
Scotland
free in
Turnberry
Castle in Scotland, he was the son of Robert de
Bruce VII, the
earl
"schiltrons
(groups
"
of pikemen)
Bannockburn. Edward
won
the
II
was routed
and nearly captured. Robert then
carried the
Battle of
war
of Carrick. Robert Bruce
to northern England.
In
1323,
pope recognized Robert
the
followed his father's lead in foreign policy for
the Bruces
many
successfully resisted another English invasion
Both the Bruces paid homage
years.
Edward
English King
(see no. 33) in
I
to
1296.
Robert Bruce actually took up arms to serve with Edward
at
the Battle of Falkirk, where
English forces crushed the Scottish freedom fighters led
by
Sir
as
king of Scotland. Robert
in 1322, and, in 1327,
another truce,
f^is
English no choice
he purposefully broke
military success gave the
— they
recognized his
and Scotland's independence
in
Robert had only one year
1304, Robert
He died may have
in
which
Bruce sought to exercise some type of rule in
his victory.
in
Scotland under the dominion of King Edward
ease that
been leprosy.
I.
After 1305, Robert collected his forces and
planned a master stroke against the English. Seeing what happened to Wallace,
who was
drawn and quartered, Robert
took the
still
leadership of the Scottish independence
subject of a romantic
1329 of
to enjoy
a wasting dis-
He was
written by John Barbour in the 1370s.
move-
competitor for the
a
throne, at a church in Dumfries. Robert was
crowned king of Scotland
Scone on March
at
27, 1306. Robert's
first efforts
at the Battle
became
were
Defeated
failures.
of Methven on June 19, 1306, he
a fugitive.
Only
the death of
in
1307 brought some hope
An
old Scottish legend has
Edward
I
to Robert's cause. it
that during this
time, Robert watched a spider try seven times to
connect a web. Seeing the spider finally suc-
ceed, Robert resolved that he too
would con-
tinue the fight. After 1307, Robert led a slow, concerted effort to capture the English fortresses tles
within Scotland.
He
and
cas-
took Dundee and
(1312-1313) and Edinburgh and Roxburgh (1314) and was close to success Perth
when Edward army
II
approached with an English
three times the size of the Scottish forces.
On June 24,
1314, Robert's inspired leadership
Robert Bruce and William Wallace
and the sheer determination of the Scottish 41
the
poem, "The Bruce,"
ment. In April 1306, he quarreled with and
murdered John Comyn,
title
the Treaty
of Northampton, signed in March 1328.
William Wallace.
Until his father's death in
title
or Edward the Black Prince
C^ffl
Vy_}^3
(1330-1376)
J J,
motto,
dien," or "I serve."
"/
motto of the prince of Wales In
remains the
It
to this day.
Edward was given command
1355,
of the English troops in Aquitaine (southern France), leading
them
resounding victory
in a
over the French at the Battle of Poitiers. King
John the Good of France was taken
prisoner, as
were two thousand other Frenchmen. The tory was attributed to Edward's
He
married Joan, the countess of Kent,
1361.
in
The
royal couple
moved
and stayed there
together
ated
to France
eight
for
Edward showed himself to be trator;
vic-
skill.
years.
poor adminis-
a
he alienated the local nobles and infuri-
them with high
taxes. In
1367, he led an
invasion across the Pyrenees Mountains into Spain,
and he defeated the Spanish
Battle
of Najera,
Burgos.
near
at
the
the
Still,
increased expenses led to further taxes, which
enraged
his subjects in
Edward put down subjects this
Aquitaine even more. a major rebellion of his
by sacking Limoges
Around
1370.
in
summoned by
time he was
the king of
France to appear in Paris and explain his con-
would
duct. Edward's reply was that he
helmeted and with
sixty
appear,
thousand men. This
statement was a bluff, for the prince was slowly
Capture of John
Known
as
the
II at Poitiers
"Black
Prince"
because
of the color of his armor, Edward was the oldest
son of King Edward
of Hainault.
Woodstock
Born
at
III
the
in Oxfordshire,
and Philippa
royal
dying from dysentery and dropsy he had
acquired
manor of
he became prince
during
the
campaign.
Spanish
Following the death of his oldest son, resigned
position
his
Berkhampstead,
England,
years as a semi-invalid.
and to
he
went
to
his
last
live
He made one
major
appearance before the English parliament, in
of Wales in 1343 and was schooled in both
1376, to ensure that the throne would pass to
diplomacy and war.
his second-oldest son.
At the
early age
of sixteen, Edward led the
vanguard of the English army
at
blind king of Bohemia,
his
who
leadership.
The
fought and died
one year before
Known
the Battle
of Crecy (1346). The crushing English victory
was partly attributed to
year,
as
Edward died
and he never
armor
were
with the French that day, earned Edwards
Canterbury,
admiration, and he took for himself the king's
see today.
42
same
the most chivalrous knight in
Europe, Edward evoked great fear foes,
that
his father.
lost a battle.
hung replicas
above
among
his
His shield and his
of which
tomb
tourists
at
can
Free ebooks ==>
on
Tamerlane
jD.
(1336-1405)
The
great conqueror of central Asia was
born near Kesh,
in present-day Uzbekistan.
was of the Barulas,
and Mongol early in
with a mixed Turkish
a tribe
Wounded by
heritage.
"
he was called
life,
He
an arrow
Timur-i Lang,"
northern
Tamerlane the
to
Tamerlane.
up
grew
hearing
(see no. 30) in the
golden
city
become
to
his local
all
governor of
regional
the
of
Khan
of Samarkand.
Intensely ambitious, he defeated rivals
tales
Transoxiana, of which Samarkand was the capital.
as a
he needed
Still,
worthy successor
to
himself
establish
Once
him no
line.
children,
wife throughout his
Once he
felt
she
Ottoman
Turks. After exchanging insults by
messenger, the two leaders clashed at the Battle
of Angora (1402). Tamerlane Bayezid
him
In
1404, Tamerlane laid out plans for a
remained
army. Tamerlane's health finally gave out, how-
chief
his
ever,
home province, and made war in
penetrated even further
late in the year
and he died
at
Otrar,
The
and Georgia
caught by surprise
last
of the great conquerors
Asia.
southern
when Tokhtamish
Russia)
made war foes
hundreds of miles (km) before battle at the confluence
Rivers.
After
an
of the
loyalty that
in
him.
army of
withdrew
for
finally giving
Kama and Volga victory,
for Tokhtamish's dis-
by changing the trade
caravans
former
against
overwhelming
Tamerlane took revenge
(a
Horde
Tamerlane went north with an 200,000 men. His Mongol
Armenia
Then, he was
protege and leader of the Golden
routes
so
went south of the Caspian
Sea and through his
present-day
from the steppes, the great plains of southeast
conqueror of his day.
in the late 1380s.
in
out from
greatest military leader of his century,
Tamerlane was the
Europe and
savage attacks on Christian
set
Kazahkstan.
Tamerlane began
forty,
as the greatest
kept
death.
a series of spectacular campaigns that estab-
He made
won and
as a personal prisoner until Bayezid's
He
west and reached occupied Sistan.
lished
into a tremen-
with an enormous
kingdom of Khurasan (1381)
At about the age of
drawn
Samarkand
life.
He
the Middle East and was
shift-
states in
Although she bore
secure in his
present-day Iran.
and direction
campaign against China.
Tamerlane turned southwest against the
again, his interest
Tamerlane attacked the Christian
dous confrontation with Bayezid, leader of the
to the khan. Therefore,
he married Saray Mulk Khanum, a princess of the Genghisid
Tamerlane captured Delhi,
prisoners.
ed.
conquests of Genghis
glorious
India.
then turned
Delhi sultanate in
the
and he conducted an enormous massacre of
meaning "Timur the Lame," which westerners changed over time
He
neighbors in central Asia.
south and attacked
territory.
During the Five Years' Campaign, in 1392-1397, he terrorized virtually all his-
Tamerlane
43
nn Bayezid
i
(1354-1403)
j/,
Nicknamed "The Thunderbolt"
for
the
lightning speed of his maneuvers, Bayezid was
Murad
the son of Sultan
of the Ottoman
I
empire. Bayezid began his career as governor of
Anatolia
and gained the
of Turkey)
(part
throne in 1389 upon the death of his father. In the forty years prior to Bayezid's ascen-
Ottoman Turks had Marmara and acquired large
sion to the throne, the
crossed the Sea of
sections of land in eastern Europe,
though they
had not conquered Constantinople. Bayezid both Anatolia and the
dealt with revolts in
first
The remarkable swiftness with which he moved across the Sea of Marmara to direct these operations earned him his nickname. Balkans.
Bayezid waged in
Thrace
Byzantine empire). to
against
his
Manuel
II
he
of the
down more
put
Bayezid's
rule.
of Constantinople
region
1394, he was called
In
where
Anatolia,
revolts
war of extermination
a
European
(the
blockade
Byzantine emperor
led
to plead for help
from Christian
Europe. After Pope Boniface IX called for a crusade.
King Sigismund of Hungary and the
dukes of the French provinces of Burgundy
and Nevers
men
led an
to eastern Europe.
Bayezid met the crusaders
September 28, 1396.
He
at
Nicopolis on
routed the European
army, ending any chance for western Europe to relieve the pressure
on Constantinople. From
that time forward, the
Ottoman
this victory,
He
continued the
blockade and seemed nearly ready to launch an all-out in
a
assault
letter
eastern
when he was summoned
from Tamerlane
Tamerlane was
irritated
Turkey and
Bayezid to return the Byzantines.
all
The
(see
no.
36).
by Bayezid's actions
Syria.
in
He commanded
land he had taken from
Moslem Turk be good to the
irony of one
commanding another
to
captured
back an insolent
Angora
at
which
reply,
between
confrontation
led to
an all-out
two
greatest
the
Turkish leaders of the day.
Bayezid marched
Tamerlane marched
Bayezid focused on
reducing Constantinople.
I
Orthodox Christian Byzantines was not lost on Bayezid. He refused the summons and sent
possession of
the Balkans region was secure.
Following
Bayezid
army of 50,000-100,000
into east
eastern
Anatolia;
and met him
Angora. The two armies maneuvered
at
for
some time before Tamerlane forced Bayezid into forces
battle
from
by cutting their
off
the
water supply.
Ottoman The battle-
was hard-fought, but Tamerlane prevailed and Bayezid was brought him. Tamerlane treated
and Bayezid
is
as a prisoner before
his prisoner as a slave,
reputed to have undergone
numerous humiliations prior in Baghdad one year later.
44
to
his
death
on
Jan ziska
dO.
(c-
Known
1358-1424)
"The One-Eyed," Jan Ziska and patriotic war against the Holy Roman Empire. Born in Trocnov, Bohemia (present-day as
led the Hussites in a rehgious
Czechoslovakia), Ziska lost an eye in child-
He
hood.
served
the
in
Bohemian
of several
military
bands
and went
lords
to
Poland to fight against the Teutonic Knights, an order of
German
distinguished
Tannenberg
himself
in 1410.
He
knights.
the
at
He became
particularly
of
Battle
an adherent
rout the enemy. Ziska also pioneered in the
development of earthwork Using these new the
emperor's
soldiers
troops.
1423,
In
A
Utraquists.
there
Hussite
Horid and Strachor.
Wenceslas
IV in 1419, the kings half Emperor Sigismund of the Holy
the
mountain
brother,
known
Roman
Empire,
ries
Bohemia. Sigismund announced to root out
all
heresy from his
throne
of
his intention
a
serious
over
the
called
war ensued,
in
fort
Horeb). the
of another sect of rad-
Bohemia based around of Hradec Kraloue (better
Hussites in eastern
as
civil
command
Ziska took
the
was
led the Taborites to victory at
ical
claimed
(1421),
more moderate Bohemian group
Protestant Reformation.
king
defeated
breach between the radical Taborites and a
which many scholars
of Bohemian
Ziska
Plzen
of the castle at Rabi but continued to direct his
which Ziska
Following the death
at
Kutna Hora, and Nemecky Brod (1422). Ziska lost his remaining sight at the siege
of the church reforms advocated by Jan Hus, see as the start of the
fortifications.
tactics,
He
continued to win victo-
moderate Hussite elements,
notably at Malesov in June 1424.
new kingdom.
Ziska
bubonic
plague
the castle of Pribyslav.
He was
contracted
the
Learning of the emperor's plan, Ziska formed a
and died
band of four hundred men who
buried at Horeb, but his remains were later
selves
called
them-
the "armed brotherhood of Taborites"
transferred to Caslav. Ziska remains
(Tabor was a city in south-central Bohemia).
national
The Taborites occupied
has
the city of Prague.
the Vitkov heights over
When
arrived in 1420, they
saw
Sigismund's troops
at
heroes
of Bohemia,
known many conquerors
time period.
Ziska's
defenses and withdrew from the area without trying to capture the city.
(Since that time, the heights
have been called Zizkov in his honor.)
Ziska developed a fighting sys-
tem
that
was completely new.
He
mounted cannons on farm wagons, which could be drawn together at a moment's notice to
form a prodigious defense. The Hussite battle plan almost always called for a resolute defense
from
the wagons, followed at a crucial
moment
by
an
attack
from Jan Ziska
behind the wagons that would
45
a
one of the land
since
that
Ziska's
on Joan of Arc Jj.
1412-1431)
(c.
armed men. Traveling by
night, with muffled
hooves, the party evaded the English scouts and
reached the dauphin's court at Chinon on the Loire.
Charles VII was naturally surprised that
much
a peasant girl should ride a horse,
him
tell
she
less
intended to save his throne.
The dauphin turned her over to a group of religious scholars. They examined Joan and proclaimed she was of sound mind and was not delusional.
The
great crisis
hanging over France was the
English siege of the key city of Orleans. Further resistance
to
fell.
The
of four thousand
men
seemed hopeless
command
dauphin gave
if
Joan and bade her do her
Orleans
best.
Arriving at Orleans at the end of April, she
movements
directed the French
in
an inspired
counterattack that forced the English to siege.
She pushed northward, invading
lift
the
territory
held by the English for nearly ten years. She led
Joan of Arc
A
peasant
girl
Orleans
at
who became
the French cavalry in an attack that
and
a warrior
saved a monarchy, Joan of Arc was born in the
Domremy
Battle of Patay, the first
English in
many
years.
won
major defeat
the
for the
Joined by the dauphin,
Joan
Joan pressed on to Rheims Cathedral, where,
grew up amidst the turmoil of the Hundred
on July 17, 1429, Charles was anointed and crowned King Charles VII. In less than three months, Joan had won major victories and
village
of
in northeast France.
War between
Years'
England's
France and
King Henry
French army
at
V
Agincourt
England.
had smashed the in
1415 and
set his
ensured the survival of the Valois monarchy.
Charles VII
On May
of France, the uncrowned dauphin (doe-FAN)
Burgundian
(crown prince)
the English). She was sold to the English for
son up
as the
Around
new
king in
Paris.
fled to the Loire River valley.
the age of thirteen, Joan began to
have religious visions and hear voices.
claimed that saints Michael,
She
Margaret, and
Catherine came to her and told her that she was
1
23, 1430, Joan was captured by soldiers
(Frenchmen
6,000 francs and brought to the
where she was
tried for heresy.
ecclesiastical (church) trial,
allied
city
The
with
of Rouen,
trial
was an
but the English had
engineered matters so she would be found
destined to save France from the English. As she
guilty of wearing men's clothing
grew
she heard the voices of saints. Joan was convict-
and
older, the visions increased in intensity,
at the
age of seventeen, she presented her-
self to the local fort
commander and asked
safe passage to see the
away
twice, but
for
ed, sentenced,
on
A
dauphin. Joan was turned
on her
third request, Robert de
Baudricourt gave her a horse and an escort of
May
and burned
and claiming
at the stake at
Rouen
30, 1431.
court
trial in
1456 found
that Joan
had
been sentenced improperly. She was canonized
(made
46
a saint) in 1920.
iin
Mehmed
4U.
(1432-1481)
Ottoman
The
Mehmed was
who
leader
Constantinople was born
the Conqueror
ll,
in
the son of Murad
sultan of the
II,
Ottoman Empire. Murad II gave his son the Ottoman throne in 1444 in order to avoid the
customary succession
but
political
internal
Upon
1451.
problems forced him
the death of
Mehmed II became Mehmed faced grand
his
Murad
1451,
from
both
opposition
Halil Pasha Candarli,
vizier,
way
He
was
to
and
a
the
telt
to guarantee his position as sultan
capture Constantinople,
the
capital
army
brought an enormous Ottoman of Constantinople
to the walls
He
spring of 1453.
nons;
the
required
of oxen to pull and two hundred in
The Ottoman
balance.
down
fifty
teams
men
to hold
many would-be
past.
On May
city,
killed
29, the
Ottoman their
on high
the
Ottoman
troops to turn around.
Mehmed
He
expanded eastward
as
tribe
in
eastern
increased the size
Janissary corps
Anatolia
and made the
Mehmed
it
city's
Aya Sofya
(Turkey).
later
city
that
beautiful church, he
(pride of the sultan)
empire
He
died in 1481.
left a
power he considered himself
to
be the khan
(emperor of the Turkic nomads), ghazi for the religion
of Islam), and
sor to the Byzantine emperors).
day.
renamed
and turned
it
as Fatih,
meaning
Serbia
Belgrade) in 1459.
"the Conqueror."
his
(but
He
took
empire westward, not all
the
of
city
of Greece and
conquered Moldavia (1462), and he incorporated
Bosnia
and
Herzegovina
into
the
Ottoman
fleet
routes that Venetian
and
Ottoman Empire. He used to cut vital trade
Genoan
ships
the
depended upon, and,
after
a
long war (1465-1479), received annual pay-
Mehmed
ments of tribute from Venice.
47
II,
(fighter
basileus (succes-
rule.
known
conquering
as a
vigor-
ous empire built on a combination of religious
the
mosque. From that day on, he was
expanded
elite
Janissaries loyal
conquerors in the
Ottomans entered
into a
Mehmed
He rival
and strength ot the
to the sultan, rather than to the
whole.
well.
subdued the Karaman-oglu, a
finally
Impressed with the architecture of the Hagia Sophia, the
stakes
along a roadway persuaded even the fierce
the last Byzantine emperor, and
entered
"Vlad
hundreds of
forces in 1462. Seeing
fellow soldiers impaled
had with-
ended thirteen hundred years of Christian
Mehmed
as
knocked
artillery
large sections of the walls that
stood so
the
in
brought forth huge can-
largest
conquest.
fanaticism and tribal allegiances. At the peak of
of the Byzantine Empire.
Mehmed
Ottoman
of Walachia (known
III
the Impaler") fended off a major assault by
Turkish
sultan.
withstood
area
Prince Vlad
until
in
II
"peace party" within the empire.
only
struggles,
back from 1446
to take the leadership
One
captured
Edirne, Turkey.
the Conqueror
Free ebooks ==> li
Francisco Pizarro
1
41.
1475-1541)
(c.
Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo,
early age.
Shaped by
Gonzalo
as
He
Estremadura, Spain.
entered the Spanish
Cordoba,
army
leaders such
Fernanadez
the
Spanish
was the most advanced
went
Pizarro
Domingo
an
at
in Europe.
Santo
to
Caribbean
the
in
de
military
in
1502 and served on the unsuccessful
colonizing adventure of Alonso
He made Panama with
de Ojeda in 1509. first
crossing of
great explorer Balboa (1513) settled there.
the the
and
Hearing of an Indian
empire of enormous wealth, he
formed a partnership with Diego de
Almagro,
a
Pizarro
and
soldier,
Hernando de Luque,
a
Francisco Pizarro at Cajamarca
priest.
and Almagro explored along the
and 1526-1528).
Pacific
Colombia (1524-1525
coast of present-day
On
their
second voyage,
they reached a prosperous Indian town in present-day Ecuador and returned with gold,
mas, and Indians
who
lla-
spoke of the wealth of
the Inca Empire. Pizarro
went
where the
and governor of any lands he might conquer.
The Council provided no Almagro resented the
funds, however, and
lesser titles
he received
Pizarro returned to Panama, and in January set
water, he reached the Piura,
which he used
town of San Miguel de as a base. In
September
and dogs,
terrified
(November
war had
Although Atahualpa
som
ended between two brothers: Atahualpa (at-ah-WHALP-ah) and Huascar. Atahualpa
several
—some
raised an
records say
it
enormous
ran-
was a huge room
the ceiling with gold
—
Pizarro
had the
Inca leader executed on August 19, 1533.
founded Lima as the capital of new domain. Almagro became his bitter
Pizarro his
rival.
Almagro,
after failing to capture Chile,
returned to Peru and seized the city of Cuzco.
and just
and defeated
1532) gave Pizarro custody of
16,
Pizarro's brother
to confront the Incas.
The two hun-
Atahualpa and leadership of the Inca Empire.
whose
which
inland to the
thousand Incas. The Battle of Cajamarca
1532, he entered the Andes mountain range
In the Inca Empire, a civil
come
the Inca leader into an ambush.
with no more than two hundred men, a tiny force with
threat: Pizarro
dred Spaniards, with their swords, guns, hors-
out with 180 men, 27 horses, and
two small cannons. Traveling both by land and
new
ol intrepid followers. Atahualpa
town of Cajamarca. There, the Spaniards lured
filled to
from Spain. 1531,
band
his
allowed the Spaniards to
es,
to Spain in 1528,
Council of the Indies made him captain-general
prevailed, only to learn ol a
and
captured and killed Almagro,
followers were deprived of their land
estates. Bitter
followers
over their losses, Almagro's
and friends formed
a conspiracy,
and
they killed Pizarro at his palace in Lima on
June 26, 1541.
48
Mohammed Babar
zahiruddin
n
yi
(1483-1530)
4Z.
Mohammed
Zahiruddin
name means
"tiger" in the
Babar, whose Mongol tongue, was
a Chugtai Turk, born in present-day Turkestan.
On
his father's side,
he was a fifth-generation
descendant of Tamerlane his mother's side,
(see no. 36)
and on
he was fourteen generations
removed from Genghis Khan
no.
30).
who
ruled
(see
Babar was the son of Omar Shaikh,
the small central Asian principality of Fergana.
Babar inherited the throne from of twelve.
at the age
He wanted
his father
conquer and
to
hold the city of Samarkand, which had been the city of Tamerlane and the
Seeking to lessly,
er
fulfill
and
of
futilely,
the
Timurid dynasty.
that goal, Babar fought relent-
against Shaibani
Uzbek Turks.
Samarkand three
times, in
Khan,
Babar
lead-
entered
1497, 1501, and
1511. Each time he was driven off by the
Mohammed
Zahiruddin
Babar
Khan's troops after a short occupation. After his
second
failure,
in
Babar turned
1501,
kingdom of Farghana. He followers across the Hindu Kush
Then, using
after attack.
south, yielding his
shock value, Babar's
led
attacked.
his
Mountains and arrived
in
Kabul (present-day
The
their
men
trenches and army was routed and
sultan's
Ibrahim himself was
few firearms for
left their
killed.
entry to
Babar went on to defeat the forces of eight
Samarkand and quick defeat by the Uzbek Turks, he returned to Kabul and spent five
Rajput princes collected against him on the
Afghanistan) in 1504. Following a
years pondering his next
last
move.
Having studied paintings of Tamerlane's campaign against Delhi
in 1398,
Babar decid-
battlefield
of Kanwaha (March
Then and
there he broke the
16,
1527).
power of the
Rajput confederacy. Having already subdued Delhi,
he marched on to the confluence
ed to move into northern India. By 1520,
of the Gore and Ganges Rivers, where he
he had acquired some European matchlock
defeated
the
shoulder muskets and a few pieces of
Bengal in
May
artillery.
Afghan 1529.
rulers
By
of Bihart and
the end of that year,
Babar had the only cannons east of the Caspian
Babar ruled the entire area from the highlands
Sea region.
of Badakhishan to the Ganges River (much of
Babar and Pass in
his troops entered the
December 1525. They
known
as
Hindustan (the
Khyber
present-day northern India).
Having acquired Persian
entered the area
Ganges plain of
built at
the forces of Ibrahim Lodi, the sultan of Delhi.
design
The two armies met on the plain of Panipat on April 20, 1526. The sultan had forty thousand
December
men
humorous man given
Babar's
twenty-five
thousand,
but
Babar's entrenched infantry beat back attack
new
the
philosophy
Babar died
city.
26,
Tuzuk, reveals
49
capital
Agra and imported Persian architects
northern India) and soon were confronted by
to
during his
tastes
years in Kabul, Babar ordered a
1530.
him
to
His
at
to
Agra on
autobiography,
be an intelligent and to literary pursuits
as well as the art
of conquest.
and
«Herndii
Cortex
1485-1547)
(c.
Hernan Cortez was born
in
Medellin,
Spanish reports of that day describe
as a
it
Spain. In 1504, he crossed the Atlantic and
stunningly beautiful city more than equal to
became
the great European cities of that time.
a notary
and gentleman farmer on the
island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti
The Aztec
and
ruler
Montezuma
greeted the
He was overawed
Dominican Republic). Cortez participated in the Spanish conquest of Cuba (1511) and
Spaniards
married Catalina Xuarez, the sister-in-law of
horses,
new governor. In 1518, he was named commander of an expedition intended to veri-
Seeing that the Aztecs feared his force, Cortez
rumors of an immensely wealthy
hostage to guarantee the good behavior of the
Cuba's
fy or disprove
Indian civilization on the mainland of Mexico.
Leaving
Cuba with
eleven ships and six
hundred men, Cortez landed
at
present-day
on Good Friday in 1519. He marched inland and met and defeated the
Veracruz
Tlaxacan
Many
tribe.
of the Tlaxacans then
joined Cortez because of their hatred of the
Aztec
army
tribe.
Cortez and his Spanish-Indian
arrived
at
Tenochtitlan on
the
Aztec
November
8,
capital
of
1519. All the
by
friendship.
in
Spaniards'
the
before.
abducted Montezuma and held him
had
Aztecs. Cortez 1
520
to
as
a
to leave the city early in
meet and defeat a Spanish force sent
him
arrest
and
swords,
firearms,
none of which he had ever seen
(the governor of
to
Cuba had become
suspicious of Cortez's ambition). Cortez hurried
back to Tenochtitlan, where he discovered
open warfare had broken out between
and the Aztec
warriors.
The
ed the city on the noche
(night of sad-
triste
June 30, 1520, during which many
ness),
on both
diers
sides
were
up
May
Spaniards and their
the
city.
and
won
the final
Cortez then
New
government of
allies
August 1521.
to
allies
and conquered the
battles
sol-
killed.
Cortez recruited more Indian besieged the city from
The
men
his
Spaniards evacuat-
Spain,
set
and
Tenochtitlan was renamed Mexico City. Cortez
house
built a great
some
at
Cuernavaca and had
twent)' thousand Indians serve
him
as
vassals.
Cortez went to Spain with the
title
had hoped.
in
1528 and returned
of Marquis, but not Viceroy
He made an
as
he
abortive attempt to
colonize in present-day California before he
returned to Spain for good in
1
540.
had received many honors since
Though he
his conquests,
Cortez never gained satisfaction from King Charles V.
It is
said that the desperate old sol-
hung on to the resplendent coach ot the king and begged him for recognition of his ser-
dier
vices.
Cortez died near
Seville.
His remains
were later shipped to Mexico and buried in the
Hernan Cortez
land of
much 50
New
Spain, which he had
to create.
done so
Suleiman (1494-1566)
44, The of
the Magnificent
I,
greatest
and warrior
lawgiver,
ruler,
Ottoman
the
Suleiman
Empire,
the
Magnificent was born in Trebizond on the Black Sea. His father, a provincial governor,
was elevated
become Sultan Selim
to
Suleiman served
I.
governor of Feodosia,
as
Crimea (1509-1512), and the province
in the
of Magnesia, in western Turkey (1512—1520).
hurried
death,
father's
(formerly
Istanbul
was
he
installed
1520. Extremely ambitious for
sultan in
and the Moslem
himself, the empire,
began
his
to
where
Constantinople), as
of
learning
After
Suleiman
cause, he
once to make war on Christian
at
Suleiman saw Charles V, emperor
Europe.
of the Holy
Roman
Suleiman Hungarians
Empire,
become
the quest to
as his great rival in
the "ruler of the age.
captured
"
Irom
Belgrade
the
1521 and drove the Knights
in
of St. John from the island of Rhodes in 1522.
Both
were tremendously important,
victories
since Suleiman's grandfather,
Conqueror
Mehmed
the
II,
had been unable
(see no. 40),
to
accomplish them.
Suleiman defeated the Hungarians
the
at
Mohacs (August 29, 1526), where King Louis II of Hungary and many of his Battle of
nobles lost their
lives.
Suleiman pushed
his
Vienna
in 1529.
September 23
on both
to
The
Feeling his strength,
army siege
the
all
of the
way
city,
to
from
October 16, was hard-fought
Suleiman
ed eastward by land.
way
to
Baghdad
series of
He
led his
army
all
the
1534 and fought a long
in
campaigns
the Magnificent
in the east before
coming
to peace terms with the Persian forces in 1555.
Turning
but some sixteen thousand
sides,
I,
attention
his
once
more
to
Christian troops were able to repel the eighty-
Christian Europe, Suleiman sent his entire fleet
thousand-man Turkish army. Furious over the
west
defeat,
Suleiman marched back
Suleiman turned
his attention to naval
to
on Malta
to Istanbul.
war-
the
attack in 1566.
ship of Barbarossa,
Knights
of
St.
John
Lacking the inspired leader-
who had
died in
1
546, the
His formidable
Turks came close to success but time and again
admiral, Barbarossa (Khair ed-Din), harassed
were thwarted by the desperate bravery of the
fare
in
the
Mediterranean.
but
knights and the rocky defenses of the island.
was prevented from entering the western
The campaign ended in disaster, with twentythousand men and many ships lost. Suleiman
Christian
ships
from Turkey
to
Italy
Mediterranean by the noble Knights of John,
who had
established a
island of Malta. Suleiman,
new
base
St.
on the
meanwhile, expand-
vowed to avenge the same year. 51
the defeat, but he died later in
"
The Dulce of Alva
r 4u. /I
(1508-1582)
King Philip
sovereign.
marched
his
men up
menacing the papal
and the pope, Alva
II,
to the gates
of Rome,
pope and the
city until the
king came to terms.
King Philip
was a committed Catholic;
II
new
he hated the
with orders to put
down
Alva embarked on Council of Troubles
He founded
(which
"Council of Blood"
called the
oppression
rigorous
a
Holland.
in
Given
a revolt there.
of governor and regent,
titles
of the Calvinists
sent Alva
Netherlands (1567)
as captain-general to the
the additional
He
Protestant sects.
the )
the
Calvinists
and thousands
of persons were condemned to death by
it
without any hope of appeal. Alva defeated the Protestant leader Louis of Nassau
at
Jemmingen
in
1
568 and forced
William the Silent to take refuge
in
Germany.
Alva seemed on the verge of success when the
Dutch formed an independence movement
known
The Duke of Alva
as
the
Sea
Beggars.
These coastal
and pro-
privateers harassed Alva's supply lines
Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, "The Duke of Alva," was born province in Spain.
Piedrahita in Avila, a
in
Known
as "Alva,"
from a family of distinguished father
was
three
years
killed in battle
old,
he came
warriors. Alva's
when he was only
and he was raised by
his
moted
further rebellions in the Netherlands.
Alva
marched
but
the French at the siege of Fuenterrabia (1524).
Spain,
the attention of
with
Hungary
whom
King Charles
he served in
Ottoman
against the
Italy
I
of
and
Turks. Alva led
the king's troops at the siege of Tunis in 1535
and
led the abortive
campaign against Moslem
was only
Alva was named commander-in-chief of the armies
fighting
in
Germany and
defeated John Frederick, the Protestant elector
of Saxony,
During
a
overall
effect
(all
of his
Mons,
at
in 1572),
campaign
of the Protestant
to stiffen the resolve
revolutionaries.
recalled his general
at the Battle
conflict
of Muhlberg (1547).
between
Alba's
new
to Spain
II
1573. Alva
in
received a cool reception at Philip's palace, the Escorial,
He was
and he was
exiled
recalled to service in
1
to
his
580,
Battle of the Bridge of Alcantara,
Portugal
for
Philip,
for his efforts.
in 1582,
but
estates.
when
invaded Portugal. Alva was victorious
reward
Algeria in 1541.
Spanish
the
on
toes
his
Calvinists
Seeing the failure of Alva's policy, Philip
Alva entered the Spanish army and fought
won
the
Zutphen, Naarden, and Haarlem
grandfather.
Alva
against
land and defeated
Philip at
the
which won
he received scant
Before he died at Lisbon,
Alva made a statement about the
rela-
tionship between soldiers and rulers that has a ring of truth: "Kings treat
They go
for
men
like oranges.
the juice, and once they have
sucked them dry they throw them
52
aside.
/in
Oda Nobunaga
4D.
(1534-1582)
Japan in the sixteenth century was a land of (lords) and a shogun in Kyoto who held much more power than the figurehead emperor. It
met the fifteen-thousand-man army of Takeda Katsuyri. Nobunaga's opponent had by far the larger number of samurai cavalry. Nobunaga defeated Katsuyri, however,
was a period of unrestrained warfare
by placing three thousand of his best arquebus-
small feudal principalities
ruled by daimyos
in Japan.
Oda Nobunaga.
Into this mix stepped
Nobunaga's father was a minor daimyo province of Owari,
the
in
Nobunaga succeeded at
east
of Kyoto.
to his father's position
the age of sixteen.
He
defeated his rival
daimyo, Imagawa Yoshimoto, when the tried to enter the capital city of
Kyoto
Nobunaga then entered an Tokugawa
lyeyasu.
latter
in
with
alliance
He expanded
his
560.
1
power
through marriages and defeated other
base
daimyos or won
sand troops
(musketmen) behind
from these musketmen caused great
palisades.
had encouraged. At the time of controlled
thirty-two
provinces of Japan.
same Buddhist to destroy
He was
retainer
Mount
of
the
the
pied
the
the pretext that
the
was
1568
for
under
He
took
himself
and
in danger.
of vice-shogun
title
when
it
Nobunaga occuin
Yoshiaki tried to build an alliance of
Nobunaga drove him from Nobunaga did not replace Yoshiaki,
equals with him, the
city.
thereby ending the Ashikaga shogunate that
had ruled Japan since 1338.
Having removed the
own
his
a castle priests
to
last
formal barrier to
Nobunaga proceeded to build on Lake Biwa. He welcomed Jesuit
power,
from Europe and traded with Portugal his power
import firearms, which made the
all
more
unassailable.
Nobunaga then
turned against the Buddhist
own
country.
killed
of
his
His forces destroyed the vast
Buddhist monastery
and
priests
at
Enryaku, near Kyoto,
most of the monks
there.
He
also
captured the castle-monastery of Osaka; the
True Pure Land Buddhist
sect never recovered
from the blows Nobunaga directed against Nobunaga's greatest victory came Batde of Nagashino
in
1
at
it.
the
Oda Nobunaga
573. His thirty thou-
53
he
sixty-eight
he had ordered
Hiei.
younger brother of the
of Kyoto
city
his death,
assassinated by the
whom
their allegiance.
recently assassinated shogun.
losses
mounted forces. By 1582, more than 150,000 Japanese had accepted Christianity, a situation Nobunaga to Katsuyri's
Nobunaga conquered the large province of Mino in 1562 to 1564 and made an alliance with Yoshiaki,
The gun-
iers
fire
n^ancis Drake
y|~7
H-/
.
1539-1596)
(c.
Ocean. This
Pacific
major success led
first
the greatest endeavor of his
men
in
December
aboard
1
The
five ships.
the
first
New
1578. Having nav-
6,
on
his
to sail
men became
on the
He
sailed north
Albion (present-day California), and he
the Indian Ocean,
Drake
Drake
was born
at
Crowndale
Devon
in
His father was a tenant farmer and er
of the reformed Protestant
county.
lay preach-
faith. Sir
reli-
gious dissension. At the age of thirteen, he was
apprenticed to the master oi a coastal
aged master
left
the ship to
him
burned
When
of the Spaniards.
He
a
allowed him to attack their cargoes.
three
men
He and
commission
privateer's
in
1572,
which
enemy ships and keep company of seventy-
his
sailed to the
West
Indies in
two
small ships. Drake plundered the important
Spanish town of
Nombre
de Dios
in
sacked
Panama.
in
1588, second in
Howard of Effingham.
command
Lord
led the dauntless English attacks against the
huge galleons of the Armada. Drake posed the use of set
also pro-
"fire ships" (ships filled
afire,
with
and floated into the
enemy) against the Spanish
at
their harbor
in Calais.
Sadly, his career did not
end with
success.
Drake and John Hawkins sailed to the West Indies in 1595-1596. The English fleet lost
men and morale due
to an epidemic of fever.
Drake himself succumbed on January 28, 1596, and he was buried at sea Bello,
to see the
to
was Drake who
It
Crossing the Isthmus of Panama on foot, he
Englishman
Armada by
called this action "singeing the
was probably the
first
and
Drake was vice-admiral of the English fleet
explosives,
I
He
king of Spain's beard."
a lifelong hatred
reward for
twenty ships, thereby delay-
At
erous, as well as heretics.
Drake received
as
in his will.
believed they were treach-
from Queen Elizabeth
many
a full year.
the second trip ended in
Drake began
He
harbor of Cadiz. as
his
Hawkins family of Plymouth. He sailed on two Spanish West Indies voyages to the (Caribbean).
as a
victories.
ing the sailing of the great Spanish
vessel.
it,
on
In 1587, Drake led an English force into the
Spanish
twenty-three, Drake enlisted in the fleet of the
disaster in 1572,
voyage and
and
to the sea as if born to
England,
celebrated for his
Golden Hind,
his flagship, the
his
He was
and the Queen knighted him aboard
victories,
Frances
Drake grew up amid the turbulence of
Drake took
Plymouth,
reached
Islands,
and Cape of Good Hope.
September 26, 1580.
England's greatest Elizabethan military leader
and
the coast of what he called
went home by way of the Moluccan
Francis
Pacific.
town on the west
after
coast of South America.
led his fleet
of Magellan from
Drake and
Englishmen ever
refitted his ships
from
expedition spent
Strait
Drake pillaged town
sailed
and Drake
August 21 to September igated the strait,
to
the circum-
577 with two hundred
the winter in Patagonia,
through the hazardous
—
Drake
navigation of the globe.
England
life
54
Panama.
off"
Puerto
/in
Maurice of Nassau
40.
(1567-1625)
Maurice of Nassau, the Prince of Orange
and second son of William was born the same year
(the
I
Silent),
the start of the
as
Netherlands' struggle for independence f^rom
the Siege of Nijmegan in six days. These victo-
ol
troops
II
won
the
pitched
largest
Battle
in 1600.
From 1609
to 1621, the
Twelve
Dutch
Spain.
Dutch
of the
the
Republic's
seven
Landsadvocaat
the
During
maintained
northern provinces, sharing power with
a
this
period ot peace, Nassau
standing Dutch army of thirty
thousand infantry and thirty-six hundred mounted soldiers. By 1617, Nassau, an Orthodox Calvinist, came into
open
represented the burghers.
of the provinces. After an English attempt to
was formidable.
Dutch failed, Nassau hope for Dutch indepen-
The
An impending when
religious civil
war
became the
Oldenbarnevelt executed in 1619.
He was named
education
University of
the
at
well:
he developed a
new
type of army. Basing his approach on classic
Roman
Nassau made
treatises,
Nassau
death of his older brother in 1618.
ing.
The Dutch
low
units, ten ranks deep,
drill
and orga-
Dutch army
nization the centerpieces of
train-
troops were formed into shal-
which allowed
for
Frederick Henry, liberated
leadership of the Nassau family, the
became renowned
for
their
break ranks and then reform
more Dutch
Tromp (see no. seas. The United
51) dominated Spain
Provinces
would win
scientific principles
on trench
at
Dutch
their strength
twice
land.
to
the
of engineering, relying
gunnery
and mines. a series
of campaigns against
the Spanish armies led by the
and Ambrogio
di
Spinola.
Duke of Parma Although the
Spanish formations had been the terror of
Europe, Nassau
sand
men
1590.
—
The
—with an army of
ten thou-
liberated Breda (his family seat) in
following year,
the Spanish at the Siege of
Nassau defeated
Zutphen
in seven
days, the Siege of Deventer in eleven days,
cities
on the
their full
would do so more by
on water than on
sol-
ability
warfare, long-range siege
Nassau fought
war
independence from Spain twenty-three years after Nassau's death; they
speed of other armies. Nassau also incorporat-
ed
after the
When
(1625-1647), while Admiral Maarten von
mobility and precise maneuvers. Under the
diers
had
with Spain resumed, his younger half-brother,
Netherlands in 1590.
Leiden served him
averted
Nassau became prince of Orange
captain-gen-
of the army of the United Provinces of the
was
power
burghers'
intervene on behalf of the central
who
conflict with Oldenbarneveldt,
of Holland, the wealthiest and most powerful
Nassau's
Truce
capture
to
Johan Oldenbarneveldt,
eral
Years'
halted the war between the Netherlands and
proceeded
dence from Spain.
battle
of Nieuport, which
Philip's
Nassau was named stadholder (hereditary
allied
to
the
of Spain in 1584;
provinces of Flanders and Brabant.
magistrate)
up
the war,
Nassau
Spain. His father was assassinated by agents
of King Philip
led
ries
Maurice of Nassau
and 55
—
von wallenstein
n Albrecht 4u. (1583-1634) n
Albrecht Wensel Eusebius von Wallenstein
was born
Hermanic, Bohemia (now the
in
Czech Republic). Son of a noble Bohemian family, he
He
was orphaned
at the
from
converted
age of thirteen.
Lutheranism
to
Catholicism in 1606, but his true belief was
He
astrology.
compiled
scope
in
treasured an astrological horo-
him by
for
the
astronomer Johannes Kepler. The
famous of the
start
Bohemian revolt against the Holy Roman Empire (1618-1623) gave him the chance to fully
develop his military
The
talents.
Bohemia spread to much of Europe and became known as the Thirty Years' fighting in
War (1618-1648).
Wallenstein recruited thou-
sands of soldiers to fight under his
and
also
made
loans to
command
Holy Roman emperor
ed the
By 1623, Wallenstein was the in Bohemia and had confiscatlands and estates of many Protestant
nobles.
He
Ferdinand
II.
wealthiest
man
ing,
consolidated his position by marry-
1623,
in
a
daughter of Count von Battle of
Harrackh, one of the emperor's closest advisers.
The Thirty phase in
1625,
joined the
War entered its second when Protestant Denmark Wallenstein won the Battle
fray.
of Dessau Bridge and advanced to the Baltic Sea.
Granted the
all
of his
at the
very
power when the established
German nobles forced Ferdinand II him in 1630; they were envious ol and
way
the
of General
title
of the North and Baltic Seas, he was height
to dismiss
power
his
Wallenstein immediately began to corre-
spond with Gustavus Adolphus the Lutheran king of Sweden, the
war on the Protestant his offer
was lucky
of
service,
to be recalled
side.
joined
Aciolphus
and Wallenstein
by Ferdinand
in
11
present
the
for
Adolphus
led
formations
Wallenstein.
The
was
was governed by chance
won
in
the day, but
well as
new
familiar
to
as
not
battle
not
men and
thousand
sixteen
approximately sixty cannon, fighting
men were
of the fighting.
part
early
a near
its
draw and
later stages.
Adolphus was
The
killed
in the fighting.
Wallenstein
Ferdinand plans, the
II
planned
a
against
revolt
during 1633. Learning of these
emperor ordered the scheming com-
mander brought
dead
him,
to
Wallenstein was assassinated
or
at Eger,
alive.
Bohemia,
by Wdter Devereux, an English captain, on
1631.
The two
great
leaders
Wallenstein and Adolphus
of Lutzen
twenty-one heavy can-
non, but three thousand of his
(see no. 50),
who had
men and
teen thousand
Swedes
success.
spurned
Dessau Bridge
Years'
in
of
— met
the
war
at the Battle
1632. Wallenstein had almost
fil-
February 25, 1634. His
commemorated Johann
56
von
in
a
Schiller,
life
and career were
dramatic a
trilogy
German
by
poet.
rn
Custavus Adoiphus
UU.
(1594-1632)
Gustavus Adoiphus was born
He became king Due to his youth
Sweden. 1611. teen
—he had
to the
Stockholm
in
of King Charles
son
the
1594,
in
own
in his
IX of right in
— he was only
to
make
a
Swedish nobles.
seven-
at
took
up
a
strong
Germany but were
position
Years'
The Swedes
to aid the Protestant cause.
northern
in
attacked by the imperial
number of concessions
Catholic forces at Breitenfeld in 1631.
The
He
Swedes won, and Adolphus's victory there
won
won
thereby
their
something he needed since Sweden
loyalty,
would be
devout Lutheran, he entered the Thirty
War
war during nearly the
entire peri-
him
the nicknames "Lion of the North" and
"Savior of Protestantism."
He campaigned
od he was on the throne. fought Adoiphus against (1611—1613) and lost, and he against Russia (1613—1617).
He
Denmark also
fought
succeeded in
southern
in
Germany Munich
the spring of 1632 and captured
May.
On November
16,000
men
in
the
First
of Lutzen
Battle
against the Catholic^ troops of Albrecht
which had implications
W;illenstein (see no. 49),
future Swedish-
Russian relations. Adoiphus fought between
He
1621 and 1629. city
captured the important
of Riga (the capital of present-day Latvia)
and concluded a truce with
During
his
his enemies.
Adoiphus thoroughly reformed
Poland,
his
army. By compiling a roster of all Swedish
men
over the age of fifteen and using a draft
(men
were "drafted" into military
who had
the use of mercenary soldiers.
von
perfected
The Swedes won
the battle, but Adoiphus was killed in the fighting with shots through his head, side, arm, and back.
wars with Denmark, Russia, and
Wallenstein
dead on the
left
field in
three
thousand
what was
his first
men major
setback of the war.
he created
service),
first national army in modern Europe. Most armies of the time were composed of
the
mercenaries (hired soldiers without loyalty to the leaders they served).
Adoiphus studied the Spanish improved upon
tercio
and
establishing squadrons of
it,
216 pikemen and 192 musketeers formed
in
Two made
or
men
ranks that were only six
deep.
three
squadrons
battle
group or brigade. Adoiphus formed
his cavalry in
deep;
the
a trot
and
joined
a
groups that were only three ranks cavalry
trained
and
to use swords
quarters. In addition, artillery,
together
making
it
to
charge
at
pistols at close
Adoiphus changed the
much
lighter
troops were probably the
first
and
faster; his
Europeans
to
employ the three-pounder cannon. Adoiphus brought this effeccombination of infantry, cavalry and
In June 1630, tive
artillery across the Baltic
Sea to Germany.
in
1632, Adoiphus led
6,
excluding Russia from the Baltic Sea area, for
in
A
Gustavus Adoiphus' death
57
at
Lutzen
Free ebooks ==>
Maarten n'omp 51
(1597-1653)
The
admiral ol the seventeenth-
greatest
Dutch
century
Maarten
was
navy
He was
Harpertszoon Tromp.
born
in Breille,
Holland, the son of the captain of a small
Dutch
The United
ship.
Netherlands
were fighting
freedom from Spain.
for their
Tromp accompanied during which
of the
Provinces
which Holland belonged)
(to
was
father
his
on
his father
a voyage, in
killed
encounter with an English pirate ship;
swore
on
vengeance
enemies
the
all
an
Tromp ot
Holland. After sailing in the
Tromp tain
Dutch merchant marine,
Dutch navy in 1624 as capHe showed great resolve in the
entered the
of a
frigate.
and rose rapidly through the become a lieutenant admiral in 1637.
face of danger
ranks to
Tromp fought
against the Spanish and,
February 18, 1639, defeated their
North Sea off the Dutch
on the
Maarten Tromp
coast at Gravelines.
enormous
Later in the year, Spain sent an against the Dutch.
fleet in
Tromp had
fleet
thirty-one ships
to send against sixty-seven Spanish vessels,
one
winter of 1652.
Urged by
at that time.
his lieutenants
dence,
Tromp
enough
at the
"There
declared,
bottom of the
Spanish ships, and the sooner
them
there, the better."
Tromp Spanish
led a fleet
to exercise pruis
sea for
we
As good
all
start
room
word,
midnight attack and threw the confusion.
into
After
taking
refuge behind a sandbar on the English coast, the Spanish tried to
make
Dunkirk, approximately northeast of Gravelines. a death
blow
or sinking
all
a
run for the port of
15
miles
Tromp
(24 km)
then delivered
to Spanish sea power, capturing
but eighteen ships in the Spanish
fleet in the Battle
Tromp fought First
English-Dutch
won
a
War (1652-1654). He
major victory over English admiral
Robert Blake
Early
at the Battle
of Dungeness in the
in
1653,
The
English and
battles at sea.
North Foreland
was fought
1
Battle of Portland
In the
George
Dutch
summer of
The
to a
won by
was
draw and the
England.
Monck engaged Tromp island
Dutch
Battle of
1653, English admiral
of Textel
Scheveningen. Both
sides
120 ships positioned
in
near
the
off
the
of
coast
had approximately
rough line-ahead
for-
mations across 16 miles (26 km) ot the North Sea.
This Battle of Textel
I
naval battle fought to date.
was the greatest
The two
navies
fought with no clear winner until the following day,
when Monck,
reinforced by fresh ships,
resumed the attack and defeated the Dutch.
During the
of the Downs. against the English in the
control of the English
waged two more
those
sending
as his
Dutch temporary
the
naval battle gave
Channel.
of which, the Mater Theresa, was the largest
warship in the world
The two-day
musket of
its
fire
battle,
Tromp was killed by The fleet lost twenty
to the chest.
one hundred ships through capture or
sinking, as the heart
went out of the Dutch
navy with the death of its greatest commander.
58
Cromwell
rn
Oliver
U/.
(1599-1658)
The
only true dictator in England's history
was born
in
Huntingdon
1599.
in
Oliver
Cromwell attended Sydney Sussex College Cambridge. Influenced by
and by a deep personal depression
Cromwell became
twenties,
England, where the
official
faith
national church
He marched
the
Parliamentary party.
the
English
Cromwell
became
in
and then
to death
I
won
north in 1650 and
followed at
:ptember
Second
3,
with
victory
this
the Battle of Worcester
which ended the
3, 1651),
Having
peace
attained
but not unity, Cromwell became dictator of the British
expelled the
a
"Rump"
1653 and was
in
head (Parliamentary)
Lord Protector." In 1655, he
man who
For a
was a
forty,
never saw
until
service
military
smashed
ated
from
England
Moor
in 1644.
in
his
the
creating
the
"New Model
one
of
dragoons.
Cromwell was second
mand
to Sir
Thomas
Cromwell's
won
in
the crucial Battle of
ended. King Charles
I
with Scotland to regain initiated the action
that
Naseby on June
foreign
policy
roused
Cromwell
of the Second Civil
War
(1648-1651) by marching north and defeating
Then he
crossed the Irish Sea and landed in Ireland,
Drake
at
Whitehall on September
1658, the anniversary of two of his greatest
victories.
He was
buried in King Henry VII's
chapel at Westminster
Abbey with
emony, but when King Charles throne
in
II
hung on
all
a gallows at
Tyburn.
due
cer-
ascended the
1660 (an event known
"Restoration"), his bones were
59
Sir
(see no. 47).
Cromwell died 3,
the
way
had not been seen since the days of
Francis
14,
War had
continued to conspire
the Scots at the Batde of Preston.
in
war between
British fighting spirit in a
cavalry regiments
his throne.
1650s.
France and Spain. Cromwell's
Oliver Cromwell
Fairfax.
1645. Although the English Civil
the
took Jamaica
forces
the long-standing
com-
New Model
in
Cromwell
from Spain and intervened
regi-
ments, ten cavalry regiments,
and
ambitious
policy,
Dutch during
English
London, he was instrumental in
foreign
fought both the Spanish and
northern
Returning to
Army:" twelve infantry
districts
his forces.
Extremely
(Royalist) cavalry at the Battle
of Marston
military
as
cre-
governed by a major-general
into
leader.
Cavalier
the
eleven
installed
throughout England, each one
he
after
Cromwell evolved
remarkable
He
cavalry.
He
Isles.
Parliament
lieutenant-general in the round-
military
at
1650).
Civil War.
.^^
1643, Cromwell
a colonel
civilians at
Dunbar (September
another one
rela-
War
Civil
and
an overwhelming victory against the Scots
John Hampden, who had resisted King Charles Is "ship money" tax, he
When
Irish soldiers
condemned King Charles
that
in 1649.
tive,
joined
forces.
Cromwell dominated the parliamentary trial
elected to Parliament
1640. Following the lead of his
Catholic
the
Drogheda and Wexford.
the Batde of
Cromwell was
broke out
defeated
dous massacres of
was Anglican.
in
he
Cromwell's soldiers carried out two horren-
in his late
a devout Puritan.
At the time, Puritanism was the minority in
at
his university years
where
as
the
dug up and
rn
Free ebooks ==> Louis II de Bourbon
UJ.
(1621-1686)
Louis
born in
II
of the House of Bourbon was
Paris.
He became
family, a junior
The Conde
of Bourbon.
means
(a
title
was educated by
"prince")
teachers,
the leader of his
branch of the royal house that
Jesuit
and he married Mademoiselle de
Maille-Breze in 1641; she was a niece oi
Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister to
King Louis XIII.
Due
to his family standing
riage, the
the royal
Conde was
army of France
won
and mar-
command
of
in 1643. In that
the Thirty Years' War,
critical year, late in
he
given
an overwhelming victory against
the Spanish at the Battle oi Rocroi. Louis
combined the
use of cavalry
teers to defeat the
who had
and muske-
famed Spanish
tercios,
been nearly unbeaten on the
battlefield since the early sixteenth centu-
In
ry.
one day of
fighting,
Conde
the
ended Spanish power
in
and elevated France
to the rank
power
in
northern Europe
of
first
Louis
Following the deaths of both King Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu, the
King Louis XIV and Cardinal
He
led a brilliant
in
1646 and won
campaign
Conde
served
Jules Mazarin.
in the
de Bourbon, the Great Conde
The Conde took during
Lens
in
the side of aristocratic
Fronde of the Princes
the
(1651 — 1652). This
rebellion
campaign into the area of Franche-Comte. His performance was good enough
collapsed
in
In 1672, the
at the Battle
Condemned
battle
in his absence,
the
Conde fought with
the
Remarkably, the
and
War in 1659. Conde was restored
in
of
of Seneffe (1674). His
were spent
The
in a
campaign
a
great
commander
estate at Chantilly
his
to his
army
at the start
led the French
to
last
days
in
defend the
province of Alsace from attack (1675).
Spanish until the Treaty of the Pyrenees ended the Franco-Spanish
a
he missed a chance to defeat the Dutch
years;
to death
him
the French-Dutch War (1672-1676). He was wounded in the crossing, and his battle actions caused him to lose the confidence of the king. The Conde was more cautious than in his early
of King Philip IV of Spain in the Netherlands.
and sentenced
Conde
famous crossing of the Rliine
its
1652, and he fled the country to join the forces
as a traitor
to earn
promotion.
Netherlands
a great victory at
1648.
rebels
II
Europe.
country gentleman.
and
The
then
retired
to
lived
the
of
great
life
conde died
and the condemnation
at
Fountain-bleau, after having sent a letter
and sentence were removed. King Louis XIV
to
King Louis XIV asking the monarch
lands, states,
was reluctant
titles,
to entrust a great
command
the former rebel, but in 1668, the
Conde
to
led a
give
his
Fronde.
60
actions
to for-
during the period of the
MSebastien
Prestre de ifauban
le
(1633-1707)
.
Sebastien
le
de Vauban was born
Prestre
Netherlands and was
wounded
at the Siege
of
Burgundy, France. Educated by the CarmeHte
Ath (1697). His construction of fortifications enabled France to fight the combined powers
order of nuns, he became a cadet in the regi-
of England, the Netherlands, and Austria to a
ment of Louis II de Bourbon, the Great Conde (see no. 53). During the Fronde of the Princes, a rebellion of French nobles, Vauban fought
draw.
at
Legerde-Fougeret in the province of
St.
Conde
with the
two
for
against
years
the
Vauban was
troops of King Louis XIV. After
captured in 1653 and was well-treated by his captors,
he switched
He
sides.
joined King
Louis XIV's army, where he would spend most
of the
rest
of his
the high casualties suffered during the Thirty
War (1618-1648).
ened alternative
to
Seeking an enlight-
field
warfare,
became the foremost proponent fare,
position.
Vauban asked
motion
to
marshal
Vauban
He became
large-scale fortresses.
a royal engi-
neer (1655) and then commissary general of fortifications (1667) and, in 1672,
persuaded
War of
for,
and
Spanish
received, pro-
of France
organized an entrenched
He
(1703).
camp
at
Dunkerque
(1706), but otherwise Vauban's services were in a
war
that strayed
from the
principles of enlightened combat. Casualties in this
war were shockingly high because of the
change from the matchlock
to flintlock
mus-
ket.
Vauban was
of siege war-
which involved the building and taking of
the
directed the Siege of Alt-Breisach in 1703 and
not called upon
life.
Vauban's entire generation was appalled by
Years'
The beginning of
Succession in 1702 found France in a weaker
Siege
many
and
a tireless worker.
Fortification,
He
wrote
On
which was published
years after his death,
and he
also
wrote
the controversial Project for a Royal Tythe, or
General Tax (1707). During his fifty-four years
of the king, he had erected or
the king to create a special engineering branch
in the service
of the French royal army.
designed 160 fortresses and participated in the
The same
War
French-Dutch
year.
Vauban captured
the
began
Dutch
that
sieges of fifty
of Maastricht in 1673 by laying out a complete
of
set
siege
approached the
parallels, fort
earthworks
by angles and
enemy
fortresses.
fortress .-.^ft".
that
turns. After
the war ended, he built the fortress that guard-
ed Strasbourg (1684) and directed the siege of
Luxembourg (1684). Already the acknowledged master of his in
1688 Vauban went on
art,
to introduce the use
of ricochet gunfire, which were cannonballs
bounced over parapets and
that
parts of the enemy's defenses.
He
hit
several
also advocat-
ed the use of the socket bayonet, which could remain on the barrel of a musket while the gun
was
fired.
The War of brought Vauban tured
Mons
the
League of Augsburg
fully into his element.
(1691) and
Namur
He capSebastien
(1692) in the
61
le
Prestre de
Vauban
" *
(^^^
(1650-1722)
55.
Queen Anne
in
Churchill had
become
chief lady-in-waiting to
Queen Anne made
Churchill master-gener-
1702. (By
time, Sarah
this
the queen.)
al
of ordnance
army
the English title
and captain-general of
in 1702.
She
also elevated his
Duke of Marlborough. took command of the allied English-
from
Churchill
to
earl
Dutch army ed a
(artillery)
Blenheim, in
victories:
and he
in the Netherlands,
of campaigns that led to
series
1704;
1706; and Oudenaarde, in
initiat-
brilliant
Ramillies,
1708.
in
1708,
In
Churchill also captured the great citadel at Lille
by constructing an outside
fications so intricate
it
series
of
forti-
could not be penetrated
by the relieving French army. Churchill
Duke of Marlborough was
Churchill
John
born
troops were
Ashe
at
in
Devonshire. His father had supported King
during the English
Civil
War.
Churchill took advantage of his
sister's
affair
Charles
I
Duke of York,
with James, career.
He became
commissioned
and served
a
to advance his early
page to the duke, was
in the English
in Tangier, Africa
army
in
1668,
XIV
during a
between the two countries
Having
gained
returned
to
Jennings,
a
valuable
England and
time of peace in
the
1670s.
experience,
married
seventeen-year-old
attendant
to
armed with the new
He saw
the
that
flintlock
He was
fusion.
and defensive
also a
His
mus-
innovation gave the
daring attacks that threw the
enemy
men
in
into con-
master of siege warfare
had probably
fighting, tactics he
learned during his years in the French service.
During
his years as leader
won
of the
allied armies,
and conducted
five
battles
all
successful.
twenty-six sieges,
He was
proba-
bly the greatest military genius in the history of
modern England. Churchill and his wife
he
Sarah
through a combi-
his battles
advantage to the offense, and he led his
Churchill
(1669—1670).
Churchill served in the army of France's
King Louis
ket.
won
of technology and maneuvers.
nation
fell
out of
Queen
Anne's favor, and he was dismissed in 1711.
went
to
Europe and sought
to
He
persuade
(one of James' daughters). After
George, the Elector of Hanover, to invade
duke of York became King James II in 1685, Churchill rose rapidly through the
England and establish a new monarchy. George crossed the channel peacefully and was
ranks.
soon installed
Princess
Anne
the
Churchill changed sides in 1688.
ed James
II
for
He
desert-
William of Orange during the
Glorious Revolution.
When
William became
The new
as
King George
I
of England.
king restored Churchill to
all
his titles
and honors, but a stroke in 1716 forced his retirement.
Churchill died at Windsor.
him
King William III in 1689, he made Churchill the Earl of Marlborough in gratitude. When
wife survived
William died, he was replaced on the throne by
honor Churchill's
His
by twenty-three years and
occupied the palace of Blenheim, built to
62
greatest victory.
rn
Peter tHe Great
00.
(1672-1725)
Pyotr Alekseyevich was born in
Moscow The rivalry
the Russian army, employing architects and
1672, the son of Czar Alexis.
engineers to bring in artillery and train his
and
Naryshkin
in
between
the
clans, led
by the
respectively,
Miloslavsky czar's first
and second wives
men. Peter then captured Narva (1704) and
shaped Peters childhood and
Peter's
won
in
most important
and the naval
victories
came
Battle of
Gangut,
youth. After the death of his father, Peter was
Poltava (1709)
made
where the Swedish monopoly of the
co-czar with his half-brother, Ivan, but
power went
the real
who
ruled as regent. Peter lived in fear of the the royal bodyguards
streltsy,
half
to his half sister, Sophia,
who
served his
In 1689, Peter took advantage of a revolt by
the streltsy to remove his sister from power,
and he banished her sole czar
Peter
and proceeded
wanted
to
to
built to
his
country.
Russia had no navy, no ports, and no trade or
'
referred to as the
The
complete
city
tiated a trol
war with the Ottoman Turks
his success
on
Don
Peter
changed
his
from
title
died
in
1725,
leaving
Russia than he had found
a
the throne.
ini-
for con-
River, giv-
him a route to the Mediterranean Sea. Wanting to know more about western Europe, Peter went incognito to visit most of the major European nations during 1696 and
—he was — looked out of
The towering
1697.
tall
czar
Austria, France, the Netherlands,
Peter
worked
and saw the
as a ship's
great
European nations
in
wanted
carpenter in Holland
arms and armaments.
and Livonia,
Russia
to
to
and England.
1
698 and began
war against Sweden, which held
Ingria, Estonia,
seven
went
advantages held by the
Peter returned to Russia in a
six feet
place as he
all
possess
Karelia,
the lands Peter
on
the
edge
of the Baltic Sea.
The Great Northern War (1700-1721) began badly for Russia. The Swedish
King Charles XII genius
who
(see no. 57),
czar
leader.
was a military
defeated the Russians at Narva
Peter the Great
(1700). Peter had to change the very model of
63
far
to
stronger
when he came
ing
inches
Russia's north-
imperator (emperor) of all the Russias in 1721.
of the region north of the Black Sea. His
campaign won control of the
to
of Saint Petersburg was
exchange with other European countries. Seeking to change this state of affairs, Peter
which
"window
western front.
He
change Russia.
modernize
Baltic Sea
the eastern shores of the Baltic to Russia,
had what Peter
to a convent. After the
death ol Ivan in 1696, Peter took the throne as
at
was broken. The Treaty of Nystad (1721) gave
the West.
sister.
a siege
the Batde of Lesnaya (1708).
to
Charles XII 57,
(1682-1718)
Then
marched
he
attacked the Russian
and
eastward
army of
Peter the
Great (see no. 56) that was besieging
Swedish forces attacked
Narva.
snowstorm
night
at
defeated the Russians.
two thousand
in
a
and thoroughly
The Swedes had the Russians
casualties;
suffered eight thousand to ten thousand casualties.
Having deterred the Russian
threat
temporarily, Charles turned his atten-
which he believed was
tion to Poland,
He marched
the key to eastern Europe.
Poland
through
and
King
ousted
Augustus from power. Charles then his sights again
on
Peter the Great
had reformed
Russia,
set
where Czar his
army
and was threatening Swedish control of the Baltic Sea.
Charles invaded the Russian Ukraine.
He marched
as far as Poltava,
where he
was met by a larger Russian army led by the czar. Charles lost the critical Battle
of Poltava (1709). the battlefield and took
Charles XII
He
fled
south from
up a residence
in exile
under the protection of the Ottoman Turks.
A brilliant
and impulsive man, Charles XII
led his Swedish troops to
many
was unable
of Russia's growing
to
stem the
tide
victories but
power. Born in Stockholm in 1682, Charles received an excellent education prior to his
ascension to the throne at the age of fifteen.
He
enjoyed two short years of peace before Russia,
Saxony-Poland, and
war on
Denmark
jointly declared
the
dominant country on
the
in
started
Denmark. He
won
swiftly
the
war
by
invading
overcame the Danes and
peace through the Treaty of Travendal.
little
good
this failure,
for
the
Charles rode
1714.
—
Charles gathered eighty thousand
his largest
—
army to date and set out to Sweden had lost. He was
regain the borders
by
a
bullet
The "boy his
fortress
ol
king" had fought ferociously ior
kingdom. Had he gathered more
his cause,
allies to
he might well have prevailed, given
his strategic insights
64
through the head while
Norwegian December 1718.
the
Frederiksten in
mustered the small but professional Swedish
army and
sul-
and three times
incognito across Europe and reached Sweden
besieging
He
Russia,
the ensuing warfare did
killed
did not intend to relinquish this position.
war on
Swedish cause. Seeing
Gustavus Adolphus
and Charles
he had brought into Russia
Three times, he persuaded the Ottoman
the shores of the Baltic Sea since the time of (see no. 50),
men
tan to declare
men
his country.
Sweden had been
Most of
surrendered after the defeat.
and personal charisma.
rn
n'edericlc
Do.
(1712-1786)
The born
the Great
third Hohenzollern king of Prussia
Berhn
in
WilHam
was
1712. Son of King Frederick
in
and Princess Sophia of Hanover,
I
occupied by the Russian cavalry, but Frederick fought on until
all
the opposing powers were
He and
exhausted.
Prussia
were saved by
Frederick the Great grew up in a tense and
the death of Czarina Elizabeth in 1762.
combative household. His father suffered from
successor, Czar Peter
and berated
illness
rage. Frederick
son publicly while in a
his
home
once ran away from
his best friend.
with
The two were apprehended,
and Frederick had the misfortune of seeing
his
ing room.
1740. That same year, the
emperor Charles VI of Austria died, leaving the throne
to
Maria Theresa.
daughter,
his
Frederick sensed that Europe into general war,
and he
army quickly
Austrian province ot
The
Prussia
had made
His the
effective deterrent to
He
war during
died after having caught a
crack
wealthy
Succession (1740-1748) tilted back and forth. Frederick changed
allies
and enemies with
thereby winning a reputation lor fraud. the war ended in Silesia,
but he had
Maria
Theresa,
Elizabeth
of
1748, Frederick
Madame
and
Russia
the
of the Enlightenment. French
satirist It
de
as future allies.
Frederick flirted with the ambitious
even wrote poetry.
held
won the undying hatred of who gathered Czarina
Pompadour of France ideas
ease,
When
still
He
new
brought
Berlin
and
Voltaire
to
would be
difficult for the
other European leaders to reconcile this cultured
individual
with the ruthless military
leader they confronted in the Seven Years'
War
(1756-1763). Attacked on land by France, Russia, and Austria,
Frederick had only Britain, a naval
power, for an well,
ally.
He
winning great
fought relentlessly and
victories at
Rossbach (both in 1757).
from resounding defeats
He
at
Kunersdorf (1759). Berlin
Leuthen and
also
came back
Kolin (1757) and itself
was
effi-
his lifetime. chill
reviewing his troops in a pouring rain.
Austrian
the
The
ciency of the Prussian war machine stood as an
Silesia.
of
in
1740-1748
would soon burst
seized
War
resulting
Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763)
seized the initiative
and declared war on Austria. Prussian
The
confirmed the gains
Frederick never went to war again.
Frederick ascended
After his father died,
Her
took Russia out of the
war and gave Frederick much-needed breath-
friend publicly executed.
to the throne in
III,
Frederick the Great
briefly
65
while
MJohn Burgoyne .
(1722-1792)
of Bunker Hill (1775) and came away convinced he could beat the Americans.
stirring Battle
After a frustrating campaign in
Canada (1776),
Burgoyne obtained permission River Valley in
New York,
major
to lead a
Hudson
invasion to capture Albany and the
which he believed
was the key to winning the war.
Burgoyne British
more than seven thousand
led
and Hessian troops south from
Canada in June 1777. He positioned cannon on Mount Defiance and thereby captured
on
Ticonderoga
Fort
Lake
Champlain. Rather than marching
Burgoyne pursued a slow route
to Albany,
New
his
men
averaged only one mile a day during
July.
through the
When
detachment of Hessian troops
and
cattle
wiped
out
Burgoyne was
born
August
in in
London,
in
the son of a captain in the British army.
He
at
the
of
Battle
Vermont.
Burgoyne should have
when he
to find
These men were nearly
supplies.
Bennington
John
York wilderness;
he did reach the Hudson River, he sent
a large
John Burgoyne
swiftly
retreated to
Canada
Howe
learned that General William
had gone south
to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
rather than advance north along the
Hudson
studied at the prestigious Westminster School.
River to Albany. Instead, Burgoyne gambled
Burgoyne joined the army
andmarched south,
given
command
in
his military reputation
him promotion
on daring
raids
to brigadier gen-
tried
a
seat
in
in Sussex.
again,
Burgoyne ran
for
ran for election repre-
senting Preston, Lancashire, in 1768.
He won
retreat
thousand
It
was
a
Britain
life.
to
1775,
Burgoyne was sent
to
North
soldiers laid
down
England
Burgoyne in 1778.
He was
to
side.
an
ally
was
of the sent
widely criticized
for his surrender, but he retained his seat in
Parliament. Burgoyne died in
buried in Westminster Abbey.
to
Revolutionary
as
himself
major general, he witnessed the
Promoted
the
arms
stunning blow to the British
War.
during
their
Convention of Saratoga.
and entered the war
Americans.
America
On
Burgoyne and more than
France saw the opportunity to take revenge on
the race and held that seat for the rest of his
In
but was surrounded.
17, 1777,
the Americans in the
Parliament representing
He
to
October six
Midhurst
by by
led
Outnumbered and outfought at the battles of Freeman's Farm and Bemis Heights, Burgoyne
(1762-1763),
eral.
and won
militiamen
during the British cam-
leading his light cavalrymen
home
S.
Generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold.
1759.
in
paign in Portugal and Spain
Returning
straight into a trap laid
twenty thousand U.
He made
hght cavalry commissioned
that brought
1740; he was
of one of the new regiments of
66
London and was
James Wolfe (1727-1759)
James Wolfe was born
army It
was
Westerham,
in
joined
commissioned
a
as
He
England.
Kent,
in
the
officer
British
1741.
in
who were
a difficult time for the British,
contending with the Jacobite rebellion. Wolfe's
began to blossom
career only
after the
cam-
paign that ended with the Battle of Culloden
wake of Bonnie Prince
(1746). In the
remorselessly
Scottish clans, hunting
he
supporters
remnants of the
the
against
down
could
Charlie's
Wolfe fought
failed effort to retake the throne,
Ruthlessness
remained an integral aspect of Wolfe's career
and
his character.
When William
Seven
the
War
Years'
(who became
Pitt
of the
Britain's
city,
were guarded by
(1.6 just
km) south one hundred
men. During the night of September 12—13, 1759, Wolfe brought
The
Foulon.
in darkness,
had
five
thousand troops by
five
river's
edge called Anse de
British forces
climbed the heights
boat to a cove at the
overpowered the tiny garrison, and
men and
thousand
artillery pieces
on
even some small
the plains by early morning.
Montcalm was both amazed and
the Jacobite
all
find.
September, he discovered that the Plains of
Abraham, only one mile
by the
British
movements with French troops just 10 miles (16 km) to the south, Montcalm chose to
began,
attack immediately.
foreign
until the
The
British forces waited
French soldiers were within 40 yards
to defeat
(37
m) and then
France was by winning the war at sea and by
leys
of gunfire.
capturing French colonies in North America
Montcalm's men. Wolfe, however,
minister) was convinced that the
and the Caribbean.
Pitt sent
way
an enormous
and sixteen-thousand men under Lord
Amherst
capture
to
French
the
fleet
Jeffrey
fortress
of
on the eastern coast of Cape
Louisbourg,
Breton Island. Wolfe was sent
three bullet
released
The
two devastating
British
was commemorated
in a
Wolfe under
asserted
He
full fire
himsell
personally led a daring landing
from French cannons and mus-
kets at
Kennington Cove. The
lished
a
virtual
city
of
British estab-
their
own
to
house and feed the troops during the seven-
week
siege
capitulated
of Louisbourg. WTien the enemy
on July
20,
it
was
a vindication
of Wolfe and his stubbornness. Hearing from
one of
his ministers that
King George
II
replied
Wolfe must be mad.
"Mad,
is
he?
Then
I
some of my other generals." In June 1759, Wolfe and nine thousand troops were brought up the St. Lawrence River hope he
will bite
to Quebec City by Admiral Charles Saunders. Wolfe spent weeks studying the French (who were led by the Marquis de Montcalm) to
find a chink in
their
defenses.
James Wolfe
In early
67
fell
with
won Canada
the British crown.
during
boldly
vol-
routed
famous painting by
Benjamin West. The victory
command. the siege.
troops
wounds. His death on the plains
second in
as
distressed
move. Rather than coordinate
for
Free ebooks ==>
Aleksandr Suvorov 61
(1729-1800)
Elizabeth), Suvorov fought the Poles as colonel
of the Astrakhan infantry regiment. Switching miltary fronts,
Suvorov then
fought with Russia's Danubian army against the Turks (1768-1774). Russia had Httie success against the
Turks until Suvorov arrived
and took command. He won
great victories
Hirsov and Kozludji, and
at
at
last
the
Turks sued for peace on terms acceptable
who had
to Czarina Catherine the Great,
replaced Czar Peter
1762.
III in
Even more important was Suvorov's camwithin
paign
Russia
Emeleyan
itself
Pugachev, a disaffected Cossack, led a
and
was
it
brought the rebel back to iron
Czarina
against
revolt
full-scale
Catherine,
who
Suvorov
Moscow
in
an
(Pugachev was tortured and
cage.
killed at the czarina's order.)
To less
the Poles of his day, Suvorov was nothing
than a conqueror.
against
Russia,
He
(1772).
Warsaw
When
Poland fought
Suvorov captured Krakow
returned
and
later
olutionary
and
patriotic
Suvorov served with distinction
ond Russo-Turkish War. He won Russia's great eighteenth-century
comman-
der was born in Moscow, four years after the
ries at
Rymnik and captured
Focsani and
Danube
his
way up
He worked
as a private.
to sergeant (1751)
missioned an officer in 1754
and was comat
River.
all
By
War
colonel by 1758.
a captain at the start
of the
(1756) and rose to lieutenant
He
played a prominent role
in the dramatic capture
of Berlin
in
1760 and
this time,
Suvorov
served
Paul
I)
III,
four
Russian
rulers
Catherine the Great, and
during his remarkable
career.
to
meet Napoleon on the
in
1800. His fame in Russia was
He
battlefield later
the following year. After Russia changed sides
appeared on
II,
longed
but died used tor
propaganda by Soviet dictator Joseph
During World War
1762 (following the death of Czarina
comman-
peace, Suvorov wrote The Science of Victory.
distinguished himself in small cavahy actions
in
he was the most
Europe. During a brief period of
(Elizabeth, Peter
Suvorov became Seven Years'
der in
the age of
twenty-four.
the
key Turkish fortress of Izmail, located on the
experienced and successful military
1742
by
in the sec-
death of Czar Peter the Great (see no. 56).
in
led
great victo-
Aleksandr Suvorov enrolled in the Semenovskii
Guards
the rev-
Thaddeus Kosciuszko.
Aleksandr Suvorov
Life
captured
down movement
(1794), thereby putting
Stalin.
images of Suvorov
recruitment
posters,
inciting
Russians to strike at their foes once more.
68
no
George Washington
OZ.
(1732-1799)
The
of
"father
George
country,"
his
Washington was born
From
in rural Virginia.
presence prevented a rout. Seeing the in
manner
which Washington conducted himself on
an early age, he yearned to distinguish himself
the field that day, his French ally Marquis de
in the British military service. His older half
Lafayette
Lawrence Washington, served with the
brother,
Washington's tenacity and firmness of pur-
British-American expedition against Cartagena
and named the family plantation
(1742)
Mount Vernon
in
honor of
British
Edward Vernon. George Washington became Virginia
the
He
colonial
the adjutant of
militia
led Virginian troops in the
admiral
in
1752.
ambush of
the
French ensign Jumonville that touched off the French and Indian
War
The ambi-
of 1754.
young British-American served as aidede-camp to Britain's General Braddock (1755) tious
and then worked
The
start
pose enabled the Continental
of the Revolutionary
War
altered
in British general Charles Cornwallis at
Yorktown and compelled him In 1783,
Washington resigned
He
from 1789
the colonies.
The former
British subject
American and went
Boston to
a true
assume
command of the new army in July of He would return to Mount Vernon
to
retired
Vernon but was soon
chief of the
in
in
elected the
States.
to 1797.
briefly
He
to
Massachusetts.
Washington forced the
Using
At the time of
admired
man
in
Europe and America.
trol,
this
British to evac-
March 1776. December 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River and surprised the Hessians (German mercenaries paid by the British)
He
proceeded to win again
at
Princeton in 1777, saving the colonial cause.
He trained
the amateur colonial forces well and
shaped them into a disciplined army.
Washington
endured
notable
Brandywine and Germantown the Battle at
ing draw.
Monmouth
During
this
losses
He
pos-
military audacity, and diplomatic finesse.
In
Trenton.
his death,
sessed a rare combination of personal self-con-
uate Boston in
at
president
1799, Washington was perhaps the most
Washington sent Colonel Henry Knox a mission to take cannons from Fort
artillery,
commanMount
to
first
only once during the entire course of the war.
Ticonderoga
as
served two terms,
that year.
on
surrender
to
(1781).
of the United
became
weather
French armies, supported by the French navy,
boxed
his life forever.
he had more military experience than anyone
to
town and even survive the defection of Benedict Arnold, an American general, to the British side in 1780. Washington experienced great satisfaction when the American and
der-in-chief.
He was named commander-inContinental Army in 1775 because
Army
the harsh winters at Valley Forge and Morris-
to guard the Virginia frontier
against Indian raids (1755—1758).
he had never beheld so
declared
splendid a man.
at
(both in 1777);
(1778) was a frustrat-
George Washington
batde, Washington's
69
no Nathanael Greene (1742-1786)
UJ.
Confronted by
a nearly impossible situation,
Greene disregarded every textbook on warfare.
He
chose to divide his already outnumbered
army and march north
He
columns.
led
to the
Dan
River in two
one column, and the other
was led by General Daniel Morgan. Cornwallis pursued Greene while British colonel Banastre
Morgan and
Tarleton went after
his
men.
Greenes planning paid off handsomely the Battle of
and routed Tarleton. Reeling
from
this blow,
Cornwallis had his
their
baggage and
On
hearing this news, Greene rejoiced
"Then he
is
which
lightly
his
ours!"
Knowing
the speed with
equipped American troops just
out of reach of the
and crossed the Dan River a few hours
British,
prior to the arrival of the British.
Warwick, Rhode
in
Island,
who
He
took
all
the boats with him, and Cornwallis could only
Nathanael
Greene came from a family of Quakers. expelled from the Quakers,
men burn
off in hot pursuit of
set
moved, Greene stayed
Born
a
defensive battle
Greene.
Nathanael Greene
at
Cowpens, where Morgan fought
He was
stare
and wonder
of the
escape
the
at
Americans.
stressed peace,
After receiving supplies and reinforcements,
because he held an overweening interest in mil-
Greene again crossed the Dan River and
studies.
itary
When
the
Revolutionary
began, in 1775, he was one of the
named
first
War men
a brigadier general in the Continental
Army. Greene
Greene went on
to serve as quartermaster
Army
of
(1778-1780). His great-
and most important assignment came
est
to attack Cornwallis.
Guilford
Courthouse
in
sion of the field with large
casualty
lists.
strategy in a letter,
expressed the simple
of the army.
fare that
Greene traveled south
Carolina.
His predecessor,
in at
the wake of a Camden, South
General
(1781).
Horatio
beat, rise
and
to
little
fight again."
in the
British general
North Carolina and disperse the
nant of colonial resistance there.
last
rem-
for
it
but
fight, get
guerrilla war-
southern cam-
paigns.
By the time the war ended, Greene had chased the British out of all the south except the
towns of Charleston and Savannah. His
maneuvers forced Cornwallis
into
time
in posses-
one has better
method of
Greene employed
coastal
To make matters worse, Cornwallis was about to march
show
No
Gates, had been utterly defeated and the south-
arrival.
armies
Explaining his military
ern forces were in complete disarray at the time
of Greene's
Each
Greene wrote, "We
when George Washington (see no. 62) named him commander of the southern forces 1780,
resounding British victory
The two
Hobrik's Hill and
at
Greene withdrew, leaving Cornwallis
rose to major-general in 1776.
the Continental
marched
fought bruising battles
Virginia,
where the
surrendered retired to
march north
to
George Washington. Greene
an estate near Savannah, Georgia, and
he died soon
70
to
to
British general ultimately
after the war.
"
Free ebooks ==> nyi
Toussai
Oh-.
(1743-1803)
L'Ouverture was
Toussaint
Dominique Toussaint of
St.
Dominique, the western of Hispaniola.
island
divided between Republic.)
up
born
Pierre
the French colony
in
(Today,
third of the
the
island
is
L'Ouverture experienced a
fairly
benevolent upbringing. His master, Bayon de Libertad,
educated him
French,
in
Latin,
who
(see no. 67),
firmed L'Ouverture's position
and
ruler
initially
con-
major general
as
of the island.
Napoleon changed
his
mind
in
1802.
He
dispatched 35,000 French troops and eighty
warships to subdue Haiti
—
the largest expedi-
tionary lorce that France ever sent across the Atlantic Ocean.
French forces met with disaster
geometry, and religion.
in
Haiti.
Despite this good treatment, L'Ouverture
The dreaded
yellow fever struck and killed at
the massive slave revolt that
least half the
French soldiers within one
eagerly joined
broke out in August 1791 and devastated the sugar
of the
plantations
By 1793,
island.
L'Ouverture had become the foremost leader of the revolt
by
Consul Napoleon Bonaparte of the
French army
and the Dominican
Haiti
Though he was born and brought
as a slave,
First
and was known
his followers.
as
The name
L'Ouverture (mean-
ing "opening") was given to signified his astute
that
"Father Toussaint
him
diplomacy
at this time;
it
the battles
in
developed between slaves and
British,
French, and Spanish troops.
L'Ouverture and the ly,
but in June 1802, L'Ouverture was abduct-
ed during a negotiation.
form ol
a
Spain in 1793. L'Ouverture
joined the
first
Still
wearing the uni-
French general, L'Ouverture was
brought
Joux
first
to Paris, then to the remote Fort
in the Jura
mountain range. L'Ouverture's
health had already been broken by years of
spirit
but
was broken by
it
seems
likely that his
his circumstances
dom. He died and was buried within
much
of Fort Joux.
of
his guerrilla warfare tactics
outlawed the
when
further
from the
L'Ouverture had inspired and led the
of slavery,
truly successful slave revolution in history.
practice
He soon
much
recaptured
the
of the area
the Spanish had gained. In recognition of his services, eral.
He
L'Ouverture was later rose to
named
brigadier gen-
lieutenant-governor and
major general. After France
and Spain made peace
L'Ouverture fought the British.
He
in 1795,
forced the
surrender of the main body of British troops in
1798. L'Ouverture reached the pinnacle of success in
1800,
when peace was
France, Britain,
declared between
and Spain. He entered Santo
Domingo on January
24,
1801, proclaimed
himself "First of the Blacks," and with the help
of nine compatriots, drafted the
first
constitu-
Toussaint L'Ouverture
tion for Haiti. L'Ouverture corresponded with
71
free-
the walls
revolutionary France
L'Ouverture switched sides and joined French.
and the
apparent failure of his people to win their
Spanish army in Santo Domingo; he learned
Spanish. In 1794,
He was
taken to France on the ship Heros.
guerrilla warfare,
France declared war on both Britain and
year.
free blacks resisted fierce-
first
Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot (1753-1823)
61).
the equivalent of both the secretary of defense
and the minister of propaganda. Carnot spared no
He
win the war.
effort to
Issued
on
required
all
called for the levee en masse.
August 23, 1793,
new law
this
French citizens to contribute to the war
By
year's
battles
end, Carnot's troops were winning
(known
Revolution) on
as all
the
Wars of the French
fronts.
Carnot won three of
the four major campaigns he
the
effort.
waged
Hondschoote,
of
Battle
that year:
the
Battle
of Wattignies, and the Third Battle of Toulon.
The
latter,
which followed defeat
at the Battle
of Neerwinden, lasted from mid-March
until
mid-December.
The French Lazare Carnot
of
Victory"
for
the
the
French
Revolution, became a lieutenant in the French
engineering corps in 1774.
and joined the Academy
He
rose to captain
Arras in
ok.
1787.
He
Having
a special interest in fortifica-
he devoured the writings of Sebastien
tions,
Prestre de
Vauban
le
troops traveled
Carnot became an ardent patriot
at the start
He was
elected to
of the French Revolution.
the Legislative Assembly in 1791 and then to
the
more
1792.
January
of the delegates Louis
YN\
National
radical
In
who
ation called for
When
Convention
in
Responding
to the
known tine,
for
mittee;
a
its
Safety
fell
extreme methods,
Carnot escaped punishment; he pointed
to his
which showed he had been the
indis-
pensable leader needed to save the Revolution
from
its
foreign
foes.
He
served as one of
the five directors in the Directory government
(1795-1799) and then occupied the post of Carnot quarreled with Napoleon and resigned the position. (Napoleon was the
the
summer of 1793.
emergency, the Committee
was formed. Although best
the committee also ran the war effort.
Carnot held
Committee of Public
voted to put French king
was
indiscriminate use of the guillo-
its
the situ-
it.
from power because of
prominent place on the com-
by the end of the year he had become
young
artillery
captain credited for France's victory at Toulon.)
country and came close to capturing the heart
of Public Safety
their foes
when
minister of war for Napoleon (see no. 67).
he
Austrian and Prussian forces entered the
during
the
in divi-
one
1793,
to death.
of France
One
The French
more quickly than
but could fight together as one
record,
(see no. 54).
French forces to move
called for the
sions rather than as an entire army.
There he studied military science and engineering.
went on the offensive
reason for their success was Carnot's strategy.
Marguerite Carnot,
Nicolas
Lazare
"Organizer
forces
1794 and conquered the Netherlands.
in
France
was threatened by invasion
in
1814. Carnot volunteered to serve and led the defense of the city of Antwerp.
Napoleon was
finally defeated in
When
1815, Carnot
was exiled from the country because of his tus as a regicide ("king killer").
Magdeburg,
Prussia,
sta-
died in
one of the forgotten
heroes of revolutionary France.
72
He
on
Horatio Nelson
UD.
(1758-1805)
England's
Norfolk.
naval
greatest
Nelson, was
born
He went
leader,
Horatio
Burnham-Thorpe,
at
midshipman
to sea as a
had
fleet
including
the
the largest ship in
the
thirty-three
ships,
in
Santissima
at
world. Nonetheless, the French and Spanish
Trinidad,
the age of twelve and rose to lieutenant in the
were demoralized from the
Royal Navy by the age of nineteen. Promoted
knew
Nelson served
to post-captain (1779),
in the
that
Nelson led the
to the fleet read
ing a time of relative peace (1784-1787).
will
The
start
command was
that of the sixt)'-four-gun warship
He
Corsica (1794) and in
gamemnon.
participated in the capture of the island of
combat
of his right eye
lost the use
Nelson had tudied and absorbed the lessons
Sir
George Rooke, Admiral George
Anson, Admiral Edward Hawke, and Admiral
George Rodney. From them, he created simple but revolutionary plan of
from the (a
do
win
battle:
was wounded on the deck of
but
risky,
it
He
was
first
line.
to
evident at the Battle
of Cape Saint Vincent. Nelson sailed directly
and captured two
into the Spanish line of ships
ships that were both larger than his
was knighted and promoted
Nelson went on the
French
He
to rear admiral.
meet and completely defeat
to
fleet
own.
the
at
of the Nile
Battle
(1798), after which he was elevated to the level
of peer of the realm.
Nelson fought the Danish navy of Copenhagen (1802).
was hanging
from
When
in the balance,
tended not to see the
sign,
at the Battle
the battle action
he received a signal
his superior officer to retire.
Nelson pre-
fought on, and
won
a complete victory.
Nelson's last battle
came
at
Cape
off the coast of Spain, in 1805.
ty-seven ships; the
Trafalgar,
He had
Victory
died on board and was brought to
Cathedral in London for burial.
his
had the potential
HMS
by
a bullet from a sharpshooter during the action.
depart
and break the enemy's
years)
strategy
and
French and Spanish fought with great courage,
great victories.
The
line
enemy with carronades (short-barreled cannons known as "smashers") and double-shotted cannon firing at close range. The battered the
traditional formation of a line of ships
one hundred
man
his duty."
formation that had been prevalent for over
This plan was
last signal
"England expects every
but the British gunners were superior. Nelson
there.
of the great eithteenth-century British com-
manders
For his part,
Nelson broke the Franco-Spanish
of the French Revolution providfirst
because they
Nelson was confident of victory. His
Caribbean to enforce the Navigation Laws dur-
ed action for Nelson. His
start,
British.
rwen-
Horatio Nelson
combined Franco-Spanish
73
St. Paul's
Napoleon Bonaparte 6] The
genius of modern Napoleon Bonaparte was
military
greatest
French
history,
born on the island of Corsica, which was con-
by
quered
He
birth.
4
(1769-1821)
France
the
year
arrived in France in
1778
in
of
his
marshals became
independent
brilliant,
field
Napoleon used a mass of infantry, and cavalry to break his foe's
commanders. artillery,
line at
its
weakest point.
His greatest victories were Marengo (1800),
to study
language and attend a military preparatory
Austerlitz (1805), Jena
The onset of the French Revolution provided him with the opportunity to exert his keen mind and tremendous will. Napoleon commanded the artillery that
and Friedland (1807). He could snatch victory
school.
forced
the
British
Toulon (1794) and
from defeat by
and he had
to
fired
cannon
crowds
in 1795.
new
Directory government
him to Italy, where commanders had
prior
He
one
by
and Russia, however, were
Austrians and their
consistently defeated in Spain
by the Duke of Wellington (see no. 68).
brought
He
Egypt.
Mamelukes Pyramids,
at
but
his
into Russia in 1812, but he
The
In
army
Battle
to
in
1799, Napoleon set
up the new
year
made ter-
1814 and was
his
throne
exiled to the
became emperor again one hundred
soon changed
his title to first
con-
Netherlands
and then,
1804, to emperor of
in
armies
A
he escaped, returned to France, and
first
days.
to
for the brief period
He marched
of
north into the
meet the British-Prussian
under the Duke of Wellington.
A
younger, sharper Napoleon might well have
Napoleon devised simple
a military system that
and
profound.
was
Building
overcome Wellington
emperor had fought
Marguerite Carnot Revolution,
(see
no.
65) during the
Napoleon divided the
French armies into independent corps that
for-
at
Waterloo,
but the
his last battle.
After abdicating a second time. Napoleon
on the methods developed by Lazare Nicolas French
later,
as
France.
both
Napoleon abdicated
Napoleon Bonaparte
Consulate government, with himself
He
all
small island ol Elba in the Mediterranean. in
overthrew the Directory and
life,
as
rible disaster.
British at
Returning to France
sul for
1812-1813
of
ter
the Battle of the Nile.
consul.
such
Napoleon's Russian campaign a
of the
return to France after his fleet
was destroyed by the
Russian defense, battles
Borodino, and the harsh win-
to
had
then
fierce
grinding
the
defeated the
per-
men
returned with only 50,000.
1798, he sailed with a large fleet that
Napoleon
sonally took 600,000
the
allies.
his
marshals were
His
downfall.
astounded everydefeating
Guard, the core
his Imperial
failed to oust the Austrian
army.
battlefield,
Napoleon's intervention in Spain
The
sent
on the
impact upon the veter-
of the Napoleonic armies.
shot to disperse the rebellious Parisian
his presence
a personal
who formed
ans
evacuate
fleet
and Auerstadt (1806),
was confined by the of
St.
Helena
British to the tiny island
in the
Ocean. Napoleon died
middle of the Atlantic in
1821, the victim ol a
aged for food, lived off the land, and converged
stomach ailment. Rumors that the
suddenly in the heartland of the enemy. His
poisoned him lingered for
74
years.
British
had
"
nn
Arthur wellesley
OO.
(1769-1852)
Born
Arthur Wellesley, Duke of
in Ireland,
Wellington (he was the
joined
known
as "Wellington"),
infantry
British
lieutenant
a
as
colonel in 1794. Wellington went with his reg-
iment
to India in 1796. In India,
learned the advantages oi
scape and recruiting
allies,
knowing the landwhich he did among
He won
the Indian leaders.
Assaye (1803) and
Wellington
notable victories at
Argaum
He was
(1803).
troops
French
down
over
and
British
Napoleon
it
for the
The French emperor.
their allies.
had consistently beaten
(see no. 67),
the Austrians, Prussians, and Russians and had
placed
recently
his
brother Joseph
The
Spanish throne in Madrid.
on the
success or
fail-
"It
has
ceived
and
landscape
the
that
would have been done later
served
as
compliant
capabilities but to the fact that
their
supply
lines
Portuguese over to his
The
results
remarkable.
shattering
them during
his
time as prime min-
adviser to
as the
Queen
most astute and farseeing
Victoria.
good road systems populations.
and brought many
side.
of Wellington's planning were defeated
Massena, one of the best French marshals, in
1810.
He
followed with an invasion ot
French-held Spain and
won
impressive victo-
Salamanca (1812) and Vitoria (1814). As Napoleon's empire collapsed around him, ries at
Wellington invaded France Battle
itself
and won the
of Toulouse (1814). After Napoleon
escaped from Elba and returned to Paris in
1815, the two most experienced military com-
manders of
on June
their period collided at
Waterloo
18, 1815.
Wellington
fought
Sir defensively,
diplomat
Until the time of his death, Wellington
topography
He outmaneuvered and
had
he had iron bars
Wellington arranged to have the French cut off
from
I
placed over his windows to prevent stones from
correctly per-
peasant
a
if
famous nickname,
French armies were used
to fighting in countries with
and
He
did Wellington.
army.
the "Iron Duke," referred not to his military
was revered
understood
it
Britain (1828-1830). His
of great importance
as clearly as
last
(1815-1828) and prime minister of Great
ister.
to the British cause.
a final,
own comment on the battle was, been a damned nice thing. By God! I
ure of Wellington's operations, theretore, were
Perhaps no commander, before or since, has
of the day.
Guard made
charge that soon routed Napoleon's
Wellington
was the worst of times
course
a
wore the
Wellington's
1808.
in
the
men on
his
Jean, he
Wellington ordered a general
assault,
failed
not been there.
land,
St.
After Napoleon's Imperial
mand
On
Mount
ridge crested by
don't think
ed in Portugal
Positioning
arrived.
then called back to England and given com-
of a small expeditionary force that land-
Marshal Bluchers Prussian
to hold out until
seeking
75
Arthur Wellesley
nn Karl von Clausewitz (1780-1831)
Do.
military tutor to the
During
this
crown prince of
Prussia.
productive time, he also wrote and
lectured at the Kriegsakadamie.
Napoleon invaded
1812,
In
had taken care first,
but even
to so,
make
He
Russia.
a treaty with Prussia
Clausewitz was outraged by
He
the French emperor's actions.
left Prussia,
entered Russia, and volunteered for service in
army of Czar Alexander
the
staff officer in Russia
I.
He
served as a
and was instrumental
in
the Treaty of Kalisch (1813) between Russia
and
Prussia,
which brought Prussia back
into the coalition alliance against Napoleon.
During the Waterloo campaign, he served
as
chief of staff for one of the four Prussian field corps.
The Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815. was made major gener-
In 1818, Clausewitz al
and given the position of director of the
Kriegsakadamie. There he thrived, writing and
Karl von Clausewitz Burg,
in
70 miles (113 km) from Berlin. was a retired Prussian lieutenant.
Prussia,
His father
his
during
Prussia's
made
a lance corporal
war against France.
He
rose to
of subaltern in 1795, and in 1801 he
the level
entered the
Academy)
new Kriegsakadamie
(Prussian
War
and philosophy. He
thrilled
to the theoretical aspects of military studies, but
was
also
drawn
to his
work by
to see Prussia flourish.
Napoleon
(see no.
When
during
and held prisoner observed
the
fight.
Battle
the
first-hand
1
He was of
for a year in France,
war machine of his After
France, led by
67) invaded Prussia in
Clausewitz volunteered to tured
a patriotic desire
most
many
Clausewitz wrote
in
the
tracts,
to
most
1832. In this seminal work, he surveyed the
field
of military
strategy.
Aside from describing
military history, he delved into the philosophy "a
mere
continuation of policy by other means." In other words, political goals were primary, while
He
military events were secondary.
cussed
the
varieties
of Sebastien
While
it
Prenzlau
favored
where he
Frederick
le
of military
Prestre
de Vauban
was always
Prussia
the
also dis-
and
tactics
had evolved during the days
that
strategies
cap-
clear
and the
Great
(see no. 54).
that
Clausewitz
traditions
(see
no.
58),
ot
King
he
took
made by
time to examine the contributions military innovators such as Napoleon.
day.
returning
(see no. 72).
important of which was Vom Kriege {On War)
806,
successful
of
many
Helmuth
students there, most notably that of
of warfare and declared that war was
in Berlin.
At the Kriegsakadamie, Clausewitz studied military science
remainder
of the
His work shaped the careers of
von Moltke
Clausewitz joined the Prussian army at the age of twelve and was
life.
most
for
lecturing
von Clausewitz was born
Karl
Prussia
in
Clausewitz
1808,
returned
to
active
service
in
Clausewitz became a major on the Prussian
1830. While stationed on the Prussian border
general staff (1810) and received the post of
with Poland, he contracted cholera and died.
76
"rn
Simon Bolivar
/U.
11783-1830)
Simon
Bolivar
dom
referred
undying determination
win the
to
of his people from European
was born
Boii'var
to
as
Washington of South America"
the "George for his
often
is
free-
rule.
then part of the Spanish empire of South
A rich
America.
French Revolution and the (see no. 67).
August in
never to
made
on his
of the United
became
movement
a revolutionary
the leader of
that deposed the
viceroy of Caracas in 1810
in the fight for
independence.
from
Venezuelan
Ejected
Caracas, he fled to Cartagena in present-day
Boh'var led a reconquering of
Colombia. Caracas
1813 but was forced out by
in
to
misunderstanding that
from the scene, and Boh'var and
complete the war for Peruvian indepenBoh'var had to remain in
Gran Colombia
during most of the campaign that followed. In 1824,
De
Sucre
won
the crucial battles of
Junin and Ayacucho that ended the war. military
Bolivar's
actions
for
independence from colonialism.
Having attained nearly Boh'var found
what he had
it
in
1830,
created. His "Great
tuberculosis.
the
states in
as
president
base at Angostura on the Orinoco in
a
He
an epic crossing of the Andes
1819 and won the Battle of Boyaca on August 7. Soon
mountain range decisive
River.
in July
afterward, Boh'var had the satisfaction of seeing
Venezuela,
New
Granada
(present-day
Colombia), and Quito (present-day Ecuador)
combine
into
Colombia. first
the
Boh'var
as
the
republic's
president.
Continuing the rialism,
he
24, 1821. in
new Republic of Gran served
1822
to
fight against Spanish
impe-
the Battle of Carabobo on June
won He traveled
to Guayaquil, Ecuador,
meet with Jose de San Martin, who
Simon Boh'var
had won the war of Chilean independence.
77
a failure;
Colombia.
of the now-
and he retired in great sadness. same year, Bolivar died from
defiinct nation,
failed.
low point. Bolivar established
Convention"
1826 was
Republic of Gran
resigned
that
of his goals,
Venezuela and then Quito seced-
first
launched a seaborne attack on Venezuela that
Boh'var
all
impossible to hold together
of South American
Later
men
for
the Jamaica Letter (1815), both of which called
finally to independent Haiti. In 1816, Boh'var
led his
the
he wrote the Cartagena Memorial (1812) and
ed from
at a
expelled
from South America
Spanish presence
(who supported the royal cause) in 1814. Boh'var again went to Cartagena, then to British-held Jamaica, and
Venezuelan horsemen
Truly
his
dence.
solemn vow
rule.
States in 1807, Boh'var
a
good. In addition to his military achievements,
home by way
Returning
a
he saw,
he had freed
rest until
people from Spanish
of the
of Napoleon
rise
Deeply moved by what
15, 1805, Boh'var
Rome
retired
Creole by birth, he traveled in
Europe, where he observed the end
had
leaders
has never been fully explained. San Martin
right-hand lieutenant, Jose de Sucre, decided
Caracas, Venezuela,
in
The two
Free ebooks ==> -11
Winfield Scott
/ I.
(1786-1866)
Winfield
attended
Scott
College of
the
William and Mary and practiced law a
time before
He
turning to
Army
joined the U.S.
beginning of the
War
military in
for
service.
1808. At the
of 1812, Scott was
made
a lieutenant colonel.
Given the task of turning raw troops
his
under
methods of
drilled
and true European
tried
His reward came at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane
discipline.
the battles of
(1814), where his
men
held their
the best British regulars,
served
recruits
marched and
into true soldiers, Scott
own
some of
under Arthur Wellesley,
Wellington
in
ended the war
Spain
as a brevet
Scott wrote the
no.
(see
against
whom
had
Duke
of
Scott
68).
major general.
first set
of U.S.
regulations. Well-versed in
Army
European
drill
history,
he sought to create an aristocratic officer corps that
would be the equal of England's. Scott was general-in-chief of the army in 1841 and
made
was promoted In
1
to lieutenant general in 1844.
846, Scott received word from President
Winfield Scott
James Polk that he would lead the proposed
and won key
invasion of central Mexico and, if necessary, would prosecute the war all the way to the Mexican capital. Scott took twelve thousand
and west of the
troops by ship to Mexico, landed, and besieged
the outlying areas, but the fortified citadel of
the key port city of Veracruz. After capturing
Chapultepec (the name means "Hill of the
the
made
he
city,
dangerous decision to
a
By September
Hernan Cortez
(see no.
43) had
taken in 1521. Scott's choice to invade quickly
was necessitated by the
fact that the
would soon hit did every summer.
ease yellow fever
lowlands, as
The
it
U.S.
forces
and won important
marched battles
at
deadly disthe coastal
into
12, the U.S. forces controlled
Scott's
troops captured
Mexico
all
Chapultepec and
on September 13; the war was effectively over. Scott was a model of efficiency in his role as conqueror and administrator; some Mexicans reportedly begged him to entered Mexico City
serve as their national leader.
Cerro Gordo
battles at
Grasshoppers") remained.
advance inland, following almost exactly the invasion route
city
Contreras, Churubusco, and Molino del Reyo.
the United States
on
the
Whig
He
(1848) and ran
party ticket in
returned to for president
1852, but was
his
defeated by one of his former military subordi-
troops arrived outside the Mexican capital and
nates. Franklin Pierce. Prior to his retirement
on the way marveled
at
to
Mexico
both the
city
City.
Scott
and
and the defenses
set
up by Mexican general Santa Anna. Never Scott maneuvered to the south
daunted,
in
1861, Scott devised the Anaconda Plan,
which involved strangling the Confederacy through a naval blockade.
78
"70
Helmutli von Moltlce
//.
(1800-1891)
Called the "Bismarck of the battlefield,"
Helmuth von Moltke was born in
Mecklenburg,
Copenhagen and served
army
briefly in the
before joining the Prussian
He studied
at the
academy
military
royal
Parchim,
Moltke grad-
Prussia, in 1800.
from the
uated
in
army
at
Danish
well as
Kriegsakadatnie (Prussian
War
Sedan.
in
lessons offered
who was
director.
served
as
Crown
was named
first
major general
to
in
1856.
Prussian
the
army's
when he was named eral staff in
The
— development— came
turning point in his career
crucial
promoted
well
as
chief of the Prussian gen-
to field
and
count
in
1870 and was
marshal in 1871, the year the
vision of
Otto von Bismarck and Moltke.
In the last years of his distressed
that
life,
Moltke became
by the attitudes of the military clique
surroimded the new Prussian emperor,
Wilhelm
II.
He
spoke out against the narrow-
mindedness of the military leaders Reichstag
(German
died while on a
1857.
a
surrendered at
111,
German Empire was formed. The creation of the new empire was largely due to the efforts
adjutant to
Prince Frederick William in 1855 and
was promoted
as
He
adviser
Ottoman Empire from
to the sultan of the to 1839.
military
a
Emperor Napoleon
Moltke was made
by the
Moltke devised and exe-
to perfection; the bulk ol the French army, as
822.
Karl von Clausewitz (see no. 69),
1835
repeat his earlier plans,
cuted a concentrated attack. His vision worked
1
Academy) and absorbed the
Moltke
formidable that no other Prussian leader would contest his viev/s openly. Rather than attempt to
legislature) in
visit to
1
Berlin a year
Having studied the campaigns of Frederick the Great of Prussia (see no. 58) (see no. 67),
Moltke applied
and Napoleon
their lessons to the If
changes brought by
new
military technology.
Planning for future wars, he intended to use the railroad, the telegraph,
and the
industrial pro-
duction of weapons to achieve a decentralized
command of forces
structure
and a
greater concentration
He
thereby brought the
at the front.
essence of Napoleonic warfare
oped
and
—mobility— up
with modern technology. Moltke devel-
to date
war machine
Prussia's
to strike hard, fast,
decisively.
The
first
of
test
Prussian-Danish
his
War of
tactics
came
in
the
1864. Prussia's solid
victory enhanced his stature,
and Moltke
pre-
pared for the coming break with Austria. In 1
866, Prussia and Austria collided in the Seven
Weeks' War. Using Moltke's plans, three disconnected Austrian
columns
territory.
of
troops
of Koniggratz, which
By
1
large,
entered
They suddenly converged
and attacked the shocked Austrians
won
at the Battle
the war.
Helmuth von Moltke
870, Moltke's reputation had grown so
79
at
the
890. Moltke later.
Free ebooks ==> "in
David FarraguC
/j.
(1801-1870)
David Farragut was born a
who
Spanish sea captain
colonists
Stony Point,
in
His father was George Farragut,
Tennessee.
fought for the
War and
Revolutionary
the
in
settled in Tennessee. After his
mother
died, the
young Farragut was adopted by David
who
U.S. naval officer
Porter, a
obtained a midship-
man's warrant for Farragut in 1810. Farragut the
USS
under Porter on board
served
Essex during
War
the
of 1812.
He was promoted
to lieutenant (1825), commander (1841), and captain (1855). He established the Mare Island Naval Ship Yard (in pre-
sent-day Vallejo, California) in 1854
The beginning of
momentum
the
to his career.
Civil
gave
When Virginia opted
from the Union
for secession
.
War
in April 1861,
moved north and proUnion man. He was named
Farragut immediately
claimed himself a
commander of Squadron
West Gulf Blockading
the
on August
in 1861.
The Anaconda Winfield Scott
Plan designed by General
(see no. 71) called for a block-
and
South
ade
of
the
Mississippi
the
River.
takeover
a
Following
of
orders
from Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, Farragut led seventeen
Confederate
forts
on the lower
David Farragut and four ironclad monitors into the channel
wooden
ships past the
of Jackson
Mississippi
and Philip
during the night
of April 23, 1862. Darkness, fog, and smoke
the
USS
diately; the
began
1864.
5,
The
Tecumseh, hit a
to
USS
second monitor, the
back
way out of
its
monitor,
leading
mine and sank immeBrooklyn,
the channel,
threatening to pile up the ships behind Assessing the situation from aboard the
it.
USS
Hartford (right in line after the Brooklyn), Farragut
made
"Damn
the
famous split-second decision.
a
torpedoes,"
he shouted.
"Full
speed ahead!"
His ship and the
helped to keep the casualties low as the Union
rest
of the
fleet
passed over
past the forts. Helpless
the mines without incident. Farragut entered
before the guns of Farragut's ships, the city
the harbor, defeated the Confederate ironclad
ships
of
made
New
their
way
Orleans surrendered the next day.
Farragut was
made
rear admiral, the first in
ship
Tennessee,
and captured
—and
— made
his battle cry
the navy's history, and assisted in the capture of
ry
Vicksburg (1863).
throughout the North.
Promoted
In 1864, he received a mission he had long
hungered for
—
the capture of the defenses of
Mobile Bay, Alabama. The bay was protected by torpedo mines.
The only
operable entry
the harbor
all
defenses within the following week.
to
vice
The
victo-
Farragut famous
admiral
(1864)
and
goodwill tour of Europe as
made a commander of
the Mediterranean fleet from
1867
then to
full
admiral (1866), Farragut
channel was protected by the guns of Fort
Farragut died while visiting the
Morgan. Farragut took fourtenn wooden ships
at
80
Portsmouth,
New
Hampshire.
to 1868.
naval yard
"71
Giuseppe Garibaldi
/4.
(1807-1882)
Never before or since has there been a er
lead-
who stirred the of so many people
such as Giuseppe Garibaldi,
noble, patriotic sentiments
and united them
in
France, Garibaldi
came from
and
one cause. Born
He went of his own
sea captains.
became master years
a family of sailors
to sea in
ship by 1832.
Two
the struggle for free-
dukedoms
most of which were domi-
away through maneuver and deception.
By
the
He
yielded this position,
reward,
of an the
that
Italy
cities
who
He
from Austria
in
movement
was condemned
the
Giuseppe
by
led
revolt
failed,
to death in absentia (Latin for
"in absence") by the
government of Sardinia-
Piedmont. Garibaldi fled to South America.
and
He
fought
of Rio Grande do Sul against for
Uruguay
in
both
racial
united
except
home
island,
where he found
on the
fringes.
The
and mildly
socialist
and sexual
to Italy.
Roman
He
Rome
for
led
Republic and
weeks against
the French, Austrian, and Neapolitan armies sent against him. Realizing he could
hold the
of
his
city,
men
no longer
he escaped with several thousand
in a
daring march that caught the
imagination ol millions of Europeans.
Once briefly
again in
the
in
Garibaldi
exile.
United
States.
return to Italy in 1854, he settled
lived
Allowed
to
on Caprera,
a barren island off Sardinia. In 1859, he fought for
May over
Sardinia-Piedmont against Austria. 6,
and
1,000
his
On
1860, he sailed from Genoa with just
men,
his
famous "Redshirts."
Landing on the island of
men
used guerrilla
Sicily,
Garibaldi
tactics that
he had
Giuseppe Garibaldi
learned in South America to completely out-
81
strong-
equality. Garibaldi
died at Caprera in 1882.
helped Milan fight against Austria. In 1849, he held out heroically in
his liberal
and believed
turmoil of the European revolutions of
the troops of Mazzini's
the hero
He was
Paraguay.
1848 brought Garibaldi back
for
Garibaldi
1866.
war with
its
of
to 1876, Garibaldi served in the
ideas constantly
in
II
fought to take Venice away
Italian parliament,
ly anti-clerical
for the state
Brazil
From 1874
Garibaldi
Sicily.
thereby became king
was
then returned to his
After
and
claim to a
all
of Venice and Rome.
of millions.
Mazzini.
and
King Victor Emmanuel
to
nated to some extent by Austria. Seeking to
olutionary
had become
of I860, Garibaldi
fall
the virtual dictator of southern Italy
change
this situation, Garibaldi joined the rev-
Italian
mainland, once again driving the enemy forces
Sardinia-Piedmont,
In 1834, Italy consisted of small principalities,
Naples. Garibaldi crossed the Strait of Messina
on September 7 and fought on the
1822 and
he embarked on what would
later,
become his lifelong cause, dom and Italian unity. and
in Nice,
maneuver and defeat the 25,000-man army of
-IF
Robert
/U.
(1807-1870)
Robert E.
Lee was born
of Stratford
estate
Lee
E.
family
his
at
Westmoreland County,
in
was Henry "Light-Horse
Virginia. His father
War
Harry" Lee, a well-known Revolutionary soldier.
Lee graduated second in his
from
class
Academy at West Point. came to Lee during his service
the U.S. Military
Glory the
first
Mexican War. Serving
in
an engi-
as a scout,
and a builder of bridges, he made the
neer,
American march from Veracruz
He
possible.
Mexico City
to
received the highest possible
com-
mendation from General Winfield Scott
(see
no. 71) for his services.
The
War found Lee
of the Civil
start
sonal conflict.
He
believed in the
supreme
in per-
Union and
command
was
in tact offered the
the
Union armies by President Abraham
Lincoln's chief of
home
his
the
state
staff,
he resigned
his
Winfield Scott. After
1861,
17,
however,
commission and joined the
Confederate army. a
he
commander of Virginia. In his new
at
in
the
the end of
May
General Joe Johnston
replaced
as
general
full
Confederate armies, and
1862,
the
Army
capacity,
of Northern
his trademark.
Seven Days.
and the
He
it
Lee's
known as Pickett's Charge. Seven thousand men were lost in a half hour men whom the
—
South could not replace.
own by two-
actions saved the city of
services of talented subordinates such
Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson (see no. 78), Lee won impressive victories at the Second Battle of Bull Run (1862), Fredericksburg to
win
a victory
Lee pushed north twice.
fought to a standstill
at
defensive.
no. 76), but the high
on
He was
Antietam (1862). In
June 1863, he moved north again and collided
fought a grinding
Union
S.
Grant
casualties at
set
(see
The
Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, and
Cold Harbor did not dissuade the Union genLee was soon surrounded and besieged ring from
a 20-mile (32-km)
in
Richmond
to
Petersburg. In this confined setting. Lee's tactical brilliance
had
Lee and his
little effect.
men
broke out from the siege
the spring of 1865 but were quickly run
by the Union
(1862), and Chancellorsvilie (1863).
soil,
Lee was permanently
of battles against General Ulysses
back during the Battle of
needed
He
Union
eral.
that he
Gettysburg,
After
attacked a
as
northern
sent
on the
his quiet charisma, personal daring,
Knowing
men would him anywhere and carry the day, Lee them forward on the disastrous attack
would
Richmond. Using
Gettysburg,
at
that
contingent that outnumbered his to-one and drove
armies
Pennsylvania. Confident that his
Lee immediately
showed the breathtaking audacity
become
Union
with
follow
became
Lee
Robert E. Lee
from
of Virginia seceded
Union on April
of
at
the
ending the war.
Lee
later
Washington College
82
Lee surrendered to Grant
Appomattox Courthouse on
effectively
honor,
forces.
in
down
served
Paroled as
in Virginia.
April 9,
on
president
his
of
"70
Ulysses
/U.
(1822-1885)
Ulysses
Grant was born
S.
Grant
S.
in Point Pleasant,
Ohio. His early schooling was limited, but fine
his
horsemanship helped him win entrance
the U.S. Military
Academy
at
West
Point.
to
the Civil
War
began, Grant became a
brigadier general of volunteers in
showed both
and personal
strategic brilliance
by
resolve
Confederate
capturing
He
1861.
forts
His military success led to political success.
Grant ran
1877, Grant subtlety
favorites,
tion
Union
victory of the
War
Civil
recognition.
fell
year.
Grant went on
to
fight
oft:en
that
the
who
won
the presidency for to
lacked the diplomacy and office
Grant
required. his
political
indulged themselves in corrup-
his
second
on such hard
ly sold his
That same
easily
and scandal.
After
catapulted
"Unconditional Surrender" Grant to national
and
was deceived by many of
also
Donelson and Henry (1862), thereby opening major
for
two terms. As U.S. president from 1869
Tennessee to Union forces. This
first
and returned home the hero
of the war.
He
graduated and was commissioned a lieutenant.
When
the war. Grant gave generous terms to the
Confederates
term
ended,
Grant
financial times that he actual-
swords and souvenirs from the Civil
War. Learning he had throat cancer, Grant
the Confederates to a standstill at Shiloh, and
rushed to write his Personal Memoirs, which
he led a remarkable campaign to capture the
were published posthumously by the writer
Confederate
Mark Twain. Grant
fortress
on the eastern
The
of Vicksburg,
located
side of the Mississippi River.
surrender of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863,
time;
it
finished the
earned over $400,000 in
viding for his family after his death.
brought about great rejoicing in the North.
Grant was promoted he was given
and Union
to lieutenant general,
command
of
all
the
armies.
In the spring of 1864, Grant marched south
from Washington, D.C., seeking
to capture the
Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia.
He
fought a
set
of grueling battles against
General Robert E. Lee
(see no.
75) at
The
Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, and
Cold Harbor. Having
lost
17,666 men, Grant
continued to press southward, leading news reporters in the
Grant."
North
to call
him "Butcher
Knowing he had the confidence of Abraham Lincoln, Grant continued
President
to apply vise-like pressure to the
Confederate
forces.
Grant besieged Lee the cities of
in
a
Richmond and
circle
around
Petersburg for
10 months (June 1864-April 1865).
When
Lee escaped from Richmond, Grant pursued
him
relentlessly.
Grant
at the
Lee
finally
surrendered
book
to
Ulysses S. Grant
Appomattox Courthouse, ending 83
just in
royalties, pro-
Free ebooks ==>
11 William
Sherman
T.
/ /. (1820-1891) William Tecumseh Sherman was born Lancaster, Ohio. His birth father
him "Tecumseh" but
in
honor of the Indian
his foster parents later gave
in
had named
him
chief,
the
first
name William. Sherman went to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, where he graduated sixth in a
commissioned served
at
class
of forty-two.
a lieutenant
Moultrie
Fort
of
artillery,
He was and he
the
harbor of
active service
during the
in
Charleston, South Carolina.
Sherman saw no
Mexican War. Bored by peacetime army he resigned
worked
commission
his
briefly as
From 1859
in
life,
1853 and
both a banker and a lawyer.
1861, he was superintendent
to
of a military academy in Louisiana.
At the
start
commissioned
of the Civil War, Sherman was a colonel
became Grant
led a brigade at
(1861).
Sherman
a devoted friend of General Ulysses S. (see no.
76),
campaign against 1
and
Run
the First Battle of Bull
and he planned Grant's
forts
Henry and Donelson
in
862. Sherman went on to play a major role in
Grant's campaign against Vicksburg in 1863.
When
Grant was named lieutenant general of
Union Armies in 1864, Sherman succeeded him as commander of the forces in the West. The two planned a simple campaign: all
Grant would drive south against Robert E. Lee (see no. 75) and capture Richmond, while Sherman would drive east against General Joe Johnston and seize the city of Atlanta. Sherman executed a brilliant campaign. He captured Atlanta on September 2, 1864
through a
series
of intricate maneuvers rather
than head-on fighting. a brutal approach to
He
then decided on
end the war. Sherman
telegraphed Grant on October 9, 1864, saying, "I
William
Sherman
T.
the
can make the march, and make Georgia
howl." sixty
He was
thousand
true to his word.
men
km) wide swath
Sherman
led
in a broad, 50-mile (80-
southeast to the sea, burning
or destroying everything of value in sight. This
(November 16-December 22, 1864) ended with Sherman in Savannah. He then marched north and, as infamous "March to the Sea"
the Confederacy crumbled, accepted the sur-
render of General Johnston
North Carolina
Sherman
Durham,
near
1865.
in April
rose to lieutenant general (1866),
then
full
general (1869),
and he served
eral
in
chief of the
army (1869-1883).
He
retired
New
then
and went York
to live in St. Louis
He
City.
for
complex man, Sherman his
high
temper,
made
84
is
to the graduating class
Academy
in
is
generous
fimous statement that "war Military
and
vigorously refused a
Republican nomination for president
A
as gen-
1879.
in
1884.
remembered nature,
hell,
"
and
which he
of the Michigan
"in
Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson
/O.
(1824-1863)
Both
and
Ufetime
his
in
Thomas Jonathan
afterward,
had
"Stonewall" Jackson
General
been a source of pride and the making oi a
the
He was born in Clarksburg, Virginia, in what is now West Virginia. He received little
pressure
myth.
early
and
education
was
fortunate
West Point when space opened up
at
after
another applicant declined to enter. Jackson
graduated entered
1846,
and he
Mexican
War
in
the
immediately a
as
second
Shields
on June
Shenandoah Valley region and
on
Richmond
was
He
Run.
Bull
at
from Veracruz
Mexico City
to
Returning to the United
commission
in
the important battles
1851
States,
after
1847.
in
he resigned his
an altercation with
the
in
the Second Battle of
captured
Harper's
September 1862. Promoted eral,
of
capital
instrumental
Ferry
in
to lieutenant gen-
he took part in the defensive victory
at
Fredericksburg (1862).
The Batde of Chancellorsville all
These
relieved the
Confederate
the
Confederate victory
lieutenant.
Jackson served in
9.
that spring.
Jackson
to
Academy
be admitted to the U.S. Military
Thomas
Confederate victories drew 60,000 troops into
was
Jackson's
and
no. 75) masterpiece.
Robert
May
1863
Lee's
(see
in
E.
Outnumbered two-to-one
by Union general Joseph Hooker, Lee held
Hooker
at
bay with a mere shadow force while
superior officer at Fort Meade, Florida.
Jackson swooped around Hooker's right flank
Jackson then obtained a position teaching phi-
with
and hit him with a devastating counterattack. The Union flank reeled, and the Confederates were on their way to a decisive victory when Jackson was hit by bullets from his own troops. They had mistaken him for a Union officer as he rode back to his own lines. His left arm
of
shattered, Jackson sought to recuperate, but
his
losophy and military
tactics
the Virginia
at
Military Institute.
During the
Civil
War, Jackson remained
a
firm believer in the Union until Virginia seced-
ed on April 17, 1861. the
He
then cast his
Confederacy and became
a
lot
colonel
the Virginia state forces. At the First Battle of
pneumonia
Bull Run, Confederate General Bernard E. Bee
1863.
rallied his
men
at a critical
ing to Jackson's fortitude
crying out, "There
is
moment by
on the
set
in
and he died on
point-
battlefield
and
Jackson, standing like a
stone wall! Let us determine to die here, and
we
will
conquer."
The nickname
"Stonewall"
Jackson stuck, but the irony was that Jackson
became
far
better
known
for
the lightning
speed of his maneuvers than for standing
fast
in position.
Promoted
to the
Jackson
general,
rank of Confederate major created
the
"Stonewall
Brigade." Between April and June of 1862,
he
won
a
remarkable string of victories in
his
famous Shenandoah Valley campaign. Jackson defeated General Robert Milroy
on
May
8,
General Nathaniel Banks on May 23 and 25, General John C. Fremont on June 8, and
"Stonewall" Jackson
85
May
10,
-in
Geronimo
/y.
(1829-1909)
His Indian name was Goyathlay, meaning
who yawns." Geronimo was born in No-Doyohn Canyon, in present-day New
"he
Mexico. His people, the Chiricahua Apache,
had a long tradition of fighting Spanish and
Mexican troops from the south.
Geronimo was admitted Council of Warriors in point in his er,
came
life
his
tribe's
The turning when his moth-
in 1858,
and children were
wife,
to
1846.
killed in a surprise
attack near Janos, Chihuahua. Swearing eternal
Geronimo
vengeance,
The
Mexico.
Mexicans to tion.
in
upon
call
Jerome
St.
for protec-
Their utterances of "Jerome, Jerome" led
name "Geronimo."
to the Indian warrior's
U.S.
meanwhile, had encroached
settlers,
on Apache land from
A
number of raids
led a
ferocity of his attacks caused the
north and
the
was established
reservation
east.
in the eastern
part of the Arizona territory for the
Apache
nation. Finding himself confined to a small
Geronimo broke
locality,
he and the majority of
the peace. In 1876,
the San Carlos Reservation
to
River.
land,
The Apaches detested and Geronimo led settlements
U.S.
against
U.S.
this
on the Gila attacks
the
territory.
him and conduct
a
war against the
Miles led 5,000 U.S. soldiers and some 500 Indian auxiliary troops in a year-long search for
Geronimo. The U.S.
settlers.
George Crook
in
to
U.S.
general
January 1884. After being
returned to the San Carlos reservation, he fled
with 35 men, 8 boys, and 101
women
in
May
1885. Again he conducted raids, against both
was
was replaced by General Nelson Miles.
to leave the reser-
Geronimo surrendered
U.S.
Geronimo
barren waste-
guerrilla in
Hundreds of Apaches chose vation with
moved
people were
his
Apache
rendered
cornered by General Crook and sur-
at
Canon de Los Embudos
Mexico, on March 27,
in Sonora,
1886. As the U.S.
to
forces finally tracked the
his
to his Arizona
The
his fellow warriors
They were transferred Oklahoma Territory in 1894.
forced to do hard labor. to Fort Sill in the
to the
Geronimo
he died of pneumonia
bolted
as
they
result
of
As
a
this
escape.
border.
General Crook
Geronimo and
were taken to Florida and
others
U.S.
Sonora
homeland.
pledge was broken.
States,
the
the
on September 3, 1886, promising would eventually be allowed to return
United
neared
in
to surrender
that he
troops took their prisoners
on a march Geronimo and a few
camp
mountains. There, Miles persuaded Geronimo
and Mexican settlements. Geronimo
finally
leader
dictated his autobiography before in
1909.
The Apache
warrior had never been allowed to return to Arizona.
86
Chief Joseph (1840-1904)
Born
Wallowa Valley (present-day
the
in
Oregon), Chief Joseph's Native American
name Nez
Hinmaton
was
rolling
the
in
he became a chief after U.S.
1863,
the
Pacific
government negotiated
U.S.
Nez
a treaty that confined the
Lapwai Reservation
Perce to the
present-day Idaho),
(in
removing them from their lands near the shores of the Pacific Ocean.
ward,
the
Nez
two groups: the
"treaty"
From
were
Perce
that day for-
divided
and "non-treaty."
which refused
General
to be con-
meet with the Nez Perce Lapwai
to
at the council at Fort
of 1877.
in the spring
He and
Nez
cleverly
the
Nez
men
they foiled
that
Joseph
commenced negotiations when a small band of Nez Perce murdered four white settlers. The negotiations ended, and the Nez Perce War began, despite the best efforts of Howard and Joseph led
his
on October
1877,
5,
A
total
of 431 Nez Perce were taken
ing 87 Indian warriors. his
later
years,
led approximately
Mountains and
A well-known
and he sent numerous
the
al
homeland. They were refused.
Washington
state.
River,
seeking the safety of "Grandmother Victoria's"
—
Canada
the land ruled by
Queen
Victoria
of England.
Along
the
march,
General John Gibbon
(Wisdom
River,
defeated
Joseph
at the Battle
Montana) and
of Big Hole also
won
encounters such as the Cottonwood skirmish
and the
Battle
of Canyon Creek.
September, Joseph and
his
people
By
figure in
He
late
Chief Joseph
reached
87
to
his trib-
died
Nespelim on the Colville Reservation,
to elude the
Missouri
as pris-
petitions
Washington, D.C., asking to return to
750 men, women, and march over the Rocky
across
and
Joseph survived his time in
U.S. troops and reach the safety of Canada.
He
but U.S.
his surrender.
White Bird Canyon. Far
children in a grueling
More
Chief Joseph made
from exultant over the win, Joseph persuaded
march
trenches
soldiers arrived over the next five days,
band of three hundred war-
his fellow chiefs to begin a
in
attacks,
all
Perce had been stopped.
the chief
riors to a victory at
350
Perce and attacked
them. Joseph arranged his so
prison,
Howard went
Oliver
troopers found the
oners to Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, includ-
fined to any reservation area.
U.S.
alry
into
Chief Joseph became the leader of the "nontreaty" population,
Montana; they
the east. General Nelson A. Miles and
the
to
in
Unbeknownst to Joseph, another U.S. cavgroup had entered Montana from
a
chief
1840s and 1850s.
the
in
Indian
his father died.
flocked
settlers
Northwest region In
The son of
(NAY-per-SAY)
Perce
("thunder
Yalaktit
heights").
Paw Mountains
the Bear
were a mere 40 miles (64 km) south of the Canadian border.
at
in
Free ebooks ==> ni Paul von 0 I. (1847-1934) Born
Hindenburg
in Posen, Prussia (present-
von
day Poznan,
Poland),
Paul
Hindenburg's
family
traced
German
to
roots
Teutonic
its
the era of the
Hindenburg
Knights.
entered the Prussian cadet corps in
1858 and fought
as a lieutenant at
important Battle of Sadowa
the
against Austria in
He won
1866.
the Iron Cross for bravery in the
Franco-Prussian
War and
repre-
sented his regiment at the signing
of the Treaty of Versailles (1871). Elevated to the Prussian general staff in
1878, Hindenburg served
with merit. In 1903, he was promoted to
lieu-
Paul von Hindenburg
{left)
tenant general. Hindenburg retired from the
army
in
1911 and went to Hanover.
When World War Hindenburg asked tant field
for
began
I
and received an impor-
command, defending
against the invasion of
Hindenburg
East Prussia
two Russian armies.
teamed
with
Ludendorff, his chief of staff
von
Erich
The two were
and methodical, while Ludendorff was
lightning-quick and sometimes rash.
men masterminded Russians
field
The two
brilliant victories over the
and ran
He was
Republic. erate
The
German
still
people.
for president
elected
of the Weimar
and served
as a
mod-
and judicious head of state from 1926
to
1934.
Hindenburg of his
By 1915, Hindenburg was a field marshal and commander-in-chief on the German east-
to
life
met
—Adolf
shape events.
Hindenburg
the
challenge
final
—when he was too
Hitler
The Nazi
in the
old
leader ran against
1932 presidential
elections.
another impressive victory
Even though Hindenburg won, he had
to
Lodz, and in August 1916 he replaced Erich
accept Hitler as chancellc)r of the Reich
in
ern front.
He won
von Falkenhayn al
in authority.
In 1925, he accepted an effort to draft his services
Lakes.
at
Hindenburg
marshal presided quietly over the end of
highly regarded by the
Tannenberg and the Masurian
at
the tide
1918, Ludendorff
in
the war in 1919 and retired to his estate,
a
remarkable military duo. Hindenburg was cautious
went against Germany resigned, leaving
When
Germany.
the Allies against
1914,
in
staff
as chief of the Prussian gener-
January 1933. Hitler ran the nation during the last year of
Von Hindenburg and Ludendorff
joined forces again. Kaiser
something of
Wilhelm
a figurehead as the
II
became
two military
Hindenburg's
name and
life.
He
men masterminded Germany's moves from
Nazi movement, acting
1916
values espoused by
to 1918.
The two
soldiers
made
at least
one
clear
used
men
as
if
the old Prussian
such
as
stood behind the Nazi regime. In
they did
to
demon-
death
in
1934.
not, but
marine warfare caused the United States
strate this reality prior to his
88
Hindenburg fact,
Hindenburg was unable
blunder: their decision to use unrestricted subto join
Hindenburg's
reputation to lend credence to the
nn
Heihachiro Togo
O/.
(1848-1934)
The
greatest Japanese naval leader of
mod-
ern times was born in Kyushu, Japan. Raised
turmoil
created
modore Oliver H.
Perry's
amidst
the
of Japan
"opening
up"
Heihachiro Togo
West,
the
to
com-
by U.S.
joined the Satsuma provincial navy in 1866.
Four years
new
he entered the
later,
imperial
Japanese navy as a cadet and went to England seven years ol training in
for
He
(1871-1878).
naval
tactics
made
it
a
point to travel to Cape Trafalgar to see the
of his hero's greatest
victory.
Togo supervised the building of the Yamoto, one of Japan's first modern warships, and he served as
its
international British
commander. He created an
first
stir
by
steamer
Japanese-Chinese
upon and sinking
firing
during
the
War
1894.
in
Straits.
a
of the
start
The
British
A
at
the
came August 27 of Tshushima
Battle
large Russian fleet
had
the Baltic Sea to the Sea of Japan.
but better-armed Japanese
fleet
Togo boats,
lost
only 117
while
killing
Togo was not reprimanded
and capturing the
Togo began heading
the
of the new naval base
at
title
generally believed.
less efficient
When
Togo remained one of the most revered in
Japan until
first
Japanese
honored with
his
man
death in 1934.
a national funeral.
1899. In
China
than was
war between Russia
flag
aboard the ship Mikasa.
Following orders from his high
Togo
fired the first shots
command,
of the Russo-Japanese
War, sending torpedo boats into the harbor of Port Arthur to attack the Russian ships there
on February Harbor,
this
the Japanese,
6,
1904.
Foreshadowing
sneak attack gave the
who
Pearl
initiative to
never relinquished
it
during
the war. Togo's naval blockade of Port Arthur
and Vladivostok secured communications between the Japanese home islands and the war efforts in
Heihachiro Togo
Korea and Manchuria.
89
leaders
He was
the
not of the royal lineage to be
and Japan became imminent in 1903, Togo was made commander-in-chief of the Imperial Navy, flying his
fleet
made a marquis (1934). He did not serve in World War I, but the men who did had been his pupils. Made a permanent member ol the Imperial General Staff,
for his
police actions ot the Boxer Rebellion in
count
(1913); he was also
1900, he observed the Russian ships during the
and concluded they were
a
admiral of the
Advanced Naval in
soldiers
The hero of the war, Togo was made (1907) and given the
made commander Sasebo
torpedo
entire Russian fleet.
action.
College in 1896 and was
smaller
completely
men and three 4,830 enemy
ship was found to be carrying Chinese troops; therefore,
from
sailed
The
outmaneuvered and defeated the Russians.
admired Admiral
greatly
Horatio Nelson (see no. 66) and
site
Togo's greatest triumph
and 28, 1905,
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no Ferdinand Foch (1851-1929)
Od. Known
for
audacity and belief in a
his
relendess offense, Ferdinand
Foch was born
in Tarbes, Hautes-Pyrenees, France.
He studied
Ecole Pol)T:echnique and became a lieu-
at the
tenant of artillery in 1873. Foch believed in the rules
of war established by Napoleon
(see no.
67), but he failed to appreciate the difference that
machine guns and trench warfare would
make on
the batdefield in the future.
Foch was already a general when World War I
He led his men in an inspired defense Gond area during the critical Battle
began.
of the
St.
of the Marne (September 6-9, 1914). During the "race to the sea" that followed the Marne,
he
won
the admiration of General Joseph Joffre
of France,
who became
Foch north
his patron. Joffre sent
to coordinate
movements of
the
French, British, and Belgian armies, no small
and
task given their differences in language
temperament.
Foch commanded the northern army group during 1915 and 1916. his allies for his
He was
criticized
by
troop allotments during the
German gas attack at Ypres, and he failed to make any noticeable gains during the Somme campaign (1916). The lowest point of Foch's career came when Joffre was removed from overall command, but Foch bounced back to prominence when Joffre's replacement was himself replaced by General Henri Petain (see no. 84). Foch
became chief of the general
staff
Germany made an enormous the deadlock early in 1918. in the allied line,
combined
to establish his
effort to break
During
a collapse
French and British leaders
name Foch
"generalissimo" of the
Belgium and the United
forces.
States followed suit,
lion
American
effort.
soldiers
in the relationship,
fact that the
were
tremendous
making Foch the supreme
commander for the rest of the war. The German attacks faltered in June, and by
table.
allied
Line on
offensives
the
July Foch was
on
the offensive everywhere.
frequently
with
General
He
John
Pershing of the United States. Foch wanted
war
broke the
that
German border and to the
peace
Foch himself dictated the terms of the
to the Germans in Compiegne on November
armistice at
two mil-
essential to the
Foch planned and coordinated the
Siegfried
was sweet
satisfaction for the
a
railway car
11,
1918.
It
man who had
witnessed his nation's defeat in the FrancoPrussian
War 48
years earlier.
Foch was disappointed by the Treaty of
allied
disagreed
dominance
but he had to accept the
brought the German diplomats
in 1917.
agreed to
Ferdinand Foch
Versailles;
he believed
Germans. He made in
it
was too
a tour
soft
1921 and received numerous honors from
various countries prior to his death.
90
on the
of the United States
n/|
Henri Philippe Petain
04.
(1856-1951)
First a great
hero and then a tragic collabo-
Henri Petain came
rator,
much of
symbolize
to
what was both noble and perverse
France
in
during the two world wars.
He St.
Cyr
in 1887.
by
named premier of France
Rather than
The French army was demorWar
an
flee to
allied
coun-
try or urge a fight to the death, Petain signed
Germans.
He was
treaty,
with the
allowed to govern the unoc-
cupied zone of France.
defeat in the Franco-Prussian
its
16.
an armistice, and then a peace
graduated from the military academy at
alized
retirement and was
on June
Petain
earned
contempt,
the
and even
of 1870; the French people wanted revenge,
hatred, of many people during his time as chief
and military thinking
of the Vichy government (1940-1944).
at the
time emphasized a
He
vigorous offense by infantrymen. Petain dis-
urged his countrymen to quietly endure the
agreed with this notion, which was one reason
Nazi occupation
he had risen only to colonel by the time World
people yearned to join the Resistance move-
War
began in 1914.
I
ment.
Petain
at a
and
time
his
when many French
fellow
collaborators
1914,
helped the Germans find labor conscripts in
new emphasis on
careful planning
France, and thousands of French Jews were
and defensive fighting gained
favor, Petain rose
turned over to the Nazis.
French offensives stumbled badly and, as a
in leadership.
He became
in
1916
a full general in
and then commander of the Second Army. In February 1916, Petain was
named commander
of the French forces defending the
fortress
Verdun against the Germans. Petain troops, "/A ne passeront pas" pass"),
sides
and he was
as
good
("They
as his
of
After the Allies
was
won World War
tried, convicted,
President Charles
sentence to
life
and sentenced
De
Gaulle
not
word. Both
suffered tremendous losses during the
six-month
but the French held their
battle,
positions.
In
May
1917, Petain became commander-
in-chief of the French army.
He was
passed
over by General Ferdinand Foch (see no. 83) for
supreme
remained
allied
commander
in charge
in 1918, but
he
of the French army until
the end of the war.
A
hero to his countrymen, Petain served
briefly as a minister
ambassador
to Spain
of war and then as an
between World War
I
and
World War II. He urged the construction of the Maginot Line to defend France; the line was never completed, leaving France vulnerable to an attack through Belgium.
In
May
1940,
struck at France. (especially
their
Adolf
Hitler's
The speed of tanks)
won
forces
their offense
the battle over
Henri Phillipe Petain
France within the month. Petain came out of
91
Petain
to death.
commuted
imprisonment.
told his shall
II,
the
nr John Pershing (1860-1948)
OU.
America's military leader in
came from
the
Missouri. John Pershing worked
farm and taught
Academy
at
West
on
still
the U.S. Military
to
and he graduated
Point,
senior cadet captain in
I
his father's
country school while
at a
He went
in his teens.
World War
hamlet of Laclede,
prairie
as
886.
1
Pershing became a cavalry lieutenant.
He
fought against Geronimo
(see no.
Apache nation and
fought against the
also
79) of the
Sioux nation during his early military years.
then
Pershing
taught
military
the
University of Nebraska
He
demonstrated
tactics
at
(1893-1897).
valor in the Spanish-
his
American War and won
a Silver Star for gal-
lantry in combat.
Pershing
served
(1901-1903) and
the
Philippines
official
U.S. observer
in
an
as
War (1904-1905).
during the Russo-Japanese
Deeply impressed by Pershing's president
from captain
to
brigadier general
bypassing 862 senior three
more
was sent
He
reports, U.S.
Theodore Roosevelt promoted him
and then
years in the Philippines
to the
1906,
in
Pershing served
officers.
Mexican border
in 1915.
pursued the Mexican
John Pershing
revolutionary
Made
Francisco "Pancho" Villa into Mexican territo-
Returning from the
ry.
commander
named
Expeditionary States
sent
World War
to
American
the
which
Force, the
Pershing was
foray,
of
European
United
the
battlefields
in
visit
saw the creation and deployment of a two-million-person U.S. Army. His cial
battles
of Belleau
Thierry, stopping the
men won
Wood
last
the cru-
and Chateau
German
offensive.
Pershing coordinated a huge U.S. offensive in
I.
Pershing arrived in France in June 1917,
and
a full general in 1917, Pershing over-
his presence
allowed Charles E. Stanton to
the
Named
the grave of the Marquis de Lafayette and
declare, "Lafayette,
we
are here,"
on July
4,
Meuse-Argonne
area in the last weeks of
the war.
of the armies
general
Pershing returned
home
to
in
tremendous
1919, praise
1917. Determined to keep U.S. troops togeth-
from the U.S. public and government.
er as a separate army, Pershing clashed loudly
hoped
and often with both Their
calls
unheeded;
for
the
British
him
to
grim,
remained the leader of Europe.
and French be
leaders.
replaced
effective
went
Pershing
his nation's forces in
1920 but was not, so he in
1924 and served
as
retired
for the rest of his
Pershing died in Washington, D.C., and
was buried
92
horn the army
chairperson oi the Battle
Monuments Commission life.
He
to be asked to run for the prcsidenc}' in
at
Arlington National Cemetery.
Free ebooks ==>
nn
Bernard Montgomery
OD.
(1887-1976)
Known
"Monty"
as
to his soldiers, Bernard
Law Montgomery compiled accomplishments during half
long
a
list
of
a century in the
Montgomery graduated from the Royal Military Academy in 1908 and was British army.
commissioned
War
after
he was wounded.
Montgomery
command
and was
rose to major general
immediately
in
British-held
World War
transferred
He
II.
France,
to
where he evacuated the Third Division out of Dunkirk
1940.
in
He
and defeat
into
troops
German
their
that
could meet
mand
Montgomery
Winston
to take
com-
of the British troops in Africa. Taking
charge after Britain's loss of Tobruk to General
Erwin Rommel of Germany
Montgomery remained on first.
He
built
up
(see
no.
94),
the defensive at
a formidable strike force in
Egypt. After Rommel's attacks failed to penetrate the British perimeter,
on the
offensive.
The
of
ders,
first
inflicted
ing
major
no. 91).
the
war.
execution
Arnhem
in
been
earned
him
and promotion
criticized
spared
no
Americans
for
this
opportunity
Sicily in 1943.
chief of the Imperial General Staff
the
He
later
Montgomery went
Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO). What
had begun
between the two
men
as a friendly rivalry
escalated over the years into a bitter rela-
tionship, as each lambasted the other in his
memoirs of the war est
years. Certainly the great-
British general of the twentieth century,
Montgomery
lacked
the
tact
and subtlety
for positions that required close coordination
with
allied forces.
resulting Battle of El
to lull general.
led the British
selected
ground commander of
the European invasion force,
but the position of supreme to
chastise
Montgomery was raised to field marshal when the war ended he became
and North Africa knighthood a
commander went
Having
(1944), and
Montgomery's
He was
to
lost.
Montgomery
of the Bulge (December 1944).
troops in the Allied invasion ol
as the
loss,
at six
for their initial defeats in the Battle
loss in the field
Montgomery
comman-
September, where
thousand airborne troops were
preparation in
allied
first.
between
Montgomery's planning went awry
on the Germans dur-
meticulous
grew
notably U.S. general George Patton (see
Alamein (October 1942) was the
progress at
resentment
served as deputy to Eisenhower at the North
counterparts.
In August 1942, Prime Minister
Churchill selected
at
made slow
1944)
6,
Montgomery and some of the
began a program
of intensive training for his men, aimed turning them
(June
Feelings
the Battle ol
of a division
Palestine at the start of
was
World
and received the Distinguished Service
I
Order in
He
an infantry lieutenant.
as
served in France and Belgium during
Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States. The British, U.S., Canadian, and Australian units that landed in Normandy on D-Day
Bernard Montgomery
General
93
0
Ma
Douglas
n~i
/. (1880-1964) MacArthur was
Douglas
army barracks father
was
in Little
born
in
an
Rock, Arkansas. His
and MacArthur never
a general,
considered any career other than the military.
He
graduated
first
his
in
class
at
the U.S.
the
attack
on
After
1941).
Harbor (December
Pearl
a
effort
futile
to
7,
defend the
left, vowing "I shall return." MacArthur became supreme commander of the southwest Pacific ground forces in April
archipelago, he
Academy at West Point in 1903 and entered the army corps of engineers. A major when World War I began, he led the famous 42nd "Rainbow" Division and was twice wounded. Promoted to brigadier general
war continued
after
the use of the atomic
by the end of the war, he then served
bomb, he would have
led Operation Downfall,
Military
as the
youngest superintendent ever of West Point
(1919-1923). MacArthur's
and
career were inextrica-
his
father
MacArthur came
He then served Army. He officially
tour of duty there in the 1920s. as chief
retired
of staff of the U.S.
from the army
in
1937 and went
to the
Philippines as a military adviser.
The
start
of World
War
back on active duty on the
II
islands.
His
air force
was stricken by the Japanese only hours
the
the projected invasion of the Japanese main-
He had
the satisfaction of accepting the
Japanese surrender aboard the
(September
USS
Missouri
2, 1945).
As supreme commander of the Allied occu-
from
of Japan
pation
MacArthur held
1945
vast power,
with judgment and
skill.
1951,
to
which he used
MacArthur
estab-
lished a liberal democracy, abolished the nobility,
saw MacArthur
Had
the Philippines in 1944, as promised.
had served before him.
to love the islands during a
led U.S. troops in the "island
hopping" campaigns that brought him back to
land. life
bly intertwined with the Philippine Islands,
where
1942. After taking steps to protect Australia
from invasion, he
and revived Japanese
recovery process that
industry, starting the
would make Japan
into
an economic superpower by the 1980s.
When the Korean War command of the
after
given
broke out, he was U.S.
and United
Nations forces that were defending South Korea. brilliant
MacArthur planned and executed
a
and daring amphibious landing
at
Inchon behind the
lines
movement and he vowed to chase troops. His
China
the North Koreans into
itself
MacArthur's belief in premature.
MacArthur
called
to use nuclear refused. After feelings
final victory
China intervened
and hurled the U.S.
his
of the North Korean
led to a wholesale rout,
in
proved
the
war
forces back southward.
on President Harry Truman
weapons
if
necessary;
MacArthur proceeded
about the war public,
Truman make Truman
to
removed him from command on April
11,
1951. MacArthur then returned to the United
Douglas MacArthur
States, which he had not seen World War II.
94
since the start of
nn
William Halsey,
00.
(1882-1959)
Jr.
Wake
attacked the Japanese at
Island early in
1942. Even more important for U.S. morale,
he brought the
USS Hornet
James Doolittle launched
from the aerial
within 800 miles
km) of Japan. Lieutenant Colonel
(1,287
his
B-25 bombers
deck and led the
aircraft carrier's
bombing of Tokyo on
first
April 18, 1942. As
the United States rallied from the destruction
became
ol Pearl Harbor, Halsey
a
household
him "Bull." In October 1942, Halsey was named commander of the South Pacific Force and promoted to full admiral that November. He word; newspapers began to
call
defeated the Japanese in key naval battles off the island of Guadalcanal. His victories there
momentum
gave the
United
the
in
Pacific
to
the
States.
Halsey rose to commander of the Third Fleet
and the Western
He
1944.
the
inland
enemy
an
against
Pacific
directed
Task Forces in
first
carrier
flight
the Philippines and supported
William Halsey, William "Bull" Halsey,
Jr.
Jr.
Navy
many of the most important battles of World War II. Halsey was the son of a naval officer. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis (1904) and sailed board Halsey
White
Fleet" as a
commanded
(see no. 87).
His most controversial battle was in Leyte
I
midshipman.
destroyers in
fleet to
enter the
gulf and attack U.S. ships there. Despite being
convoy
drawn away, Halsey directed
his planes in the
and was awarded the Navy Cross. After
After this rocky start to the battle, the United
groups of
North Atlantic
in
a specialist in torpedo warfare, he
commanded groups
of destroyers, and then
aircraft carriers,
and 1930s.
He
also
at
the age
won
When World War
II
began, Halsey was
command of the aircraft carUSS Enterprise. Away from Pearl Harbor,
a vice-admiral in
he escaped the Japanese attack of December
most impressive naval victory of
Halsey directed his
on Okinawa, and again
at
fleet in
the Japanese
The
it
the carrier attack
his planes struck again
mainland,
and
including
Japanese surrender was conducted
aboard his flagship, the
USS Missouri,
was General MacArthur who
although
led the U.S.
delegation.
Promoted
7,
to defend in the Pacific, he
the
the war.
Tokyo.
of fifty-two.
Not content
States
during the 1920s
attended flight school,
earning the wings of a naval aviator
1941.
allowed the main Japanese
attack and they sank four Japanese carriers.
becoming
rier
Gulf (1944). Halsey was lured away fiom the battle area by a decoy Japanese force. This
World
escort duty across the
War
in
the invasion
of the islands by General Douglas MacArthur
led the U.S.
in
the "Great
attack
station
retired
95
to fleet admiral in 1945, Halsey
from the navy
in
1947.
Yamamoto
nn isoruku (1884-1943)
00.
The sixth son of a school principal, Isoruku Yamamoto was born in Nagoaka, Honshu,
He
Japan.
Academy
graduated from the Imperial Naval
in
1904 and entered the navy
for the Russo-Japanese in
the
in
time
was wounded
of Tsushima
Battle
critical
He
War.
Straits
(1905).
Yamamoto States
naval
spent four years in the United
(1919-1921 attache.
He
and
1925—1927)
recognized
a
as
awesome
the
potential of American industry, but he believed that in a conflict, the moral superiority ot the
Japanese would prevail.
Yamamoto command-
ed the carrier Akagi (1928-1929) and was given
1933.
command of Carrier Division One in He served as navy minister (1936-1938)
and became chief of the Combined
Fleet in
1939.
As war with the United likely,
Yamamoto
of the Japanese high preemptive
strike.
States
became more
members
pressed his fellow
command
Believing
blow would disable the U.S.
to consider a
that
fleet
one
swift
and devastate
American morale, Yamamoto developed the plans for the surprise attack
on
His policy seemed vindicated attack
on
Pearl
Isoruku Yamamoto
Pearl Harbor. at first.
Harbor (December
7,
The
1941)
a
crucial
moment,
was followed by the capture of the Philippines
decks of their
and the Japanese conquest of much of south-
were
east Asia.
Yamamoto was
nervous, however,
bombardment of the Japanese mainland, and he decided on a second great attack that would eliminate the U.S. Navy from the Pacific Ocean. Yamamoto left Japanese waters with the bulk of the navy in May 1942. Unaware over the possibility of a U.S.
that the U.S. military
had
just
succeeded
in
carriers.
of the
his cause was now hopeYamamoto continued the fight. He made a mistake in allowing Japan to
less,
be dragged into the fight for the island of
Guadalcanal;
sent to intercept him.
The
Battle of
met
Midway
(June 1942) could have gone either way, but
at
precious
Japanese
were soon consumed by the
battle.
resources
Yamamoto
flew to the area to inspect the fight for the
plane was shot
carriers
carriers
seas.
Solomon
and attacked by two groups of U.S.
Four Japanese
Although he knew
Yamamoto steamed toward Midway
disperse the U.S. there. Instead, he was
caught
fighters
ending Japans domination
lost that day,
breaking the Japanese communications code, Island to
U.S.
hundreds of Japanese planes refueling on the
Islands,
but
he
down by
died
when
his
U.S. fighters over
the Shortland Islands. Brilliant and devoted to his nation's cause,
made
Yamamoto had
strategic errors that
nevertheless
brought Japan
to the
brink of disaster by the time ot his death.
96
nn
Chester Nimitz
uU.
(1885-1966)
Born
Fredericksburg,
in
Texas,
Chester
Nimitz worked from the age of eight and want-
Academy
ed to attend the U.S. Military
West
Point. Faihng to reaHze that goal, he
Academy
to the U.S. Naval
graduated seventh in his
at
Annapolis and
to
the
Philippines
Nimitz
and commanded
the
destroyer
USS
ran
aground,
and he was court-martialed
and found
reprimand,
a
Nimitz's
ship
Remarkably, Nimitz was
guilty.
off with
let
Decatur.
Okinawa
in
his
stations,
first
Submarine
he stayed at his
fray,
Pearl
at
Nimitz served
as chief
to 1947,
I.
ambassador
for
the
commanded
became
II
Secretary
Knox was
on Verba Buena
Island in San Francisco Bay.
died
at
the naval station
and became
began, Nimitz was
Nimitz to the Fleet. In
on navigation
matters.
so impressed that he sent
Pacific as admiral
of the Pacific
1942, Nimitz rose to the rank of com-
mander-in-chief of the Pacific Ocean areas. As such, he was the equal of
manders
in the
two other high com-
—Dwight D.
Eisenhower
war
and Douglas MacArthur Nimitz positioned
(see no. 87).
his carrier fleet to take
advantage of the Japanese attack in 1942.
or
He won
disabling
Midway
that desperate battle, sinking
four
November 1943, he line
at
Japanese
carriers.
In
directed a new, shorter
of attack across the Pacific that caught the
Japanese defenders flat-footed. Fie supported
General
MacArthur's
invasion
of
Philippines (1944) and was in overall
mand
retired
He
called to the office of the secretary of the navy.
After consulting Nimitz
good-
Nations
(1949-1952), but he never formally
chief of the Naval Bureau of Navigation.
WTien World War
on
from the navy.
a rear admiral,
a battleship division,
later a
United
During the long period between
the two world wars, he
later
of naval operations
and he was
Force of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet throughout
World War
command
Harbor, and
Guam.
will
Command
He
choices or initiative during the battles. Keeping
by saved.
chief of staff to the
as
chose to allow
Spruance, to conduct the battles.
from 1945
use of diesel engines. Nimitz was
He
not want his presence to hinder their
watch over the
and the career
After 1908, Nimitz specialized in the devel-
and then gave them
commanders, William Halsey and
of the future leader of the U.S. Navy was there-
opment and
1945. Nimitz chose his subordi-
latitude as he could.
fleet
did
Iwo Jima and
to capture
nates with great care
much
Raymond
1905.
class in
After two years of routine duty,
went
at
went
went on
naval forces
the
comChester Nimitz
during the battles of Pacific Sea (June
1944) and Leyte Gulf (October 1944). His
97
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George Patton
ni 0
(1885-1945)
.
1
Born Patton,
San Gabriel, California, George
in Jr.,
He
military leaders.
attended Virginia Military
Institute
before going to
Academy
at
West
Military
graduated in 1909
as a cavalry lieutenant.
chance to obtain recognition
first
came when he served Pershing
the U.S.
He
Point.
and was commissioned Patton's
S.
was the grandson of Confederate
no.
(see
General John
as aide to
85)
in
chase
the
Mexican revolutionary Pancho
after
Patton
Villa.
personally cornered and killed one of Villa's
subordinates.
Patton went with Pershing to Europe in
1917 and served
as the
commanding
the general's headquarters. the
He
also
officer
of
was one of
named to enter the new tanks World War I. Patton was
first officers
corps created late in
wounded
the
in
Meuse-Argonne
offensive
(1918).
As World War
moted
command
given
He
II
approached, he was pro-
to two-star general (1941). Patton was
landings
of the
First
Armored Corps.
a
prominent
role
in
North
Africa
played
the Allied
in
After the Battle of Kasserine Pass, he was
commander of Ordered
the Second
by German
practiced
fare
Rommel
(see no. 94),
tioner of the
He
same
made
Armored Corps. mobile war-
to find a solution to the
Patton became a practi-
Sicily in thirty-eight days,
he was near the height of
brought criticism
his career
to himself aft:er
and
when he
he slapped a
The man was
U.S. soldier in a hospital.
gy
was malingering but
an apolo-
later issued
for his action.
Patton became
Army with
his
commander of
men
at
Normandy and
the Third
He
landed
led the
famous
England (March 1944).
in
"breakout" that equaled any of the blitzkrieg
campaigns
in
gas
and
its
German
audacity. Patton led
all
the
way
Paris, before
to
Nancy and
running out of
supplies.
During the
Battle of the Bulge
(December
1944), Patton raced northward with the Third relieved the key city ol Bastogne,
doomed
the
German
and
offensive. Patton's troops
crossed the Rhine River in
March 1945, and he
entered Czechoslovakia by the time the war
ended.
Named
recov-
ering from shell shock; Patton claimed the soldier
Metz, bypassing
Army,
art.
and troops
his tanks
Erwin
general
led the Allied invasion that cleared the
Germans from
George Patton
1942.
in
military governor of Bavaria, Patton
proved completely unsuited to such an admin-
He
openly
istrative
post.
Germans
to the Soviets
like to
Due
the
campaign against Russia
in the future.
to these intemperate statements, Patton
was removed from
Army
command
of the Third
that October. Patton died in Heidelberg,
Germany,
98
preferred
and hinted he would
after
an auto accident
later that year.
Chiang Kai-shek
no
(1887-1975)
Chiang Kai-shek, the man who finally China to the Communists, was born in
lost
Chikou, the son of
merchant who had
a salt
the
Communists
up
their positions
March"
so effectively that they gave
and undertook the "Long
to safety in the north.
built a modest fortune. He was educated at the government military college at Paoting. Chiang spent the years from 1907 to 1911
from Japan. The Japanese invaded China in
with the efficient Japanese
along the coast. Chiang and the Nationalists
in Japan, training
military
had established
that
in the Russo-Japanese
In 1911,
reputation
forces ol revo-
He
China.
in
fought
Shanghai during the conflict that led to
in
Manchu
the end of the
ported the
ed
new
Dynasty. Chiang sup-
he joined
1918,
in
the
Kuomintang, the revolutionary government led
by Sun Yat-Sen. Chiang studied
into
States
tactics
in
large sections
one
of territory
Only the entry of the United World War II brought effective
relief and the prospect of final success. Chiang remained commander-in-chief of
the Nationalists throughout the war.
After
went
He
to
World War II ended, Chiang again war with the Chinese Communists.
lost the battle in the countryside,
where
of peasants heard more hope
in the
millions
military
threat, this
held out during the long period of Japanese
republican government lound-
and
1911,
in
1937 and overran
ascendancy.
Chiang joined the
and reform
lution
its
War.
Chiang soon faced another
messages of Mao Tse-Tung
He
(see no.
95) than in
resigned as president in 1949
and
Russia during 1923 and returned to China
Chiang's.
determined to reform the Nationalist army
fled to the island of Taiwan. Soon resuming his
along the lines of the Soviet army.
Whampoa
the
Military
Academy
He
directed
in 1924,
and
death of Sun Yat-Sen in 1925, he became commander of the northern expeditionary forces. Chiang's assignment was to subafter the
due the
major warlords
five
presidency,
Chiang became head
Chinese
United
Nations
China
1972 was
in
recognition a bitter
the Nationalists he led.
He
blow
who
carried
out a military
coup on March 20, 1926, against the Chinese Communists who had prewith
cooperated
viously
Kuomintang.
He
the
then went north
and captured Peking in 1928. In 1930, Chiang undertook herodestroy
ic
efforts
saw
as the greatest threat
the
Communists
to
what to China
he-
—
within. Five times
he tried to encircle them in their
strongholds
in
the
Jin
Giang
Mountains of southern China. In 1933, he assembled a 700,000-
late
man
army. Using methods learned
from
a
German
advisor,
Chiang Kai-shek
he harried
99
{left)
The
of mainland to
Chiang and
died in Taipei.
dominated northern China.
Chiang
of the
national government in exile.
no Heinz Cuderian (1888-1954)
OJ. Little
known of
is
the
years
early
of
Germany's foremost advocate of blitzkrieg warfare.
Heinz Guderian was born
Kulm,
in
Germany (present-day Chelmno, Poland). He was commissioned into a Hanoverian rifle
1908 and then transferred
battalion in
become World War to
After
a
communications
I,
the
he
commanded
war ended, Guderian became
deeply involved
in
German
military.
Convinced
vehicles
would bring about
in warfare,
Guderian
During
officer.
a radio station.
the
rebuilding of the that motorized
believed
especially
trench warfare of
changes
great
he called for changes
in
World War
tactics.
the static
that
would soon
I
be obsolete. In 1931, Guderian was given
When
motorized battalion.
command of a German
three
panzer (tank) divisions were created in 1935,
Guderian was named also
to
command
one.
found time to write a book, Achtung!
Panzer!,
during
1936 and
became chief of
all
Guderian
1937.
Heinz Guderian
He
mobile German troops
ated
from
the
Guderian was
continent.
By
time,
this
called "father of the Panzer divi-
sions."
in 1938.
In 1941,
Guderian commanded the Second
At the start of World War II, most European planners anticipated a long, drawn-
Panzerarmee (tank army)
out war. Instead, the lightning speed of the
by
German armored units stunned and Germany conquered Poland
Guderian, however, had reached his high-water
the in
Poles,
only
six
he
Russia;
isolating
intentions from Berlin.
his
^/iT^f-m" ("Smash, don't tap").
Guderian himself led an army corps into France in the spring of 1940.
German
The stunning
successes there were even greater than
he had hoped
for,
back
became anxious
in Berlin
and
his
nervous superiors that he
a
half years
before
he was
chief of the
serve
as
(July
1944-March
chat followed the
1945).
it
was evacu-
Fussen, Bavaria.
100
in
the
and shooting of many Soviet Red Army
he was never brought to
army before
melee
summarily
Although Guderian was complicit arrest
prisoners, contrary to the
destroyed the British
the
In
to
staff
replaced by Hitler.
the offensive a short distance from
to
his
breakdown of the German
Dunkirk, where the Germans might have
halt
summoned
army general
eastern front, Guderian was again
might
exceed his directives. Hitler himself called a
forces.
Guderian passed an uneventful two and
It
key motto: "Klotzern, nicht
victories
withdrawing without confirmation of
for
confirmed
thrust into
mark; Hitler replaced him in December 1941
philosophy, and he was given the task of plan-
ning the coming campaign against France.
its
and enveloping Russian
weeks. This success proved Guderian's military
also
in
immense
gained
Geneva agreements, trial.
He
died near
Erwin Rommel
n/i
(1891-1944)
Rommel
Erwin and courage
erally characterized
in
personified
chivalry
an age of warfare that was gen-
in
by
brutality.
He was
born
Heidenheim, Wurttemberg, and joined the
German
infantry as an officer cadet in 1910.
Commissioned
a
second lieutenant in 1912, he
came
Normandy on June
in the afternoon,
when
too
late;
the Allies had
ashore to
a
military instructor at the
aircraft
fire
remove Hitler from power.
he
a junior officer,
came
first
to
Still
prominence
when he was
given responsibility for Adolf
Hitler's safety
during
through Prague
in
triumphal ride
Hitler's
Rommel held this German invasion of
1938.
duty again during the
Promoted
major general on the eve of
to
II,
Rommel commanded
the 7th
Panzer Division in the invasion of France in
he was implicated
1944, he was visited als
who
at his
him
offered
poison
take
and
in the effort to
On
to Libya to
command
the
could either
remain
great
a
trial.
"
Rommel made dying
to
his choice
protect
his
two
ically
Rommel German-
North
in
Africa
fought against numer-
superior forces, dealt with his inadequate
supply
Malta
years
Rommel
lines (especially after the British as
an
air base),
used
and received conflicting
orders from Berlin. Using his personal
mag-
netism to infuse his troops with hope and drive,
he outmaneuvered and defeated the
Tobruk
British several times, finally capturing in 1942. His string of successes at
El
came
to
an end
Alamein, where he was defeated by
General Bernard Montgomery
(see no. 86)
of
England. Recalled to
given
Germany in 1943, Rommel was of all German forces from the
command
Netherlands to the Loire River. ceaselessly to fortify the
Allied invasion but against him.
When
He worked
French coast against an
knew
the tremendous odds
the Allied
D-Day
hero,
and took poifamily.
The
government pretended he had died from his woimds, and Hitler announced a day of national mourning for the fallen hero. Nazi
Italian forces there.
(1941-1943),
14,
gener-
a choice: he
1940. His brilliance as a battlefield leader was recognized by Hitler, and in 1941,
October
home by two
or he could take his chance with a "people's
son,
1939.
During
was
while in his automobile. Taken
Potsdam War Academy (1935-1938).
was sent
it
stay.
Hoping against hope, Rommel fought on month before he was wounded by Allied
to Berlin,
World War
By then
call.
come
for a
I.
Rommel was
in
Rommel He was
they were given per-
mission by Hitler's phone
Dresden Infantry School (1929-1933) and
Poland
1944,
6,
close at hand.
unable to use them, however, until four o'clock
served in France, Romania, and Italy during
World War
in
had two armored units
Erwin Rommel
invasion
101
nr
Mao
OU.
(1893-1976)
The
Tse-Tung
of the Chinese
leader
Communist
Party,
Mao
Tse-Tung won the Chinese Civil
War.
His
truly
drastic
policies
decisively
shaped China during the twentieth century.
During Mao's youth and adolescence, China had thrown off the
rule
Manchu
of the
(Ch'ing) Dynasty and created a republic.
Mao joined the Chinese Marxist He and 11 others founded the
1920.
Communist
Mao
and
Party in
Chinese
Party in 1921. For several years,
his
followers cooperated with the
Chinese Nationalists, led by General Chiang Kai-shek (see no. 92). In 1927, Chiang carried
out a sudden coup against the communists.
Mao
quickly became a military leader out of
necessity.
Mao common
For the next twenty-two years,
would focus on
rural
China and the
peasants as the bulwark of the
Communist
Party.
Mao commanded
perhaps 10,000
men
Mao
in
Mao
1928, but by the early 1930s, that figure had risen to nearly
however,
300,000.
Mao and his
followers,
were under constant attack from
on the
stayed
Sino-Japanese
sidelines
during the
War (1937-1945). He
Chiang and the Nationalists
perceived
as his true
enemy.
Chiang's Nationalist forces.
After the conclusion of
World War
Mao's response was to initiate and lead the "Long March." Commencing on October 16,
eviction ol the Japanese
from China, the com-
Mao
1934,
on
led
86,000 Chinese communists
a daring, apparently suicidal, retreat
from
Giang Mountains north through the Hunan, Kweichow, and Szechwan provinces. The communists crossed eighteen mountain the Jin
ranges
—
six
of them snow-covered
four rivers, and vast north.
They
also
swamps on
— twenty-
their
It is
flict.
the
Chiang and the Nationalists held on
cities,
but
Mao and
and
to Taiwan,
Peking
as
1949,
in
Mao He
fled
into
new communist
led
China through the Cold War.
signed a treaty with the Soviet
River into the Korean
however, brought national and international
Chiang
Mao marched
the leader of a
troops reached their destination in northern
Mao
Shensai province in October 1935;
dropped out along the way.
to
communists gained
nation.
1950 and sent
ers
the
control of the entire countryside.
believed that only 4,000 of the original 86,000
many othThe march,
and the
munists and Nationalists continued their con-
march
eluded Chiang's forces.
II
Forward
his
troops
War
across
Union the
in
Y;ilu
later that year.
directed the start of the "Great Leap "
(1958) and the Cultural Revolution
(1966-1969).
He
reversed an old policy in
attention to the communists, and their
1971 and welcomed President Richard Nixon
bers were soon swollen by recruits.
of the United States to China. At the time ot
made Mao Tse-Tung of Chinese communism.
journey also leader
numThe epic
the indelible
his death,
the
102
Mao
was the most revered leader
communist world.
in
nn
Georgi Zhukov
OD.
(1896-1974)
Georgi
Zhukov was born
in
village
a
Kaluga Province, southwest of Moscow.
in
He
joined the
Novgorad dragoons
1915,
in
and twice received the
at Stalingrad in
1942, and he was prominent in
the relief of Leningrad. the Soviet Union,
Made
Zhukov
a full marshal
of
led the troops that
St.
captured Berlin in April 1945, ending the war.
After learning military tactics in the Czar's
defense in 1946 but was relieved suddenly by
rose to sergeant,
Zhukov
George's Cross.
Zhukov joined
army,
the
new Red Army when down the
the Bolshevik Revolution brought
He
czar.
advanced rapidly
rising
forces,
in the
communist
squadron commander by
to
Zhukov attended the Frunze Military Academy from 1928 to 1931, commanded a 1922.
by 1934, and advanced
division of troops
commander in 1936. Zhukov managed to avoid
to
the
terrible
purges carried out by Joseph Stalin during the 1930s.
threat
He was
sent east in 1939 to
as
deputy
reinstated in
1952.
He
played an important
part in ensuring that Nikita to
power
in
premier in October 1957. leader
The
in
name a
for
World War
eastern
front
car-
the
would remain quiet War II. He became
throughout most of World
Army
chief of staff of the Soviet
was made a
full
general the
Zhukov played an were shown
in
1940 and
year.
active role in retraining
and reshaping the Soviet ciencies
same
Army
in the
after
its
Russo-Finnish
defi-
War
of 1939 and 1940. Like Stalin, Zhukov was lulled to sleep as far as the
Germans were con-
cerned; the Nazi invasion of Russia in June
1941 took him thoroughly by surprise.
As Russia fought
German
invaders,
larger roles.
for survival against the
Zhukov played
He commanded
central
and Leningrad
nized
the
reserve
increasingly
the defense of the
fronts in 1941
units
that
and orga-
stopped
the
Germans just short of Moscow in December 1941. Zhukov received the title of first deputy commissar for defense, meaning that after Premier Stalin, he was the overall commander of the Soviet war effort. Zhukov organized, Georgi Zhuki
though he did not carry out the counterattack
103
War
II),
humble peasant could
under the Soviet system.
Khalkin-Gol campaign, thereby ensuring that Russia's
greatest Russian
during the Great Patrioic
showed how fall
Kruschev came
1955, but he was ousted by the
ried out a brilliant battle strategy that cost the
Japanese sixty thousand casualties
of
Sent to an obscure post at Odessa, he
meet a
from Japan. Zhukov planned and
minister
languished in semi-retirement until he was
Russian
corps
late
Stalin.
served
(the
Zhukov rise
and
Nguyen Giap
n~7
ifo
0/.
(1912-)
Vo Nguyen Giap was born in An Xa village Quanbinh Province, Vietnam. Coming
in
from an impoverished Mandarin
he
family,
studied at a French school and earned a law
degree from Hanoi University.
He
joined the communist-nationalist group
by
led
Ho
Chi Minh around 1930 and became
its
"inner circle" members. Giap joined
one of
Ho
Chi Minh
China during World War
in
Giap then returned
II.
Vietnam and orgarevolutionary army in the northern
nized a
to
Determined
highlands.
push
to
out
the
French, he called for a massive insurrection.
The Vietnamese revolution was partially The communists held the highland
successful. areas,
but the French clung to
at least half the
country. As leader of the Vietnamese army, and later as
m
defense minister from 1954 to 1980,
Giap refined the principles of guerrilla warfare he had learned in China.
Giap directed major French
in
1950.
ground, but in
siderable
the
against
attacks
The communists gained con1951, the French
regained most of the lost areas in counterattacks.
Giap then for
him
set a
trap.
It
took three years
to lure the French into
committing the
army to an exposed region, the fortress of Dien Bien Phu. Giap directed 100,000 peasants in movements that brought
Vo Nguyen Giap
best of their
howitzers and mortars to the area. bled a massive Vietnamese
menced
the siege
on March
render of Dien Bien
He
assem-
army and com-
12, 1954.
Phu broke
The
sur-
the back of
reputation
sands of
revolution
against
the
soldier
stood
behind lost
it.
thou-
throwing themselves against
lives
overall effect
installations, the
was to lower the willingness of
many Americans By
hero of the
a
South Vietnamese and U.S.
French resistance.
The
as
Although the North Vietnamese
to continue the war.
the time the
Vietnam Wxr ended
1975, with U.S. troops in
flight,
in
much of
demo-
the direction of the war had passed to General
South Vietnam, one that
was supported by the power of the United
Van Tien Dung. Giap remained the grand old man of the Vietnam military. He had good rea-
Giap directed the North Vietnamese
son to be proud. His poorly equipped guerrilla
French, Giap soon had to confront the cratic
States.
government
in
troops during the long war,
1975.
It is
from 1963
to
unclear whether the idea for the Tet
offensive in
1968 was
initially his
own, but
his
warriors had defeated France, South Vietnam,
and the United of
104
more than
States in a protracted struggle
thirty years.
nn
Benjamin
UO.
(1912-2002)
Born Davis,
was the son of
1940, Davis became the
attended
West
at
African-American
first
U.S.
none of
graduated 35 out of a
was an
it
class
of 276
his class-
1936. His
high placement allowed him to select the vice of his choice,
He was
told,
and he chose the
Commissioned
in the infantry,
in
the
forces.
He
Davis taught
bases
later
At the time of
55-mile- (88-km-) per-
passionately for the
hour speed to save
both
limit lives
Davis was a chose
to
ignore
on
and
interstate
the
first
individual
prejudice
the
He
and
strongly objected to
believed that "we are
all
simply American."
He
he was
group of African-Americans admitted
to the U.S.
Army Air Corps and
pilot training.
Davis organized the all-black 99th
Squadron
North
Africa, Sicily,
known
as the
and
Italy.
They became
"Tuskegee Airmen."
Davis went on
Group
Fighter
Pursuit
1942 and flew missions over
in
in
black squadrons.
to
the
organize
332nd
1943, composed of four
Promoted
to
full
colonel,
Davis flew missions over Germany. Davis followed his distinguished World II
service
by commanding fighter
United the
States.
armed
the Air
51st
The
War
fields in the
desegregation
removed
his last
of
stumbling
and he surged ahead, graduating from
block,
the
forces
War
fighter
Fighter
College in
branch,
1950. As chief of
commanded the Wing in Korea
he
Interceptor
(1953-1954). Raised to brigadier general
in
1954 and to major general in 1959, Davis served for two years in Europe before returning to the
United States for
a
tour of duty in
Benjamin
Washington, D.C. (1961-1965).
105
who
insults
"African-American," since he
member of
Davis was a
highways
fuel.
remarkable
directed against him. as
served as assistant secre-
assigned to: Fort Benning, Georgia and Fort Riley, Kansas. In 1941,
his
(1971-1975) and argued
tary of transportation
being classified
pilots.
military science at the Tuskegee Institute.
endured segregation
armed
ser-
air force.
however, that African-Americans
could not serve as fighter
to 1968.
senior African-American officer in the U.S.
order. Davis in
and he
served as chief of staff ol the U.S. forces in
Military
mates roomed or ate with him, and he was never spoken to unless
African-American
retirement from the service in 1970, he was the
Point. Because he suffered
the "silent treatment" there,
first
to lieutenant general (1965),
Korea from 1965
the
to
promoted
of
University
the
Chicago before going
Academy
officer. In
rank of general.
to achieve the
Davis
mihtary
a
Jr.
Davis became the
Washington, D.C., Benjamin O.
in
Jr.
o. Davis,
C).
Davis,
Jr.
nn
Moshe Dayan
00.
(1915-1981)
One of
of the true military geniuses
twentieth
tfie
Dayan was born first
Moshe
century,
in
Daganyah A, the
Jewish collaborative settlement in
At the
Palestine (present-day Israel).
of
age
he
fourteen,
Haganah, the Jewish
joined
the
militia that oper-
ated in British-administered Palestine.
During the Palestine-Arab Revolt of 1936
Dayan
to 1939,
led special night
squadrons to protect British military
and Jewish settlements.
installations
The Haganah went underground in
1939
to
favor
after British policy
appeared
Arab control of
Palestine.
Dayan was caught by
the British and
sentenced to a five-year prison term,
but he was released in 1941.
He
then
Moshe Dayan
joined British and Free French troops
campaign
in their
Lebanon from
to liberate Syria
the control of Vichy France,
which had joined the Nazis lost his right
to
eye in this conflict; he soon took
wearing the
became
the
on the Syrian
war
Israeli
for
front.
he had
that
independence a battalion
By the end of the war
risen
command
to
new Jewish Dayan
vital
became
geographic points of the
state.
received
Britain after the war.
chief
of
military
He
training
returned to general
the
in
Israel
and
staff
in
1953.
He was supreme commander
Israeli
Defense Forces during the 1956 war
against Egypt
By
and fought
this time, the Israelis
over the Arabs in both
Dayan
new
left
the
of the
he served
Party,
(1959-1964).
as
When
to
war
in
of the Labor of agriculture
the Israeli government
1967, he was
and weaponry. Israel's
1958 and studied
made
minister of
The
Six
Day War
June 1967 vindicated
in
Dayan had worked toward for more than 30 years. The Israeli air force destroyed Arab planes on the ground; Israeli soldiers seized the Golan Heights, liberated Jerusalem, and captured the Sinai peninsula. The stuneverything
ning victory was attributed to
which
ness,
Israeli
prepared-
no small measure was due
in
to
Dayan's vigilance and forethought.
Dayan was
He
replaced as defense minister in
suffered criticism over Israel's lack of
preparedness for the
in
minister
defense.
had gained an edge skill
a seat in the Knesset,
A member
1974.
military power.
army
won
parliament.
Israel's
in the Sinai Desert.
Dayan's victory in the war confirmed position as a
he
politics before
in
of the
Jerusalem front, thereby gaining an intimate
knowledge of the
with David Ben-Gurion
organized a united coalition cabinet just prior
Dayan commanded
in 1948,
1949,
black eye patch
large,
his personal trademark.
When began
1940. Dayan
in
{right)
and
He
Yom Kippur War
in 1973.
returned to politics to serve as foreign min-
ister
from 1977
to 1979,
an exciting time dur-
ing which Israeli and Egyptian leaders laid the basis for peace
106
between
their
two countries.
Norman Schwarzkopf
nn
UU.(1934-) Norman Schwarzkopf was born
New
in Trenton,
His father was a brigadier general
Jersey.
a position to push
and had headed the investigation of the famous kidnapping
Lindbergh
Young
case.
Schwarzkopf graduated 43rd out of his
480
U.S. Military
at the
Academy
class
at
of
West
all
the
way
Baghdad and
to
remove Saddam Hussein from power. Stich a scenario
was not
to be the case. U.S.
president George Bush and head of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff Colin Powell declared themselves satisfied that the
United Nations' objec-
had been attained. The war ended with
Point and served for two years with the 101st
tives
Airborne Division.
Kuwait freed and Hussein corralled but
Schwarzkopf served
The
changed
he went to serve
War
as a task-
force advisor to a South Vietnamese airborne division in 1965. In
two tours of duty Silver Stars.
May a
His most famous incident came on
28, 1970,
mine
safety.
Schwarzkopf served
all,
Vietnam and won three
in
field
when he
chose to be landed in
and lead a group of
His devotion to his men,
his
diers to call
ural
many
of
the
Command, Schwarzkopf was
choice
to
to
the
lead
(1990-1991). After
Iraqi
Schwarzkopf returned home
a
mand Operation
oil-rich
and
led a ticker-tape parade in
He
received
Queen some 1992,
New York
a coalition
Elizabeth
II
of England. Mentioned by
as a possible candidate for president in
Schwarzkopf dismissed such
talk
al
tour for his best-selling book.
It
Doesn't Take
a Hero (1992).
sol-
U.S.
Kuwait,
com-
of allied forces
American countries, Schwarzkopf laid the groundwork for the invasion of Kuwait and the aerial
bombardment
that
month of fierce
failed
to
persuade
Hussein to withdraw, Schwarzkopf was given the green light to unleash Operation Desert
The campaign
Storm.
lasted
approximately
100 hours, from February 23 to February 27, 1991. Schwarzkopf's meticulous preparation
«8>
paid off as his coalition forces outflanked, outfought,
When
and
routed
a cease-fire
the
Iraqi
army.
was called on February 27,
Schwarzkopf had liberated Kuwait and was
as
rumors. Instead, he embarked on a promotion-
from European, Middle Eastern, and North
ejection of Iraqi troops. After a
City.
an honorary knighthood from
Desert Shield.
Welding together
He
hero.
the nat-
to Saudi Arabia to
in
addressed both houses of the U.S. Congress
war against Iraq dictator Saddam
Hussein invaded and seized
Schwarzkopf was sent
still
in Iraq.
him "Stormin Norman."
commander-in-chief
As Central
men
as well as his
high temper and self-assurance, led
power
an
as
of the Vietnam
start
his plans;
two
for
West Point
years before returning to instructor.
Berlin
in
Norman Schwarzkopf
in
107
TRIVIA QUIZ Test your knowledge and challenge your friends with the following questions.
10.
The
Who introduced the use of ricochet gunfire?
Describe that method of batde. (see no. 54)
answers are on the biographies noted. 1 1
1. What
is
the difference between Yoshimotto,
Yamoto, and
Yamamoto?
(see nos. 46, 82, 89)
.
One freedom
fighter
is
known
as the
and another is called the "George Washington of South America." Name these leaders, (see nos. 62 and 70) "father of his country"
2. Which feared warrior developed a disci-
plined system of force that used mobile horse
columns
to encircle
and entrap enemies who
were then killed using armor-piercing arrows?
12.
Whose
death on the Plains of Abraham
was commemorated
Benjamin West?
by
in a painting
(see no. 60)
(see no. 30)
13. 3. What did legend say about the
who
man
could untie the Gordian Knot?
ceeded in
this task
and how?
Who
How did "Stonewall" Jackson get his Why is ironic? (see no. 78)
nickname?
it
suc-
(see no. 6)
14.
Which famous
military leader
and
presi-
dent of the United States sold his swords and 4.
Who
removed
his half-sister
by banishing her to
become
a
convent
money during
from power
souvenirs for
in order to
stricken later years of his
the poverty-
life? (see
15. Describe the "Long March."
Who was
became a warrior and saved the French monarchy from England after she had visions of such 5.
the peasant
girl that
was
its
leader
and what
on communism?
effect did
6. Which military leader
the "Carolingian Renaissance"? (see no. 20)
commands." Which wars
1
.
is
its
organization and discipline
the only art that
is
necessary to one strike
you
been particularly well organized?
moted
first
have
Niccolo Machiavelli once declared,
"[W]ar and
was the
it
(see no. 95)
was not only a great European warrior but was also a promoter of cultural enrichment, helping to bring about
Who
Who
SUGGESTED PROJECTS
a destiny? (see no. 39)
7.
no. 76)
czar of Russia? (see no. 56)
African-American pro-
to the rank of lieutenant general? (see
.
.
who
as
Make
having a
list
of the wars and then name the military leaders involved.
no. 98) 2.
S.What was Safety
the
Committee of Public
most notorious
French Revolution?
for
during the
(see no.
65)
Some of the
military leaders in this
book have been memorialized example, a great epic
in
poem was
poems. For
written about
El Cid, Charlemagne's grief over the loss of
9. Several military leaders fought for land
Roland and his knights was described in "The Song of Roland," and Robert Bruce was
from which they were later banished. Can you name them and their homelands?
one of the
(see nos. 64, 65, 67, 79, 80, 92)
own poem about
the subject of a
108
poem by John
leaders in this
Barbour. Select
book and write your
his or her adventiues.
.
INDEX Abu Bekr 23
Augustus, of Poland 64
ad-Din, Nur 35
Austerlitz, Battle of
Candarii, Halil
Adolphus, Gustavus 56.
Ayacucho, Battle
Cannae, Canute
74 of 77
64 Adrian
I,
Pope 27
Wessex 28
Cape
IVlohammed 49 Bairen, Battle of 34
Agamemnon 73
Banks, Nathaniel 85 Bannockburn, Battle of 41 Barbarossa (Khair ed-Din)
War College
(U.S.)
105
51
Alcantara, Battle of the
Bridge of 52
Barbour, John 41 Barca, Hamilcar 14
Alcibiades 10
"Baron's War" 40
Alcuin of York 27
Batu Khan 38 Baudricourt, Robert de 46 Bayezid 43, 44
Alesia, Siege of 17
Alexander (Russia) 76 Alexander III (Scotland) 40 Alexander the Great 12, 13 Alexis, of Russia 63 Alfonso VI (Castile) 34 Alfred the Great 28, 30 Alt-Breisach, Siege of 61 Alva, Duke of 52 I
I
Bee, Bernard E. 85 Bela, of
Hungary 38
Belach Lechta, Battle of
30 Belisarius
22
Belleau Wood, Battle of 92
Bemis Heights, 66
Battle of
Amyntas III 12 Anaconda Plan
Black Prince, Edward the
Anastasius 21 Angora. Battle of 43 Annapolis 95, 97 Anne, of England 62 Anson, George 73 I
Antietam, Battle of 82
Antiochus
III
14,
15
ap Gruffudd, Llewelyn, Prince of Wales 40 Apache nation 86, 92 Appomattox Courthouse 82, 83 Aquitaine, Duke of 26 Arabela, Battle of 13
Argaum,
Battle of
75
Ariovistus 17 Aristotle
13
Arnhem,
Battle of
93
Arnold, Benedict 66, 69
arquebusiers 53 Artaxerxes 9 Artaxerxes 1111
Ashingdon, Battle of 31 Assaye, Battle of 75 Astyages 8 Atahualpa 48 Ath, Siege of 61 Atlantic Fleet 97 atomic bomb 94 Attila the Hun 20 Auerstadt, Battle of 74
of 73 Carabobo, Battle of 77 Cardinal Jules Mazarin 60 Cardinal Richelieu 60 Carloman 27 Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite 72, 74 Carolingian Renaissance 27 Cartagena Memorial 77 Catherine the Great 68 Cerro Gordo, Battles at 78 Chaeronea, Battle of 13 Chalons, Battle of 20
Big Hole, Battle of 87
Bismarck, Otto von 79
42 Blake, Robert 58
Blenheim, Battle of 62 blitzkneg 98, Bolivar,
100
Simon 77
Bolshevik Revolution 103
Bonaparte. Napoleon 68, 71 72, 74-77, 79, 90 ,
Boniface IX, Pope 44 Bonnie Prince Charlie 67 Borodino, Battle of 74
Boxer Rebellion 89 Boyaca, Battle of 77 Braddock, General 69 Brandywine, Battle of 69 Breda, Siege of 55 Breitenfeld, Battle of 57 Brian, Boru 30 Brodir, (Manx Vikings) 30 Bruce, Robert 41 Bulge, Battle of the 93, 98 Bull Run, Battles of 82, 84, 85 Bunker Hill, Battle of 66 Burgoyne, John 66 Bush, George 107 "Butcher Grant" 83 Byzantine-Persian War 22 Caesar, Julius 16, 17 Caius Marius 16, 17
Cajamarca, Battle
Charlemagne
26, 27,
of
48
Confederacy 78, 84, 85 Constantine the Great 18 Continental 69.
II
64 Chateau Thierry, Battle of 92 Chiang Kai-shek 99, 102 Chinese Civil War 102 Chippewa, Battle of 78 Chiricahua Apache 86 Christian Knights Templar 35 Churchill, John, of
Marlborough 62 Churchill, Winston 93 Churubusco, Battle of 78 (U.S.) 80,
82-85
79
Convention
Saratoga 66 73 Cornwallis, Charles 69, 70 Cortez, Hernan 50, 78 Council of Blood 52 Council of Troubles 52 Council of Warriors 86 Cowpens, Battle of 70 Crecy, Battle of 42 Cromwell, Oliver 59 of
Copenhagen,
Battle of
Crook, George 86 Culloden, Battle of 67 8, 11
D-Day
93, 101
"Damn
the torpedoes. Full
speed ahead!" 80 Daras, Battle of 22
Danus
III
13
Benjamin O. 105 Dayan. Moshe 106 de Almagro, Diego 48 de Baliol, John 40 de Cordoba, Gonzalo Fernandez 48 de Luque, Hernando 48 de Sucre, Jose 77 de Toledo, Fernando Alvarez 52 de Vivar, Rodrigo Diaz 34 Delium, Battle of 10 Davis,
Jr.,
Demosthenes 12 Dessau Bridge, Battle Devereux, Walter 56 Dien Bien Phu 104 Directory
government
(France) 72, 74
Ambrogio 55 33 Donelson, Fort 83, 84 Doolittle, James 95 Downs, Battle of the 58 Drake, Francis 54, 59 Dresden Infantry School (German) 101 Drogheda Massacre 59 Dunbar, Battle of 59 Dundee, Battle of 41 Dungeness, Battle of 58 Spinola,
Dol, Battle of
30
Clovis of the Franks 21
Cold Harbor, Battle of 83 Cold War 102 Colville Reservation 87
Command Submarine Force (U.S.) 97 Committee of Public Safety 72 Communists 99, 103, 104
of
56
di
Cleopatra 17
109
(U.S.)
Contreras, Battle of 78
Clausewitz, Karl von 76,
Clontarf, Battle of
Army
70
29
I
War
31
Cyzicus, Battle of 10
Charles (England) 59, 62 Charles (Spain) 52 Charles (England) 59 Charles IX (Sweden) 57 Charles the Hammer 26 Charles V (Spain) 50 Charles V (Rome) 51 Charles VI (Austna) 65 Charles VII (France) 46 Charles XII (Sweden) 63,
Civil
Compact of OIney Companions 12 Compiegne 90 Comyn, John 41 Conde, The 60
Cyrus the Great
82, 85 Chapultepec 78
I
Bennington, Battle of 66
80
Saint Vincent, Battle
Chancellorsville, Battle of
American Expeditionary Force 92 Amherst, Jeffrey 67 78,
Battle of
87
Aetius 20
Akraba, Battle of 23 Alaric the Goth 19
31, 33
Canyon Creek,
B-25 bombers 95 Babar, Zahiruddin
Aethelwulft, of
Pasha 47
Battle of 14, 15
II
Aethelred 28
Air
Calllnicum, Battle of 22
Roman Empire
Eastern
18, 19, 20,
22
ecclesiastical
Frederick the
Red Beard
46
trial
Prince 79
(France) 90
Frederick William
Edict of Milan 18
I
65
Fredericksburg, Battle of
Edinburgh, Battle of 41
82,
85
guerrilla warfare 28, 70,
Edington, Battle of 28
Frederiksten, Fortress of
Edmund
64 Freeman's Farm, Battle of 66 Fremont, John C. 85 French and Indian War 69 French-Dutch War 60, 61 French Revolution 71-74, 76. 77 Friedland, Battle of 74 Fronde of the Princes 60,
Ironside 31
Edward (England) 41 Edward (England) 41 Edward (England) 40, 42 Edward "Longsfianks" 40 Edward tfie Confessor 33 Edward tfie Elder 29 I
II
III
Eisenhower, Dwight D. 93,
97 El Alamein 101 El Alamein Battle El Cid 34
Frunze
Military
Galenus 18
Elizabeth (Czarina) 65, 68
Gangut, Battle
Elizabeth
II
(England) 54 (England) 107
English Channel 58 English
Civil
War
59,
62
Enlightenment 65 Eternal City 19, 28, 81
Ethelred the Unready 31 Fairfax,
Thomas 59
Falkenhayn, Erich von 88 Falkirk, Battle of 40, 41
Farragut, David 80 "father of his country"
69
"Father of the Panzer Divisions" 100
"Father Toussaint" 71
34 (Rome) 56 "fire ships" 54 First Crusade 35 Ferdinand Ferdinand
First
I
II
English-Dutch
"First of the First
Five
(Castile)
War 58
Blacks" 71
War 14 Years' Campaign 43 Punic
Flavius Stilicho 19
Flavius Valerius Aurelius
Constantinus 18 "flying columns" 38 Foch, Ferdinand 90, 91
Island of
Guy
Isocrates 12
Jerusalem 35
of
William 95, 97
Hampden, John 59
Jamaica Letter 77 James, of York 62 Janissary corps 47 Japanese-Chinese War 89 Jena, Battle of 74 jihad 35 Joan of Arc 46 Joan, of Kent 42 Joffre, Joseph 90 John the Good 42 John XII, Pope 29 Johnston, Joe 82, 84 Joseph, Chief 87
Henry
IV (Holy
Roman
Empire) 32
Hessians 66, 69 Hindenburg, Paul von 88
I
Hinmaton Yalaktit (Chief Joseph) 87 Hirsov, Battle of 68
II
Hitler,
Adolf 88, 91, 100,
101 Hobrik's
Hill,
Justinian
Battle of
70
Holy Land 35, 36 Holy Roman Emperor/
housecarls 31
Frederick
Great White Fleet 95
82-84
Great Patrioic War 103 Great Wall of China 37
Greek
fire
25
1
10
of
Justinian
I
II
77
22 25
Kaidu 38
Empire 29, 45, 56 Holy Spirit 18 "homonoia" 13 Hondschoote, Battle of 72 Hooker, Joseph 85 Hora, Battle of 45 Horid 45 Horns of Hattin, Battle of the 35 House of Bourbon 60
Great Convention 77
Joux, Fort 71 Junin, Battle of
Ho Chi Minh 104
30 "Glorious Revolution" 62 Godwinsson, Harold 33 Golden Hind 54 Gordian Knot 13 Gordium 13 Goyathlay 86 "Grandmother Victoria" 87
"Stonewall" 82. 85
Hawke, Edward 73 Hawkins, John 54 Henry, Fort 83, 84 Henry the Fowler 29 Henry (England) 36 Henry III (England) 40 II
of
68
Jacobite Rebellion 67
I,
Gibraltar ("Tariq's Rock")
Iwo Jima, Battle of 97
Hasdrubal 14
Hundred Years' War 46 Huns 20 Hus, Jan 45 Hussein, Saddam 107 Hussite civil war 45
(Prussia) 65,
51
Jackson. Fort 80 Jackson. Thomas
Harper's Ferry 85
Hubertsberg, Treaty
II
Rhodes
Izmail, Fortress of
Hannibal 14, 15 Haroldson, Sweyn 31
Great Northern War 63
79
48
Issus, Battle of 13 Jr.,
Franco-Spanish War 60 Frederick Barbarossa 36 Frederick, John 52 76,
Academy
Guiscard, Robert 32
Great Heathen Army 28
90, 91
Imperial Naval
Indies, Council of the
"Great Leap Forward" 102
Franco-Prussian War 88,
("They shall not pass") 91
Guthrum 28
Halsey,
of 63 Giuseppe 81 Gates, Horatio 66, 70 Gelimer 22 Geneva agreements 100 Genghis Khan (Temujin) 37, 38, 43. 49 Genghisid line 38, 43 George, Elector of Hanover 62 George (England) 62 George (England) 67 "George Washington of South America" 77 Gerberoi, Battle of 33 Germantown, Battle of 69 Geronimo 86. 92 Giap, Vo Nguyen 104 Gibbon, John 87
Grant, Ulysses S.
"lis
"Iron
Howard, Oliver 87 Howe, William 66 Hsi Hsia Empire 37. 39 Huascar 48
Focsani, Battle of 68
("I serve") 42 ne passeront pas"
"ich dien"
Duke" 75 Isaurian Dynasty 25
guillotine
Garibaldi,
24 Glen Mama, Battle
Musa 24
Inca Empire 48
70 72
Harrackh, Count von 56
Eleanor (Provence) 40
94
shall return,"
ibn Nusayr,
(Japanese) 96
Battle of
(Russia) 103 Fuenterrabia, Siege of 52
I
104
Guilford Courthouse,
Academy
Eleanor (Aquitaine) 36 Eleanor (Castile) 40
Elizabeth
71, 86,
61
93
of
"I
Greene, Nathanael 70 Gregory VII, Pope 32 Guadalcanal, Battle of 95, 96 Guderian, Heinz 100
Crown
Frederick William,
Ecole Polytechnique
II,
Greek oracle 8
36
Kanwaha.
49 of
98
Takeda 53 Johannes 56
Katsuyri,
Kepler,
Khalid ibn al-Walid. 23, 24
Khalkin-Gol campaign 103
Khanum, Saray Mulk 43 Romans" 27
"King of the
"Klotzern, nicht kleckern"
(Smash, don't tap) 100 St, John 51 Knox, Henry 69 Kolin. Battle of 65 Konlggratz. Battle of 79 Korean War 94, 102 Kosciuszko, Thaddeus 68 Kozludji, Battle of 68 Kriegsakadamie (Prussian War Academy) 76, 79 Kruschev, Nikita 103 Knights of
65
Battles of
Kasserine Pass, Battle
Khan 39
Kublai
Kunersdorf, Battle of 65
Kuomlntang 99 Kutna, Battle of 45
La Janda, Battle of 24 Lafayette, Marquis de 69, 92 Lake Trasimene, Battle 14 Lapwai, Fort 87 Lapwal Reservation 87 of Corintfi
12
Leavenworth), Fort 87 Lecfifeld, Battle of
29
Lee, Robert E. 82, 83, 84,
85 Lens, Battle of 60
Leo Leo Leo Leo Leo
Pope 20 III, Pope 27 I,
III,
IV,
ttie
Isaurian
25
Pope 28 Pope 29
Marengo, Battle of 74 Maria Theresa (Austria) 65 Marlborough, Earl of 62 Marne, Battle of the 90 Marston Moor, Battle of 59 Martel, Charles 26, 27 Masinissa 15 Maslama 25 Masurian Lakes, Battle at 88 matchlock musket 61, 62 Mater Theresa 58 Mathgamain 30 Maurice of Nassau 55 Maxentius 18 Maximian 18 Mazzini, Giuseppe 81 Mediterranean fleet 80
Mehmed
VIII,
Naarden, Battle of 52 Nagashino, Battle of 53 Najera, Battle of
Namur, Battle
16, 18
L'Ouverture, Toussaint 71
League
Marathon, Battle of 9 "March to the Sea" 84 Marcus Licinius Crassus
II
47, 51
42
Peloponnesian War Pepin
of 61
26
of Heristal
Perdiccas III 12 Pericles 10
Naseby, Battle of 59
army (China)
99, 102
Perry, Oliver H.
89
Pershing, John 90, 92, 98
NATO 93
Retain, Henri Phillipe 90,
Naval Bureau
91
of
Navigation (U S.) 97 Navigation Laws (England)
73 Nazi government 88, 91, 101, 103
Peter the Great 63-65, 68
Pharnabazus 10 Pharnaces 17 Pharsalus, Battle of 17
Augustus 35, 36 80 55 (Macedonia) 12,
Philip
Neerwinden, Battle
72 Nelson, Horatio 73, 89
Philip
Nemecky
Philip
of
Brod, Battle of
45
Philip, Fort II
II
13
New Model Army 59 New Orleans, Battle Nez Perce
Philip IV (Spain) of
80
Indians 87
60
Philippa of Hainault 42 Pickett's
Charge 82
Pierce, Franklin 78
Nicaea, Council of 18
Pope 32
Lesnaya, Battle of 63
Methven, Battle of 41
Nicholas
65 Levee en masse 72
Meuse-Argonne offensive 92, 98 Mexican War 82, 84, 85 Middle Ages 27, 34, 36 Midway, Battle of 96, 97 Miles, Nelson A. 86, 87 Milroy, Robert 85
Nieuport, Battle of 55
"Pillars of
Nijmegen, Siege Nika Revolt 22
Pippin the Short 27
Leutfien, Battle of
Leyte Gulf, Battle of 95, 97 Lincoln,
Abraham
82,
83
"Lion of the North" 57 Lodi, Ibrahim
49
Lodz, Battle of 88
"Long March," The 99, 102 Louis de Bourbon, the Great Conde 60, 61 (Hungary) 51 Louis Louis IX (France) 40 Louis of Nassau 52 Louis the Pious 27
Miltiades 9
Louis
79 Monck, George 58 Monmouth, Battle at 69 Mons, Battle of 52, 61 Montcalm, Marquis de 67 Montezuma 50 Montgomery, Bernard Law
II
II
XIII
Louis XIV 60, 61, 62 Louis XVI (France) 72
Louisbourg, Fortress of 67
Lucius Cornelius Sulla 16 Lucius Scipio 15 Ludendorff, Erich von 88
Lundy's Lane, Battle of 78 Lutzen, Battle of 56
Lysander 10
Milvian Bridge, Battle of 18
Mithridates VI 16, 17
Mohacs,
Battle of 51
Molino del Reyo, Battle of
78
Nimitz, Chester
97
48
Abraham 67 Battle of 45
Plains of
Nixon, Richard M. 102
PIzen,
Nobunaga, Oda 53 noche triste (night of sadness) 50 Norman Conquest 33
Poitiers, Battle of 26,
Polk,
42
James 78
Poltava, Battle of 64
Northampton, Treaty of 41 Novgorad dragoons 103
Pompadour, Madame de 65 Pompeius Strabo 16
Nystad, Treaty of 63
Pompey
the Great 16, 17
Maximus 17 Potsdam War Academy (German) 101 Pontifex
Octavian 17
Ogedi Khan 38 Okinawa, Battle Olaf
II
of 95,
97
Powell, Colin 107
Praetorian Guard 18
31
Oldenbarnevelt, Johan 55
Prenzlau, Battle of 76
On
Preston, Battle of 59
Siege and
Fortification
Prince of Wales, Edward
61
Operation Downfall 94
Prusias of Bithynia 14
Ordonez, Garcia 34 Organizer of Victory 72 Orleans, Siege of 46 Otto the Great 29, 30 Oudenaarde, Battle of 62
Prussian-Danish
War 79
Ptolemy
17
84
Maille-Breze,
Muhlberg, Battle of 52
Pacific Sea, Battle of
Mademoiselle de 60 Malesov, Battle of 45 Mangu Khan 39 Manuel 44 Mao Tse-Tung (Zedong) 99, 102
Murad 44 Murad 47 Murchad 30 I
Palestine-Arab Revolt 106
II
panzer/Panzerarmee 100,
Musailima
Patay, Battle of
26
("false prophet")
23 musketeers 57, 60
97
101
46
Patton George S. 93. 98
Paul
111
I
68
Princeton, Battle of 69
Protestant Reformation 45
Storm 107
Moussais-la-Bataille, Battle of
I
40, 42
Maginot Line 91 "Magnus" 16
II
William 67
Pizarro, Francisco
Morristown, Battle of 69
Mount Defiance 66 Mount Hiei 53 Mount Vernon 69
30
Pitt,
the 73, 74
Hercules" 24
Operation Desert Shield/
MacArthur, Douglas 95, 97 II
55
Morgan, Daniel 70 Morgan, Fort 80 Moultrie, Fort
Magdeburg Cathedral 29
Nile, Battle of
of
pikemen 57
On War 76
Maastricht 61
Mael Sechnaill
II,
Moltke, Helmuth von 76,
93, 101
10, 11
"People's Trial" 101
Narva, Battle of 63 Nationalist
94-97
Pearl Harbor 89,
XIII 16,
Publius Cornelius Scipio
14 Pugachev, Emeleyan 68 Pyramids, Battle of the 74 Pyrenees, Treaty of the 60 Rabi 45 "Race to the Sea" 90 Ramillies, Battle of 62 "Redshirts" 81 regicide ("king
killer")
72
,
Renaissance 37
Second Punic War
Resistance movement
Selim
Revolutionary 66, 69, 70, "rich
War
(U.S.)
80
as Croesus" 8
Richard the Lion-Hearted 35,
36
Guards
Life
Rodney, George 73 Roger the Great 32 Roman-Syrian War 14, 15
Omar 49 Sherman, William Tecumseh 84 Shields, Thomas 85 Shiloh, Battle of 83 Sichelgaita 32 Siegfried Line 90 Sigismund 44, 45 Sill, Fort 86
Rommel, Erwin
"singeing the king of
the Bruce 41
Roderick, of Spain 24
93, 98,
Spain's beard
101
Rooke, George 73 Roosevelt, Theodore 92 Rossbach, Battle of 65 "Roundhead" cavalry 59 Royal Military Academy (British) 93 "Royalist" cavalry 59 "Rump" Parliament 59 Russo-Finnish War 103 Russo-Japanese War 89, 92, 96, 99 Russo-Turkish War 68 Rymnik, Battle of 68
Sadowa,
Battle of
88
Saint Boniface, Apostle of the
Germans 26
Saint Gregory the Great
28 Saladin 35, 36
Salamanca, Battle Salarian Gate 19 Samarkand, Siege 43, 49
of
75
of 37,
San Carlos Reservation 86 Santa Anna 78
Sino- Japanese
1
04
Six
War 15 War 56,
57,
Ticinus River, Battle of 15
Ticonderoga, Fort 66, 69 Tissaphernes 10
Tobruk 93, 101 Togo, Heihachiro 89 Tolbiac, Battle of 21
Toulon, Third Battle of 72
Toulouse, Battle of 75
Dominique 71
smashers 73 "Social Wars" 16
tribute
Socrates 10 Sophia, of Hanover 65 Sorghagtani Beki 39 South Pacific Force 95
Red Army
100, 103
Spanish-American War 92 Spanish Armada 54 Spanish Reconquista 34 Spartacus 16 Spotsylvania Court House, Battle of 83 Stalin, Joseph 103 Stamford Bridge, Battle of 33 Stanton, Charles E. 92 Stone of Scone 40 Stonewall Brigade 85 Stormin' Norman 107 Strachor, Battle of 45 Strasbourg, Fortress of 61
"Savior of Protestantism"
Sulcot, Battle of
United Nations 94, 97, 99,
107
I,
fVlinor
Sea Beggars 52 Second Civil War (England) 59
Tamerlane 44, 49 Tannenberg, Battle
Task
Western Roman Empire 18. 19, 20 Wexford Massacre 59
Whampoa
Military
Academy
(China) 99
Wilderness, Battle of 83 II,
II
(Germany) 88 (Prussia) 79
Orange 62
"Veni, Vidi, Vici" 17
Wittekind 27
Vercingetorix 17
Wolfe.
Vernon, Edward 69
Worcester, Battle of 59
Versailles, Treaty of 88, 90 Vichy France 91, 106
World War
Vicksburg, Battle of 80.
World War 68, 91, 93-95. 97-105
84
83, Victor
Villa,
92,
85,
Emmanuel
II
III
of
Normandy 32 Wilton. Battle of
28
James 67 I
88, 89-95,
97, 98, 100, 101 II
81
Francisco "Pancho"
98 98
Pnnce Walachia 47
God" 23
82
Pacific
Forces 95
William the Silent 52, 55
Vitoria, Battle of
Scott, Winfield 78, 80,
85,
Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre de 61, 72, 76
Suvorov, Aleksandr 68
Scipio Africanus
Welsh Wars 40 Wenceslas IV 45 West. Benjamin 67 West Point 82, 83, 84,
William the Conqueror of
Scipio 14, 15
of
of
William
Magnificent 51
"Sword
Duke
Wellington 74, 75, 78
Xenophon Xerxes
I
11
9
Vikings 27. 30
30
the
15 15
Wellesley. Arthur,
34 monarchy 46 Van Tien Dung 104
Virginia Military Institute
IVlajor
again" 70
Welles, Gideon 80
Valois
Sun Yat-Sen 99 Sung Empire 39
Scipio Africanus
get beat, rise
fight
Valencia. Siege of
Johann von 56 Schwarzkopf, Norman 107 Science of Victory 68 Schiller,
fight,
and
Wilhelm Wilhelm
Victoria, of
Subotai 37, 38
Suleiman
23
of
"We
White Bird Canyon. Battle of 87
England 75, 87 Vietnam War 104, 107
63
streltsy
payment 20, 34, 47 Tromp, Maarten 55, 58 Tshushima Straits, Battle of 89, 96 Tunis, Siege of 52 Uhud, Battle
of the League of Augsburg 61 Washington, George 69, 70 Waterloo, Battle of 74-76 Wattignies, Battle of 72
Western
Travendal, Treaty of 64
socket bayonet 61
of the Austrian
92, 94, 97, 98, 105, 107
Toussaint, Pierre
slave revolution 71
Soviet
9
three-pounder cannon 57
Day War 106
of Spanish Succession 61
War of
60, 61
War 102
War
Succession 65
Thirty Years'
54
"
58
War
Theodosius III 25 Thermopylae, Battle Third Crusade 36 Third Punic
Sioux nation 92
Santissima Trinidad 73 Saunders, Charles 67
57
Tet offensive
Themistocles 9 Theodoric 20, 21
Shaikh,
I,
Wensel Eusebius von 56 is hell" 84 War of 1812 78, 80 "war
Seven Days, Battle of 82 Seven Weeks' War 79 Seven Years' War 65, 67, Shaibani Khan 49
Rocroi, Battle of 60
Demeter 19
Textel, First Battle of
Robert de Bruce VII 41 Robert (Normandy) 31
33
of
Seneffe, Battle of 60
68
I
Temple
Teutonic Knights 45, 88
ricochet gunfire 61
Robert
15
Tenochtitlan 50
Semenovskii 68
(France) 91 Restoration 59
14,
51
I
Vlad
III,
75
of
45
Tariq ibn Ziyad 24,
Wallace, Sir William 40, 41
Tarleton,
Wallenstein, Albrecht
112
Yesugei 37 Yom Kippur War 106 Yoshimoto, Imagawa 53
of
Vouille, Battle of 21
34 Banastre 70
Yamamoto. Isoruku 96 Yamoto 89
Zama, Battle of 14 Zhukov, Georgi 103 Zlska, Jan 45 Zutphen. Siege of 52
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