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Dr. John Henderson
HANDBOUND AT THE
UNINERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS
Morxuu/s Edacational
Series
A
Latin
Grammar BY
CHARLES Professor of Latin
E. in
BENNETT Cornell University
Stv,
pS^: <\
TOR( JTO
GEORGE
N.
MORANG &
CO. LIMITED
First edition printed February, 1895.
Reprinted April and September, 1895; April, 1896; April, 1898; May and September, 1899;
July, 1897;
April
and November, 1900.
Copyright,
By
CHARLES
"
E.
,*^,
1895,
BENNETT.
^-
~7
XorfaooO ^resss & Co. - Berwick Si Smith Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
J. S. Cushiiig
PREFACE. The
object of this
grammar
in a direct
book
to present the essentialfacts of Latin
is
and simple manner, and within the smallest
compass consistent with scholarly standards. primarily for the secondary school, of the college student,
formation as
is
and aims
it
While intended
has not neglected the needs
to furnish such
grammatical
in-
ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.
The experience
of
to restrict the size of
German educators
in recent years has
tended
school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded
an incorporation of the main principles of the language in com-
Within the past decade, several gram-
pact manuals of 250 pages.^
mars of exacting
this
scope have appeared which have amply met the
demands of
the
Gymnasial Latin course,
full
study representing quite as
much
— a period of
reading as that covered by the
average American undergraduate.
The
publication in this country of a
and scope seems editions
fully justified at the
grammar of
similar plan
present time, as
all
recent
of classic texts summarize in introductions the special
idioms of
grammar and
This makes
it
many minutiae
feasible
style
to
peculiar
dispense
of usage which would
sideration in a student's
to
with
individual authors.
the
enumeration of
otherwise
demand
con-
grammar.
In the chapter on Prosody,
I
have
special treatment of the lyric metres of
designedly omitted
Horace and
all
Catullus, as
1 One of the most eminent of living Latinists, Professor Eduard WolfHin. of Munich, has expressed the opinion that the essentials may be given within even smaller compass than this. See his Preface to the Schmalz- Wagoner Lateinische
Cramtnatik, 189 1.
Preface.
iv
well as of the measures of the
of these authors
all
comic
Our standard
poets.
editions
give such thorough consideration to versifica-
seems superfluous.
tion that repetition in a separate place
In the matter of 'hidden quantities,'
I
Lewis's Latin Dictionary for Schools, and the
Elementary Latin Dictionary.
have conformed to
same
In several cases
editor's later
this
procedure
has involved a sacrifice of convictions as to the actual quantity of
vowels
but the advantages
;
of uniformity
in
our educational
practice seemed, for the present at least, to warrant this concession of personal views.
The
discussion of inflectional forms and of the development of
case and
mood
constructions has been reserved for the Appendix
for Teachers, where these and some other matters receive
full
and systematic consideration.
To
several of
my
with their advice and ing of this book, to Professors
I
who have generously
criticism during the preparation
desire to offer
my
H. C. Elmer and B.
Professor Alfred
sity,
colleagues,
Gudeman, of
I.
assisted
and
me
print-
sincerest thanks, especially
Wheeler, of Cornell Univer-
the University of Pennsylvania,
Professor George L. Hendrickson, of the University of Wisconsin,
and Professors Francis W. Kelsey and John C. Rolfe, of the University of Michigan. Ithaca, N.
Y.,
Dec.
C /->
i? il/.
-d i).
15, 1894.
PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION. In the
this edition I
lists
have marked
contained in
my
last
markings
in
long vowels in conformity with (p.
52
ff.).
Lewis,
had originally followed, has meanwliile, edition of the Elementary Dictionary, accepted my a majority of the cases wherein 1 had expressed dis-
whose Latin Dictionaries in the
all
Appendix for Teachers
sent from him. Ithaca, Feb.
10, 1896.
I
C. E. B.
TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part
I.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC PAGE
The Alphabet
I
Classification of
Sounds
I
Sounds of the Letters
3
Syllables
4
Quantity
Accent
4
.
5
Vowel Changes Consonant Changes Peculiarities of
6 7
Orthography
7
Part
II.
INFLECTIONS.
CHAPTER
I.
Declension.
A. Nouns.
Gender of Nouns
lo
.
Number
II
Cases
II
.
The Five Declensions
12
Declension
13
First
.
Second Declension
14
Third Declension
i8
.
Fourth Declension Fifth Declension
Defective
Nouns
28 .
29
.
3° B.
Adjectives.
Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Adjectives of the Third Declension
34 36
Table of Contents.
vi
.........-43 ......••<.••
PAGE
40
Comparison of Adjectives Formation and Comparison of Adverbs
Numerals
.
.
.
.
.
45
Pronouns.
C.
.48
Personal Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns Possessive Pronouns
......•••• ......... .
.
.
.
.
•
•
49
•
•
•
49 fo
Demonstrative Pronouns
The The
Intensive Pronoun
.
.
.
.
•
•
•
•
•
5'
Relative Pronoun.
.
.
.
.
•
•
•
•
•
5'
-5^
Interrogative Pronouns Indefinite
Pronouns
.........
CHAPTER Verb-Stems
•
.
.
.
.
Pronominal Adjectives.
•
•
•
'
•
5^
•
53
— Conjugation.
II.
54
...........58 .......... .......... ........... ......•••• .........-79 ........ .... .......••••
The Four Conjugations Conjugation of
55
Sum
First Conjugation
5^
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
62
Second Conjugation Third Conjugation
66
'
Fourth Conjugation Verbs in -?5 of the Third Conjugation
70
Deponent Verbs Semi-Deponents
7^
74 7^
7^
Periphrastic Conjugation
Peculiarities of Conjugation
80
Formation of the Verb-Stems List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts Irregular Verbs
83
95 102
Defective Verbs
Impersonal Verbs
104
.
Part
III.
PARTICLES. Adverbs Prepositions Interjections
106
...........
.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
.107 108
Table of Contents.
Vll
Part IV. WORD FORMATION. Derivatives.
I.
PAGE
Nouns
109
Adjectives
.
Verbs
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Adverbs
.
.
.
.
.Ill .113 .114
Compounds.
II.
Examples of Compounds
115
Part V. SYNTAX.
CHAPTER Classification of Sentences
Form
.
of Interrogative Sentences
Subject and Predicate
.
I.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
Simple and Compound Sentences
CHAPTER
— Sentences.
.
II.
— Syntax
of Nouns.
Subject Predicate
.117 .117 .119 .119
120
Nouns
120
Appositives
121
The Nominative
122
The Accusative The Dative The Genitive The Ablative The Locative
122 129
.
142
152
CHAPTER
III.
Syntax of Adjectives.
Agreement of Adjectives Adjectives used Substantively Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs
Comparatives and Superlatives
Other Peculiarities
156
Table of Contents,
Vlll
CHAPTER Personal Pronouns
.
Possessive Pronouns
.
Reflexive Pronouns
.
Relative Pronouns Indefinite
.
Pronouns
.
Pronominal Adjectives
.
Pronouns. of ' •
.
•
PAGE •
•
.
.
.
•
•
•
•
.
.
.
.
•
•
•
.
.
.
•
•
•
•
•
.
.
.
.
.
•
•
•
.
.
.
•
•
•
•
•
.
Demonstrative Pronouns
— Syntax ^
.
.
.
Reciprocal Pronouns
IV.
.
.
.
.
.
.
•
•
•
.
.
.
.
.
•
•
•
CHAPTER
V.
— Syjitax
-^57 •
'57
.158 -159 '159 .161 -163 .164
of Verbs.
Agreement of Verbs
165
Voices
167
Tenses
167
Of the Indicative Of the Subjunctive Of the Infinitive Moods
167 171
174 176
In Independent Sentences
176
Volitive Subjunctive
.
176
Optative Subjunctive
.
178 179 180
Potential Subjunctive
Imperative
181
In Dependent Sentences Clauses of Purpose
181
.
Clauses of Characteristic
182
Clauses of Result
184
Causal Clauses
185
.
187
Temporal Clauses
....
Introduced by Postqtiam, Ui, Ubi, C?<;«-Clauses
etc.
187
188
Introduced by Antequain and Priusqtiam
190
Introduced by Z>«w, Donee., Quoad
191
Substantive Clauses
.
192
Developed from the Volitive
192
Developed from the Optative
194
Of Result
195
After non
.
diibito, etc.
Introduced by
Quod
195 196
Indirect Questions
197
Conditional Sentences
198 202
Use of
5j, Nisi.,
Sin
.
IX
Table of Contents.
PAGE
Conditional Clauses of Comparison
203
Concessive Clauses
203
Adversative Clauses with Quamvis,
Q uamqiiavi.
etc.
203
Clauses of Wish and Proviso
205
Relative Clauses
205
Indirect Discourse
206
Moods
206
in Indirect Discourse
208
Tenses in Indirect Discourse Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse
209
Implied Indirect Discourse
211
Subjunctive by Attraction
212
.
..... ..... ...... ......
212
Adjective Forms of the Verb
Noun and
Infinitive
213
Participles
217
Gerund
220
Supine
CHAPTER
VI.
223
—
Particles.
Coordinate Conjunctions
223
Adverbs
227
CHAPTER
VII.
— Word-Order
and
Sentence-Structure.
Word-Order
227
Sentence-Structure
232
CHAPTER
^\\\.
— Hints
on Latin
Style.
Nouns
233
Adjectives
23s
Pronouns
236
Verbs
236
.
238
The Cases
Part VI, PROSODY.
Table of Contents.
X
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I.
II. III.
Roman
Calendar
.......••• .......
PAGE
247
Names
249
Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric
249
Abbreviations of Proper
Part —
1.
•
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. THE ALPHABET. 1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the except that the Latin has no w. 1.
K
English,
y and
occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words;
were introduced from the Greek about 50 chiefly Greek. words
R.c.,
and occur only
z
in foreign
—
Romans, who
employed only capitals, I served V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write Yet some scholars prefer i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. to employ i and u in the function' of consonants as well as vowels. 2.
With
the
both as vowel and consonant
regularly
so also
;
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2.
are
The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The The Diphthongs are ae, oe, Consonants.
2.
I.
Consonants
other letters ei,
au, eu, ui.
are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids,
Nasals, and Spirants. 3.
these,
The Mutes
—
d)
p,
t,
are p,
q
c, k,
t,
k,
c,
q
are voiceless,^
;
b, d, g;
ph, th, ch.
sounded
i.e.
ivithottt
Of
voice or
vibration of the vocal chords. b)
b, d, g are voiced,^
i.e.
sounded
ivith vibration of the vocal
chords.
1
2
For For B
'
voiceless,'
'
voiced,'
'
'
surd,*
sonant,'
'
'
hard,' or soft,'
or I
'
tenuis are sometimes used. media are sometimes used. '
'
'
Sou7tds, Accent, Quantity. c)
ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent
p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-
to
house.
of classification also as
The Mutes admit
4.
ph.
Labials,
p, b,
Dentals (or Linguals),
t,
Gutturals (or Palatals),
c, k, q, g,
d, th.
ch.
The Liquids are r. These sounds were voiced. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a palatal mute, also l,
5.
6.
— that —
had another sound, n adnltermimi ;
as,
of ng in sing,
—
so-called
X\iQ
anceps, double, pronounced angceps.
Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are
The
7.
These were
h.
voiceless.
These were voiced. are j and v. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was
The Semivowels
8.
9.
equivalent to
See
f, s,
cs,
while the equivalence of z
is
uncertain.
§ 3- 3-
10.
The
following table will indicate the relations of
the consonant sounds
:
—
Voiceless.
Voiced.
Pj
b,
Aspirates.
Mutes, c, k, q,
ph,
(Labials).
th,
(Dentals).
ch,
(Gutturals).
Liquids,
m,
Nasals,
n,
(Labial).
(Dental).
Spirants
(Guttural).
Semivowels,
],
V.
The Double Consonants, x and do not admit of
z,
being compound sounds,
classification in the
above
table.
Sounds of
the Letters.
SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 3.
The
following pronunciation (often called
substantially that their civilization I.
a
Vowels.
;
employed by the Romans i.e. roughly, from 50 B.C.
Roman)
is
at the height of to
50 a.d.
Sounds, Accent, Quantity.
SYLLABLES. There are as many
4.
syllables in a Latin
word as there
are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables,
A
1.
single consonant
—
joined to the following vowel
is
;
as, vo-lat,
ge-rit.
Doubled consonants,
2.
like tt, ss, etc.^ are
always separated
as,
;
vit-ta, mis-sus.
In case of other combinations of consonants, such as can stand at
3.
the beginning of a word are joined to the following vowel
;
as,
ma-gi-
di-gnus, te-xl.
stri,
But compounds are separated into their component parts
4.
as,
;
per-it, ab-radit.
QUANTITY.
its
Quantity
5.
A.
A
vowel
Vowels.
of
is lo>ig or sliort
No
pronunciation.
This knowledge must be gained,
quantity of Latin vowels.
measure, by experience 1.
A
vowel
but the following principles are of aid
;
is longji
-giius, -gna, b')
when
c)
before
A
voTvel
a)
-gnum
;
as,
;
is
as,
:
—
gn
in
nouns and adjectives
in
infans, dignus, slgnum.
the result of contraction j
in large
—
before nf, ns, and before
a)
2.
according to the length of time required for
absolute rule can be given for determining the
;
as,
nilum
for
nihilum.
hujus.
short,
—
amant, amaudus. A few rare exceptions compounds whose first member has a long vowel as, nonduni (non dum) Some excepbefore another vowel, or h as, meus, traho. tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek as, Aeneas. before nt,
nd
;
as,
occur in cases of
.
;
b)
;
—
Note. Occasionally we meet with vowels that are sometimes long, sometimes Such vowels are called common. The variation appears only in poetry. E.xamples are the first vowel in Diana, ohe.
short.
1 §L, i,
In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them 6,
Vowels not thus marked are
etc.
short vowels
;
as, &, li.
short.
Occasionally a curve
is
set
;
as,
abov«
Accent.
Quantity
B.
5
of Syllables.
Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length
Their quantity
of time required for their pronunciation.
— long,^ —
by the following principles 1.
A
syllable
is
if it
contains a long vowel
b)
if it
contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.
c)
if it
contains a short vowel followed by x,
A
syllable
short,
is
governed
mater, magnus, dius.
a)
;
sonants (except a mute with 2.
is
:
;
1
or r)
as,
;
z,
or
any two con-
axis, gaza, resto.
contains a short vowel followed by a
if it
vowel or by a single consonant
as,
as,
mea, amat.
Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, cl, tl pr, cr, Such syllables are called common. In tr, etc.; as, agri, volucris.prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as 3.
;
long at the option of the poet.
—
These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary Note. and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such while a syllable a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because In case of the common syllables, it takes less time to pronounce it. the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such ;
syllables as long.
ACCENT. 6. I. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, t^git, morem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult
(next to the last)
if
that
is
a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante-
penult (second from the last) 3.
The
;
as,
amavl, amantis, miserum.
enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce,
-met,
-dum
always throw an
when the simple word miseraque, homin^que.
accent back upon the preceding syllable,
cented on the antepenult; 4.
Sometimes the
affecting the accent 1
To
2
But
syllable
;
as,
final -e of
as,
tan ton,
is
the
1
ac-
-ne and -ce disappears, but without istic, illuc,
avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables if
is
is
vid^n
(for
videsne).
not indicated by any sign.
or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding
always long;
as,
abrumpo.
Sounds, Accent, Quantity.
6 In utrique,
5.
each.,
and pleraque, most, -que
is
not properly an
words accent the penult, owing to the influence ut^rque, utriimque, pleriimque. of their other cases, 6. But in other words, -que does not throw back an accent unless Thus, regularly, dlnique, lindique, it is a true enclitic, meaning and. yet these
enclitic;
—
Itaque
litique, It is
;
but
if
itaque means and
.
.
.
so (-que being enclitic),
accented itaque.
VOWEL CHANGES. 7.
I.
In Compounds, 6 before a single consonant becomes
a)
colligo
for
a before a single consonant becomes
b)
adigo
for
expers d^ ae becomes T; as, conquiro
i
;
as,
;
as,
for
ex-pars.
for
con-quaero
—
—
;
Contraction.
The
one long vowel.
3.
as,
au becomes u, sometimes 6 as, concludo for con-claudo explodo for ex-plaudo.
e)
2.
;
ad-ago.
5 before two consonants becomes §
c)
i
con-lego
Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into as, first of the two vowels regularly prevailed ;
ties
for
tre-es
copia
malo
for
ma(v)el6;
cogo
for
co-opia co-ago
amasti
for
ama(v)isti;
como
for
co-emo
debeo
for
de(h)abe6;
junior for
nil
for
nihil
Parasitic Vowels.
for
ju(v)enior.
In the environment of liquids and nasals
a parasitic vowel sometimes develops
vinculum
;
as,
—
for earlier
vinclum.
So periculum, saeculum. 4.
Syncope.
Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope
ardor valde 1
—
for
aridor
(cf.
dr/dns);
for
valide
(cf.
validus).
Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here
;
treated.
as,
Peculiarities of Orthography.
CONSONANT CHANGES. 8.
Rhotacism.
I.
An
between vowels became
original s
arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) geniLs, Gen. generis (for genesis)
diiimo
as,
;
as,
;
—
pensum versum
for
pend-tum
for
vert-tum
miles sessus
for
niilet-s
for
sedtus
paasus
for
pattus.
;
Final consonants were often omitted
3.
;
dis-emo).
(for
dt, tt, ts each give s or ss
2.
r
;
cor
for
cord
lac
for
lact.
;
as,
Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated Thus: accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero (ads-); allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo (adr-); affero (adf-); occurro (obc-); snppono (subp-); offero (obf-); corruo (comr-); collatus (coml-); etc. 4.
to a following sound.
Sometimes the assimilation
Partial Assimilation.
5.
Thus
partial.
a)
b
:
—
before s or t becomes
p
g before
s or t
only
as,
scriptum (scrib-tum).
scrips! (scrib-si), b')
;
is
becomes c
;
as,
—
actus (ag-tus). c)
m before a dental or guttural becomes n eundem (eum-deni)
;
;
as,
princeps (prim-ceps)
PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 9. I.
Many words have
variable orthography.
Sometimes the different forms belong to Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt,
language.
1
diiferent periods of the etc.,
were the prevailing
Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here
treated.
Sounds,
8
Accejit,
Qiiaiitity.
to the Augustan Age; after that, cum, vultus, So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc., down later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc. to about the same era 2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same Examples are exspecto, expecto exsisto. period of the language. exists epistula, epistola adulesceiis, adolescens pauiixs, paulcottidie, cotidie and, particularly, prepositional compounds, lu3 which, even in those cases where actual assimilation took place in the spolcen language (§ 8. 4), often made a concession to the etymology in
forms almost
down
vulnus, vult,
etc.
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
the spelling
;
as,
—
ad-gero
or
aggero
ad-sero
or assero
ad-licio
or alliciS
in-latus
or illatus
summoveo
sub-moveo or ad-rogans or arrogans and many others. ;
3.
of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio,
Compounds
obicio,
/'tc,
objicio, 4.
etc.
Adjectives and nouns in -quus,
-uum
-quum
;
-vus,
preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -qiiom
-uos, -uom,
quom
;
;
down through
saevos
;
the 3d plural present
-quontur
;
;
equos
indicative
-vont, -vontur
relinquont, loquontur
The
the Ciceronian age
perpetuos
;
;
;
as,
;
servos.
exhibit
the
;
-vum -vos,
;
-uus,
-vom
antiques, anti-
Similarly verbs in
terminations -quont.
-uont, -uontur, for the same period
;
as,
vivont, metuont.
older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus
and Terence, has not
yet
been adopted
in our prose texts.
Part
II
INFLECTIONS.
10.
The
Parts
English,
in
Adverbs,
vis.
of Speech Nouns,
11.
Of these
Latin are the same as
Conjunctions,
Prepositions,
but the Latin has no
in
Adjectives,
Pronouns,
Verbs,
and Interjections
article.
eight parts of speech the
first
four are
undergoing change of form tu express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declencapable of Inflection,
sion
;
in case of
^
i.e.
Verbs, Conjugation.
Chapter A.
12.
A
Noun
is
of
the
— Declension.
I.
NOUNS.
name
of a person, place, tiling, or
quality ; as, Caesar, Caesar ; Roma,
Rome ;
penna, feather
virtus, courage. 1.
Nouns
are either Proper or
nent names of persons or places are
Common; 2.
Nouns a) •
as,
Common. as,
;
Proper nouns are permaCaesar, Roma. Other nouns
penna, virtus.
are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.
Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects mons, mountain ; pes, foot ; dies, (Jay ; mens, mind.
as,
9
;
lO
Inflections.
Under concrete nouns as, legio, legion;
are included, also, collective nouns
Abstract nouns designate qualities
b)
;
coniitatus, retinue. as,
;
constantia, stead-
fastness; paupeitas, poverty.
GENDER OF NOUNS.
—
Masculine, Feminine, 13. There are three Genders, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.
Natural Gender.
The gender
14.
upon
of persons
;
nouns
and these are
Masculine,
1.
of
Natural gender
sex.
if
—
natural
is
when
is
it
they denote males
;
based
names
confined entirely to
is
as,
nauta, sailor; agiicola, farmer. Feminine,
2.
if
they denote females;
mater,
i>iot]ier;
as,
reglna, queen.
Grammatical Gender. 15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of By grammatical gender, nouns its Nominative Singular.
denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the
Nominative Singular.
The
following are the general
principles for determining grammatical gender
A.
Names
1.
line
;
as,
—
Gender determined by
of Rivers,
2.
Names
—
Signification.
Mascu-
Winds, and Months are
Sequana, Seine; Eurus,
Tozvns,
:
of Trees, and and Islands as end
east
wind ;
such
Aprilis, April.
names
in -us, are
of
Countries,
Feminine
;
as,
—
quercus, oak; Pontus, Pont us; Corinthus, Corinth: Rhodus, Rhodes.
Nuuibcr.
—
-
Cases.
1
Other names of countries, towns, and islands follow the gender of below) as,
their endings (see B,
Delphi, m.
;
Leuctra,
n.
;
—
;
Latium,
n.
Indeclinable nouns are Neuter;
3.
nihil, nothing; nefas,
— Exceptions
Note. river)
Tibur,
;
,
to the
n.
Carthago,
;
f.
as,
wrong.
above principles sometimes occur;
as,
Allia (the
f.
Ending of
Getider detennined by
B.
The gender of the
of other nouns Nominative Singular.^
is
N'oininative Singular.
determined by the ending
—
i Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Mascusometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either /r/Vj/ or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also civis, citizen; parens, parent ; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be
Note
.
line,
common.
—
Note 2. Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, anser, m., goose So vulpes,
ox gander.
{.,
fox; aquila,
eagle.
f.,
NUMBER. 16.
Plural.
The Latin has two Numbers, The Singular denotes one
more than
— the
Singular and
object;
the
Plural,
one.
CASES. 17.
There are
six
Cases
in
Latin
:
—
Nominative, Case of Subject Genitive,
Dative,
Objective with of; Objective with to ox for
Accusative, Case of Direct Object Vocative, Case of Address Ablative, Objective with by, from, ;
1
The
great majority of
ciples for deteiniining their
in, with.
all Latin nouns come under this category. The pringender are given under the separate declensions.
Inflections.
1
1.
Locative.
Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting
names of towns and in a few other words. Oblique Cases. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases. Stem and Case-Endings. The different cases are formed by 3.
place where), occur in 2.
appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.i Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding But in most cases the final the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending The apparent casethat the latter has become more or less obscured. endins: thus resulting is called a termination.
THE FIVE DECLENSIONS. 18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows :
Declension.
—
First Declension.
13
FIRST DECLENSION. a-Stems.
Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension reguin the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are 20.
larly
end,
declined as follows
:
—
Voxtdt.,
Cases.
gate; stem, porta-.
Inflections.
14
The
c)
A
d)
Locative Singular ends in -ae
Genitive Plural in
-um
;
as,
Romae,
at
Rome,
instead of -arum sometimes occurs;
Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This termina-um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an
as,
tion
entirely different case-ending. e)
Besides the regular ending -is, we find also -abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and f ilia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns
from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and filius, A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity
libertabus (from llhexta, freediuo/naii), equabus
soft. ;
as,
(^^nares),
to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus, freedmati)
and equis (from equus,
horse').
Greek Nouns.
These end
22.
in -e
(Feminine)
;
-as
and
-es
(Masculine).
In the Pkiral they are declined like regular Latin nouns In the Singular they are declined of the First Declension. as follows
:
—
Archias, Archias.
Epitome,
epitovie.
epitome epitomes epitomae
epitomen epitome epitome
comet.
cometes cometae cometae cometen comete (or comete (or
-S) -a)
But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in
1
and are declined
musk; rhetorica, 2.
Cometes,
Some
like
porta;
as,
-a,
grammatica, grammar; miisica,
rhetoric.
other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.
SECOND DECLENSION. o-Stems.
Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end -um, Neuter. Originally -us in in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine the Nominative of the Masculines was -os, and -um of the 23.
;
Neuters -om.
So
also in the Accusative.
Second Declension.
Nouns
in -us
and -um are declined as follows
15
i6
Inflections.
In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager,
modified by the development of e before 2.
Tlie following nouns in -er are declined like
adulterer; geiier, so u-hi-Zaiu; labei, Baee/ius
vesper, evening ; and compounds in
Nouns '
24.
tlie
Nouns ending
in
in -vus,
and
-fer
stem
is
further
r.
-vum,
the Nominative
;
puer
:
adulter,
socex, father-in-law
-ger, as signifer,
armiger.
-qiius.
Singular in -vus, -vum,
-quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin, earlier
and a
later,
— as
follows
:
—
Earlier Inflection {including Caesar
Servos,
m., slave.
Aevom,
n.,
age.
SINGULAR. Norn.
and
Equos,
Cicero). m., horse.
— an
Second Declension. Norn, ingenivim ingeni
fllius fill
Gen.
3.
O
when
penult, even
These Genitives accent the
17
short.
it is
(for -ie)
Fllius forms the Vocative Singular in
-1
Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular.
The
;
viz., fill,
son 4.
as follows:
5.
6.
di
/j^t\ (del)
deorum
(deiim)
BaL
dis
(deis)
Ace.
deos
Foe.
di
(dei)
Adl.
dis
(deis)
Locative Singular ends in
The The a)
,_
,^ JVom.
Gen.
Genitive Plural has in
-i
;
as,
Plural
is
intlected
Corinthi, ai Coritith.
-um, instead of -orum,
words denoting money and measure;
^
as,
talentum, oj
modium,
of peeks. in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum. sometimes in other words; as, liberum, of the children;
talents; b) c)
socium, of the
allies.
Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension. 26.
I
.
a)
The
following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception
Names
b)
towns, islands, trees down in § 15. 2.
of countries,
the general rule laid
Five special words,
—
alvus, belly;
carbasus, flax; colus, distaff;
humus, ground; vannus, winnoiving-fan. c)
A
few Greek Feminines
;
as,
atomus, atom diphthongus, diphthong. 2.
The
following nouns in -us are Neuter
pelagus, sea virus, poison
vulgus, crowd. c
:
—
— according to
Inflections.
1
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension. 27. -on,
These end Neuter.
Masculine or Feminine and mainly proper names, and are
in -os, -6s,
They
declined as follows
:
Barbitos, m. and
are
— f.,
;
Third Declension. Consonant-Stems
2.
as the stem ends in a
fall
into several natural subdivisions, according
Mute, Liquid, Nasal,
A. 30.
19
or Spirant.
Mute-Stetns.
Mute-Stems may end,
2.
In a Labial (b or p); as, trab-s princep-s. In a Guttural (g or c) as, remex (remeg-s)
3.
In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (mllet-s).
1.
;
;
I.
31.
Trabs,
Notn.
f.,
Stems in a Labial Mute
beam.
(b, p).
;
dux
(duc-s).
20
Inflections.
Stems in a Dental Mute
3.
33.
In these the final
d
or t of the stem disappears in the
native Singular before the ending
Lapis, m., stone.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom Gen.
.
-s.
Miles,
m
SINGULAR.
,
soldier.
PLURAL.
lapis
lapides
miles
milites
lapidis
lapidum
militis
mllitum
.
Dat.
lapidi
lapidibus
mlliti
militibus
Ace.
lapidem
lapides
militem
milites
Voe.
lapis
lapides
miles
milites
Abl.
lapide
lapidibus
milite
militibus
B. 34.
(d, t).
These end
in -1 or -r.
Liquid Stems.
Nomi-
Third Declension. C.
35.
These end
in -n,^
Nasal Stems.
which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.
21
22
hiflections
i-Stems.
II.
Masculine and Feminine
A.
l-Sie/ns.
These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singuand always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular but these endings in -1, and the Accusative Plural in -is have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the end37.
lar,
;
iners of
38.
Consonant-Stems.
lusais, i.,co2{gh; Ignis, m.,yfr^,- Hostia, c., enemy; stem, hosti-. stem, igni-. stem, tussi-.
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Norn, tussis
Ignis
hostis
-is
Gen. Dat.
tussis
ignis
hostis
-is
tussI
Igni
hosti
-i
Ace.
tussim
Ignem
hostem
-im,
Voc.
tussis
Ignis
hostis
-is
Abl.
tussi
Igni or -e
hoste
-Ci-i
Norn.,
tusses
Ignes
hostes
-es
Gen.
tussium
ignium
hostium
-ium
Dat.
tussibus
Ignibus
hostibus
-ibus
Ace.
tussis or -es
Ignis or -es
hostis or -es
-is,
Voc.
tusses
Ignes
hostes
-es
Abl.
tussibus
Ignibus
hostibus
-ibus
-em
PLURAL.
I
To
.
the same class belong
*amussis,
rule.
auris,
—
corbis, basket. ciatis, hurdle.
apis, bee.
*febris, fever.
eai'.
orb is,
avis, bird.
circle.
ovis^ sheep.
axis, axle.
*buris, plougJi-beam
pelvis,
'jnsin.
clavis, key.
puppis,
collis,
restis, rope.
hill.
-es
stertt.
scobis, sawdust. *securis, axe.
sementis, sowing. *sitis, thirst.
torris, brand.
*turris, tower.
tmdis,
pole.
vectis, lever.
and many others.
Words marked at times
with a star have
show i-forms. Town and
Ace -im, Abl. -i. Of the river
names
others,
in -is regularly
many
have -im, -i.
Third Declension. Not
2.
all
nouns
in -is are i-Stems.
Some
23 are genuine consonant-
stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably,
canis, dog; juvenis, youth.
Some genuine i-Stems have become
3.
disguised in the Nominative
Singular; as, pars, pa?-t, for par(ti)s; anas, dtcck, for ana(ti)s; so also
mors, death; dos, dowry; nox, night; sors, and some others.
lot;
mens, tnind;
ars, art; gens, tribe;
B. 39. -ar.
These end
in the
They always have
Neuter l-Stems.
Nominative Singular -I
in
-e, -al,
and
in the Ablative Singular, -ia in
the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive
Plural, thus holding
more
steadfastly to
the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine i-Stems. Sedile, seat ;
Animal, aniinal;
Calcar, spur
stem, sedili-.
stem, animali-.
stem, caloari-
Inflections.
24 III.
Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of j-Stems.
40.
Many Consonant-Stems
have so far adapted them-
selves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the
Genitive Plural, and
-is
in the
Accusative Plural.
true character as Consonant-Stems, however,
is
Their
shown by
the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative SinguThe following words lar, or -1 in the Ablative Singular. are examples of this class Caedes,
f., slaughter; stem, caed-.
:
—
Arx,
f.,
citadel;
stem, arc-.
Linter,
f.,
skiff;
stem, lintr-.
Third Declension. IV. 41.
Stems
in
-I,
-u,
and Diphthongs.
25
26
Inflections.
Third Declension. b.
Neuter: cadaver, corpse;
5.
Nouns a.
2.
b.
Neuter
Nouns Nouns
46. 1.
7£'r///
nouns in -nis and -guis as, amnis, river; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail. ;
piscis,
postis, post.
hill.
pulvis, dust.
lapis, stone.
orbis,
mensis, month.
sentis, brier.
in -s
apex, peak ; codex, tree-trunk ; grex, flock pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix, cup.
:
tile;
preceded by a consonant. ions,,
fountain
bridge.
in -do.
a.
in
:
cardo, hinge ; ordo, order.
-1. :
sol,
stm
;
sal, salt.
in -n. :
pecten, comb.
in -ur.
Masculine
Nouns
circle.
in -x.
Masculine
Nouns
yfi'/^.
fascis, bundle.
Masculine
Nouns
^h^,foot.
;
Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.
a. 4.
paries,
collis,
Masculine
Nouns
a. 3.
;
Masculine: diews, tooth;
Nouns
a. 2.
;7?;;/
all
—
pons,
a.
vas, bondsman.
B.^is, axle.
Masculine
Nouns
;
in -is.
imbrex,
a.
as {com)
in -es.
Masculine:
Nouns a.
ati
vas, vessel.
:
Masculine: aries,
Also
6.
acer, maple.
in -as.
Masculine, as,
Ignis, fire;
5.
as,
sages, crop.
:
a.
a.
4.
;
in -es.
Feminine
Nouns
a. 3.
way; tuber, tumor; uber,
in -er
Exceptions to the Rule for Femiuines.
45. 1.
iter,
Also botanical names
udder.
27
:
vultur, vulture.
in -lis.
Masculine
:
lepus, hare.
;
mona, mountain
28
Inflections.
Greek Nouns 47. I.
The
2.
following are the chief peculiarities of these
The ending
Salanilna,
of the Third Declension.
-a in the Accusative Singular; as,
diet\\.QXB.,
:
—
aeilier
Salaiiiis.
The ending
-es
in
the
Nominative
in
the
Accusative
Phual
as,
Phryges,
as,
Phrygas,
PhrygiiDis. 3.
The ending
Plural
Phrygians. 4.
Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocative as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla. Atlas.
Singular; 5.
Neuters in -nia (Genitive -matis) have
-is
instead of -ibus in
poematis, poems. 6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.'). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension as, Orphel, Orpheo, etc. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular 7. sometimes in -is, sometimes in -1 as, Periclis or Pericli. Feminine proper names in -6 have -us in the Genitive, but -6 8. the Dative and Ablative Plural
;
as.
;
;
in the other oblique cases
;
as,
—
Nom. DTdo Gen.
Dat. 9.
The
Dido Dido Dido
Ace.
DIdus Dido
Voc.
Abl.
regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.
FOURTH DECLENSION. u-Stems. 48. line,
Nouns and
-u
of the Fourth Declension
Neuter.
They
end
Mascu-
in -us
are declined as follows
:
—
Fourth Declension. Peculiarities of 49.
Genitive the
Nouns
I.
in
of the
Declension.
29
Fourth Declension.
-us, particularly in early Latin, often
form the following the analogy of nouns in -us of Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the
Singular in
Second
Nouns
— Fifth
-1,
and Terence. sometimes have -u fructu (for fructui).
case in Plautus 2.
iSTouns in -us
of -ui; as, 3.
The ending -ubus,
in the
Dative Singular, instead
instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative
Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs;
and
tribus, tribe; and in dis-
artubus, tribubus, aroubus, lacubus. But all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus. syllables in -CUB
;
as,
with the exception of tribus,
Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, 4. but has also the following forms of the Second :
—
domi (locative), at home; domum, homewards, to one's home; domo, fro//i home; dom5s, homewards, to their {etc.) homes. 5.
The
only Neuters of this declension in
common
use are
:
cornii,
genu, and verG.
Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.
The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; portions, colonnade; tribus, tribe; 50.
idus
(Plural), Ides.
FIFTH DECLENSION. e-Stems. 51.
Nouns
of the Fifth Declension end in
declined as follows Dies, m.
:
—
-es,
and arc
30
Inflections.
Nouns
Peculiarities of 52.
The ending
I.
instead of
-ei,
of the Fifth Declension.
and Dative Singular
of the Genitive
\vhen a consonant precedes
is
-ei,
as, spei, rel, fidei.
;
(for-ei) is found in plebi (from plebes = tribunus plebi, tribune of the people, and plebi scitum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other words. A Genitive and Dative form in -e sometimes occurs: as, acie. 3.
A
2.
plebs)
Genitive ending
With
4.
-i
in the expressions
the exception of dies and
most nouns of the Fifth But acies, series, species, the Nominative and Accusative re.s,
Declension are not declined in the Plural. spes, and a few others, are used in Plural.
Gender Nouns
53.
in the Fifth Declension.
of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except
dies, day, and meridies, mid-day. in the Singular, particularly
when
it
But dies
is
sometimes Feminine
means an appointed
day.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS. Here belong -
54.
3.
Nouns used in the Singular only. Nouns used in the Plural only. Nouns used only in certain cases.
4.
Indeclinable Nouns.
1.
2.
Nouns used
Many
55.
in the Singular only.
nouns, from the nature of their signification,
are regularly used in the Singular only. 1
Thus
:
—
Proper names as, Cicero; Cicero Italia, /taly. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, ignorance; "bonitdi^, good-
.
;
;
2. 3.
ness.
But the above classes of words are sometimes used
4.
Thus
:
— a)
Proper names,
— to denote different
specimens of a type;
men
like Cato.
as,
in the Plural.
members of
a family, or
Cicerones, the Ciceros; Cf..c6nes,
Defective Nouns.
Names
b)
of materials,
denote objects made of the mate-
rial,
or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, bronzes
{i.e.
bronze figures)
Abstract nouns,
c)
— to
31
ligna, woods.
;
— to
denote instances of the quality;
as,
ignorantiae, cases of ignorance.
Nouns used
Here belong
56. 1.
Many
in the Plural only.
—
geographical
names;
Thebae,
as,
T/iebes;
Leuctra,
Leuctra; Pompeji, Pompeii. 2.
Many names
of festivals;
as,
Megalesia, the Megalesian fes-
tival. 3.
Many
important
:
—
special
words, of which
following
the
angustiae, tiarrow pass.
manes,
spirits
arma, weapons.
minae,
threats.
are
deliciae, delight.
moenia,
nuptiae, ?narriage.
Idus, Ides.
poster!, descendants.
indutiae, truce.
reliquiae, remainder.
insidiae, ambush.
tenebrae, darkness.
majores, ancestors.
verbera, blows.
in classical prose regularly
— nares, nose.
fides, lyre.
viscera, viscera.
Nouns used only 57.
city walls.
cervices, neck.
I.
Used
in only
Declension are found only
One
most
of the dead.
divitiae, riches.
Also
the
in Certain Cases.
Case.
Many nouns
in the Ablative Singular;
of the Fourth as,
jussu, by the
order; injussii, zuithout the order; natti, by birth. 2.
Used a. b.
in
Two
Cases.
Fors {chance^, Nom. Sing. forte, Abl. Sing. Spontis {free-will). Gen. Sing. sponte, Abl. Sing. ;
;
no one (Nom.), has also the Used 'in Three Cases. 3. The Gen. and Abl. are Dat. nemini and the Ace. neminem. viz. nullius and supi^lied by the corresponding cases of nuUus
Nemo,
;
nullo.
Inflections.
32
the Nom., Ace, and Abl. Sing., and the Norn. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing. b. all lack the Nom. Sing. Opis, dapis, and frugis, Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.
Impetus has
4.
and Ace. 5.
;
viz.
—
6. 7.
as,
Plu.
cor, lux, sol, aes, 6s (oris), rus, sal, tus.
Indeclinable 58.
Nouns.
Here belong — fas, n., right.
nefas,
instar,
nihil,
mane,
n., n.,
likeness.
n., n.,
secus,
morning.
impiety.
nothing.
n., sex.
With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, morning), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular. I
.
;« the
Heteroclites.
These are nouns whose forms are partly Thus: declension, and partly of another. 59.
I.
—
of
one
Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while
the Plural
is
of another
;
—
as,
vas, vasis {vessel) jugerum, jugeri {acre)
Plu.,
;
;
Plu
,
vasa, vasorum, vasTs. etc. jugera, jugerum, jugeribus,
etc.
declension, Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one 1. Thus have certain special forms belonging to another. :
a)
Many nouns Nom. and
a
—
of the First Declension ending in -ia take also
Ace. of the Fifth;
as,
materies, materiem,
materia, materiam. Third Declension, has the b) Fames, hunger, regularly of the material as well as Abl. c)
fame
of the Fifth.
Requies, requietis. takes an
rest, regularly
Ace. of the Fifth,
of the Third Declension,
requiem,
in addition to
requi-
etem.
d) Besides plebs. plebis. common sion, Fifth.
we
find plebes,
people, of the Third Declen-
pleb6I (also plebi, see
§ 52. 2), of the
Heterogeneous Xouns.
33
Heterogeneous Nouus.
Heterogeneous nouns vary
60. 1
in
Thus
Gender.
Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,
.
and one Neuter in -um as, clipeus, clipeum, carrus, carrum, cart. 2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another Alasc. in -us,
Plural
as,
;
;
—
SINGULAR.
—
:
— one sJiield;
in the
balneum, n., bath; epulum, n feast
PLURAL. balneae, f., bath-house. epulae, f., feast.
frenum, n
freni, m. (rarely frena, n.), bridle.
.
,
bridle;
,
jocus,
\\\.,
jest
joca,
n.
(also joci,
locus,
ni.,
place;
loca,
n.,
places ; loci, m., passages
or topics in
rastrum,
n.,
rake;
rastrl, m.
;
ati
jests.
author.
rastra,
Heterogeneous nouns may at the same lime be first two examples above.
a.
\\\.),
n., rakes.
heteroclites, as in case
of the
Plurals with Change of Meaning. 61.
The
following
nouns' have
Singular, and another in the Plural
one meaning :
SINGULAR.
—
auxilia, auxiliary troops.
career, prison;
carceres,
castrum, fort; copia, abundance;
castra, camp.
end;
aedes, house. stalls J'or racing-chariots.
copiae, troops, resources. fines, borders, territory.
f ortuaa, J'ortujie
fortirnae, possessions, wealth.
favor inipedimentuni, hindrance
impedimenta,
littera, letter (of the alphabet);
litterae, epistle, literature.
mos,
mores, character.
gratia,
habit,
custom;
opera, help, service;
gratiae, thanks. baggage.
(ops) opis, help
operae, laborers. opes, resources.
pars, part
partes, party,
sal, salt
sales, wit.
D
the
PLURAL.
aedes, temple; auxilium, help
finis,
in
role.
34
Inflections.
B. 62.
ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives denote quality.
nouns, and
fall into
two
classes,
—
They
are declined like
1.
Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.
2.
Adjectives of the Third Declension.
ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 63.
In these the Masculine
is
declined like hortus, puer,
Feminine like porta, and the Neuter Thus, Masculine like hortus or ager, the
:
—
like bellum.
Adjectives of the First 64.
Masculine
like puer
:
and Second
—
Tener, tender.
Declensions.
35
Inflections.
36
miser, wretched; prosper, prosperous
sometimes dexter, 2. Satur, /////,
;
compounds
in -far
right. is
declined
:
satur, satura, saturum.
Nine Irregular Adjectives. 66.
Here belong
—
alter, the other;
alius, another; iillus,
nullus, nofte
any
uter, which ? (of two)
neuter, neither
solus, alone
totns, who/e iinus, one, alone.
They
Noni.
Gen.
Dat. Ace. Voc.
AM.
are declined- as follows
:
—
and -ger;
Adjectives of the Third Declension.
?,7
With
the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in § 70. i, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of i-stems i.e. they have ;
the Ablative Singular in
Accusative Plural in
-1,
the Genitive Plural in -ium, the
-is (as well as -es) in
the Masculine
and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters.
Adjectives of Three Terminations. 68.
These are declined
as follows
:
—
Inflections.
38
Adjectives of 69.
These are declined
Two
Terminatione.
as follows
:
—
Adjectives of the Third Declension.
39
40
Inflections. Patrials in -as, -atis
c)
regidarly have
yet -e,
-i
;
when used
and
as,
when
-is, -itis,
iu ArpinatT, on
of persons
;
as,
designating places,
tJie
estate at
ab Arpinate,
Arpimim
i^v
an Arpi-
natian. 6.
A
very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are
frugi, frugal,
nequam,
wortliless.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
—
the There are three degrees of Comparison, Comparative, and the Superlative. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior 2. (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -urn), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel as, 71.
I.
Positive, the
;
altus, /«>/2,
tWxox, higher,
altissimus,
fortior,
fortissimus.
^S^'^i -j
I
fortis, felix,
brave,
fortunate,
dives, rich,
So
also Participles,
3.
felTcior,
felTcissimus.
dlvitior,
dlvitissimus.
when used
as,
—
doctus, learned,
doctissimus.
egens, needy,
egentior,
egentissimus.
Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to
The Comparative
is
regular.
Thus
:
—
asperrimus.
asper, rough,
asperior,
pulcher, beautiful,
pulchrior,
pulcherrimus.
acer, sharp,
acrior,
acerrimus.
celer, swift,
celerior,
celerrimus.
pauper, poor,
pauperior,
pauperrimus.
a. 4.
;
doctior,
the Nominative of the Positive.
to the
as Adjectives
very high.
Notice maturus, maturior, maturisaimus or mfiturrimus.
Five Adjectives in
Stem
-ills
form the Superlative by adding -limus
of the Positive deprived of
tive is regular.
Thus
:
its final
vowel.
—
The Compara-
facillimus.
facilis, easy,
facilior,
difficilis, difficult,
difficilior,
difficiUimus.
similis, like,
similior,
simillimus.
dissimilis, unlike,
dissimilior,
dissimillimua.
humilis, low,
humilior,
humillimus.
Conparison of Adjectives.
41
Adjectives in -dicus. -ficus, and -volus, form the Comparative
5.
and Superlative Thus :
—
as thougli from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens.
maledicus, slanderous,
maledlcentior,
maledicentissimus.
magnirtcus, magnificent,
magnificentior.
magnificentissimus.
benevolus, kindly,
benevolentior,
benevolentissimus.
a.
and -volens occur maledlcens. benevolens. Positives in -dicens
in early Latin
;
as,
Irregular Comparison. 72.
son
;
Several viz.
—
vary
Adjectives
Stem
the
Compari
in
bonus, good,
melior,
optimus.
malus, bad,
pejor,
pessimus.
parvus, small,
minor,
magnus, large, multus, much,
major,
minimus. maximus.
plus,
plurimus.
frugT, thrifty,
frugalior,
frugalissimus.
nequam, worthless,
nequior,
Observe that the and major. I
.
nequissimus.
of -ior becomes
i
j
between vowels
— in pejor
Defective Comparison. 73.
I.
Positive lacking entirel}',
(Cf prae, in front of.) (Cf citra, this side of.)
prior,
(Cf ultra, beyond.)
ulterior, farther,
(Cf intra, within.) (Cf prope, near.) (Cf de, down.)
interior, inner,
intimu^, inmost.
propior, nearer,
proximus. nearest deterrimus, worst potissimus, chiefest.
primus,
former,
ultimus, farthest.
deterior, inferior,
(Cf. archaic potis, possible.) potior, preferable, 2.
first.
citerior, ott this side, citimus, near.
Positive occurring only in special cases,
postero die, anno,
;
etc.,
1
etc.,
\
the following day,
posterior, later, r late-born, VO^^.^-^-^^^, pastlnunous.
posterl, descendants, exterl, foreigners,
nationes
exterae,
cigH HaUonsy
latest,
postremus,|^^^^_
1
for-\ J
tyi\.^xiox.,
outer,
\
extremus, '"['.'_"_' extimus,
1 \
outermost.
Inflections,
42
gods of the lower world,
\nitx'\,
f j
Mare Inferum, Mediterranean r.
I
inferior, lower,
\
oea, super!,
\
lowest,
'
\
Tnius,'
J
\
gods above,
supremus,
.
.
last.
\
\
Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea,
^
J
j
&
^
'^
summus,
highest
Comparative lacking.
3.
veterrimus.
^
vetus, old,
fidissiniiis.
fidus, faithful, ^
novus, new,
novissimus,3
sacer, sacred,
sacerrinius.
falsus, false,
falsissimus.
Also
in
4.
some other words
last.
less frequently used.
Superlative lacking.
alacer, lively,
alacrior,
ingens, great,
ingentior,
salutaris, ]n\'tm?,,
wholesome,
salutarior,
yoimg,
senex, old, a.
The
Superlative
is
-His, -ilis, -bilis,
junior,
*
senior.
^
lacking also in
and
in a
many
adjectives in -alis,
few others.
Comparison by Magis and Maxime. 74.
Many
adjectives do not admit terminational compari-
form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (inore) and maxime {inosf). Here belong son, but
1.
—
Many
adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus,
-Tlis,
-icus, -imus,
-inus, -orus. 2. Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel arduus, steep; necessarius, necessary.
a.
;
Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not
The
first
u
in
such cases
is
as,
idonevis, adapted;
come under
1
Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus.
2
Supplied by recentior.
8 * fi
For newest, recentissimus is used. minimus natu.
Supplied by
Supplied by
this rule.
not a vowel, but a consonant.
maximus
natu.
Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs.
43
Adjectives not admitting Comparison. 75. 1
Here belong Many
—
adjectives which, from the nature of their signification, do
not admit of comparison
mortalis, 2.
as,
;
hodiernus, of to-day
;
annuus,
a]iiiiial;
tftoi'tal.
Some
words
special
as,
;
mirus, gnarus, mertis and a few others. ;
FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 76. tives,
Adverbs are for the most part derived from and depend upon them for their comparison.
adjec-
1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -1 of the Genitive Singular to -e those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive ;
Singular to
a.
But
-iter
;
as,
—
earns,
care, dearly;
pulcher,
pulchre, beaut fully
acer,
acriter, yf^;r^/K;
levis,
leviter, lightly.
of -iter), to form the
2.
and a few Adverb as,
Adjectives in -ns,
others,
—
sapiens,
sapienter, zvisely;
audax,
audacter, boldly;
sellers,
sollerter, skillfully.
The Comparative
of
Adverb
Adverbs regularly consists of the AccuComparative of the Adjective while the formed by changing the -i of the Genitive
is
Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to (carus)
add -ter (instead
all
sative Singular Neuter of the
Superlative of the
;
',
;
-e.
Thus
—
Inflections.
44 Adverbs Peculiar 77.
in
Comparison and Formation.
I.
optime.
bene, well,
melius,
male,
pejus,
pessime.
magnopere, greatly multum, niucli, nonmultum,!^.^^^^^ parum, j
magis,
maxime.
plus,
plurimum.
diu, long,
diutius,
diutissime.
nequiter, worthlessly,
nequius,
nequissime.
saepe, often,
saepius,
saepissime.
mature, betimes.
maturius,
maturrime, maturissime.
prope, near,
propius,
proxime
potius, rather.
nuperrime. potissimum,
///,
minus,
nuper, recently,
prius.
previously,
prlmum,
especially.
first.
before,
setius, less.
secus, otherwise.
A
2.
number
form an Adverb
of adjectives of the First
crebro, frequently
falso, falsely
continue, immediately
subito, suddenly
raro, rarely ; a.
A
3.
and a few
few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the
Adverb
;
as,
—
minimum,
multum, mucJi; paulum, little;
A few
;
as,
—
firmus, fTrmiter,yf;-;///)' largus,
5.
least;
facile, easily.
adjectives of the First
Positive in -iter
a.
others.
cito, quickly, has -6.
Positive of the
4.
and Second Declensions
in -6, instead of -e; as,
;
largiter, copiously
and Second Declensions form the
humanus. humaniter, humanly; alius,
aliter, otherwise.
violentus has violenter.
Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of paulatim, as, antiquitus. anciently ;
which are -tus and -tim gradually.
;
Ninnerals.
45
NUMERALS. 78. I.
II.
79
Numerals may be divided
into
—
Numeral Adjectives, comprising — a.
Cardinals;
b.
Ordinals;
c.
Distributives;
unus, (?«^; dno,i2vo; etc. primus, yfrj-/ ; secundus, j^^r^w^;
as, as,
Numeral Adverbs
2i%,
;
z.'s,,
^in^-oM.,
etc.
one by one ; hlal, two by two ;
senxel, once ; his, twice
;
etc.
etc.
46
Inflectimis. Cardinals.
Ordinals.
centesinras centum Gnus centum et unus centesinnis 200.
[Jiimu.s et
Distributives.
centenT singuli
primub centeni
et singuli
Adverbs. centies semel
Nu7nerals.
Thus mille homines, a thousand men izvo
thousand
as,
mllle
millia
hominum,
;
hominum.
Other Cardinals are indeclinable.
6.
arc declined like Adjectives of the First
Peculiarities in the 81.
The compounds from
I.
used.
Thus
sex
The numerals under
by subtraction
as,
;
sex et
or
—
90,
Numerals.
of
to 99
—
:
triginta
Ordinals and Distributives and Second Declensions.
Use
21
with the larger or the smaller numeral
2.
duo
but
two thousands of men.
>ne/i, literally
Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction
a.
is
;
47
may be
expressed either
In the latter case, et
first.
triginta, thirty-six.
ending
in 8
and
9,
duodeviginti, eighteen (but also octodecim) iindequadraginta, thirty-ni)ie (but also triginta
are often expressed
;
et triginta) 3.
novem
or
novem
.
Compounds over
100 regularly have the largest
the others follow without et
as,
;
—
number
centum viginti septem, one hundred and twenty-seven. anno miUesimo octingentesimo octogesimo secundo,
in the
first;
year
1SS2.
Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number one of the tens as,
—
;
centum centum 4.
The a)
et septem, one hundred
denote so
bina talenta b)
When
either a digit or
and seven and forty. ;
et quadragiuta, one hundred
—
Distributives are used
To
is
many
each, so
many
apiece; as,
dedit, he gave them two talents each.
iis
those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but
Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense
binae
litter ae,
two
;
as,
—
epistles.
But in such cases, uni (not singuli) is regularly employed and trini (not tern!) for three as,
for one,
Gnae
;
trinae litterae, three c)
—
litterae, one epistle.
In multiplication
;
epistles.
as,
bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four.
48
Inflections.
C.
82.
A
Pronoun
out naming 83.
is
a
PRONOUNS.
word that indicates something
There are the following classes of pronouns I.
II.
Personal.
V.
III.
Possessive.
IV.
Demonstrative.
Interrogative. Indefinite.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
These correspond to the English and are declined as follows
84.
:
/;
—
Relative.
VII. VIII.
:
Intensive.
VI.
Reflexive.
I.
etc.,
with-
it.
—
I, yoit, he, she, it,
Pronoims. 3.
In early Latin,
med
49
and ted occur
as Accusative
and Ablative
forms. II.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause which they stand; like myself yourself in I see myself,'
85. in
etc.
,
They
are declined as follows
:
—
,
^
50
Inflections.
2.
3.
The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular
Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis.
common
in case of
IV. 87.
suo, sua
;
They
hic, this (where iste, that ille,
I
are
and
as here or there, or as
—
am)
(where you are)
that (something distinct from the speaker)
that (weaker than ille)
idem, iste,
of the
particularly
suopte, suapte.
These point out an object
is,
is
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
previously mentioned.
Hic,
as,
This
;
the same.
ille are
accordingly the Demonstratives of the First,
Second, and Third Persons respectively.
The Intensive Prononn.
—
TJie Relative
Is, he^ this, that.
Pronoun.
5
Inflections.
52
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
VII.
stantive) I
and
Quis,
.
Interrogative Pronouns are quis,
The
90.
ivhatf what kind off
qui,
PLURAL.
SINGULAR. Neuter.
Nojn.
quis
quid
Ge7i.
cujus
cujus
Dat.
cui
cui
Ace.
quern
quid
Abl.
quo
quo
tive
(sub-
who ?
Masc. and f em.
2.
whof
(adjective).
Wanting.
what kind of? is declined viz. qui, quae, quod, etc.
qui, ivhat?
Pronoun
;
precisely like the Rela-
old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense of how? Questions. is sometimes used for quis in Indirect
a.
An
b.
Qui
Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homS = what manf whereas qui homo = what sort of a man ? -nam. Thus d. Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding (^MiAn-axa., pray? what, /m/.^ w/w, quisnam, Substantive, c.
—
:
quinam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind., pray?
Adjective.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
VIII.
These have the general force
91.
quis,
^ .
.
quispiam,
j '
I
someone, something. (
.
quidquam, ^ ^ quidpiam.
anyone, ,, „ anything
\
anyone,
I
anything.
quidque, each.
quisque,
•
quivis.
,
^
quisquam
quaevis,
,
one,
any
one.
Fem.
Neut.
qui,
quae or qua, quod, a/?)'.
aliqui
aliqua,
anything.
(
,.
aliquis,
Masc.
Neut.
F.
some
ADJECTIVES.
SUBSTANTIVES. M. AND
of
-
quidvis,
anyone,
f
corresponding adjective.
quispiam, quaepiam,
^,^;^^
[^
r
i
I
quaeque,
quodque, each.
quTvTs,
quaevis,
quodvis,
quilibet,
quaelibet,
quodlibet,
quidam,
quaedam,
quoddam,
^y^/^_
a ce I til ill person, 01
quodpiam, any.
quisque,
^„,,//,;,,^,
quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet,
duidam, quaedam.quiddam,
No
aliquod, any.
thi/i^.
-'
j
|
^
^^^^^^_
'^"^^^
Indefinite Pronouns.
In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part
1.
Thus
— Pronominal Adjectives.
:
Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet,
is
53
declined.
etc.
Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular FemiNominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Qui has both qua and quae in these same cases. 2.
nine, also in the
Quidam
3.
forms Accusative Singular quendam,
quorundam, quarundam
tive Plural
the
;
m
quandam
;
Geni-
being assimilated to n
before d.
Aliquis may be used
4.
adjectively,
and (occasionally) aliqui sub-
stantively.
In combination with ne,
5.
stand as a Substantive.
Thus
:
si, nisi,
si
num,
either quis or
qui may
quis or si qui.
'Ecquis, anyone, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has It has both substantive and adjective forms, substantive, ecquis, ecquid adjective, ecqui, ecquae and ecqua, 6.
interrogative force.
;
ecquod. 7.
Quisquam
8.
There are two Indefinite Relatives,
whoever.
is
not used in the Plural.
Quicumque
— quicumque and quisquis,
declines only the
both, but has only quisquis, quidquid,
first
part
quoquo
;
in
quisquis declines
common
use.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 92.
The
following adjectives, also, frequently have pro-
nominal force 1
:
—
alius, attoi/ter
.
alter, the other
;
utei, which of two? (intern);
whichever of two
(rel.)
nuUus,
unus, one;
The compounds,
2.
neuter, neither;
;
710
one (in oblique cases).
—
uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two;
utercumque, utracumque, utrumctimque, whoever of two; uterlibet, utralibet, utrunilibet, either one you please; utervis, utravis, utrumvia, either one yon please; alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other. is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both
In these, uter alone
parts
;
as,
—
Nom.
alteruter
altera utra
Gen.
alterius utrius
etc.
alterum utrum
Inflections.
54
Chapter 93.
The
94.
Verbs
II.
Inflection of
— Conjugation.
Verbs
have Voice,
is
called Conjugation.
Mood, Tense, Number, and
Person
— Active and Passive. — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
1.
Two
2.
Three Moods,
3.
Six Tenses,
Voices,
Present,
Perfect,
Imperfect,
Pluperfect,
Future,
Future Perfect.
But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect
;
while the
Imperative employs only the Present and Future. 4. 5.
Numbers, Three Persons,
— Singular and Plural. — Second, and Third. First,
These make up the
95. this,
Two
we have
the following
—
1.
Noun Forms,
2.
Adjective Forms,
96.
so-called Finite Verb.
Noun and
Infinitive,
Besides
Adjective Forms:
Gerund, and Supine.
— Participles (including the Gerundive).
The Personal Endings
of the
Verb
are,
—
—
Verb-StcDis.
—
Four Conjugations.
Tlie
Preseait Stem, from which are formed
I.
1.
Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative,
Present and Imperfect Subjunctive,
The Imperative, The Present Infinitive, The Present Active Participle,
4. 5.
Active and Pas|
sive. [
the Gerund, and Gerundive.
—
and Future Perfect
1.
Perfect, Pkiperfect,
2.
Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
3.
Perfect Infinitive,
Indicative,
1
^
Active.
J
Participial Stem, from whicli are formed
III.
~\
J
Perfect Stem, from which are formed
II.
—
2. 3.
55
1.
Perfect Participle,
2.
Perfect, Pluperfect,
3.
Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
4.
Perfect Infinitive,
— 1
and Future Perfect
Indicative,
I
po..:
.„
|
J
Apparently from the same stem, though really of different
ori-
gin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive
Active and Passive.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. There are
98.
in Latin four regular Conjugations, dis-
tinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows Infinitive
Distinguishing
Vowel.
I.
-are
S,
II.
-ere
III.
-6re
5 S
IV.
-ire
T
The Present
Principal Parts.
99.
Infinitive,
—
Termination.
/-,„
Conjugation.
:
Indicative, Present
Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle^
constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,
— so
called
because they contain the different stems, from which the full
1
conjugation of the verb Where
occurs,
is
the Perfect Participle
is
may be
derived.
not in use, the Future Active Participle,
given as one of the Principal Parts.
if it
Inflections.
56
CONJUGATION OF SUM. The
100.
irregular verb
conjugation of
sum
so important
is
other verbs that
all
its
inflection
for the is
given
at the outset.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
sum
espe
Fut. Partic'
Pekf. Ind.
futurus
fui
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
sumus, we are, estis, you are,
sum, /am, es,
thou art,
sunt, they are.
est, he is
Imperfect.
eram, I was,
eramus, we were,
eras, thou wast,
eratis, yo2i were,
erat, he
was
erant, they were.
Future. er5,
I shall be,
eris,
thou wilt
erit,
he will be
erimus, we shall eritis,
be,
you will
be,
be.
erunt, they will be.
Perfect. fuI,
/ have
fuisti, fuit,
bee»,
fuimus, we have been,
I was,
thou hast been, thou wast
was
he has been, he
fuistis,
you have
fu erunt, t]iey
we
been.,
have
were,
you were,
been, they were.
fuere.
Pluperfect.
fueram, / had been,
fueramus, we had
fueras, thou hadst been,
fueratis,
fuerat, he
had
been
been,
you had been, fuerant, they had been.
Future Perfect. fuero,
/ shall have
been,
have been, he will have been
fuerimus, we shall have been,
you will have been, have been.
tueris, thou wilt
fueritis,
fuerit,
fuerint, they will
1
The
Perfect Participle
is
wanting
in
sum.
Conjugation of Si
57
SUBJUNCTIVE.i Present. SINGULAR.
sim, SIS,
may I
mayst
sit, let
PLURAL.
simus,
be,
sitis, be ye,
tliou be,
him
be,
may
us
let
he
be,
may you
be,
sint, let thetu be.
be',
Imperfect.
essem,- / should esses,'-^ thoii
essemus, we should
be,
essetis, yoii
woiildst be,
esset,^ he
would
fuerim, /
may
would
be.,
be,
essent,^ they woitld be.
be
Perfect.
may have been, you may have been, they may have been.
fuerinius, 2ue
Jiave been,
mayst have been, he may have been
fueris, thou
fueritis,
fuerit,
fuerint,
Pluperfect.
fuissemus, we should have been,
fuissem, / should have been,
have been, would have been
you would have would have
fuisses, thou wouldst
fuissetis,
fuisset,
fuissent, they
lie
been,
been.
IMPERATIVE. este, be ye.
Pres. es, be thou, esto, thou shalt
Fut.
estote, ye shall
be,
be,
sunto, they shall
esto, he shall be;
be.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE. Pres. esse, to be. Perf. fuisse, to have been.
Fut.
1
futurus esse,3 to be about
The meanings
to be.
Fut.
of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so
varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that
them
futurus,^ about to
be.
many and
no attempt can be made
so
to give
here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax. For essem, esses, esset, essent, the forms forem, fores, foret, forent are sometimes used. 8 For futurus esse the form fore is often used. 4 Declined like bonus, -a, -um. 2
Inflections.
58
FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. Active Voice.
101.
— Am5, / love.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres, Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
Perf. Pass. Partic.
amo
amare
amavi
amatus
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
amo, I love, amas, yoii love,
amamus, we
am at,
amant,
love,
amatis, you love,
he loves
tJiey love.
Imperfect.
amabam, / was
amabamus, we were
loving,
loving,
amabatis, you were loving, amabant, tJiey were loving.
amabSs, you were loving, amabat, he was loving',
Future.
amabo, I shall love, amabis, you will love,
amabimus, ive shall love, amabitis, you will love,
amabit, he will love
amabuiit, they will
love.
Perfect.
amavi,
/ hai'e
loved,
I
loved,
amavisti, you have loved, you
amavimus, we have loved, we ama\'istis, you have loved, you
loved,
loved,
loved,
amavit, he has loved, he loved;
amaverunt,
-ere, they
have loved, they
loved.
Pluperfect.
amaveramus, we had
amaveram, / had loved, am aver as, you had loved, amaverat, he had loved;
loved,
amaveratis, you had loved,
am aver ant,
they
had loved.
Future Perfect. amavero. / shall have loafed, amaveris, you will have loved, amaverit, he will have loved;
amaverimus, we shall have loved, ama\eriti.s, you will have loved, amaverint, they will have loved.
First Conjugation.
59
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
amem, inay I love, ames, may yon love,
aniemus,
amet,
ament,
let Jiiin
let
us love,
ametis, tnay you
love
love,
let tJieiu loiie.
Imperfect.
amarem, / slioidd love, amares, you would love, amaret, he would love
amaremus, ive should love, amaretis, you would love, amarent, they would love. Perfect.
amaverim, / jnay have loved, amaveris, you may have loved, amaverit, he may have loved;
amaverimus, we may have loved, amaveritis, you may have loved, amaverint, they may have loved.
Pluperfect.
amavissem, / should have loved, amavisses, you would have loved, amavisset, lie would have loved;
amaviasem.xis,wesho/dd have loved, amavissetis, you would have loved,
amavissent, they would have loved.
IMPERATIVE. Pres.
ama, love thou
amate, love ye.
Fut.
amatS, thou shall love, amato, he shall love
amatote, ye shall love, amanto, they shall love.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amans,!
Pres. amare, to love. Per/, amavisse, to
Fut.
have loved.
amaturus esse,
to be about
Fut.
hn'iiij^.
amantis)
(C it'll,
amaturus, about
to love.
to love.
GERUND. Gen.
amandl, of
Dat.
amando, for
Ace.
amandum,
Abl.
amando,
SUPINE.
loving, loving,
loving,
by loving. 1
Ace.
amatum,
Abl.
amatu,
For declension of amans, see
\
to love,
to love, be loved.
70. 3.
6o
Inflections.
FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION. 102.
Passive Voice.
— Amor, I
atii
loved.
First Conjugation.
6l
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
May I be loved,
let
hivt be loved.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
amer
amemur
ameris, or -re
amemini amentur
ametur Imperfect.
/ should be
loved, he
would
be loved.
amarer
amaremur
amareris, or -re
amaremini amarentur
amaretur Perfect.
/ may have amatus sim amatus sis amatus sit
beefi loved.
amati simus amati sitis amati sint
^
Pluperfect.
/ should have amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset
been loved, he
would have
been loved.
amati essemus amati essetis amati essent
^
IMPERATIVE. Pres. amare, be thou loved;
amator, thou shall be loved, amator, he shall be loved;
Fut.
amamini,
be
ye loved.
amantor, they shall be
loved.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE. Pres. amari, to be loved. Per/,
amatus esse,
to
have been
Perfect.
amatus, having been
Gerutidive.
amandus,
loved.
loved.
Fut.
amatum
irT,
to be
about to
to be loved,
deserving
be loved.
to
loved. 1
Fuerim,
etc.,
are sometimes used for
sim
;
so
fuissem,
etc.,
for
essem.
be
62
Inflections.
SECOND (OR 103.
E-)
Active Voice.
CONJUGATION.
— Moneo, I advise.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
Perf. Pass. Partic.
moneo
monere
monui
monitas
Second Conjugation.
63
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
May I advise,
let
him
advise.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
moneani moneas moneat
moneamus moneatis mo lie ant Imperfect.
/ should advise, he would advise.
moneremua
monereni moneres moneret
moneretis
monerent Perfect.
/ may have
advised.
monuerim
monuerimua
monueris monuerit
monueritis _
monuerint
Pluperfect.
/ should have advised, he would have advised.
monuissem
monuissenius
nionuisses
monuissetis
monuisset
monuissent
IMPERATIVE. Pies,
mone, advise thou
Fut.
moneto, tho7i shall advise, moneto, he shall advise
;
monete, advise ye.
monetote, ye shall advise, monento, they shall advise.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE. Pres.
monere,
to advise.
Pres.
monens, advising.
Fut.
moniturus, about
Perf. monuisse, to have advised.
Fut.
moniturus esse,
to be about
(Gen. monentis.) to advise.
to advise.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
monendi, of advising, Dat. monendo, for advising, Gen. Ace.
monendum,
Abl.
monendo,
advising,
by advising.
Ace.
monitum,
Abl.
nionitu, to advise, be advised
to advise.
Inflections.
64
SECOND (OR Passive Voice.
104.
E-)
CONJUGATION.
— Moneor, / am advised.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
moneor
moneri
Perf. Ind.
monitus
sum
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. PLURAL.
/ ain advised.
SINGULAR.
moneor
moneniur
moneris
monemini monentur
monetur Imperfect.
I was
advised.
monebar
monebamur
monebaris, or -re
monebaminl monebantur
monebatur Future. 1 shall be advised.
monebor
monebimur
moneberis, ^r-re
monebimiiai
monebitur
monebuutur Perfect.
/ have been advised, I was advised. moniti sumus monitus sum moniti estis monitus es moniti sunt
monitus est Pluperfect.
/ had been advised. moniti
monitus eram monitus eras monitus erat
eramus
moniti eratis moniti erant
Future Perfect. / shall have been advised.
monitus ero monitus eris monitus erit
moniti erimus nionill eritis aionili
erunt
Second Conjugation.
65
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
May I be
advised,
let
htm
be advised.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
monear
moneamur
monearis, or -re
moneamini moneantur
moneatur Imperfect.
I should be
advised, he
would be advised.
monerer
moneremur
monereris, or -re
moneremini monerentur
moneretur Perfect.
/ tnay have been advised. monitus Sim monitus sis monitus sit
moniti siinus moniti sitis moniti sint
Pluperfect.
/ should have
been advised, he
would have
monitus essem monitus esses monitus asset
been advised.
moniti essemus moniti essetis
moniti essent
IMPERATIVE. Pres.
monere,
Fut.
monetor, thou shall be ad-
be thou advised;
monemini,
be
ye advised.
vised,
monetor, he shall be advised.
INFINITIVE.
monentor, they
shall be advised.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. moneri, to be advised. Perf. monitus esse, to
have been
advised.
Fut.
monitum
iri. to be
be advised.
F
about to
Perfect. monitus, advised. Gerundiiw. monendus, to be adI'ised,
deserving to
be advised.
66
Inflections.
THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION. 105.
Active Voice.
— Rego, I rule.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
rego
regere
rexi
Perf. Pass
Partic.
rectus
Third ConJ7igation. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
May I ride, SINGULAR.
let
him
ride.
67
68
Inflections.
THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION. Passive Voice.
106.
— Regor, / am ruled.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
regor
regi
Perf. Ind.
sum
rectus
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense.
I am
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
rilled.
regor
regimur
regeris
regimini reguntur
regitur
Imperfect.
/ was
ruled.
regebar
regebaniur
regebaris, or -re
regebamini regebantur
regebatur Future.
/ shall
be ruled.
regar
regemur
regeris, or -re
regemini regentur
regetur Perfect.
I have rectus
been ruled, or
I was
ruled.
sum
recti
sumus
rectus es
recti estis
rectus est
recti
sunt
rectus erani
recti
eramua
rectus eras
recti eratis
rectus erat
recti
erant
rectus ero
recti
erimua
rectus eris
recti eritis
rectus erit
recti
Pluperfect.
/ had been
Future
ruled.
Perfi-xt.
/ shall have
been ruled.
erunt
TJiird Conjugation.
69
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
May
I be nded,
let
hint be ruled.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
regamur
regar regaris, or -re
regamini
regatur
reeantur Imperfect.
/ shoidd
be r tiled, he
would
be ruled.
regereris, or -re
regeremur regeremini
regeretur
regerentur Perfect.
/ may have rectus
been ruled.
sim
recti
simus
rectus SIS
recti sltis
rectus sit
recti sint
Pluperfect.
/ should have rectus
been ruled, he
would have been
essem
recti
ruled.
ess6nius
rectus esses
recti essetis
rectus esset
recti
essent
IMPERATIVE. Pres. regere, be thou ruled;
Fut.
regimiui. be ye ruled.
regitor, thou shall be ruled, regitor, he shall be ricled;
reguntor, they shall be ruled.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE. Pres. regi, to be ruled.
Per/, rectus
esse, to have been
rided.
Fut.
rectum
irT,
be ruled.
to be
about to
Perfect.
rectus, ruled.
Gerundive, regendus, to be ruled, be deserving to Tided.
^o
Injlections.
FOURTH (OR 107.
I-)
Active Voice.
CONJUGATION.
— Audio, /hear.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
Perf. Pass. Partic
audio
audire
audivi
auditus
Fourth Conjugation.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
May I hear, SINGULAR.
let
him hear
n
htflcctions.
72
FOURTH (OR Passive Voice.
108.
I-)
CONJUGATION.
— Audior, / am heard.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind,
Pres. Inf.
audior
audiri
Perf. Ind.
auditus
sum
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present tense.
/ ain heard.
SINGULAR. audior
plural. audimiir
audimini audiuntur
audiris
auditur Imperfect.
/ was heard. audiebaris, or -re
audiebamur audiebamini
audiebatur
audiebantur
audiebar
Future.
/ shall
be heard.
audiar
audiemur
audieris, or -re
audiemini audientur
audietur Perfect.
/ have auditus
been heard., or
/ was heard.
sum
auditl
sumus
auditus es
audit! estis
auditus est
audit!
sunt
audit!
eramus
Pluperfect.
/ had been auditus
heard.
eram
auditus eras
audit! eratis
auditus erat
audit! erant
Future Perfect. / shall have been heard.
erimus
auditus ero
audit!
auditus eris
audit! eritis
auditus erit
audit!
erunt
FonrtJi Conjugation.
73
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
May I be
heard,
let hifii
be heard.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
audiar
audiamur
audiaris, or -re
audiamini audiantur
audiatur Imperfect.
/ should be
heard, he would be heard.
audirer
audiremur
audireris, or -re
audiremini audirentur
audiretur Perfect.
/ may have
been heard.
simus
audltus Sim
auditi
auditus SIS
auditi sitis
audltus sit
auditi sint
Pluperfect.
I should Jiave audltus
been heard, he
would have been heard.
essem
auditi
essemus
audltus esses
auditi essetis
audltus esset
auditi
essent
IMPERATIVE. Pres. audire, be thou heard;
Fut.
audimini, be ye heard.
auditor, thou shall be heard, auditor, he shall be heard;
audiuntor, they shall be heard.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE. Pres. audiri, to be heard.
Perf. audltus esse, to have been
Fut.
audltum
Perfect.
audltus, heard.
Gerundive, audiendus,
heard. iri, to be abotit to
be heard.
to
be
heard, deservmg to be heard.
Inflections.
74
VERBS 109.
Verbs
I.
endings
THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
IN -lO OF
the Third Conjugation take the
in -io of
the Fourth Conjugation, wherever the latter
of
endings have two successive vowels.
This occurs only in
the Present System. 2.
—
Here belong capio,
a)
to
take; ctipio, to desire; facio, to make; fodio, to
dig; iw^ib, to fiee to sliake
;
rapio,
Compounds
b)
\a.cio, to t/irow
;
to seize
of lacio
allicio, entice;
;
pario, to dear
;
quatio,
and specio (both
ante-classical);
as,
conspicio, behold.
The deponents gradior,
c)
;
sapio, to taste.
go ; morior,
to
to die
;
patior, to
stiffer.
Active Voice
110.
— Capio, I take.
/
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Pekf. Ind.
Perf. Pass. Partic.
capio,
capere,
cepT,
captus.
INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR.
PRESENT TENSE.
PLURAL.
capimus, capitis, capiunt.
capio, capis, capit
Imperfect.
capiebam, -iebas, -iebat
capiebamus,
-iebatis, -iebant.
Future. capiam,
-ies, -iet
capiemus,
-ietis, -lent.
Perfect. cepT, -isti, -it;
cepimus,
-istis,
-erunt, or ere.
Pluperfect.
ceperam,
-eriis, -erat
ceperamu.s, -eratis, -erant.
Future Perfect. cepero,
-eris, -crit
ccperinius, -eritis, -erint.
Verbs in
-io
of the Third Conjugation.
75
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
SINGULAR.
capiam,
plural.
capiamus,
-ias, -iat
-iatis, -iant.
Imperfect.
caperemus,
capereni, -eres, -eret
-eretis, -erent.
Perfect. ceperim,
ceperimus,
-eris, -erit
-eritis, -erint.
Pluperfect. cepissem, -isses,
cepissemus,
-isset
-issetis, -issent.
IMPERATIVE. Pres.
cape;
capite.
Fut.
capito,
capitote,
capito
capiunto.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE. Pres. capere. Perf.
cepisse.
Fitt.
capturus esse.
Pres.
capiens.
Fut.
capturus.
GERUND. Gen.
capiendT,
Dat.
capiendd,
SUPINE.
Ace.
capiendum,
Aec.
captum,
Abl.
capiendd.
Abl.
captu.
111.
Passive Voice.
— Capior,
/
am
taken.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
capior,
capT,
captus sum.
INDICATIVE MOOD. singular.
Present Tense.
capior, caperis, capitur
plural.
capimur, capiminT, capiuntur.
Imperfect. capiebar, -iebaris, -iebatur;
capiebamur, -iebaminl, iebantur. Future.
capiar, -ieris, -ietur;
capiemur, -ieminl, -ientur.
Inflections.
76
PERFECT.
SINGULAR. captus sum,
PLURAL.
capti sumus, estis, sunt.
es, est
Pluperfect. captl eramus, eratis, erant.
captus eram, eras, erat
Future Perfect. captus ero,
captI erimus, eritis, erunt.
eris, erit
SUBJUNCTIVE. Present.
capiamur, -iaminl, -iantur.
capiar, -iaris, -iatur
Imperfect. caperemur, -ereminl, -erentur.
caperer, -ereris, -eretur
Perfect. captus sim,
captT .simus,
sis, sit;
sTtis, sint.
Pluperfect. captT essemus, essetis, essent.
captus essera, esses, esset
IMPERATIVE. Pres.
capere;
Fut.
capitor,
capimini.
capiuntor.
capitor
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE. Pres.
capT.
captus.
Perf.
captus esse.
Perfect.
Flit,
captum
Gerundive, capiendus.
In.
DEPONENT VERBS. Deponent Verbs have
112.
with Active meaning. a.
b.
But
—
in the
main Passive forms
They have the following Active forms Future Infinitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine. They have the following Passive meanings always in the :
:
Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle as,
sequendus,
to be followed
;
adeptus, attained.
Deponent Verbs. 113.
Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are iiiiror, niirari,
77
—
iniratus sum, admire.
I.
Conj.
II.
Conj.
vereor, vereri, veritus
III.
Conj.
seqiior, sequi, secutus sum., follow.
swro.,
fear.
largior, largiri, largitus sum, give. IV. Conj. IIL (in-ior) patior, pati, passus sum, suffer.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Inflections.
y8
SEMI-DEPONENTS. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong 114.
I.
—
audeo, audere, ausus sum, to dare. gaudeo, gaiidere, gavisus sum, to rejoice. solitus sum, to be wont. solere, soleo, fisus sum, to trust. fidere, fido, 2.
The
following verbs
Active meaning
adolesco, grow up;
adultus, having grown up.
cenare, dine
cenatus, having dined.
placere, please
placitus, having pleased, agreeable.
prandere, hmch
pransus, havitig binched. potus, having drunk.
potare, drink;
juratus, having s%vorn.
jurare, stucar a.
3.
have a Perfect Passive Participle with
—
:
Juratus
is
used
in a passive
sense also.
Reverter and devertor both
the Active Voice
;
viz.
reverti
reverter,
regularly form their Perfect in
—
devertor, deverti
(Inf.), (Inf.),
revertl (Perf ), to return. deverti (Perf.), to turn aside.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
—
the There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, comby formed Active and the Passive. The Active is 115.
bining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same auxiliary.
Active Periphrastic Conjugation.
Plup.
INDICATIVE MOOD. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, / am about to love. amaturus eram, I loas about to love. amaturus ero, I shall be about to love. amaturus fui, I have been {rvas) about to love. amatarus fueram, / had been about to love.
Put. P.
BJvasXxvcwsiyxQro, I shall have been about
Prcs.
Imp. Fut. Perf.
to love.
Peculiarities of ConJ2igatio7i.
Imp.
SUBJUNCTIVE. amaturus sim, / tnay be about to love. amaturus essem, / might be about to
Perf.
amatftrus fuerim, / may have
Plup.
amaturus fuissem,
Pres.
amaturus amaturus
Pres.
79
love.
been about to love.
/ might have been about
to love.
INFINITIVE. Perf.
esse, to be about to love. fuisse, to have been about
to love.
Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE. Pres.
Imp. Put. Perf.
Plup. Put. P.
Pres.
Imp. Perf.
Plup.
amandus (-a, -um) sum, I am to be loved, fiiust be amandus eram, / -was to be loved. amandus ero, / shall deserve to be loved. amandus fui, / was to be loved. amandus fueram, / had deserved to be loved. amandus fuero, I shall have deserved to be loved.
loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE. amandus sim, / may deserve to be loved. amandus essem, / viight deserve to be loved. amandus fuerim, / 7nay have deserved to be loved. amandus fuissem, / might have deserved to be loved. INFINITIVE.
Pres.
Perf.
amandus amandus
esse, to deserve to be loved. fuisse, to have deserved to be loved.
PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION. 116.
I.
Perfects in
-avi,
-evi and -ivi, with
tlie
forms derived
from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with tox s. So also novi (from nosco) and the compounds of movi (irom
moveo)
.
Thus
amavistl
:
—
8o
Inflections. In the
2.
Gerund and Gerundive
of the Third
and Fourth Conju-endus and
gations, the endings -undus, -undi,. often occur instead of
-endi, as faciundus, faciundi.
Dico, duco, facio, form the Imperatives, die, due, fac. But Comof facio form the Imperative in -fice, as confiee. pounds of dlco, duco accent the ultima as, edue, edie. 3.
compounds
Archaic and Poetic forms
4.
a.
b.
;
—
:
The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as, amarier, monerier, dicier, for amari, moneri, dici. The ending -ibani for -iebam in Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation, and -ibo for -iam in Futures
;
scibam,
as,
seibo, for sciebam, sciam. c.
Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dixisti, serip-
surrexisse, we
sistis,
sometimes find dixti, scripstis,
surrexe. d.
Tlie endings -im, -is,
Subjunctive forms
edim
-as,
etc.')
occur in a few
duint, perduint.
{eat),
In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxil-
5.
esse
iary
-am,
(for
etc.
as,
;
is
often omitted
;
as,
actiirum
for
acturum esse
;
ej actus
ejectus esse.
for
FORMATION OF THE VERB-STEMS. Formation
Many
117.
Stem
^ ;
of the Present
Stem.
verbs employ the Verb Stem for the Present
as, dlcere, ducere,
amare, moiiere, audire.
form the Present Stem variously, as follows By appending
1
the vowels a, e,
i
;
as,
:
—
—
augere,
"
"
juva- (Verb Stem juv-). " auge- ( " aug-).
vincire,
"
"
vinci-
juvare. Present Stem
"
(
Others
"
vine-).
By adding i, as capio. Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-). By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final con3. sonant of the Verb Stem as, fundo (Stem fud-), rumpo (Stem rup-). By appending -n to the Verb Stem as,4. 2.
;
;
cern-6
pell-6 (for pel-no).
Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (e or dice-, dic-6-; ama-e-, ama-o-. But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the Appendix. 1
6)
;
Strictly speaking, the Present
as,
Formation of the Verb- Stems. 5.
By appending
t to the
Verb Stem
8i
as,
;
flect-6. 6.
By appending sc
7.
By
Verb Stem
to the
cresc-6
—
as,
scisc-6.
Redaplication, that
the Verb Stem with
;
i
as,
;
by prefixing the
is,
—
initial
consonant of
si-st-6 (root sta-).
gi-gii-o (root gen-).
Formation of the Perfect Stem.
The
118. 1.
Perfect
By adding v
Stem
Vowel Stems)
(in case of
amav-i, 2.
By adding u
(in case of
By adding
audiv-i.
some Consonant Stems)
;
as,
alu-i.
genu-i,
most Consonant Stems)
s (in case of
—
as,
;
delev-i,
strepu-i, 3.
formed from the Verb Stem
is
;
as,
carp-o. Perfect carps-i. "
scrips-i (for scrlb-sl).
rid-eo,
"
ris-i
sent-io,
"
sens-i
(for sent-sl)
dic-6,
*'
dix-i
{i.e.
(for rid-si)
dic-si).
Note that before the ending -si a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is changed to p.
a.
4.
scrib-o,
Of
Without addition. a)
The Verb Stem
is
this formation there are three types
sonant with the following vowel or e curro.
Perfect
cu-curri.
posco,
"
po-posci.
"
pe-puli.
pello,
Note i.— Compounds, the redupHcation.
Note
2.
Thus
:
;
as,
—
posco, omit
The
c)
Note that S by The vowel of the Verb Stem verti minuo, minui.
short vowel of the
legl; ago. egi.
both consonants in the reduSto, steti.
spondeo, spo-pondi
b)
G
as,
com-puli, but re-poposci.
drop s from the stem
;
;
with the excrption of do, Sto, disc5,
— Verbs beginning with Sp or st retain
plication, but
:
reduplicated by prefixing the initial con-
Verb Stem
is
tliis is
;
lengthened
;
as,
process becomes
unchanged
;
as,
lego,
e.
verto,
82
Inflections.
Formation
The
119.
Participial
Perfect
Stem
By adding
1.
Verb Stem)
the
;
Stem.
of Participial
Passive
-us, is
:
—
-tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to as,
—
ama-re, dele-re,
Participle "
audl-re,
"
ama-tus. dele-tus. aiidi-tus.
''
leg-ere,
lec-tus.
scrib-ere,
"
scrip-tus.
senti-re,
"
sen-sus
(for
''
cae-sus
(for
caed-ere,
sent-tus)
caed-tus)
.
Note that g, before t, becomes c (see ^ 8, 5) b becomes p while dt or tt became SS, which was then often simphfied to s (^ 8, 2).
a.
;
;
After the analogy of Participles like sensus and caesus, where
2.
-sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus
Stems
;
as,
—
.
lab-i,
a.
A
,
tlie
The Future Active
moniturus.
Participle
Passive Participle
But
;
—
par-ere,
But the compounds of
to other
Verb
appending
;
as,
ending -sus to
this ^
118, 3, a).
—
dom-itus. mon-itus.
juva-re, Perf. Partic. jiitus, " lautus, lava-re, "
1
in
case of the Perfect ending -si (see
few Verbs form the Participle in -itus
Perfect
added
fi-xus.
doma-re, mone-re, 4.
is
lap-sus.
The same consonant changes occur the stem as in
3.
.
Participle "
fig-ere,
the
from which the formed
Participle,
derived by dropping
is
is
usually identical in
its
ama-tus, amatiirus
as,
;
stem with
monitus,
has Fut. Act. Partic. juvaturus.i "
" "
"
"
lavaturus.
"
"
pariturus.
"
"
"
ruiturus.
"
"
"
secaturus.
"
"
"
f ruiturus.
'•'
"
"
moriturus.
"
"
"
oritiirus.
juvo sometimes have
-juturus
;
as,
adjuturus.
List of the Most Important Verbs.
LIST OF
^Z
THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS. First (A-) Conjugation.
120.
amo
I.
Perfect amare
in -Vi.
amavi
amatus
love
All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.
poto
84
Inflections. II.
a.
Perfect Type
arced
in -UI.
-eo, -ere, -ui, -itus.
arcere
arcui
coerceo
coercere
coercuT
coercitus
keep off hold ill check
exerceo
exercere
exercui
exercitus
practise
caleo
calere
caluT
caliturus
be
careo
carere
carui
cariturus
be wiihout
doleo
dolere
doluT
doliturus
grieve
habeo
habere
habui
liabitus
have
debeo
debere
debuT
debitus
owe
praebeo
praebere
praebuT
praebitus
offer
jaceo
jacere
jacuT
jaciturus
lie
earn, deserve
warm
mereo
merere
meruT
meritiis
moneo
monere
monuT
monitus
noce5
nocere
nocuT
nocitum
pared
parere
paruT
paritOrus
obey
placed
placere
placuT
placitOiais
please
advise injure
(est)
taced
tacere
tacuT
taciturus
be silent
terred
terrere
terruT
territus
frighten
valed
valere
valuT
valitiirus
be strong
Note
i
.
— The following lack the Participial
Stem
:
—
eged
egere
egui
•want
emined
eminere
eminuT
fldred
fldrere
fldruT
stand forth bloom
horred
horrere
horruT
bristle
lated
latere
latul
lurk
nited
nitere
nituT
gleam smell
oled
oiere
olui
palled
pallere
palluT
be pale
pated
patere
patui
lie
rubed
rubere
rubui
be red
open
siled
silere
silui
be silent
splended
splendere
splenduT
gleam
studed
studcre
studuT
study
stuped
stupere
stupuT
be
timed
timere
timuT
fear
amazed
torped
torpere
torpuT
be dull
viged
vigere
viguT
flourish
vired
virere
viruT
be green
and others.
List of the Most Important Verbs.
Note
2.
— The following are used only
in the Present
85 System
:
—
aveo
avere
wish
frigeo
frige re
be cold
immineo maereo
imminere maerere
overhang
polled
pollere
be strong
mourn and
b.
Type
others.
-eo, -ere, -ui, -tus (-sus).
censeo
censere
censul
census
estimate
doceo
docere
docuT
doctus
teach
misceo
miscere
miscui
mixtus
teneo
tenere
tenui
So confined and snstineo
;
but
mix hold
— retain
retine5
retinere
retinui
retentus
obtineo
obtinere
obtinui
obtentus
maintain
torrere
torrui
tostus
bake
torreo
III.
augeo
Perfect
in -SI.
86
Inflections.
V.
List of the Most Important Verbs. tego
87
Inflections.
88 2.
Perfect in
-i
with Reduplication.
ab-d5
abdere
abdidi
red-do
red-dere
reddidl
So addd,
coiido, dido,
abditus
perdo, prodo, trado,
con-sisto
consistere
cdnstiti
resists
resistere
restiti
circumsistd
circumsistere
circumsteti
cado
cadere
cecidi
caed5
caedere
cecidi
pendo
pendere
pependi
tendo
tendere
tetendi
tund5
tundere
tutudi
fall5
fallere
fefelll
pello
pellere
pepulT
curro
currere
cucurri
parc5
parcere
pepercl
cano
canere
cecini
tango
tangere
tetigl
pung5
pungere
pupugT
etc.
List of the Most Important
emo
Ve7'bs.
89
90 tremo
Injlections.
List of the Most Important Verbs. II.
Verbs
91
92
Inflections.
So other But
etc.
—
assuefacio
compounds,
prepositional
assuefacere
.
perficio, perficior ;
assuefecT
assuefactus
ititerficlo,
interficior
accustom
Passive assuet'io, assuefierl, assuefactus sum.
So
also pate/acio, pate/'w ; calefacio calef'w ; ,
and
all
non-prepositional compounds.
jacere
jecT
jactus
hurl
abicere
abjecT
abjectus
throw away
fodio
fodere
fodl
fossus
dig
fugid
fugere
fCigl
fugiturus
flee
effugere
effugi
jacio
abicio
effugio
IV. I.
posco disco
Verbs Verbs
in
-SCO.
in -sco
from Simple Roots.
escape
List of the Most Important Verbs. 3.
Verbs
in
-sc5 derived from Nouns, usually with
93 Inchoative
meaning.
obdOresco
obdurescere
obdurul
grow hard
(durus)
evanesc5
evanescere
evanui
disappear
(vanus)
grow fresh grow ripe
(ere bar)
percrebresco percrebrescere percrebruT matiiresco
obmutesco
matiirescere
maturul
(matiirus)
Inflections.
94 II.
aperid
Perfect ends
in -UI.
Irregular Verbs.
95
IRREGULAR VERBS. 124.
A number of Verbs
The most
are called Irregular.
important are sum, do, edo, fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo,
The
Verbs
peculiarity of these
personal endings of
instead
what was once 125.
The
compounds
in
fer-is.
the
directly to
They
fio.
append the
employing a connecting vowel, as
Sing, of fer-6) instead of of
is
many forms
in
that they
stem,
fer-s
(2d
are but the relics
Latin a large class of Verbs.
Inflection of
sum
are inflected in the
has already been given.
same way.
They
are
—
Its
various
arn absent afui abesse Pres. Fartic. absens (absentis), absent. avi present adfuT adesse
absum adsum desum Tnsum intersum
deesse
defuT
inesse
infuT
interesse
interfui
am lacking am in am among
a/n in charge of praefuT praeesse Pres. Partic. praesens (praesentis) present.
praesum
hitider
obsum
obesse
obfuT
prosum subsum
prodesse
profuT
am
subesse
subfuf
atn at the basis of
superfuT
am
supersum Note. the
d
superesse
— Prosum
is
compounded
disappears before consonants, as
of advantage left
prod (earlier form of pro) and sum; prosumus, but prodestis. of
126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compoimd pot- (for pote, abW) and sum potui is from an obsolete potere. ;
of
Inflectio7is.
96
SUBJUNCTIVE. PLURAL.
SINGUKAR. Pres.
possim, possis, possit
possTmus, possTtis, possint.
Imp.
possem;
possemus.
Perf.
potuerim
potuerimus.
Pltip.
potuissem
potuissemus.
PARTICIPLE.
INFINITIVE.
potens {as an adjective^.
Pres.
Pres.
posse.
Perf.
potuisse.
Do, I give.
127.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. dare,
do,
dedi,
datus.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. Pres.
do, das, dat;
Imp.
dabam,
Flit.
dabo,
^/^.,-
etc.
PLURAL.
damus, datis, dant. dabamus. dabimus.
Perf.
dedl
dedimus.
Pliip.
dederam
dederamus.
Flit. P.
dedero
h'regular Verbs. 1.
The
Passive
is
inflected regularly with the short vowel.
dari, datur, dabatur, daretiir, 2. etc.,
lar
The
97 Thus:
etc.
archaic and poetic forms
duim, duint, interduo, perduint,
are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of simi-
meaning.
128. Edo, / eat. This verb, in addition to its regular inflection, sometimes has duplicate forms in certain tenses of the Present System. PRI.NXIPAL PARTS.
edo,
edere,
edi,
esus.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres.
edo
edimus
edis, es
editis, estis
edit, est
edunt
SUBJUNCTIVE. Imp.
ederem, essem
ederemus, essemus
ederes, esses
ederetis, essetis
ederet, esset
ederent, essent
IMPERATIVE. Pres.
ede, es
Flit,
edits, esto
editdte, estote
edito, est5
edunto
edite, este
INFINITIVE. Pres.
edere, esse
Passive Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres.
yi Sing,
Imp.
Tyd
editur, cstur
SUBJUNCTIVE.
1.
ederetur, essetur
Observe the long vowel of the abbreviated forms, which alone them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be. Note comedo, comedere, comedi, comesus or comestus,
distinguishes 2.
Sing,
consume.
H
98
Inflections.
129.
Fero, I bear.
Irregular Verbs.
99
lOO
Inflections.
Volo, nolo, malo.
130.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. volo,
velle,
volui,
to be zvilling.
nolo,
nolle,
noluT,
to be tinwilling.
malo,
malle,
malui,
to prefer.
INDICATIVE MOOD, Pres.
Irregular Verbs.
FT6.
131.
fio.
lOI
fieri,
PRINCIPAL PARTS. f actus sum,
to become, be fnade.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
I02
hiflectiojis.
SUBJUNCTIVE. SINGULAR. P?es.
PLURAL.
eamus.
earn
Imp.
irem
Perf.
Tvei'im (ierim)
Flap.
Tvissem (iissem, Tssem)
Iremus.
iverimus (ierimus).
;
;
Tvissemus (iissemus, Issemus).
Defective Verbs.
103
1
Inficctions.
04
Fan,
136.
This
System
is it
inflected regularly in
has
to speak.
the perfect tenses.
— INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. Pres.
PLURAL.
In the Presei^t
Impersotial Verbs.
105
grandinat
it
hails
ningit
ninxit
it
snows
pluit
pluit
it
rains
II.
^
Special Verbs,
paenitet
paenitere
paenituit
it
repents
piget
pigere
piguit
it
grieves
pudet
pudere
puduit
it
causes
taedet
taedere
taeduit
it
disgusts
miseret
miserere
miseruit
it
causes pity
libet
libere
libuit
it
pleases
licet
licere
licuit
it is
oportet
oportere
oportuit
it is fitting
decet
—
dedecet
^_
refert
'
III.
/
it is
dedecuit
it is
referre
retulit
it
Verbs Impersonal only
becoming unbecoming
concerns
in Special Senses,
constare
constitit
it is
praestat
praestare
praestitit
it is better
evident
juvare
juvit
it
apparet
apparere
apparuit
it
appears
placet
placere
placuit (placitum est)
//
pleases
accedit
accedere
accessit
it is
accidere
accidit
//
faccidit /
decuit
dedecere
lawfjil
constat
..^juvat
/
decere
shame
delights
added happens happens
contingit
contingere
contigit
it
evenit
e venire
evenit
it
turns out
interest
interesse
interfuit
//
concerns
IV.
The
Passive of Intransitive Verbs
;
as,
Itur
lit. // is
gone
i.e.
curritur
lit. it is
run
i.e.
ventum est veniendum
lit. //
has been come
i.e.
est
lit. //
must
come
i.e.
pugnarl potest
lit. it
can be fought
i.e.
be
^
some one goes some one runs some one has come somebody must come somebody can fight
Part
III.
PARTICLES.
139.
Particles are the four Parts of
admit of inflection;
Speech that do not
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc-
viz.
tions, Interjections.
ADVERBS. 140. Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have The common adverbial become stereotyped by usage.
terminations have already been given above (§ yS). following Table of Correlatives is important:
—
Relative and Interrogative.
Demonstrative.
ubi, where; where?
hic, here.
quo, whither
hue, hither.
Indefinite.
alicubi, us quam, us-
ibi, illlc, istic, there. ;
wliitJier ?
The
piam, somewhere. to some place.
aliquo,
eo, istuc, illuc, thither.
unde, whence ; whence
?
alicunde, from some-
hinc, hence.
inde, istinc, illinc,
where.
thence.
qua, where
;
where
ea, istac, iliac,
cum, when. quando, when
that way. nunc, now. turn, tunc, then.
?
quotiens, as ofien as
how often ? quam, as much much ?
aliqua, by some way.
hac, by this way.
?
;
totiens, so often.
by
aliquando, umquam, sometime.
aliquotiens, so7ne jt
as
;
hozu
tam,
so
much. iq6
amber of times.
Prepositions.
107
PREPOSITIONS. 141.
The
following
Prepositions
govern the Accusa-
tive :-
ad erga ad versus (adversum) extra
prope
praeter
ante
infra
propter
apud
inter
secundum
circa
intra
circiter
juxta
circum cis
ob penes
subter super supra
citra
per
ultra
contra
pone
versus
trans
post
Usque
1.
is
often prefixed to ai?, in the sense oi even]
usque ad urbem, even Versus always
2.
follows
Romam It
its
case; as,
versus, toward Rone.
may be combined with a preceding Preposition ad urbem versus, toward the city.
3.
as,—
to the city.
;
as,
Like prope. the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Super-
proximus, proxime, sometimes govern the Accusative;
latives
Ubii proxime Rhenuni incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to propius castra hostium, nearer the catnp of the enemy. 142. a,
The
following Prepositions govern the Ablative
ab, abs
de e,
c5ram
prae pro
labials b. p, f v, ,
t5,
and a 2.
nants,
is
;
sometimes ab (the
nor before
c, g, q, or t)
;
;
before con-
not before the
latter
abs occurs only before
admissible even there.
E, ex.
we
m
a,
—
teuus
Before vowels or h. ab must be used
A. ab. abs.
sonants we find sometimes
:
sine
ex
absque
cum 1.
as,
the R/iine;
find
ex must be used sometimes ex.
Before vowels or h,
sometimes
e,
;
before conso-
Particles.
io8 3.
as the 4.
regularly follows its case, as pectoribus tenus, ttp to the sometimes governs the Genitive, as labrorum tenus, as fat-
Tenus
breast.
It lips.
Cum
appended
is
to
Pronoun of
tlie
Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun
Thus
and Interrogative.
—
:
mecum
secum quocum or cum quo quacum or cum qua quibuscum or cum quibus
tecum noblscum vobiscum
On
Two
143.
and Second
First
tlie
usually also to the Relative
;
quicum, see § 89, Footnote
and
Prepositions, in
sub,
i
govern both the
Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion; with the Ablative, rest; as, in I.
urbem,
in urbe,
into the city;
Subter and super
/;/
the
city.
also occasionally construed with
are
the
Ablative.
144. 1.
Relation of Adverbs and Prepositions. many
Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and
retain their adverbial
meaning
contra, on the other hand, 2.
employed as prepositions
;
them
still
etc.
words,
Conversely several
of
post, afterwards; ante, previously;
as,
;
as,
—
usually
adverbs,
are
occasionally
clam, pridie, with the Accusative. procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative. 3.
Anastrophe.
relative
A
pronoun which ii,
dissyllabic preposition
governs
it
quos inter
;
as,
erat, tJiose
—
sometimes follows a
among -whom
he was.
INTERJECTIONS. 145.
Interjections
They may express —
Particles
are
expressing
1.
Surprise; as, en, ecce, 6.
2.
Joy as, io, euoe. Sorrow and Pain as, heu, eheu, vae, pr5. Calling as, heus, eho.
3.
4.
;
;
;
emotion.
Part IV. WORD-FORMATION. I.
DERIVATIVES.
Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter-
146.
minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs,
nouns, or
adjectives.
NOUNS.
A. 1.
147.
I
.
The
Nouns derived from Verbs.
suffix -tor (-sor), Fern. -trix.
victor, victrix, victor
— The suffix -tor
Note.
is
denotes the agejit;
as,
defensor, defeiider.
occasionally appended to
noun stems
;
as,
gladiator, gladiator (from gladius) 2.
The
suffix -or (originally -6s)
denotes an activity or a condi-
tion; as,
timor, /ear
^VCLOX, love;
3.
The
suffixes -tio (-sio).
denote an action as in process ;
venatio,
/i!inti?ig;
6.o\or, pain.
Gen. -onis, and -tus (-sus). Gen. -us, as.
—
obsessio, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus,
rimning.
Note. a)
— Rarer endings with the same force are: — -tura, -sura;
as,
sepultura, burial : mensura, measuring, b)
-ium
c)
-ido, as,
;
as,
g-audium, cupido,
rejoicing.
desire.
109
no
Word-Formation.
4.
The
denote
tJie
suffixes
-men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, an action as,
Jiieans or place of
;
—
lumen (luc-s-men), light; ornamentum, ornaiiient
vocabulum, word;
sepulcrum, grave. vehiculum,
aratrum, plough
When
the root ends
in c,
jaculum
2.
148.
I.
for
carriage.
the c of the suffix disappears
jac-culum
(from jacio).
Nouns derived from Nouns.
Diminutives end in -ulus,
documentum, proof;
—
;
as,
Nouns. 4.
The
-atus denotes
suffix
— Adjectives. official
ill
position or honor
;
as,
—
consulatus, consulship (consul). 5.
The
-ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates
suffix
a vocation or
place where
tJie
it is
carried on
as,
;
—
doctrina, teaching- (doctor, teacher) medicina, the art of healing (medicus, physician) sutrina, cobbler'' s shop (sutor, cobbler). ;
6.
;
Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of They have the following suffixes of.
daughter
.
.
.
:
Masculines
a)
:
-ides, -ades, -ides
Feminines
b)
-eis, -is, -ias
:
;
as,
as,
;
Priam; Aeneades, son of Aeneas
—
Priamides,
.
so)i
.
.
of
Pelides, son of Peleiis. Nereis, daughter of Nereics ;
Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of
Thaumas.
Nouns derived from Adjectives.
3.
149.
The
-tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used nouns denoting qualities ; as,
suffixes -tas (-itas),
for the formation of abstract
honit^s, goodness; celeritas, swiftness;
xaa.^n.itu.6.0, greatness
;
auda-
cia, boldness; divaicitisi, friendship.
ADJECTIVES.
B.
Adjectives derived from Verbs.
1.
150.
I.
The
suffixes
of a present participle
;
-bundus and -cundus
—
as,
tremebundus, trembling; 2.
The
iracundus, wrathful.
-ax and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency.
suffixes
mostly a faulty one
;
as,
credulus, credulous.
loquax, loquacious 3.
The
suffix
-idus denotes a state;
4.
The
suffixes -ilis ;
as,
as,
timidus, timid
calidus, hot
a passive sense
give nearly the force
—
and
h agilis, fragile docilis, docile.
cupidus, eager.
-bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in
{i.e.
capable of being broken);
Word-Formation.
112
Adjectives derived from Nouns.
2.
From
a) 151.
The
I.
-eus and -inus are appended to names of sub-
suffixes
stances or materials
;
—
as,
ferreus, of iron
aureus, of gold;
faginus, of beech.
;
suffixes -ius, -icus, -His, -alis, -aris, -arius, -nus, -anus.
The
2.
Cotiunon Noims.
-Inus, -Ivus, -ensis signify belonging
to,
connected with
as,
;
—
legionarius, legionary;
oratorius, oratorical
war
regalis, regal;
paternus, paternal urbanus, of the city marlnus, marine;
consularis, considar
aestivus, pertaining to
bellicus, pertaining to
;
civilis, ci2>il;
summer
circensis, belonging to the circus.
The
3.
suffixes
-5sus and -lentus denote /////« ^jj; as,— gloriosus, glorious
perlculosus, /;/// of danger, dangerous
The
4.
suffix
-tus has the force of pro%nded with
152. -inus
;
I
Names
.
as,
of persons
take
Names ;
as,
the
suffixes
—
;
:
-anus,
-ianus,
Plautinus, belonging to Plauius.
of nations take the suffixes -icus, -ius
Names
3.
—
—
Germanicus, German
-ius
as,
From Proper Names.
Catonianus, belonging to Cato 2.
;
stellatus, set with stars.
barbatus, bearded;
b)
;
opulentus, wealthy.
;
;
as,
Thracius, Thracian.
of places take the suffixes -anus, -inus, -ensis, -aeus,
Romanus, Roman
Atheniensis, Athenian
;
Amerinus, of Aineria
;
Smyruaeus. of Smyrna
Corinthius, Corinthian.
anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, desigNote. it, but not nate something stationed in the country or connected with indigenous
;
as,
—
bellum Africanum, a war {of Romans with Romans) in Africa. bellum Hispauiense, a war carried on in Spain. legiones Gallicanae, {Roman) legions stationed in Gaul.
Adjectives.
ii3
Verbs.
Adjectives derived from Adjectives.
3.
153.
—
Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur
parvolus,
;
as,
little
niisellus passer, poor
little
sparrow;
pauperculus, needy.
Adjectives derived from Adverbs.
4.
These end
154.
in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus,
-tinus
hodiernus, hesternus,
of to-day of yesterday
intestinus,
internal
(intus)
diutinus,
long-lasting
(diu).
C. 1.
(hodie) (heri)
;
as,-
;
;
;
VERBS.
Verbs derived from Verbs.
155. I. Inceptives or Inchoatives. These end in -sco, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote tJie beginning of an action; as,
labasco,
begin to totter
(from labo)
horresco,
grow rough
(from horreo)
tremescd, obdormisco,
begi)i to
:
(from tremo)
tremble
;
;
(from dor mio).
fall asleep'
Frequentatives or Intensives. These denote a repeated They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -to or -so. Those derived from verbs of tlie First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato, as we should expect). Examples of Fre2.
or energetic action.
quentatives are
—
brandish
jacto,
toss about,
curso,
run hither and
volito,
/lit
Some
b.
(from vol6,y7j/).
about
double Frequentatives occur;
cantito, curslto, ventito, agito,
(from jacio, hurl)
(from curro, run)
thither
as,
sivg over and over keep rtmning about
(canto) (curso)
keep coining.
set in motion, is
formed from the Piescnt Stem.
;
;
Word-Formation.
114 3.
These denote a desire to do something. and end in -urio as,
Desideratives.
are formed from the Participial Stem,
esurio,
desire to
eat.,
am
(edo)
hungry
am
parturio, want to bring forth,
2.
—
;
They
;
in labor (pario).
Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).
Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly
156.
transitive,
Those of the Third and Exampartly intransitive.
those of the Second exclusively intransitive.
Fourth Conjugations are partly ples are
transitive,
—
a)
From Nouns
:
—
frauds,
defraud
(fraus)
vestio,
clothe
(vestis)
blooin
(flos).
floreo, b)
From
Adjectives
:
;
—
libero,
free
(ITber)
saevio,
be fierce
(saevus).
ADVERBS.
D.
157. I. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Stem by means of the suffix -im as,
Participial
;
2.
certatim,
emulously
(cert5)
cursim, statim
in haste
(curro)
immediately
(sto).
;
;
Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed: rt)
With
the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim
;
gradatim, step by step paulatim, gradually
man
viritim, b)
With
the suffix -tus
;
by
man.
as,
antiquitus, of old', radicitus, from the roots. £)
With
the suffix -ter
;
breviter,
as,
—
briefly.
as,
—
Compounds.
II.
115
COMPOUNDS.
Compounds are formed by the union of simple The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound the first member expresses 158.
I.
words.
;
some
7nodification of this.
Vowel changes
2.
Thus
:
—
a.
In the second
b.
The
final
pound
occur
often
member
in
process
the
of compounds.
composition.
(See §7.1.)
member of the comwe should expect 6 or a
vowel of the stem of the
often appears as i where
of
first
sometimes it is dropped altogether, and stems i is often inserted as,
in case of
consonant
;
slgnif er, standard-bearer tubicen, trtinipeter
magnanimus, high-minded matricida, matricide.
Examples of Compounds.
159. 1.
Nouns: a)
—
Preposition
+ Noun
;
as,
—
de-decus, disgrace pro-avus, great-grandfather. b')
Noun + Verb Stem
;
as,
—
agri-cola, farmer fratri-cida, fratricide. 2.
Adjectives a)
:
—
Preposition
+
Adjective (or
Noun)
;
as,
per-magnus, very great sub-obscurus, rather obscure a-mens, frantic. as, -f Noun magn-animus, great-hearted
b)
Adjective
c)
Noun + Verb Stem
;
miseri-cors, compassionate. ;
as,
—
parti-ceps, sharing; morti-fer, deatli-dealing.
— '
Word-Formation.
1 1
3.
Verbs:
—
The second member a)
A Noun
;
always a verb.
is
The
first
may be
—
as,
aedi-fico, build. b)
An
c)
An Adverb
Adjective
as,
;
—
ampli-fico, ejilarge. ;
as,
—
niale-dico, rail at.
d)
Another Verb
;
as,
—
cale-facio, jnake e)
A
Preposition
;
as,
warm.
—
ab-jiingo, detacJi re-fero, bring back
dis-cerno, distinguish
ex-specto, await.
Note.
— Here belong the so-called Inseparable Prepositions: ambi- (amb-), around dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder
por- forward red- (re-), back sed- (se-), apart from
',
ve-, without. 4.
Adverbs
These
:
—
are of various types
;
as,
—
antea, before Ilico (in loco), on the spot
imprimis,
obviam,
especially
in the
way.
Part V. SYNTAX. «
160.
Syntax treats of the use of words
Chapter
I.
in sentences.
— Sentences.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 161. 1
Sentences
Interrogative, which ask a question scribit,
Exclamatory, which quot libros
4.
something
state
;
as,
—
as,
—
:
—
scribit, the boy is writing.
quid puer 3.
be classified as follows
Declarative, which
puer 2.
may
what
is
;
ike boy writing?
are in the form of an exclamation;
scribit,
how many
books he writes
as,—
I
Imperative, which express a command or an admonition
;
as,
scribe, write'.
FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 162.
Questions
may
be either Word-Questions or Sen-
tence-Questions. I.
Word-Questions.
These arc introduced by the various
interrogative pronouns and adverbs;
such as
qualis, quantus, quot, quotiens, quo, qua, etc.
—
Thus
quis venit, wJio comes ? quam diu manebit, how long will he stay ? 117
quis, qui, :
—
Syntax.
Il8 2.
These are introduced
Sentence-Questions.
By nonne impl3'ing the answer nonne vides, do you not see
'yes
'
;
as,
—
—
-
By num implying the answer num expectas, do you expect ?
b)
'
By
c)
enclitic -ne,
tlie
;/t>
appended
simply asking for information
;
'
{i.e.
to the
—
as,
;
as,
you
doii't expect.,
do you T)
emphatic word, and
videsne, do you see?
A
may
question introduced by -ne
plication from the context
;
—
as,
receive a special im-
sensistine, did you not perceive?
Sometimes by no
d)
special word, particularly in expressions
surprise or indignation
as,
;
tu in judicum conspectum venire audes, do you dare come into tJie presoice of the judges ? 3.
of
—
Rhetorical Questions.
to
Questions are sometimes
merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, tuho doubts? (= no such
one donbts).
Double Questions are 4. Double Questions. duced by the following particles utrum an :
.
intro-
—
.
.
.
an .an.
;
-ne .
If the
second member
Examples
—
:
is
.
negative,
annon
utrum honestum est an turpe, honestumne est an turpe, honestum est an turpe, Buntne di annon, are a.
By an
;
(less often
necne)
is
used.
1
[
is it
honorable or base ?
J
there gods or not ?
member, an sometimes stands alone. depends upon the context; as,
ellipsis of the first
Its force
A rSbus
gerendis abstrahit senectus. Quibus ? An quae juventute geruntur et viribus? Old age (it is From what alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. els
pursuits
?
Is
it
not merely
by the strength of youth f
from
those which are
performed
Simple and Cumpoicnd Sentences.
1
19
Answers.
5.
The answer Yes
a.
is expressed by by repetition of the verb
sane, or
;
'visne locum place'''
mutemus?'
'sane.'
'
etiam, vero,
ita,
as,
Shall
—
we change
the
^Certainly.''
'estisne V03 legati?
'
'
sumus.'
^
Are you envoys f
'Ves.''
The answer No is expressed by non, minime, minime vero, or by repeating the verb with a
b.
negative
;
as,
—
'jam ea praeteriit? '
estne frater intus ?
'non.'
'
'
•
non
*
Has
est.'
'
passed f 'No? your brother within f
it
Is
'
'No:
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 163.
The two
essential parts of a sentence are the Sub-
ject and Predicate.
The Subject is that concernijtg which something is said, asked, etc. The Predicate is that which is said, asked, etc.,
concerning the Subject.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 164.
Sentences containing but one
and one
Subject
Predicate are called Simple Sentences, those containing
more are legit, tJie
libros ivrites
called
legit
et
letters,
members
Compound Sentences.
boy reads books,
of a
epistulas
is
Thus puer
a Simple Sentence
scribit,
the
boy reads
;
libros
but puer
books
and
Compound Sentence. The different compound Sentence are called Clauses.
is
a
Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses. Clauses which Coordinate a Clause dependent upon another is called Subordinate. Thus in puer libros legit et 165.
stand upon an equality are called
;
epistulas scribit the two clauses are Coordinate but in puer libros legit quos pater scribit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first. ;
1
Syntax.
20
Chapter
II.
— Syntax of Nouns. SUBJECT.
Subject of a Finite Verb
The
166.
any form of the Nomi-
{i.e.
the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative)
is in
native Case.
The
1.
a)
A Noun puer hic
b)
may be
Subject
or
—
Pronoun
as,
;
—
scribit, the boy writes
.sciibit, t/u's
;
7nan writes.
An Infinitive as, — decorum est pro patria ;
mori,
to die for one'^s
country
is
a
noble thing. c)
A
Clause
as,
;
—
opportune accidit quod venistl, that you arrived.
A
2.
and
is
Personal Pronoun as Subject
not separately expressed
;
as,
—
is
happened opportunely
usually implied in the Verb,
videt, he
scrlbo, / zvrite a.
//
sees.
But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the expressed
;
as,
Pronoun
is
—
ego scribo et tu
legis,
/ write., atid you read.
when it can be easily supplied 3. The verb is sometimes omitted from the context, especially the auxiliary sum as,
—
;
recte ille {sc. facit), he does rightly;
consul profectus
{sc.
est), the
consul set out.
PREDICATE NOUNS.
A Predicate Noun is one connected with the Subby some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.
167.
ject
A
168.
Case
^ ;
as,
Predicate
— 1
Noun
agrees with
For the Predicate Genitive see
\j\j
198, 3
;
its
203, 5.
Subject
in
Pi'edicatc Noims.
Cicero orator
Nunra creatus
When possible
1.
in
Gender
also
Cicero
f uit,
Appositives.
Besides
cate
Noun
are
«)
fio,
sum
—
2
was an orator was elected king. ;
the Predicate
Noun
usually agrees with
philosophia est vitae magistra, pJiilosophy 2.
1
est rex, Nu7iia
—
as,
;
—
is
the guide
its
of
Subject
life.
the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predi-
evado, exists
maneo
;
videor
;
as,
;
Croesus uon semper maiisit rex, Croesus did not always remain king. Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding,
b)
appellor, habeor
;
as,
—
etc.
;
as,
creor,
Romulus rex appellatus est, Romulus was called king habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.
APPOSITIVES. 169.
An
I.
another
Appositive
Noun denoting
is
the
a
Noun
explaining or defining
same person
or thing; as,
Cicero consul, Cicero, the Consul urbs Roma, the city Rome. 2.
An
Appositive agrees with
opera Ciceronis oratoris,
the
apud Herodotum. patrem
Subject in Case
its
works of
;
as,
Cicero, the orator;
historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the
father of history. 3.
When
der also
;
as,
possible the Appositive agrees with
—
its
Subject in Gen-
assentatio adjiitrix vitibxvLva, flattery, the promoter of e^nls. 4.
A
Locative
oppidum, with
may
take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or
or without a preposition
;
as,
—
Corinthi, urbe praeclara, or iu urbe praeclara,
i^/
Corinth, a fatuous
city.
5.
Partitive Apposition.
A Noun denoting a whole
followed by an Appositive denoting a part
;
as,
—
is
frequently
milites, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restiterunt, the soldiers, all the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.
Syntax.
122
THE CASES.
THE NOMINATIVE. The Nominative
170.
is
confined to
use as Subject,
its
See
Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. §§ 166-169.
THE VOCATIVE. The Vocative
171.
is
the Case of direct address
By
—
believe nie, judges.
credite mihi, judices, 1.
as,
;
a species of attraction, the Nominative
for tlie Vocative, especially in poetry
is
occasionally used
and formal prose;
as,
audi
tu.
populus Albanus. hear ye., Alban people I 2.
Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in as, nate, mea magna poteiitia solus, O son, alone
the Nominative the source of
;
my great
power.
THE ACCUSATIVE. 172.
The Accusative
173.
The
Direct Object
following relations
A.
is
:
—
the Case of the Direct Object.
may
express either of the two
The Person or Thing Affected by consulem
the action
;
as,
—
interfecit, he slew the consul;
lego librum, / read the hook.
B.
The Result Produced by
the action
librum scrips!, / lurote a book
templum
struit, he constructs
;
as,
—
{i.e. produced one); a temple.
174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are Transitive Verbs. a.
Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used They are then said to be employed absolutely ; it.
without as.
rumor son
est is
meum gnatum
in love.
amaie,
//
is
rumored
that
my
Tlie Accusative.
123
Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected. 175.
sative
I.
;
This
the most frequent
is
—
as in
use of
the Accu-
parentes amamus, we love our parents
mare 2.
The
following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind
are worthy of note
a)
aspicit, Ae gases at the sea.
Many tion,
—
:
Transitive.
Compounds
i)
when compounded Thus
Intransitive Verbs,
become
:
—
of circum, praeter, trans
hostes circumstare,
to
with a Preposi-
;
as,
surround the enemy
urbem praeterire, to pass by the city muros transcendere, to climb over the ;
walls.
Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in,
2)
sub
;
as,
adire urbem, to visit the city ; peragrare Italiam, to travel through Italy inire magistratum, to take office subire perlculum, to undergo danger. b)
Many Verbs
expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have
also a Transitive use
;
as,
—
queror fatum, / latnent my fate ; doleo ejus mortem, I grieve at his death rideo tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly So
maereo, tnourn ; gemo, bemoan ; horreo,
also lugeo,
shudder, and others. c)
The
impersonals decet,
ing; juvat, Affected
me d)
;
it
becoines
;
dedecet,
// is
tmbecom-
pleases, take the Accusative of the Person
—
decet haec dicere,
In poetry are
as,
/'/
many
employed as Middles
tive as Object
;
//
becomes tne to say
this.
Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage,
as,
—
(§ 256,
i
;
2),
and take the Accusa-
galeam induitur, he puts ott his helmet cinctus tempora hedera, having bound
his temples with
ivy
nodo
siniis collecta,
having gathered her dress in a knot.
1
Syntax.
24
Accusative of the Result Produced. 176.
The
I.
ordinary type of this Accusative
such expressions as
—
libruin scribo, / write a book
domum 2.
Many Verbs
A
seen in
;
aedifico, / b/a/c^ a Jiouse. take a Neuter Pronoun, or
usually Intransitive
Thus
Adjective used as an Accusative of Result.
a)
is
Neuter Pronoun
as,
;
:
—
—
haec gemebat, he 7/iade these moans; illud glorior, / /nake this boast eadem peocat, he })iakes the same mistakes. U)
A
— particularly Adjectives of mmiber — multum, multa, omnia, pauca,
Neuter Adjective,
afuoiint,
01
etc.; as,
multa dubito, / have many doubts pauca studet, he has few ifiterests ;
multum
valet, he has great strength
;
nihil progreditur, he jnakes no progress.
Note. — In poetry
other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as,
minitantem vana, making vain threats acerba txieias, giving a fierce look ; dulce loquentem, siveetly talking. 3.
The
adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives
grows out of
this
multum sunt a
So
Accusative
as,
;
—
in venatione, they are
also
much
plurimum, very greatly;
aliquid, somewhat
;
quid,
why?
ettgaged in hitnting. -plervivaqae, generally
nihil, not at all; etc.
Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result This is called a COGis of kindred etvmology with the Verb. NATE AccusATiVF,. and is usually modified by an Adjective as, 4.
which
;
sempiternam servitutem serviat. let him serve an everlasting slavery vitam duram vixl, / ]ia7>e lived a hard life. a.
Sometimes the
Co.c^nate Accusative is not of
rnology, but merely of kindred
meaning;
kindred ety-
as,
stadium currit, he runs a race Olympia viiicit, he wins an Olympic
victory.
TJie Accusative.
The Accusative
5.
smelling;
piscis
as.
—
mare
of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting
sapit,
tastes
tlie fish
of
oratioiies antiquitatem redolent,
Two
125
sea
tlie t/ie
and
;
smack of the past.
speeches
Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.
Accusatives
Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, ShowI. and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative as, 177.
ing,
;
me heredem Here me So also
is
—
Direct Object,
eum judicem urbem
fecit, he
heredem
made me
—
heir.
Predicate Accusative.
cepere, they took him as judge
Romam
vocavit, he called the
city
se virumi praestitit, he showed himself a
Rome;
juatt
2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun as, homines caecos reddit cupiditas, covetousness renders men bliftd Apollo Socratem sapientissimum judicavit, Apollo adjudged Soc;
man.
rates the ivisest a.
Some
Verbs, as reddo, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predi-
cate Accusative. 3.
In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the
Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative; as,
urbs a.
Not
Roma
all
vocata
example, never take
Two 178.
Person
Thus
I.
est, the city
was
called
Verbs admit the Passive construction
Some Verbs the
Rome.
reddo and
eflBcio, for
it.
Accusatives
Affected,
;
— Person
and Thing.
take two Accusatives, one of the other
of
Result
the
Produced.
:
rt)
Werh?, oi requesting
3.n6.
demanding
,
as,
otium divos rogat, he asks the gods for rest me duas orationes postulas, you demand two me.
speeches of
1
Syntax.
26
So also oro, posco, reposco, exposco, flagito, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person
opem
Verbs of
b)
;
as,
a te posco, / demaitd aid of you. /(?^^/««^
(doceo and
its
compounds)
te litteras doceo, I teach you your
Verbs of inquiruig ;
c)
as,
as,
—
haec rogo, / ask you
te
;
letters.
this
te sententiam rogo, / ash you your opinion. Several Special Verbs viz. moneo, admoneo, commoneS, cogo, accuso, arguo, and a few others. These admit only
d)
;
a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing as,
moneo, I give you this advice; id accusas, you bring this accusation against me. id cogit nos natura, nature compels us (to) this.
te haec
me
One Verb
e)
non
of concealing, celo
;
as,
sermonem, / have sation from you. te celavi
not concealed the conver-
In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,— 2.
omnes
artes edoctus eat, he
was taught all accomplishments
sententiam, / was asked my opinioti aliquid admonemur, we are given some admonition
rogatus
sum
Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.
a.
Two
Accusatives •with Compounds.
may take two the other Verb, upon the Accusatives, one dependent upon the Preposition as, 179,
I.
Transitive comjDounds of trans
;
—
milites fliimen traducit, he leads his soldiers across the river. 2.
With other compounds
3.
In the Passive
retained
;
as,
—
tlie
this construction
is
rare.
Accusative dependent upon the preposition
is
militSs flumen traducebantur, the soldiers were led across the river.
The Accusative.
127
Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative. 180. to
The Synecdochical
I.
which an action or quality
(or Greek) Accusative denotes the -part
refers
;
as,
—
tremit artus, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble ntida genu, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare manus revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied. Note
2.
a)
that this construction
Is
—
borrowed from the Greek. confined to poetry.
b)
Is chiefly
c)
Usually refers to a part of the body.
d)
Is
used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.
Accusative of Time and Space. 181. I. Duration of Tivie and Extent of Space are denoted by the Accusative as,
—
;
quadraginta annos vixit, he lived forty years ; hic locus passus sescentos aberat, this place was six hic7idred paces away. arbores quinquaginta pedes altae, abhinc tres annos, three years ago. 2.
Emphasis
is
trees fifty feet high.
sometimes added by using the Preposition per
;
as,
per duos annos laboravl, / toiled t/iroughout two years.
Accusative of Limit 182.
I.
The Accusative
With names
a)
Romam
Motion.
of
of Limit of
Motion
is
used
of Towns, Small Islands, and Peni)isiilas
veni, f came, to
;
— as,
—
Rome;
Athenas
Delum
proficiscitur, he sets out for Athens perveni. / arrived at Delos.
With domum, domos,
b)
domum
rus ibo. / shall go
Note. osition
in
;
riis
;
as,
—
revertitur, he returns
home
;
to the country.
— When domus means house —
{i.e.
building),
it
takes a i)rep
as,
domum
veterem remigrare,
to
move back
to
an old house.
Syntax.
28
1
Other designations of place than those above mentioned require Motion as,
2.
a Preposition to denote Limit of
Ad The
a.
Preposition
urbem
;
as,
—
to Italy.
customary when the Accusatives
also
is
oppidum
or
of a town
;
Italiam venit, he came
name
stand in apposition with the
Cirtam in urbem, to the Genevam ad oppidum,
city
Cirta
;
to the towti
Geneva.
The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the name of a country or other word dependent
1).
upon a preposition
;
as,
—
Thurios in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thitrii in Italy cum Acen ad exercitum venisset, when he had come to the
To
3.
used
as,
;
army
at Ace.
denote toward,
to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of,
ad
is
—
ad Tarentum veni, / came to the vicinity of TarentH7n ; ad Caniias pugna facta est, a battle iv as fought near Cannce. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place used without a preposition to express the limit of motion as, 4.
;
italiam venit, he came
The goal notion seems
5.
may be
—
to Italy.
to represent the original function of the
Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in phrase infitias ire, to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few
Accusative Case. tlie
other similar expressions.
Accusative in Exclamations. 183. tive, is
The
Accusative, generally modified by an Adjec-
used
in
Exclamations
;
as,
—
me miserum ah, wretched me O fallacem spem, oh, deceptive Accusative as Subject of the 184. tive
;
The Subject as,
—
of the Infinitive
video hominem abire, I see
that the
is
hope
I
Infinitive.
put
man
is
in
the Accusa-
going away.
TJie Accusative.
Other Uses
Here belong
185. 1.
Some
—
TJie Dative.
129
Accusative.
of the
—
Accusatives which were originally Appositives
;
viz.
—
id genus, of that kind ; as, homines id genus, jiien of that kind (originally homines, id genus hominum, tnen, that
kind of men )
;
virile secus. niuliebre secus, of the male sex, of the female sex
meam
vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, bonam partem, /;/ large part maximam paitem, for the most part. 2.
Some
phrases of doubtful origin
;
etc.;
as,
id temporis, at that time
quod
id aetatis, at that time
cetera, in other respects
dextrum, on
laevuni, on the
the right
si,
dnt if;
left.
THE DATIVE. The Dative
186.
case in
which are designated and for.
in
general
ex-presses
relations
English by the prepositions to
Dative of Indirect Object.
The commonest
187.
person I.
to
With
sative
;
use of the Dative
whom something is given,
as,
denote the
to
Thus
Some
:
—
Accu-
transitive verbs in connection with the
—
hanc peciiniam mihi datj he gives me haec nobis dixit, he said this to ns. a.
is
said, or dojie.
this inoney
verbs which take this construction also admit another,
particularly the verbs
Either Themistocli
dono and circumdo. munera donavit,
Thus
:
—
he presented gifts to
Themistocles, or
Themistoclem muneribus donavit, he presented Themistocles %vith gifts
urbi muros circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or urbem muris circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls.
K
1
30
Syjitax.
With many
II.
intransitive verbs; as,
null! labor! cedit, he yields to no labor tibi a,.
suscenseo,
/aw
angry with y on.
Here belong many verbs signifying favor^
help,
injure.^
please, displease, trust, distrust, comtnand, obey, serve, resist,
indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, believe, persuade,
the like
;
as,
—
Caesar popularibus favet, Caesar favors
{i.e. is
favorable
popular party amicls confido, I trust (to) my friends ; militibus ignoscit, he pardons {i.e. grants pardon to) the
and
;
to) the
troops
Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, Orgetorix persuaded {made acceptable to) the Helvetians
it
;
bonis nocet qui mails parcit, he injures {does harm the good,
Note.
—
It is
to
who
be borne
in
to)
spares the bad.
mind
that these verbs
do not take the Dative by
virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intrans\\r Some verbs of the same apparent Engifive, and adapted to an indirect object. lish
equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative;
delecto.
Thus
audentes deus juvat, God
:
as,
juvo, laedd,
helps the bold;
neminem
laesit, he injured no one. b.
Verbs of sonally
;
this as,
—
class are
used in the passive only imperr
you are spared mihi persuadetur, /am being persuaded;
tibi parcitur,
ei invidetur, he
III.
tions
:
is
envied.
With many verbs compounded with the ad, ante, com-,^ in,
inter,
and sometimes circum. These verbs fall into two main
super,
I.
Many
classes,
sub,
—
simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indic,9.pable of doing so when compounded with a
become
rect object
preposition
preposi-
ob, post, prae, pro,
;
as,
—
afflictis succurrit, he helps the afflicted;
exercitui praefuit, he was in command of the army; intersum consiliis, / share in the deliberations. 1 Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once gov2 This was the original form of the preposition cum. erned the Dative.
The Dative. 2.
Many
capable,
13
which take only a direct object become
transitive verbs
when compounded,
of
taking
a
Dative
also
as
indirect
object; as,
pecuniae pudorem anteponit, he puts
spem amlcis, Labienum exercitui inicere
/o inspire
hojior befm-e inoney
hope in one's friends
praefecit, he put Labienus in charge of the
army.
Dative of Reference. 188.
I.
The Dative
of
Reference denotes the person
to
whom
it
zuhovi a statement refers, of zvJioni is
of interest ;
or
it is true,
to
as,
mihi ante oculos versaris, /t"// hover before luy eyes (lit. hover before the eyes to me) illl severitas amorem non demiuuit, in his case severity did not diminish lo7>e (lit. to him severity did not diminish) ;
commeatum,
intercludere Ijostibus
to cut off the stipplies
l-*'
'
^
of the
enemy. a.
Note the phrase alicui interdicere from fire and ivater.
Note. — The Dative
aqua
et
of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does
not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole.
It is
according to'the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive third of the
2.
ig"ni, to interdict one
;
often used where,
so in
tlie
first
Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are a)
J
and
above examples.
Dative of the Local Standpoint.
This
is
—
regularly a
participle; as,.
oppidum prlmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. to those coming from E.). b)
Ethical Dative.
This name
is
given to tliose Dative con-
structions of the personal pronouns in which the connection
of the Dative with the rest of the seiitence slightest sort
;
as,
—
tu mihi istius audaciani defendis?
tell
is
of the very
me, do you defend
that man''s audacity ?
quid mihi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing? quid sibi vult? wliat does he mean? (lit. wish for himself?)
.^
c^
Sy7itax.
132 c)
O
Dative of Person Judging erit ille
{i.e. in
I
quae
;
mihi semper deus,
my
opinion)
god
to
me
claro homini, how can that be
slavery to so ilUist7-ious a d')
—
ke will always be a
;
tam
ista servitus
as,
man
{i.e.
mind)
to his
I
Dative of Separation. Compounds of ab, de, ex, ad which have the general sense of taking away govern a Dative of the person, less often of the thing;
honorem detraxerunt homini, from the 7nan
they took
Caesar regi tetrarchiam eripuit, Caesar
away from silici
as,
away
the honor
took the tetrarchy
the king;
scintillam excudit,
hie
struck a spark
from
the flint.
Dative of Agency.
The Dative
189. 1.
is
used to denote q^rncj^
Regularly with the Gerundive;
—
as,
haec nobis agenda sunt, these things must be done by us must be gone by me), mihi eundum est, / must go (lit. /'/
a.
To
avoid ambiguity,
Gerundive;
a
with the Ablative
hostibus a nobis parcendum
2 2.
Much
is
sometimes used with the
as,
less frequently with the
voice and the perfect passive participle
est, the enemy must be spared by
compound ;
us.
tenses of the passn-e
as,
disputatio, quae mihi niiper habita est, the discussion which was recently conducted by me. 3.
Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive;
honesta bonis
as,
virls quaeruntur, noble ends are sought by good men.
Dative of Possession. 190. in
The Dative
of Possession occurs with the verb esse
such expressions as:
—
mihi est liber, / ha7'e a book mihi nomen est Marcus, / have I
.
I'ut
nomen
with
into the Dative
;
as,
est the
mihi
name
nomen
est
is
the
name
Afarcus.
more commonly attracted
Marco.
TJie Dative.
133
Dative of Purpose. 191. The Dative of Purpose designates tJie end toward which ail action is directed or for zvhicli somcthijig exists. It is used
—
Unaccompanied by another Dative
1.
as,
;
locum
deligere, to clioose a place for a camp ; legiones praesidio reliuquere, to leave tlie legions as a
castris
for a guard) receptui canere, to sound the signal for a
Much more
2.
the person a)
:
Especially with
(lit.
retreat.
frequently in connection with
—
guard
some form of esse
;
as,
another Dative of
—
fortuuae tuae mihi curae sunt, your fortunes are a care to me (lit. for a care) nobis sunt odio, t/iey are an object of hatred to us cui bono? to ivJuvn is it of advantage f b)
With other verbs hos
tibi
ent
muneri
;
as,
—
misit, he has sent these to
you for a pres-
;
Pausanias Atticis venit auxilio, Fausanias came aid of the Athenians
(lit.
to the
to the
Athenians for help).
In connection with the Gerundive; as,
3.
decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws. me gerendo bell5 ducem creavere, me they have made leader for carrying on the war. Note. — This
construction with the geruntiive
is
not
common
till
Livy.
Dative Awith Adjectives. 1G2.
The
use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds
very closely to
its
use with verbs.
Thus
:
—
Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object
I.
adjectives signifying:
near, related
to, etc.
;
/"r/tv/^j'//,
as,
—
it
occurs with
utifriendly, similar, tiissimilar, equal,
mihi ininiTcus, hostile to me ; sunt proximi Germanis, Ihey are next noxiae poena par esto, let the penalty
to the
Germans
be equal to the
damage.
1
Syntax.
34 a.
proximus, with
and
For propior
the
Accusative,
see
^ 141, 3-
Corresponding
2.
adjectives signifying
:
to the Dative of
Purpose the Dative occurs with
suitable, adapted, fit
;
as,
castris idoneus locus, a place fit for a camP; apta dies sacrificio, a day suitable for a sacrifice.
Note.
— Adjectives of this last class often take
tlie
Accusative with ad.
Dative of Direction. In the poets the Dative
193.
direction of motion it
;
clamor caelo,
as,
—
t/ie
is
occasionally used to denote the
shout goes heavenward
cineres rivo fluent! jace, cast the ashes toward the flowing stream. I
.
By an
extension of this construction the poets sometimes use
the Dative to denote the
dum
of motion
li7nit
;
as,
—
Latio deos inferret, while he was bringing his gods
to L&tiutn.
THE GENITIVE. 194.
The
Genitive
used with Nouns, .Adjectives, and
is
Verbs.
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. With Nouns the Genitive is the case ivhich meaning of the limited noun more closely. This 195.
defines the
relation
is
generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns :
Objective Genitive, Genitive of the Whole, Appositional Genitive, Genitive of Quality.
Genitive of Origin, Genitive of Material, Genitive of Possession, Subjective Genitive, 196.
Genitive of Origin
Marci 197.
;
as,
—
fxlius, the son
Genitive of Material
talentum
;
as,
of Marcus.
—
auri, a talent of gold;
modius frumenti, a peck of grain.
—
— The
The Dative. 198.
Genitive of Possession or Ownership
domus
135
as,
;
—
Ciceronis, Cicero's house.
Here belongs the Genitive with causa and gratia.
I.
always precedes
tive
Genitive.
as,
;
The Geni-
—
hominum causa, yi;;- the sake of tneii meorum amicorum gratia, /^r t/ie sake of my friends. ^
2.
Instar
(lit.
image) also takes the Possessive Genitive;
equus instar mentis, 3.
The
Possessive Genitive
with esse and iieri
domus
as,
;
est regis, the house
stulti est in errore
error '.e
is
often used predicatively, especially
is
—
as,
a horse us large as a ijwuntain.
the king's
manere,
it is
of a fool
(the part)
to
remain in
;
bello jiidicium imperatoris est, non militum, the decision concerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers. 199.
Subjective Genitive.
jr produces something or
This denotes the person who makes
who has a feeling;
as,
—
dicta Platonis, the idler ances of Plato the fears of the children.
timores liberorum, 200.
Objective Genitive.
This denotes the
object
of an action
or feeling; as,
metus deorum,
amor
the fear of the gods
consuetude bonorum hominum, I.
This relation
amor erga 201.
I.
is
often expressed by
is
intercourse with
means of prepositions
taken.
It is
used
;
as,
t)ien.
;
as,
This designates the whole of
—
With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives,
Numerals
good
parentes, love toward one's parents.
Genitive of the Whole.
which a part
\
libertatis, love of liberty
—
magna pars
Superlatives,
and Ordinal
hoftiinum, a great part of ?Hankind
duo milia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers quis mortalium, who of mortals ? major fratrum, gens
the elder
of the brothers
maxima Germanorum,
primus omnium,
;
the largest tribe
the first of all.
of the Germans;
1
Syntax.
36 a.
Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or de with the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quidam as,
—
;
fldelissimus de servis, qmdam ex amicis, certain of /us friends unus ex militibus, one of the soldiers.
the most trusty of the slaves ;
b.
we
In English
often use c/
In such cases the Latin as,
is
where there is no relation of whole to part. more exact, and does not use the Genitive;
—
estis, koxv many ofyou are there ? trecenti conjuravimus, three hundred of us have conspired we, three hundred in number).
quot vos
{i.e.
of the Whole is used also with the NomiSingular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives Accusative native or used substantively also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim 2.
The Genitive ;
when used
substantively; as,
what purpose f much food plus auctoritatis, more authority
quid
consili,
tantum minus
cibi, so
laboris, less labor
satis peciiniae, enough
parU'ta industriae, too a.
b.
industry.
An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil boni, nothing good. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun they limit;
3.
money little
nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter.
as,
Occasionally
A.dverbs of place
we
as.
;
find the Genitivt of the
Whole dependent upon
—
ubi terrarum? ubi gentium? ivhere in the world? a.
extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in dependence upon pridie and postridie, but only in the phrases pridie ejus diei, on the day before that; postridie ejus diei, on the day
By an
after that.
The
202. Appositional Genitive. force of an appositive
;
as,
nomen
—
regis,
tJie
poena mortis,
Genitive sometimes has the
name of king;
the penalty of death;
ars scrlbendi, the art of writing.
203. Genitive of Quality. used to denote quality. Thus it is used varieties.
tive
is
—
Genitive modified by an AdjecThis construction presents several
The
The Genitive. 1.
To
or thing
37
denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person as,
;
1
—
magnae virtutis, a man of great virtue rationes ejus modi, considerations of that sort. vir
2.
a.
Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction, magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.
To
denote measure {breadtJi,
lengt/i, etc.^
;
chiefly
as,
fossa quindecini pedum, a trencJi fifteeii feet wide {or deep) exsilium decern auuorum, an exile of ten years.
By omission of preti {price), or sorrte kindred word, tanti, 3. quanti, parvi, magni, miuoris, niiaimi, plurimi, maximi are used predicatively to denote
iiidefi}iite
value
;
as,
—
nulla studia tantI sunt', no studies are of so much value; magni opera ejus existimata est, his assistatice was highly esteemed, a.
Pliiris (not
strictly
an adjective) follows the same analogy.
By an extension of tlie notion of value, quanti, tantI, pluris, 4. and minoris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote indefinite price
;
as,
—
quanti aedes emisti, at how high a price did you ptirchase 5.
Any
the house?
;
as,
—
Romanam coudere gentem, of so great found tJie Roman race.
tantae molis erat
was
may be
of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality
used predicatively
it to
difficulty
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 204.
The
Genitive
is
used with
the extent of tJieir application. I.
With
Adjectives
signifying
many
Thus desire,
:
Adjectives
—
Jznowledge,
me.mory, participatio)i, power, fulness, and their opposites
studiosus discendi, desirous of peritus belli, skilled in war; insuetus laboris, Jinused to toil;
immemor mandati
tui,
familiarity.^ ;
as,
Some
—
learning',
ttnmindftd of your commission; life is full of dangers,
plena periculorum est vita, a.
to limit
participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,
diligens veritatis, fond of truth amaus patriae, devoted to one's country.
Syntax.
158 2.
Sometimes with proprius and communis
as,
;
viri propria est fortitudo, bravery is characteristic of a
memoria
est
communis omnium
artium, met/tory
is
man.
common
to all
professions. a.
3.
proprius and
communis
are also construed with the Dative.
With similis the Genitive is the commoner when the reference is to living objects as,
Cicero,
f ilius
mei
When
patris simillimus est, the son
similis, like
the reference
is
mors somno 4.
me
;
vestri similis,
to things,
(or
is
construction in
—
;
exactly like his father.
like you.
both Genitive and Dative occur
somni) similis
est, death
;
as,
—
is like sleep.
In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives
extended far beyond earlier limits c5nsilii, undecided in purpose.
is
;
as,
atrox
^xAvca, fierce of temper;
incertus
GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 205.
of
The
Verbs
:
Genitive
is
used with the following classes
— Memini, Fteminiscor, Obliviscor.
206. a.
I.
When
referring to Persons
—
memini takes the Genitive in the significations / bear in mind (memor sum), am mindful of, or make went ion of but the Accusative
in the signification,
/recall; as,
vivorum memini, /am mindful of the living; Achilles cujus supra meminimus, Achilles, of ivhom made mention above Sullam memini, / recall b.
w
Sulla.
obliviscor regularly takes the Genitive;
as,
Epicuri non licet oblivisci, we mustn''t forget Epicurus.
When referring to Things, memini, reminiscor, obli2. viscor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, apparently without difference of meaning; as, tJie mind remembers the- past meministine nomina, do you remember the names reminiscere veteris incommodi, remember the former disaster; reminiscens acerbitatem, remembering the severity.
animus praeteritorum meminit,
TJie Genitive.
139
But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly stand
a.
in the
Accusative;
as,
haec memini, / remember this multa reminiscor, / remember many 3.
The phrase mihi
rQemini, takes
(tibi,
the Genitive
civium mihi
as,
;
in
—
mentem
in
mentem
things.
venit, following the analogy of
venit, I remember the
citizens.
Admoneo, Commoneo, Coinmonefacio. 207.
These
verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the
person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing; te
admoneo
But more frequently
a.
with the Ablative
de pectlnia
A
b.
;
I.
—
Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take
;
as,
hoc admoneo,
Verbs
I give you this warning.
of Judicial Action.
of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take
the Genitive of the charge ;
me
de
neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in
Verbs 208.
(in
as,
me admones, you remind me of the money.
the Accusative
te
as,
amicitiae nostrae, / remind you of our friendship.
as,
furti accusat, he accuses
—
me of
theft
Verrem
avaritiae coarguit, he convicts Verres of avarice; impietatis absolutus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy. 2.
Verbs of Condemning take a.
The
—
Genitive of the charge
as,
;
—
pecuniae pUblicae damnatus, condemned {on of embezzlement capitis
(lit.
public tnoney)
damnatus, condemned on a
the charge)
;
capital charge
(lit. oti
a
charge involving his head). b.
The
Ablative of
tlie
penalty
;
as,
—
capite damnatus est, he was condemned to death; mille nummis damnatus est, he was condemned {to pay)
a thousand MeansJ.
sesterces
(lit.
by a thousand sesterces, Abl. of
Syntax.
I40 3.
Note the phrases
:
—
voti damnatus, voti reus, having attained score of one's vow)
de
prayer
one's
(lit.
condemned on
the
;
of assault
vi, {accused, convicted, etc.)
inter sicarios, {accused,
convicted, etc.)
of murder.
Genitive with Impersonal Verbs. 209.
I.
The Impersonals
pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet,
the Accusative of the person
piget take
affected,
feeling
is
directed
as,
;
—
me tui, I a7n ashauied ofyon (lit. it shames paenitet me liujus facti, / repent of this act eum taedet vitae, he is weary of life;
pudet
pauperum
te vaxsexet,
you pity
Pronoun used as subject of the
me me 2.
we
verb.
;
often find an Infinitive or Neuter
Thus
:
—
paenitet hoc fecisse, / repent of having done hoc pudet, / am ashamed of this.
Misereor and miseresco
ofyou)
tne
the
the poor.
Instead of the Genitive of the thing
a.
along
whom
with the Genitive of the person or tiling tozvard
this
also govern the Genitive
miseremini sociorum, pity
;
as,
the allies.
Interest, Refert.
With
210.
interest,
consideration
;
viz.
—
it
concerns, three points enter into
a) the person concerned b) the thing about wJiicJi c')
211.
I.
The person ;
as,
—
concerned
patris interest,
concerned
//
is
regularly denoted by
concerns the father.
But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, mei, tui, etc., the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of the Possessive, viz.
:
mea, tua,
mei. interest, Note.
is
the extent of his concern.
the Genitive
a.
he
it
etc.
;
as,
concerns me.
— But the Latin says omnium nostrum interest,
//
concerns us
all.
TJie Genitive.
2.
The
denoted d)
—
;
as,
concerned
is
is
—
rei publicae interest, this concerns the state.
by an
Infinitive
omnium c)
person
a
zvhicJi
by a Neuter Pronoun as subject
hoc b)
about
tiling
141
as,
;
interest valere,
by an Indirect Question
mea
interest
//
concerns all to keep well.
as,
;
quando venias, / am
concerned as to when
yoii are coming.
3.
The d)
degree of cojicern
by
tlie
Genitive (of Quality)
mea magni b)
interest,
magni, parvi,
.
etc
interest,
mea but rarely illius refert,
it
//
etc.
refert,
Thus //
;
as,
minus,
etc.
;
as,
—
little.
—
concerns you tnuch.
in its construction, except that
takes the Genitive of the person.
as,
concerns the citizens very
//
pliis,
interest,
Refert follows interest
;
concerns vie greatly.
by the Neuters, multum,
multum vestra 4.
it
—
by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maxime,
civium minimie c)
denoted
is
:
—
concerns
it
rarely
me ;
concerns him.
Genitive with Other Verbs. 212.
I.
Verbs
the Genitive
;
as,
of Plenty
—
and Want sometimes govern
peciiuiae indiges, you need money.
a
These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (§ 214, i) indigeo is the only verb which has a preference for the ;
Genitive.
Potior though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes and regularly in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control of affairs. 2.
takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust
;
:
3
In poetry
some verbs
take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as,
desine querellarum, cease your complaints operum SO\\lX\, freed from their tasks.
1
42
Syntax.
THE ABLATIVE. The Latin Ablative
213.
were originally
unites in itself three cases which
distinct both in form
and
meaning
in
;
vie.
—
The Ablative or from-case. -The Instrumental or with-case. The Locative
The
or where-case.
uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly
Genuine Ablative
uses,
fall
into
Instrumental uses, and Locative
uses.
GENUINE ABLATIVE USES. Ablative of Separation.
The Ablative
214.
with, I.
of Separation
is
construed sometimes
sometimes without, a preposition. The
following words
preposition
:
—
regularly
Ablative witiiout
the
take
a
• The Verbs oifreeitig : libero, solvo, le v6 The Verbs of depriving privo, spolio, exuo, fraudo,
a)
;
d)
:
nudo The Verbs ol lacking: egeo, careo, vaco The corresponding Adjectives, liber, inanis, vacuus,
c)
;
d)
nudus, and some others of similar meaning
Thus
:
—
ciiris liberatus,
freed from cares
;
Caesar hostes armis exuit, Caesar stripped their arms caret sensu communi, he lacks common sense auxilio eget, he needs he/p
bonorum
the
enemy
of
;
;
vita vacua est metu, the
life
of the good
is
free
from fear Note larly
i.
— Yet Adjectives
and libero may take the preposition ab,
so with the Ablative of persons
urbem a tyranno Note
2.
;
as,
—
liber&runt, fhey freed
— Indigeo usually takes the Genitive.
— regu-
the city frotn the tyrant.
See
^
212,
i,
a.
The Ablative. 2.
Of Verbs
signifying to keep
take the preposition, others omit
Examples
constructions.
:
—
from,
to
143 remove, to withdraw, some
The same Verb
it.
often admits both
,
abstinere cib5, to abstain from food; hostes fiuibus prohibiierunt, they kept the enemy from their borders praedones ab insula prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island. 3.
Other Verbs
osition, particularly
Ablative with a Prep-
of separation usually take the
compounds
dissentio a
of dis-
and se-
;
as,
—
I dissent from yoii; let them be separated from
te,
secernantur a nobis,
lis.
Ablative of Source.
The Ablative
215.
of Source
is
used with the participles
some
natus and ortus (in poetry also with editus, satus, and others), to designate parentage or station
as,
;
—
Jove natus, son of Jupiter
summo
loco natus, high-born
(lit.
born
from a very
high place')
;
nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family 1.
Pronouns regularly (nouns
ex me 2.
To
ex;
rarely) take
as,
natus, sprung from me.
denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriunduS (with or
without ab),
is
used
;
as,
—
ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from
Ulysses.
Ablative of Agent. 216.
The Ablative accompanied by
a (ab)
is
passive verbs to denote the personal agent ; as, a Caesare accusatus 1.
est, he
was arraigned by Caesar.
Collective nouns referring to persons,
personified,
may be construed
used with
—
and abstract nouns when
as the personal agent.
Thus
:
—
hostes a fortuna deserebantur, the enemy were deserted by l-'ortune a multitudine hostium montes tenebantur, the mountaitis were held by a multitude of tJie enemy. 2.
Names 3,
of animals sometimes admit the
canibus laniatus
same
construction.
est, he was torn to pieces by
Thus
do_^s.
:
—
Syntax.
144
Ablative of Comparison. 217.
1.
The Ablative than;
in the sense of
as,
is
—
often used with Comparatives
melle dulcior, sweeter than honey ; patria mihi vita carior est, my country This construction, as a
2.
rule,
is
as,
;
quam quam must
In other cases
—
tui studiosior
life.
occurs only as a substitute for
{than) with the Nominative or Accusative.
be used
me than
dearer to
sum quam
Studiosior
1116
illius, / am fonder of yojc than of him. would have meant, I am fonder ofyou than he is.
Plus, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equiv-
3.
alents of pliis
quam, minus quam,
etc.
Thus
:
—
amplius viginti urbes incenduntur, more than twenty
are
cities
fired
minus quinque milia 4.
processit, he advanced
Note the use of opinione with Comparatives;
opinione celerius venit,
less
than five
tniles.
as,
he comes more quickly tkqn expected
(lit.
luun opinion).
INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE. Ablative of Means. 218.
ment ;
The Ablative
is
used to denote means or instru-
as,
Alexander sagitta vulneratus
est,
Alexander was wounded, by an
arrow.
There are the following I
.
special varieties of this Ablative
tjtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor,
the Ablative
;
as,
divitiis utitur,
wealth)
—
Jie
uses his
wealth
(lit.
and
their
:
—
compounds
take
he benefits himself by his
;
vita fruitur, he enjoys
life (lit.
he enjoys himself by
munere fungor, I perform my duty
(lit.
life)
;
I busy myself with duty)
;
carne vescuntur, they eat flesh {\\\.. feed tJtemselvcs by means of) ; urbe potitus est, he got possession of the city (lit. made himself powerful by the a.
city)
Potior sometimes governs
the Genitive.
See
\
2\'2.,
2.
TJie Ablative.
2.
With opus est
usus
(rarely
duce nobis opus a.
A
Thus
as predicate.
hoc mihi opus
An
est, this is necessary
—
usfe
nitor, innixus,
there
and fretus
uititur hasta, he rests on a spear
fretus virtute, 'relying on virtue 4.
for me.
Thus dux
of a perfect passive participle with
opus est properato,
With
—
:
a rare form of expression.
is
Note the occasional est as, ;
3.
need a leader.
ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject.
nobis opus est c.
est), tJiere is tieed ; as,
est,.'we
Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with
opus
b.
145
is
need of haste.
as,
;
supports hiinself by a spear)
(lit.
(lit.
opus
;
supported by virtue).
With contineri, consistere, constare,
consist of; as,
nervTs et ossibus coutinentur, they consist of sinews and bones (lit. they are held together by sinews and bones) ; mortal! consistit corp^re mufidus, the u/orld consists of mortal substance 5.
(lit.
means
holds together by
With miscere and nautare
;
of, etc.).
as,
mella vino miscere, to mix honey with wine; pacem bello mutant, tJiey change peace for war 6.
In expressions of the type
:
(lit.
with war).
—
quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with this man f quid mea Tulli61a fiet, what will becoiue of my dear Tullia
? (lit.
what
will be done with her ?) 7.
In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary
English idiom
:
—
proelio contendere, vincere,
to contend,
conquer in battle;
provoke to battle ; assuetus (assuef actus) labore, accustomed proelio lacessere,
to
to toil;
currii vehi, to ride in a chariot
pedibus
Ire, to
go on foot
tibiis (fidibus) canere, to play the /lute (lyre);
pila ludere,
/('
play ball
castris se tenere, to keep in
and some
others.
camp
1
Syntax.
46 With Verbs
8.
oi Jilling
2iX\6.
Adjectives oi plenty
as,
;
fossas virgultis complerunt, they filled the trenches with brush. But
a.
plenus more commonly
Under
9.
which
Means
—
as,
;
'
'
belongs
also
the
Ablative
vinum Tiber! devectum, wine brought down ID.
The means may be
See
takes the Genitive.
i.
way
the
of
by
{by) the Tiber.
Thus
a person as well as a thing.
204,
\
—
:
Lemanno ad raontem Juram murum
militibus a lacu (i.e. by means
of) his troops he runs a wall
perducit, with from Lake Geneva to Mt. yura.
Ablative of Cause. 219.
The
Ablative
used to denote cause
is
multa gloriae cupiditate
fecit, he did
many
—
as,
;
things on account of his
love of glory. 1 So especially with verbs denoting mental states gaudeo, laetor, glorior, fido, confido. Also with ;
as,
as,
—
fortuna amici gaudeo, /
rejoice at the
fortune of
my
delector,
contentus
friend
{i.e.
on
account of it) ; victoria sua gloriantur, they exult over their victory natilra loci confidebant,
country
2.
(lit.
they
trnsted in the character
of their
were confident on account of the character).
a.
fido and confido always take the Dative of the person sometimes the Dative of the thing.
As
Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives
as jussu, by order
of injussu, rogatii,
{\ 187, II. d)\
etc.
Ablative of Manner. 220.
ner ;
The Ablative
as,
—
cum 1
The
magna 2.
The
cum
gravitate loquitur,
preposition
by an adjective
with
;
as,
—
lie
is
used to denote mari-
speaks with dignity.
may be omitted when
the Ablative
is
modified
gravitate loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.
preposition
is
regularly omitted in the expressions jiire,
injuria, joco. vi, fraude, voluntate, fiirto, silentio.
I47
The Ablative.
A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in ac3. cordance tvith which or in pursuance of which anything is or is done. Thus It is generally used without a preposition.
—
:
sententia, according to my opinio7i ; suis moribus, in accordance with their custom sua sponte, volutitarily, of their'own accord
mea
ea condicione, on
these ten/is.
;
,
Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.
The
221.
Ablative
is
often used to denote an attcridant
circumstance of an action or an event
;
as,
—
bonis auspiciis, under good auspices nulla est altercatio clamoribus umquam habita majoribus, no debate was ever held binder circumstances of greater applause; exstinguitur ingenti luctu provinciae, he dies under circumstances of great grief on the part of the province longo intervallo sequitur, he follows at a great distance.
Ablative of Accompaniment. 222.
The Ablative
niment ;
cum cum I.
as,
—
cum
with
is
used to denote accompa-
est, he set 07tt with his attendants
comitibus profectus
In military expressions the Ablative
when modified by any
omnibus
;
febri rediit, he returned with a fever.
copiis, ingenti exercitu,
exercitu,
may
adjective except a numeral
cum duabus
stand without as,
;
magna manu
;
—
but always
cum
cum
legionibus.
Ablative of Degree of Difference. 223.
The Ablative
is
used with comparatives and words
involving comparison (as post, ante,
Infra,
surpass) to denote the degree of difference
dimidio minor, smaller by a half; tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher paulo post, a little afterwards quo plura habemus, eo cupimus ampliora, more ive want.
;
supra as,
;
superare,
—
;
the
more we have, the
Syntax.
148
Ablative of Quality.
The
224.
Ablative, modified by an adjective,
denote quality ;
as,
—
used to
is
puella exiniia forma, a girl of exceptional beauty vir singular! industria, a man of singular industry.
The Ablative
1
of Quality
may
also be used predicatively
as,
;
est magna prudentia, /le is {a man) of great wisdom bonoanimo sunt, //ley are of good courage. 2.
In place of the Adjective
we sometimes
sunt specie et colore tauri, 3.
In
all
find a limiting Genitive
they are of the appearance
and
;
color
—
;
as,
of a
— bull.
numerical designations of weight, value, dimension, etc., the Genitive See § 203. 2.
of Quality takes the place of the Ablative ol Quality.
Ablative of Price. of buying
With verbs
225.
nated by the Ablative
;
servum quinque minis 1.
The
Ablatives
as,
—
emit,
/le
and
is
desig-
bought the slave for five minae.
magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo (by omission
of pretio) are used to denote indefinite price
aedes magno vendidit, he sold 2.
price
selling,
For the Genitive of Indefinite
;
as,
the house
-—
for a high
price.
Price, see § 203, 4.
Ablative of Specification.
The
226.
Ablative of Specification
that in respect to ivhich something
is
or
is is
used to denote done;
as,
—
Helvetii omnibus Gallis virtute praestabant, the Helvetians surpassed all the Gauls iti valor pede claudus, lame in his foot. 1.
Note the phrases
major minor 2. Here indignus ;
«
belongs as,
:
—
natii, older
(lit.
greater as to age);
natii, younger.
the
use
of
the
Ablative
with
— digni lionore, worthy of honor fide indigni, unworthy of confidence.
dignus
and
TJie Ablative.
149
Ablative Absolute. 227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically indeIn its commonest pendent of the rest of the sentence. form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a
participle
—
as,
;
urbe capta, Aeneas fled 1.
(lit.
fugit, zvheti the city
the city
Instead of a participle
we
been captured.
often find an adjective or
vivo Caesare res publica salva state zvas safe
had
Aeneas
having been captured).
(lit.
erat, while Caesar
Caesar being alive)
noun
was
;
as,—
alive the
;
TarquiniS rege, Pythagoras in Italian! venit, in the reign of Tarquin Pythagoras came into 'Italy (lit. Tarquin being king) Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Ponipey 2.
The
and Marcus
Crassus.
Ablative Absolute
generally used in Latin where in
is
Thus the Ablative Absolute
English we employ subordinate clauses. may correspond to a clause denoting
—
Time, as in the foregoing examples. Condition as,
a) b)
—
;
omnes
virtutes jacent, voluptate dominante, all virtues prostrate, if pleasure
lie
Opposition
c)
perditis
;
as,
is
master.
—
omnibus rebus,
though everything
sustentare potest,
virtiis se
else is lost,
yet Virtue can maintain
herself.
Cause
d)
niillo
;
as,
—
adversante regnuni obtinuit,
since
no one opposed
him, he secured the throne.
Attendant circumstance
e)
passis palmis
pacem
;
as,
petiverunt, with hands outstretched
they sued for peace. 3.
An
Infinitive or clause
lute construction in
audits 4.
only in
A
fiigisse,
when
noun or pronoun stands
when
which
eum
sometimes occurs
Livy and later writers
it
it
it
;
as,
in the Ablative
—
was heard that
in the
he
Abso-
had fled.
Ablative Absolute construction
denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause
stands.
Exceptions to
this principle are
extremely rare.
Syntax.
150
LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE. Ablative of Place. A. Place where.
The
228.
place where
lative ivith a preposition
regularly denoted by the Ab-
is
as,
;
in urbe habitat,
Jie
But certain words stand
I.
sition
viz.
;
in
—
Names
a)
of
towns,
—
dwells the
— except —
Second Declensions
;
i>i
the city.
Ablative witliout
Singulars
of the
a
prepo-
First
and
as,
Carthagine, at Carthage', Athenis, at Athens Veils, at b)
Veii.
The
general words loco, locis, parte, also
fied
by totus or even by other Adjectives
hoc loco,
many words modi;
as,
at this -place
totis castrls, in the whole camp. c)
The
special
words
:
foris, out
terra marique, on land
d)
The
of doors;
riiri,
in the country;
and sea.
poets freely omit the preposition with any word denot-
ing place
;
as,
—
stant litore puppes, the ships rest on the beach.
B. Place from which.
from which
Place
229.
is
Ablative zvith a preposition ;
"^
regularly
denoted by the
as,
ab Italia profectus est, he set out from Italy; ex urbe rediit, he returned frotn the city. But certain words
I.
sition
;
viz.
a)
—
Names
Roma
stand
in
the Ablative without
\
a prepo-
j "
—
of towns and small islands as, profectus est, he set out from Rome;
Rhodo
;
revertit, he returned from Rhodes.
.J
1
Place from which, though
gake of convenience.
strictly
a Genuine Ablative use,
is
treated here for
V
The Ablative.
1.
jr to
b')
domo, from
c)
F'reely in poetry
/io//ie
rure,
;
as,
—
Italia decessit,
//
With names
;
of towns,
ab
from
151
the country,
withdre^v froin Italy.
used to mean fro/n the vicinity
is
denote the point whence distance
is
measured ;
of,
as,
a Gergovia discessit, he ivithdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia. a Roma milia aberat, lie was ten miles distant from Rome.
X
Urbe and oppido, when
standing in apposition with a town name,
are accompanied by a preposition
as,
;
Curibus ex oppido Sabinorum, from Cures, a town of the Sabines.
Ablative of Time.
Time
A. 230.
The Ablative
at which.
used
is
denote
to
the
time
at
ivhich; as,
quarta hora mortuus est, he died at the fourth hour ann5 septuagesimo consul creatus, elected consul in
his seventieth
year. 1.
denoting a period of time may stand in this conannus, ver, aestas, hiems, dies, nox, hora,
Any word
struction, particularly
comitia {Election Day), ludl 2.
Words
not
Games),
{the
accompanied by a modifier.
Thus
—
:
in pace, in peace;
in bello, in
secundo bello Punico,
but 3.
etc.
denoting time require the preposition in, unless
in the second
Expressions like in eo tempore, in
war;
Punic War.
summa
senectiite take'
the preposition because they denote situation rather than time.
B. Time within which. 231.
Time
witJiin
which
is
denoted by the Ablative
either with or without a preposition Stella Saturni trigintt annis
completes
its orbit
cursum
as,
;
—
conficit, the planet Saturn
within thirty years
;
ter in anno, thrice in the course of the year. I.
Occasionally the Ablative denotes
a'«/-(j//£?« (7/'/^w<',-
as,
biennio prosperds res habuit, for two years he had a prosperous administration.
A-
Syntax.
152
THE LOCATIVE. The Locative
232.
words
:
case occurs only in the following
—
Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands
1
of the
and second declensions,
first
Romae,
at
at
belli, in
:
3.
4.
war
the ground]
militiae, in
war
heri, yesterday.
Note the phrase pendere animi,
to
lit.
be in
mind. Consonant Stems occasionally form a Locative
Lacedaemoui,
at
as,
— hum!, on
home;
vesperi, at evening;
one'^s
;
ai Rhodes.
In the following special forms
domi,
denote the place in which Corinthi, ai Corijith
Rhodi, 2.
to
Rome
Sparta
suspense in
in -1; as,
Carthagini, at Carthage
;
Tiburi, at Tibnr.
Chapter 233.
called 2.
I.
its
III.
The word
— Syntax of Adjectives.
with which an Adjective agrees
Subject.
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives.
tive Adjective
is
one that
medium
is
one that
man
is
man
Attribu-
;
;
as,
;
limits its subject
of a verb (usually esse)
vir est sapiens, the
An
limits its subject directly
vir sapiens, a wise
A Predicate Adjective the
is
as,
—
through
wise
vir videbatur sapiens, the man seemed wise vir judicatus est sapiens, the man was judged wise. 3.
Participles
Adjectives.
and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of
Agreevient of Adjectives.
153
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. When
Agreement with One Noun.
234.
one noun
limits
it
agrees with
it
an Adjective Gender, Number,
in
and Case. 1.
2. is
Two
may limit a noun in the Plural; and twentieth legions. Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject
Adjectives in the Singular
prima et vicesinia
as,
A
Predicate
legioiies. the first
Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing;
mors
est
Agreement with Two
235.
A. 1.
in
miserum, death
or
is
as,
a wretched thing.
More Nouns.
AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.
When the
Adjective
number with
is
Attributive,
the nearest noun
;
as,
—
it
regularly agrees
pater tuus et nxaXer, yonr father and mother eadem alacritas et studium, the same eagerness and zeal. 2.
When
Plural
pax
;
et
as,
the Adjective
in
Predicative,
it
When
AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.
the Adjective
is
Attributive,
gender with the nearest noun
;
as,
—
regularly agrees
it
res operae multae ac laboris, a matter of )nuch effort 2.
When d)
regularly-
is
Concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious.
B. 1.
is
—
If
the Adjective
is
Predicative
the nouns are of the
with them in gender;
pater et
and labor.
—
same gender, the Adjective agrees
as,
filius capti swnt, father
and son were
captured.
Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective frequently Neuter as,
is
more
;
stultitia et timiditas fugienda mi/st be
shunned
%\xxi.t,
folly
and cowardiu
1
Syntax.
54 b)
If the
different
gender
;
then,
—
In case they denote persons, the Adjective
a) line
nouns are of
as,
;
Mascu-
is
—
pater et mater mortui sunt, the father a7id /nother have died. j3)
ter
In case they denote things, the Adjective as,
;
Neu-
is
—
honores et victoriae fortuita sunt, honors and
victories
are accidental. •y)
In
Adjective aa)
persons and things, the
case they include both is,
—
Sometimes Masculine
domus, uxor,
;
as,
—
liberi invent! sunt, home, wife,
and
children
are secured. (3/3)
Sometimes Neuter
;
as,
parentis, liberSs, fratres vilia habere,
to
hold parents,
children, brothers, cheap.
yy)
Sometimes
it
agrees with the nearest noun
;
as,
populi provinciaeque liberatae sunt, nations and provinces luere liberated. c)
Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Adnoun according to strict gram-
jective does not agree with a
matical form, but according to sense
;
as,
—
pars bestiis objecti sunt, part (of the meti) were thrown to beasts.
ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. 236.
I.
Plural
Adjectives
used
Substantively.
Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter
denotes things
;
as,
—
docti, scholars
parva, small
mall, the wielded;
magna,
Graeci, the Greeks
;
thinj^s
i^reat things
utilia, useful things
nostri, our men.
;
;
Adjectives used Substantively.
155
Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the 2. Nominative and Accusative cases. Such forms as magnorum, omnium magnis, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity yet ;
where there
is
no ambiguity, they sometimes occur
parva componere magnis, Otherwise the Latin says
237.
to
;
as,
;
compare small things with great.
maguarum rerum, magnis
:
—
rebus,
etc.
Singular Adjectives used Substantively.
Ad-
jectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Sin-
gular than in the Plural. 1
Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use
probus invidet nemini, a.
Usually vir,
homo,
or
the honest
some
man
similar
as,
;
—
envies nobody.
word
is
employed
;
as,
homo
doctus, a scholar vir Romanus, a Roman. b.
But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used
;
—
as,
hie doctus,
this scholar;
doctus quidam, a 2.
Neuters are likewise infrequent
certain scholar. as,
;
verum, truth justum. justice
honestum, a.
virtue.
This substantive use of Neuter Singulars struction of the Genitive of the
Whole, and
is
commonest
in the con-
after Prepositions;
as,
aliquid veri, something true nihil novi, tiotlitiig new in
medio,
in the midst.
238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others whicli
have become nouns
;
as,
—
adversarius, oppo)ient aequalis, contemporary
amicus, friend cognatus, kinsman
hiberna, winter quarters ;
propinquus,
relative
socius, partner ;
sodalis, comrade
vicinus, neighbor;
etc.
;
Syntax.
156
ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS. The Latin
239. lish
often uses an Adjective where the Eng-
idiom employs an Adverb or an adverbial phrase;
as,
—
senatus frequens convenit, //le senate assembled in great tiumbers assiduus mecuni, /le was constantly with 7?ie.
fuit
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 240.
I.
The Comparative
often corresponds to the English Positive
with 'rather,' ^somewhat,' ^too*
)
as,
—
senectus est loquacior, old age
rather talkative.
So the Superlative often corre.sponds
2. '
is
very
'
;
as,
—
the
to
Positive with
vir fortissimus, a veiy brave !nan.
Strengthening "Words.
3.
Vel and quani
are often used with
the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with the force of
and quani with the
force of
'
as possible
'
;
as,
'
—
vety,''
vel niaximus, the very greatest quani maximae copiae, as great forces as possible. Phrases of the type
4.
'
—
members as, exercitus erat ditior
in both
;
mo>'e rich than brave
quam
'
regularly take the Comparative
fortior, the army was more rich than brave.
OTHER PECULIARITIES. 241. chiefly
I. Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an primus, extremiis, sunimus, niedius, infimus, imus ;
summus mons, extrema 2.
top of the >noiintain
tJie
liieme,
///
the last
Prior, primus, ultinius, and
lent to a relative clause
primus earn
;
as,
—
vidi, /
was
3. is
When multus generally used
;
postremus the first last
—
—
;
are frequently equiva-
who saw her who withdrew.
and another adjective both as,
as,
part of the winter.
ultimus decessit, he was the
et
object,
;
limit the
multae et magiiae cogitationes, many {and) great
same noun,
thoughts.
1
Personal Pronouns.
Chapter IV.
— Possessive
— Syntax
Pronouns.
157
of Pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 242.
The Personal Pronouns
I.
expressed except for the purpose of
are, as a rule, not
Thus
empliasis, contrast, or clearness.
video, I see; But ego te video, at tu
The
2.
Genitives
me
aitiat,
ordinarily
and you
But
nostrum
and
vestrum
sessive in the phrases
The
First Pkiral
and Verbs. 4.
When
Compare
is
of you
:
—
',
',
are regularly used in place of the Pos-
omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.
often used for the First Singular of
the Eng. editorial
'
virtiis amicitias conciliat et
and maintains them
is
Pronouns
we.'
two Verbs govern the same
use a pronoun with the second, as
ships
Thus
as Genitives of the Wliole.
tui, »n'iidfid
desiderium vestri, longing for you nemo vestrum, no one ofyou.
3.
see »ie
Genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri are used only as Obiective
mem or
a.
—
:
he loves.
vides, I see you,
nostrum and vestrum
;
as subjects of verbs
object, the Latin does not
the rule in English.
Thus
:
—
conservat, virtue establishes friend(not eas conservat).
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 243.
I.
The
Possessive Pronoun.s, as a rule, are not
employed except
for the purpose of clearness.
patrem amo, / loi'e my father de filii morte f\.e^a.s, you wept for
Thus
:
—
,
But
—
de morte a.
When
filii
mei
flebas, /
my
son.
expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the posbut in order to indiits noun
sessive usually stands after cate emphasis or contrast,
sua
the death of your son.
manu
it
;
precedes;
liberos occidit, with his
as,
own hand he
children
mea quidem
sententia,
/;/
jny opinion at least.
slew his
1
5
Syfitax.
8
Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of 2. an Objective Genitive as, ;
metus vaster, fear of yon deslderium tuum, longing for you. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsius or ipsorum,
3.
in
apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,
ipsius opera, by my own help ; nostra ipsorum opera, dy our own help;
mea a.
So sometimes
mea
other Genitives; as,
iinius opera, by the assistance of me alone.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 244.
I.
Reflexive Pronoun se and the Possessive
The
Reflexive suus have a double use
They may
1.
se amant,
tliey
hwe
—
'
Direct Reflexives
as,
;
'
—
tliemselves
suos amicos adjuva^ he helps
II.
—
refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or
subordinate) in which they stand,
eum
:
his
own friends
oravT, ut se servaret, / besought him to save Jiimself.
They may stand
and
in a subordinate clause
ject of the principal clause,
—
'
Indirect Reflexives
refer to the sub-
as,
;
'
—
defend him
me
oravit ut se defenderem, he besought me
me
I defend himself) oraverunt, ut fortunarum suarum defensionem susciperem, they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes.
to
(lit.
thai
,
a.
The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the principal clause.
2.
The
Genitive sui
Objective Genitive, sionally occurs
is
regularly employed, like
oblitus
— particularly
Possessive suus 3.
e.g.
;
fruitur
as,
Se and suus
mei and
post-Augustan writers
fama
tui, as
forgetful of himself ; but
sui,
lie
e>ijoys his
—
it
an
occa-
in place of the
own fame.
are sometimes used in the sense, one's self one's
mun, where the reference se amare,
in
s\ii,
is
not to any particular person
;
as,
to love one's self;
suum genium
propitiSre, to propitiate one's
own genius.
Reciprocal Pronouns. 4.
Suus sometimes
— Demonstrative Pronouns.
occurs in the meaning his own, their own,
referring not to the subject but to an oblique case
Hannibalem
159
as,
;
sui cives e civitate ejecerunt, his
etc.
—
own
fellow-citizens
drove out Hannibal.
This usage
a.
quisque
is
frequent
particularly
suus quemque error vexat. 5.
The
Reflexives for the
the obhque cases of
combination with
in
as,
;
first
ego and tu
Ids ozvn error troubles each.
and second persons are supplied by
(§ 85)
;
—
as,
vos def enditis, j/£i« defend yourselves.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 245.
I.
The
Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun {'each
but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases
vos, inter se
;
as,
amamus
(lit.
inter
other''),
inter nos, inter
—
Belgae obsides inter se dederunt, ages
:
among themselves') nos, we love each other
the Belgae
gave each other
host-
-
Galli inter se cohortati sunt, the CituIs exhorted eah other. Note
a.
that the Object
is
not expressed in sentences of this type.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Hie, 246.
I.
Where hie and
to the latter of 2.
Hlc and
two
objects,
Ille, Iste.
used in contrast, hlc usually refers
ille are
an d
ille to the
used
ille are often
forme r.
in the sense of ' the following''
;
as,
Themistocles his verbis epistulam misit, Themistocles sent a letter {couched) in the following words illud intellego, omnium ora in me conversa esse, / -understand tins, that the faces of all are turned toward me. means
the
famous
Solon
ille,
the
famous Solon
3.
Ille often
4.
Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste hqva.6, that fellow
;
as,
The above pronouns, along vi^ith is, are usually attracted to the 5. gender of a predicate noun as, hic est honor, meminisse officium suum, this is an hjuor, to be mindful of one's duty. ;
i6o
Syntax. Is.
247.
Thus
:
—
Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui.
I.
Maximum, eum mail
who
qui Tarentum recepit, dilexi, / loved MaxiJims, the
retook Tarentiun.
Closely akin to this usage
a.
—
as,
non sum
is
is in the sense of sjtch
is
qui terrear, /
am
(
=
talis)
;
not such a person as to be
frightened.
Note the phrase id quod, where id stands an entire clause as,
b.
—
;
non suspicabatur
(id
quod nunc
in apposition with
sentiet) satis multos
testes nobis reliquos esse, he did not suspect (a tiling ivhich he will
now perceive)
that
we had witnesses enough
left.
Yet
quod
alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in
this use. 2.
Is also in
person, 3.
'
he^
When
'
all
she,''
'
cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third //,'
'
they,''
'
them.''
the English uses 'that
of the noun, the Latin omits the
of
pronoun
those
^
;
as,
of
—
to avoid repetition
in exercitu Sullae at postea in Crassi fuerat, he
army of Siilla and afterward
had
been in the
of Crassns ; niillae me fabulae delectant nisi Plauti, no plays delight me except those of Plant us. 4.
Note the phrases et
is,
et
in that
ea,t'/t".,
in the
vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment,
sense
and
:
and that too',
as,
that too permanently.
Idem. 248.
I.
idem
in apposition with the subject or object often has
the force of also, likewise; as,
contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. which, same tJiins^ ) ; bonus vir, quern eundem sapientem appellamus, a good man, whom
quod idem mihi the
we 2.
call also wise.
For Idem atque (ac),
tiie
same
as, see § 341,
i, c.
Demonstrative Pronouns.
— Relative Pronouns.
i6i
Ipse.
249. text
I.
—
as,
;
Ipse,
literally self, acquires its special force
from the con-
eo ipso die, on that very day ad ipsam ripam, ctose to the bank ipso terrore, dy niere frigJit valvae se ipsae aperuerunt, the doors opened of their own accord; ipse aderat, he was present in person. 2. Tlie reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the
reflexive,
more commonly agrees with the subject;
secum
se ipse continere
Ipse
3.
as,
ipsi loquuntur, they talk with themselves
non
also used, as
is
potest, he cannot contain himself.
an Indirect Reflexive
for the
—
purpose of
marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity as, Persae pertimuerunt ne Alcibiades ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam rediret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen. ea molestissime ferre debent homines quae ipsorum culpa contracta sunt, men ought to chafe most over those things which have ;
been brought about by their
own fault
(as
opposed
to the fault of
others).
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Agreement,
250. its
antecedent
determined by stands
;
as,
—
in its
The Relative Pronoun agrees with i. Gender and Number, but its case is construction in the clause in which it
mulier quam videbamus, the womaji who7n we saw bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy. 2.
Where
the antecedent
number and gender
is
compound, the same
similar conditions (see § 235, B, 2).
pater et
filius,
principles for
prevail as in case of predicate adjectives
Thus
:
—
under
qui capti sunt, the father and son who were captured quae fugienAasunt, folly and co^cardice zahich
stultitia et timiditas
must be shunned honores et victoriae quae sunt fortuita, honors and are accidental.
M
victories
which
1
62 3.
Syntax.
The
regularly agrees with a
Relative
Nominative or Accusative) instead
quae lautumiae vocantiir,
career,
predicate
antecedent
of its
prison,
t/ie
;
noun
(either
as,
luJiicli is
called Laii-
titmiae
Celtae, quae est tertia pars,
l/ie Cells,
4. Sometimes the Relative takes meaning of its antecedent as, ;
—
its
ivho are the third part.
gender and number from the
pars qui bestiis object! sunt, a part {of the men) who were thrown to beasts. 5.
cedent
Occasionally the Relative ;
attracted into the case of
is
its
ante-
as,
natus eo patre quo dixi, born of the father that I said.
Antecedent.
251.
sometimes omitted
I.
;
as,
The antecedent
qui naturam sequitur sapiens 2.
rarely
The antecedent may be an adjective)
;
as,
of the Relative
—
—
est, he
who
follows Nature
is
is
wise.
implied in a possessive pronoun (or
nostra qui remansimus caedes, the slaughter of us who remained; servili tumultu. quos usus ac disciplina sublevarunt, at the up-
whom = servorum).
experience
rising of the slaves,
(servili 3.
Sometimes the antecedent
and
discipline assisted
repeated with the Relative: as,
is
—
erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two routes, by which {routes^. 4.
Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. Thus is often incorporated in the relative clause.
antecedent a)
:
When the relative clause stands first quam quisque novit artem in hac
as,
;
—
The
—
se exerceat,
let
each
one practice the branch which he knows. b)
When
the antecedent
is
an appositive
non longe a Tolosatium
;
est in provincia. thcv arc not far the I'olosates, c)
When
a state which
the logical antecedent
Themistocles de servis
as,—
finibus absunt, quae civitas
is
suis,
is
from
the borders of
in our province.
a superlative; as,
quern habuit fidelissimum
misit, Tliemistocles sent the most trusty slave he had.
— Indefinite Pronouns.
Relative Prono2ins. d)
—
In expressions of the type
qua
es prudentia prjideiice
(lit.
163
quae tua est prudentia, such of wliicli prudence you are; which ;
is
yojir
is
your
prjidence)
The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus I saw must be puer queni vidi. 6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as, quo factum est, by this it happened quae cum ita sint, since this is so quibus rebus cognitls, when these things became known. 5.
the boy
The
introducing
a
grammatically to a clause which
is
7.
duces
—
as,
;
Relative
numquam
laudarl
digne satis
omne tempus
pareat,
subordinate
clause
may belong
subordinate to the one
philosophia
poterit,
intro-
it
qui
cui
aetatis sine niolestia possit degere,
who obeys her who obeys which,
philosophy can nei'er be praised enough, since he
can pass all his
life
without annoyance
(lit.
he
etci).
Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia but cui is governed by pareat, which is subordi;
nate to possit.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 252.
I.
Quis, any one,
usually in combination with SI
is
the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands
si, nisi.
ne.
num
;
as.
—
quis putat, if any one thinks.
2. Aliquis (adj. aliqui) is more definite than quis, and corresponds usuall3tto the English some one, somebody, some; as,
nunc aliquis dicat mihi. 7iow let somebody tell me: utinam modo agatur aliquid. oil that somethijig may Quidam, a
3.
certain one,
homo quidam. a a.
Quidam sense
:
certain
is still
man
(with or without
a sort
of,
khid of;
as,
more
(i.e.
definite than aliquis
;
as,
one 7vho)n I Jiave in mind').
quasi, as
—
be done.
if)
is
sometimes used
in the
quaedam mors as
cog-natio, a sort of relationship est quasi quaedam migratio, death it
were.
is
a kind of transfer,
Syntax.
164 4.
Quisquam, any
one,
any one whoever (more general than quis),
and its corresponding a djectiv e ullus, any, occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negay/'^ as, tive, and in clauses of comparison ^^^)kj
—
;
numquam iipcet cuiquam,///^-//^/? never harms anybody; quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit, if anybody was ever wise, Cato was potestne quisquam sine perturbatione animi irasci, can anybody
justitia si
angry without exxitement ?
be
fieri potest, // // can be done in any way taetrior hie tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiorum, he viler tyrant than any of his predecessors.
modo
si ullo
5.
Quisque, each
stances
:
one,
is
used especially under the following circum-
—
rt)
b)
See § 244, 4, a, In connection with suus. connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun;
In
as,— quod cuique him c)
obtigit, id teneat,
d)
In connection with superlatives
With
what falls
all the best
ordinal numerals
;
as.
;
as,
(lit.
each best one).
—
quinto quoque anno, every four years
Nemo,
}io
to each, that let
hold.
optimus quisque,
6.
was a
(lit.
each ffth year).
one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with
adjectives used substantively
;
as,
—
nemo mortalis, no mortal nemo Romanus, no Roman.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 253. atively
;
I.
as,
Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correl-
—
aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks another alii resistunt, alii fugiunt. some resist, others flee; alter exercitum perdidit. alter vendidit, one ruined the army, the other sold altera se in
it;
montem
receperunt, alteri ad impedimenta se contu-
lerunt, the one party retreated to the fnoutitain, the others betook themselves to the baggage.
Agreement of Verb with Where
2.
165
Subject.
the English says one does one thing, another another, the
Latin uses a more condensed form of statement
as,
;
alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another aliud alils placet, one thing pleases some, another others. a.
So sometimes with adverbs alii ali5
3.
The
;
fugiunt, some flee
as,
—
in one direction, others in another.
Latin also expresses the notion 'each other' by
alius repeated
;
as,
means
of
—
Galli alius alium cohortati sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other. 4.
Ceteri means the
rest, all the others
;
as,
ceteris praestare, to be superior to all the others. 5.
ing,
is
remain-
the others in the sense of the rest, those
Reliqui means
— hence
the regular
word with numerals
as,
;
reliqui sex, the six others. 6.
Nescib quis forms a compound
force of some one or other
;
as,
—
indefinite
pronoun with the
causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other; misit nescio quera, he sent some one or other nescio quo pacto, somehow or other.
Chapter V.
— Syntax of Verbs.
AGREEMENT. "With 254.
I.
Agreement
Verb agrees with
its
in
2.
Number and
subject in
vos videtis, you pater
One Subject.
see
A
Person.
Number and Person
Finite ;
as,
;
filios instituit, the father trains his sons.
Agreement
in
Gender.
the participle regularly agrees with
In the its
compound forms
subject in gender
;
B§ditio repressa est, the mutiny was checked.
of the verb
as,
—
1
Syntax.
66 3.
its
But when a predicate noun
is
number from
of different gender or
subject, tlie verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,
Tarqtmm was
Tarquinii materna patria erat, 071
his
viotJier'^s
non omnis error
his native coutitry
side
stultitia est dicenda, noi every error
called
is to be
folly,
Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive
a.
Corioli,
oppidum Volscorum, captum
4.
fl)
In
according to sense instead of
subject
Thus
matical form.
—
Sometimes the verb strict gram-
Construction according to Sense. its
as,
was captured.
Volsci,
agrees with
;
est, Cor'wli, a town of the
:
—
Number;
multitiido
as,
hominum convenerant,
a crowd of men had
gathered. b)
In Gender; as,
duo milia crucibus adfixi
sunt, two thousand {men) were
crucified.
With Two 255.
Agreement
I.
jects the verb
in
More
or
With two
Number.
regularly plural
is
Subjects.
;
as,
—
or
pater et filius mortui sunt, the father and son 2.
more
died.
But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject a)
viz.,
;
—
When
the verb precedes both subjects or stands between
them
as,
;
—
mortuus est pater pater mortuus est b)
sub-
When vel
.
et filius
;
et filius.
the subjects are connected by aut .
.
vel
;
neque
neque pater neque
.
.
.
filius
neque
;
mortuus
as,
;
—
aut
.
.
.
aut
est, tieither father
;
nor
son died. 3.
When
the different subjects are
whole, the singular
is
used
;
as,
—
temeritas ignoratioque vitiosa
felt
together as constituting a
est, rashness
and ignorance are
bad. a.
This
is
regularly the case in
senatus populusque R5manu8.
— Tenses.
Voices.
4.
Agreement
With
Person.
in
i6y
subjects of different persons
the verb always takes the ^rst person rather than the second, and the
second SI
X2i\.\\^x
than the third;
as,
tu at Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if y 011 and are zvelL Cicero and I are ivell.
Agreement
5.
Gender. With subjects of different genders compound tenses follows the same principles as
in
the participle in the laid
down
Ttillia
for predicate adjectives.
See
§ 235,
B,
2.
VOICES. 256. I. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of middle or reflexive meaning as,
—
;
ego non patiar 2.
eum
defend!,
/ sliall
In imitation of Greek usage
not allow
many
him
to
its
original
defend himself.
perfect passive participles are
used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon himself, but as doing something in his own interest ; as,
velatus tempora, having veiled his temples. Occasionally
a.
finite
forms of the verb are thus used;
tunica inducitur artus, he covers Intransitive
3.
Verbs may be used impersonally
curritur, people run
ventum
(lit. // is
est, he (they, etc.)
as,
his lifnbs with a tunic. in the passive;
as,—
run)
came
(lit. it
was come).
TENSES.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 257.
tions
:
I.
—
a)
The
Latin
The period
tenses
express
two
distinct
nc
of time to which the action belongs
:
Present, Past, or Future. b)
The
ki7id of action
:
Undefined, Going on,
or
Completed. The
Latin with
its six
tenses
is
able to express each of the three kinds
of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine
1
68
tenses).
way, as
Syjitax.
It
does this by employing certain tenses in more than one
may be seen by
the following table:
—
PERIOD OF TIME.
Tenses. 2.
It is
dum
('
Conative Present
')
vitant vitia, in contraria currunt, while they try (vitant) vices., thty rush i?ito opposite ones. In lively narration the Present
3. ('
used of an attempted action
169
Historical Present
')
;
as,
as,
to
—
avoid
often used of a past action
is
—
;
Caesar Aeduis obsides imperat, Caesar demanded hostages of Aedui (lit. demands). In combination with jam,
4.
words, the Present past
is
and continuing
jam
similar
frequently used of an action originating in the
in the present
;
—
as,
jam diu cupio te visere, I have long desire
jam pridem, and
diu,
the
been desiring to visit
you
(i.e.
I
and have long desired)
Imperfect Indicative. 260.
The Imperfect
I.
on in past time ;
as,
—
primarily denotes action going
librum legebam, I was reading a
book.
This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve mere narration)
a.
as the tense of description (as opjiosed to
From
2.
the notion of action going
notion of repeated or customary action
;
on.,
as,
there easily develops the
—
legates interrogabat, he kept asking the envoys; puer C. Duilium videbam, as a boy I often used to see Gains Duilitis. 3.
action
Like the Present, the Imperfect often denotes an attempted (' Conative Imperfect ') as, ;
—
hostes nostros intra munitiones progredl prohibebant, the enemy tried to prevcid (prohibebant) our moi from advancing within the fortifications
The
4.
Imperfect, with jam,
jam
times used of a past action which
time
;
as,
—
domicilium
jam dudum,
diii,
Romae multos jam annos
residence at
Rome for many years
and had long had
it)
etc.,
had been continuing
is
for
some-
some
habebat, he had had his he had it at this time
{i.e.
Syntax.
170
Future Indicative. 261.
above
The
2.
The two
I.
in the
Table
Latin
is
We
regular uses
of the
Future have been given
(p. 168).
much more
exact in the use of the Future than
is
If he comes, I shall be glad^ where we really mean: If he shall come,'' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future. dices, say! 3. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, the English.
say:
'
^
Perfect Indicative. 262.
state resulting
Present
;
as,
—
from a completed
!
cognovi
I know
(lit.
act,
and so seem equivalent
to the
I have become acquainted with^;
I
consuevi, I a7n wont
(lit.
I have become accustomed).
The
Historical Perfect.
B.
Several Present Perfects denote the
A. Present Perfect.
Historical Perfect
is
primarily the
tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of description')
\
as,
—
Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, redd! captives negavit esse
I.
Regulus came
utile,
cojnmission, said
it
was
useless
Occasionally the Historical Perfect
itito
the Senate, set forth his
for captives is
to be returned.
used of a general truth
('
Gnomic
Perfect").
Pluperfect Indicative.
Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act completed in the past; as, Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats. 263.
The
Future Perfect Indicative.
The Future Perfect denotes an action completed Thus in future time. scribam epistulam. cum redieris, / will write the letter when you 264.
:
have returned a.
(lit.
—
tuhen you shall have returned)
Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perthan the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.
The fect
Sequence of Tenses.
171
Epistolary Tenses. 265.
In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appro-
priate at the time of writing, but letter is received:
which
will
be so at the time
the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect nihil
when
his
he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for ;
as,
—
habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novl quidquam audieram et ad tuas omiies epistulas jam rescripserani, / have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 266.
A.
In Independent Sentences.
In Dependent Sentences.
B.
See §§ 272-280.
In dependent sentences the
tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called
Sequence of Tenses. 267.
I.
In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are
Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical. 2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are lowed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus:
—
Principal Sequence,
fol-
—
video quid facias, /see wliat you are doing. videbo quid facias, / shall see what you are doing. videro quid facias, I shall have seen what you are doing. video quid feceris, I see what you have done. videbo quid feceris, I shall see what you have done. videro quid feceris, / shall have seen what you have done. Historical Sequence,
—
videbam quid
faceres,
videram quid videbam quid
fecisses,
I saiv what you were doing. vTdi quid faceres, f saw what you were doing. faceres, I had seen what you were doing.
I saw
-ivhat
you had done.
vidi quid fecisses, / saw what you had done.
videram quid
The
fecisses,
/ had
seen
what you had done.
and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete 3. action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.
Present
Syntax.
172
Peculiarities of Sequence.
268.
when
The
I.
Perfect Indicative
usually an historical tense (even
is
translated in English as a Present Perfect),
the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive
;
and so
demonstravi quare ad causain accederem, / took the case (lit. I showed why., etc.).
A
2.
dependent Perfect
wherever, torical
;
as,
followed by
Infinitive is treated as
ha7>e shoivn
an
resolved into an equivalent Indicative,
if
is
as,
—
why
I
historical tense
would be
it
his-
to have shown of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indic-
videor ostendisse quales del essent, I seem ative, 3.
tense,
The
I showed).
ostendi, Historical
sometimes as
Present
historical.
is
sometimes regarded as a principal
—
Thus:
Sulla suos hortatur ut forti anini5
siiit,
Sulla exhorts his soldiers
to be stout-hearted
Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls arms. 4.
Conditional sentences of the
affected by the principles for the
'
contrary-to-fact
type are
'
Sequence of Tenses
to take
;
as,
—
not
honestum
tale est ut vel si ignorarent id homines sua tamen pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that even if j/ien were igfiorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness.
5.
fect
In conditional sentences of the
Subjunctive
is
'
contrary-to-fact
'
type the Imper-
usually treated as an Historical tense; as,
eos diceres niiseros, quibus morienduni esset, nemineni quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes, if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those
si solos
tu
"who live. 6.
In clauses of Result and
sometimes used as an
some
historical tense.
others, the Perfect Subjunctive
Thus:
is
—
rex tantum niotus
est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the king was so >nuch moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an
enemy.
This construction sequent historians.
is
rare in Cicero, but frequent in
The
Nepos and sub-
Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a
Seqiioice of Tenses.
1/3
result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to statement. To denote a result as something contimious, a judicavit, he adjudged. all
writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.
Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus 7.
:
We
a)
may have
the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an
historical tense
as,
;
Verres Siciliam Verres
—
ruined
so
ea restitul non possit,
ita perdidit ut
(Direct statement
Sicily
that
non potest
;
ardebat Hortensius
dicendi
it
cannot
restitui)
cupiditate
Note.
— This
usage is
restored
sic,
ut
in
viderim, Hortensius speak that I Iiave seen in no
burned so with eagerness to one a greater desire (Direct statement: in / have seen in no one) Sequence, the Perfect
be
;
studium
flagrantius
nulls
—
iiullo vidi,
Here, by neglect of is different from that cited under 6. used as a principal tense there the Perfect was used as an ;
historical tense.
b)
We
may have
a principal tense followed
by the Perfect Sub-
junctive used historically; as,
nescio quid causae fuerit cur nullas ad me litteras dares, / do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter.
Here fuerit
is
historical,
as
shown by
is
the following
Imperfect Subjunctive.
Method 269. to
the
of expressing
The Future and Future Latin
Subjunctive
clauses as follows: T.
a)
The Future The Future tenses,
This
are
— is
supplied in
is
supplied by the Perfect after principal after historical tenses.
especially frequent
when
by the presence of a future tense reference
is
subordinate
after historical tenses.
Perfect
by the Pluperfect is
Perfect which are lacking
supplied by the Present after principal tenses,
by the Imperfect b)
Future Time in the Subjunctive.
to future time.
the context clearly shows,
in the
Thus
:
—
main
clause, that the
Syntax.
174
Gain pollicentur
se facturos,
quae Caesar imperet,
i/ig
Gauls
promise they will do what Caesar shall order Gain pollicebantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls promised they ivould do ivliat Caesar should order Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls promise they mill do what Caesar shall have ordered Galli pollicebantur se facturos quae Caesar imperavisset, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered. 2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus
—
:
timeo ne veniat, / am afraid lie will come Caesar exspectabat quid consilii hostes caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt. ;
Where greater definiteness is necessary the periphrastic forms sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin as, 3.
in -iirus
;
non dubito quin pater venturus
sit,
/ do
Jiot
doubt that
my
father will come
non dubitabam quin pater venturus my father would come. 4.
Where
esset,
/ did
not doubt that
the verb has no Future Active Participle or where
stands in the passive voice, the use of the particles
its
mox,
Future character
brevi, statim,
the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive
non dubito quin
te
mox
;
as,
—
may be
etc.,
in
indicated
it
by
connection with
hTijus rei paeniteat, f do not doubt that
you will soon repent of this thing non dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, / did not doubt that this thing would soon be finished.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 270.
The
I.
absolutely,
depend. (7)
tenses of the Infinitive denote time not
but
Thus The
ivitJi :
—
reference to the verb on zvhicJi they
Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous
with the time of the verb on which
it
depends
;
as,
—
videtur honores adsequi. Jw seems to be gaining honors ; videbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gaining honors.
Tenses of the Infinitive. b)
175
Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to
The
of the verb on which
it
depends
as,
;
videtur honores adsecutus esse, he seems honors
time
tlie
—
to
have gained
;
visuB est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed
have
to
gained honors. c)
The Future of the verb
it
depends
to that
an act as subsequent
Infinitive represents
on which
;
as,
—
videtur honores adsecuturus esse, he seems about
to
gain
honors
visus est honores adsecuturus esse, he seemed about gain honors.
Where
1.
'
ought to have
done,''
'
might have done'
the Latin uses debuT, oportuit, potui, with the Present Infini-
etc.,
tive
the English says
to
;
as,
—
to have said (lit. owed oportuit venire, he ought to have come potuit videre, he might have seen.
debuit dicere, he ought
a.
Oportuit, V0I6, nolo (and
in
poetry
some other
it
to say)
verbs),
;
may
take a
IVrfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,
hoc jam pridera factum esse oportuit,
t/its
ought long ago
to
haze been done. 3.
ticipial
Periphrastic Future Infinitive. Verbs that have no ParStem express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore
ut or futiirum esse
ut, with the Subjunctive
;
as,
spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, / Jiope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent) ; spero futrirum esse ut hostes arceantur, I hope that the enemy will be kept off. a.
The
Periphrastic Future Infinitive
Passive, even in case of verbs
is
often used,
which have the
spero fore ut hostes vincantur,
especially in the
Participial
/ hope the
Stem
;
as,
—
enemy will be con-
quered. 4.
Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infini-
tive with fore
as,
;
—
spero epistulam scrlptani fore, / hope written
puts
the letter will liai'e been
;
me omnia adeptum everything.
fore,
/ think
that
I
shall have gained
Syntax.
176
THE MOODS. MOODS
INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.
IN
The Indicative
The
271.
Indicative
Independent Sentences.
in
used for the statement of facts,
is
the supposition offacts, or inquiry after facts. I.
Note the following idiomatic uses a)
With possum
;
—
/ viight say much poteram multa dicere, / /n/g-tU have said much (§ 270, 2). In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius
possum multa b)
as,
:
—
dicere,
est, difficile est, utilius est,
longum
est ea dicere,
//
and some others
would
omnia persequi,
difficile est
;
as,
—
be tediotis to tell that
It
would
be
diffic7ilt to
enu-
7iierate everything.
272. to
The Subjunctive
in
Independent Sentences.
The Subjunctive
is
used
express something — 1
2.
3.
in
Independent Sentences
— Volitive Subjunctive — Optative Subjunctive Conceived of as possible — Potential Subjunctive.
As As
willed desired
;
;
VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 273. ivillcd.
The VoUtive Subjunctive It
represents the action as
always implies authority on the part of the
speaker, and has the following varieties
tation.
The Hortatory Subjunctive This use
of the Present.
is
The
eamus,
—
Hortatory Suhjunctive.
A.
274.
:
confined to the
negative
us go patriam,
let
amemus
ne desperemus,
is ne.
expresses an exhor-
person plural,
first
Thus
:
—
;
let
let
us love our country
us not despair.
;
The
Volitive Subjunctive. Jussive Subjunctive.
B.
The
275.
The is
1.
Subjunctive expresses
Jussive
a
command.
Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and
used
dicat,
177
—
Most frequently
and
in the third singular
third plural
;
as,
let 111 III tell
dicant, let them tell impil ne placare audeant deos,
let
not the wicked dare to appease
the gods. 2.
Less frequently in the second person
;
as,
bono utare, 7ise that advantage ; modeste vivas, live temperately.
isto
Prohibitive Subjunctive.
C.
The Subjunctive
276.
used
is
in
the second person sin-
As
gular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibition.
regards the use of tenses, the Perfect seems to be used
where there Present
;
is
—
as,
special excitement or emotion, otherwise the
ne repugnetis, do not resist! tu vero istam ne reliqueris, don't YOU LEAVE HER a.
Neither of these constructions
b.
The
c.
A
commoner method
of expressing a prohibition
(nolite)
cave ne with
the Subjunctive; as,
hoc
cave ne haec yon do). D.
The
lie
(lit.
is
infinitive,
be unwilling to do)
by
tlie
or by
I
I
facias, do not do this
(lit.
take care
lest
Deliberative Subjunctive.
Deliberative Subjunctive
exclamations N
with a following
facere, don't da this
nolite mentiri, do not
and
frequent in classical prose.
use of noli
noli
277.
is
sometimes drawn between the Present and the Perfect in this construction, restricting the former to general prohibitions, and the latter to those addressed to a definite second person, will not hold. distinction
is used in questions implying doubt or indignation. The
1
Syntax.
78
Present
is
used referring to present time, the Imperfect
referring to past.
The
negative
is
Thus
nou.
quid f aciam, ivJiat shall I do ? ego redeam, sliall I go back ? quid facerem, zuliat was I to do f huiic ego iiou diligam, shall I not
—
:
cherish this tnan ?
These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical acter, and do not expect an answer.
a.
in char-
E. Concessive Subjunctive.
The Subjunctive
278.
is
used to indicate something as
is
sake of argument. The Present used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past.
granted or conceded for
The
negative
tJic
Thus
is ne.
sit
hoc verum, granting that
ne
sit
summum malum
malum
dolor,
not the greatest einl, yet
is
fuerit
—
:
this is true
it is
(lit. let
this be true)
;
certe est, granting that paiti
certainly
an
evil
malus civis aliis. tibi quando esse coepit, granting that he was a bad citizen to others, when did he begin to be so toward you ?
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of The negative is regularly ne. The use of tenses
279.
ivishing. is
as follows 1
:
—
The Present Tense,
the wish
is
often accompanied by
utinam,
is
used where
conceived of as possible.
di istaec prohibeant, f alsus
may
utinam vates sim,
ne veniant, may
the gods prevent that
oh that
/ )nay
be
I
a false prophet
they not come
The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now ; the Pluperfect that something 7i'as not so in The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by the past. utinam as. — utinam istud ex animo Alcexes, would that yoii were saying that in 2.
;
earnest, {i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest) Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arciis, would that Achilles had
escaped the bow of Apollo utinam ne natus essem, would
;
that I
had
not been born.
•
Potential Subjjinctive.
Tlie
179
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. The
280.
Tlie negative
Potential Subjunctive expresses is
The
non.
rt:
/^j-^/(^/7//j'.
following uses are to be noted
:
—
may designate a mere Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. The subject is generally 1.
bility
The
objective possi-
Potential Subjunctive
(English auxiliary may).
Thus
an indefinite pronoun.
—
:
dicat aliquis, some one
may say may say. ;
dixerit aliquis, so)ne one a.
2.
The
This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples. Potential Subjunctive
may represent something
as contingent
upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxihary should, Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable Mould).
Thus
difference of meaning.
:
—
fortiinam citius reperias quam retineas. one luould more quickly Jind Fortune than keep it {i.e. if one should make the trial) paene dicam, I should almost say {i.e. if I were to express an opinion) ;
;
crediderim, / should a.
believe.
Here belongs the use of velim, nialim. nolim. as softened forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus :
—
velim mihi ignoscSs. /wish you would forgive me; nolim putes me jocari, / donH want you to think
Pm
joking. b.
When
the condition
is
expressed,
we
get one of the regular
types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303 )
;
as,
—
dies deficiat. si coner enumerare causas, time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons. 3.
In the Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singuchiefly the following § 356, 3) of a few verbs,
lar (with indefinite force
:
—
;
crederes, one might have believed] videres, cerneres, one might have seen, perceived; putares, one might have thought.
The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional 4. sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in By omission of the Protasis such an Apodosis sometmies character. stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem,
vellem id quidem, / would enough)
mallem
;
wis/i that
as, {i.e.
were
I
bold
i8o
Syntax.
The Imperative.
The Imperative
281.
and
is
used in coimnands, admonitions,
entreaties (negative ne); as,
—
egredere ex urbe, depart from mihi ignosce, pardon fiie
the city
;
Male, farewell. 1.
The Present
but the Future a)
is
Where
is
there
is
—
rem vobis proponam //latter before you
bene
b)
;
rue II, attribute it to
suprei/ie pozver
i/i
in
etc.
;
have
/lo o/ie
shall bury
cum populo Romano
his legi-
;
et condicionibus esto,
and and conditions.
the consuls shall
as,
urbe ne sepelito,
the city
amicitia regi Antiocho Antiochus
shall
;
hominem mortuom a dead body
lie
Greek literature.
In laws, treaties, wills, maxims,
there be peace between
let
the Ro//ia/i people
o/i
quartae esto partis Marcus heres, a fourth {of the property)
ignoscito saepe alteri, bor 2.
—
{the/i') co/isider it
consules siimmum jus habento,
bus
as,
vos eam penditote, / will lay the
do you
;
;
dispiitabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if
speak
ofte/i,
yourself
the followi/ig ter//is
let
Marcus
be heir to
;
numquam
tihi, forgive
your
/leigh-
/lever.
Except with the Future Imperative the negative
classical prose.
used,
a distinct reference to future time, especially
in the apodosis of conditional sentences
SI
commonly
the tense of the Imperative most
employed
is
not used in
Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways.
See § 276, c. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin {wJiy not?) are 3. often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,
quin abis, go away ! (lit. why do/Ct you go away quIn vocem continetis, keep still! (lit. 7vhy
.?)
doii't
you
stop
your
voices ?)
(|uin
equos conscendimus, not mount our horses ?)
let
us /nount our horses
(lit.
why
do
we
i8i
Clauses of Purpose..
MOODS
IN
DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Clauses of Purpose.
Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (uti), quo {that, in order that), ne {in order that as, not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive 282.
I.
;
edimus, ut vivamus, we eat that we may live. adjuta me quo hoc flat facilius, hetp tne, iti order done more
that this
may
be
easily.
quam oppidan!
portas clausit, ne
injuriam acciperent, he closed any injury.
the gates, test the toivnspeople should receive a.
Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur
haec faciunt this in b.
Ut ne Thus :
is
—
as,
;
—
quo Chremetem
absterreant, they are doing
order to frighten Chremes.
sometimes found, as more emphatic than ne.
ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, /« order that we may not do anything carelessly. c.
is used where the negation belongs to some of to the purpose clause as a whole. instead word, single
Ut non (not ne)
Thus
:
—
ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos videare, that you may seem not driven out among strangers., but invded to your own friends. d.
To uses
and that neve (neu)
say
'
;
not as,
'
or
'
or that
the Latin regularly
not,'
—
ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent, that the violence of t/iese things might be lessened, and that they might not
profugit, ne caperetur
harm neve
might not be captured or e.
the bridge
;
interficeretur, he fled, that he
twitted.
But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in the second clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause
is
introduced by ne.
Syntax.
82
1
A
2.
Relative
Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quo)
quently used to introduce a Purpose Clause
Helvetii legates mittunt, qui dicerent,
as,
;
t/ie
—
Helvetii sent envoys to
who should say^ haec habui, de senectute quae dlcerem, / had say
(lit.
;
about old age lion
these things to say
;
habebat quo fugeret, he had no place to which lie
to flee
(lit.
whither
might flee).
a.
Qui
in
ibi
unde
;
such clauses to
ut ut eo.
equivalent to
is
ut inde
;
quo
to
is,
ut ego,
etc.
;
ubi
to
ut
Relative clauses of purpose follow dignus, iiidignus, and ido-
3.
iieus
fre-
is
as,
;
—
idoneus fuit nemo quern imitarere, thei'e was no one suitable for you to imitate {cf. nemo fuit quern imitarere, there was no one to imitate)
dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he
is
worthy
to rtile
sometime.
Purpose clauses often depend upon something to be supplied 4. from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences
as,
;
—
omnia omittam, abiimus, that) we depa7-ted.
ut haec
to
pass over
all this (/ will say
Clauses of Characteristic. 283.
A
I.
relative clause
used
to
express
an
essential
of an antecedent not otherwise decalled a Clause of Characteristic,, and stands in
qttality or characteristic
fined is the Subjunctive
;
as,
—
multa sunt, quae mentem acuant,
ther'e-'are
many
things which
sharpen the wits. Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which some fact about an antecedent
are used merely to state or assij.me
already defined, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,
Cato, senex jGcundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, Cato, a ful old fjian, who was called 'The Wise.''
The Clause thing''
\
of Characteristic implies '«
man
of the sort that does sojne-
the Indicative relative clause implies 'a
does something.'
delight-
man who
actually
Clauses of Characteristic.
Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions
2 as,
est qui
qui
183
;
;
sunt qui
solus est qui
nemo
;
est qui
quis est qui
;
;
is
;
nullus est qui
qui
;
etc.
Thus
;
—
:
unus est
sunt qui dicant, there are {some') who say nemo est qui putet, there is nobody who thinks sapientia est fina quae maestitiam pellat, philosopliy is the only thing that drives away sorrow ; quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown f non is sum qui improbos laudem, / am not the sort of man that praises the wicked. a.
Sometimes (very tic is
used
after
rarely in Cicero
comparatives
;
and Caesar) the clause
of characteris-
as,
non longius bostes aberant quam quo telum
adig-i posset,
enemy were not too far off for a dart to reacJi them off than [apomt\ to which a dart could be cast).
ike
3.
The Clause
further
of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion
of cause {since) or opposition {although) a)
{\\X.
Cause.
The
relative
quTppe, utpote
;
as,
is
—
.
Thus
:
—
then frequently accompanied by ut,
6 fortiinate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris, O fortunate man, since you have foicnd a Homer as the herald ofyour valor ut qui Optimo jure eam provinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right. b)
Opposition
:
—
egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies Athenis commoratus sum, /, aithough I had taken tip Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Alliens. 4.
Clauses of Characteristic
(quae, quod)
nemo nemo 5.
;
as,
—
may
also be introduced by
quin = qui
est quin saepe audierit, there is 710 one who has not often heard f uit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded.
Under Clauses of Characteristic belong also phrases of the type so far as I know ; quod audierim, so far as I have
quod sciam, heard.
non
:
1
Syntax.
84
Clauses of Result. 284.
Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut
I.
{that, so that),
negative ut non {so that
Subjunctive.
The main
tot, is
quis
(
=
talis),
some
tam, or
tam demens
and take the
not),
clause often contains tantus,
Thus
similar word.
est ut sua voluntate maereat,
who
is so
of Jus own volition ? Sicilian! ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum as to
:
—
talis,
senseless
i/ioiirn
he has
ravaged
so_
Sicily that
it
cannot be restored
non
possit,
to its
former
condition
mSns
altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent, a very high 7nou7itain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them.
A
2.
Result Clause
Adverb, qui
(
=
ut
nem5 est tam senex is so
hab§tis
qui se
as,
;
lie
nobody
will live a year
and sometimes
It is
best to class
unless the result idea
Result clauses
tam
may
difBcile est
so difficult that
tam
est
development of the Clause of to distinguish the two conthe relative clause as one of Characteristic,
relative clauses of result are a
structions.
is
etc.
qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, have a consnl such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.
Characteristic,
nemo
ut eo).
annum non putet posse vivere,
old as not to think
These
a.
3.
=
(
eum consulem
yort
nihil
by a Relative Pronoun or
often introduced
is
quo
is),
fortis
steadfast as
is
clear
it
is difficult
and unmistakable.
also be introduced
by quin
=
ut non
;
as,
quin quaerendo investigari possit, nothing it
cannot be discovered by searching. rei novitate perturbetur, no one
quin
not to
be
is so
thrown into confusion by a strange
occurrence.
Note phrases of the type fieri
:
—
potest ^ non *^ quin scribam, non possum quin scribam,
facere 4.
after
Note the use of comparatives;
virbs erat
quam
(sonK-timcs
\
,
1
,
.
,
.,
cannot avoid writing.
j
quam
alone) to denote Result
as,
munitior
quam
strongly fortified to
than
ut
1
[jo] that it
l>r
ut pritno impetu capi posset, tal-'en
at
could be taken,
tlie
fi'st attack
etc.)-
(lit.
more
the city 7uus too
strotigly fortified
Causal Clauses.
185
Causal Clauses.
Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the
285.
lowing particles
:
—
Quod
1
The
286. I.
3.
Quando.
moods
is
as follows
Quod, quia, quoniam take the
reason
:
that of the wj'iter
is
junctive
Thus
Cum.
use of
quoniam.
quia,
,
2.
—
when
the reason
:
—
Indicative
/ distrust our
Themistocles, quia
when
the
oj'
speaker ; they take the Sub-
is
viewed as that of another.
Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear because
fol-
the Parthians,
troops.
11611 tiitus
erat,
Corcyram demigravit,
The-
moved to Corcyra. neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam bene vixi, / do not regret having lived, since / have lived well. Socrates acciisatus est quod corrumperet juventiitem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that lie was corrupting the young. nnstocles, since he
was
(Here the reason
is
not safe,
not that of the writer but of the accuser.
Hence the Subjunctive.)
Aedui Caesari
gratias egerunt,
quod
se periculo liberavisset,
Aedui thanked Caesar becatise he had delivered them from (The reason of the Aedui.) danger. quoniam Miltiades dicere 11611 posset, verba pro eo fecit Tisagoras, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.) noctii ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere 11611 posset, Themistocles ttsed to walk at night because {as he said) he the
couldn''t sleep.
a.
Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjuncthough the act of thinking or saying, and not the contents of the thought or language, con-
tive in causal clauses as
stituted the reason.
Bellovaci
Thus
:
—
suum numerum 11611 compleverunt. quod se cum R6nianis bellum gestiir6s dice-
suo n6mine
rent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, be-
1
Syntax.
86
cause they said they 7vere going to wage
Romans on b
Non
their
own
quod, n5n quo (by
war
with the
account.
non eo quod), non non quod non, non quo
attraction for
quia, not that, not because; and
not ; 7iot because not non, non quin, not that not but what, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive as, .
.
.
.
.
.
—
;
id feci,
non quod vos hanc defensionem desiderare omnes intellegerent, this I did, because I thought you needed this defense, but that all
arbitrarer, sed ut not
might perceive
sum pollicitus, non quin apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi comnieiidatione non videbatur, / did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it
Crasso commendationem non earn valiturani
would have weight with you, but to
7}ie
to
But clauses introduced by
c.
because he did not seem
need reco7nmendation.
non quod, non quia
Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact to be the reason for
hoc
Cum
quae cum
cum
necessary for us to think
—
denied
so.
causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,
ita sint, since this
is
so;
quae mortalia sunt,
sis mortalis,
care for
what
Note
the
a.
as,
;
ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic existimare nos est necesse, this I think, not because 1 am myself an augur {which I really am"), but because it is
2.
something
take the is
is
ciira, since you
are mortal,
mortal.
phrase
cum
praesertim (praesertim cum),
especially since; as,
Aedu5s
acciisat, praesertim
cum eorum
precibus ad-
ductus bellum susceperit, he blamed the Aedui, especially since he had undertaken the war at their entreaties.
3.
Quando
the Indicative
id omitto, wish.
;
(less frequent than the other causal particles) as,
—
quando vobis
ita placet,
/ pass
governs
07>er that, since
you
so
Clauses with Postquam, Ubi,
187
etc.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam,
Simul 287.
Ubi,
wJien
ubi,
ut,
simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as,
to refer to
fect Indicative
when
a single occurrence regularly take the Peras,
;
Epamlnondas postquam audivit '
Ut,
etc.
Postquam (posteaquam), after;
I.
cum primum, used
ac,
vicisse Boeotios,
vixi,' Epaininondas, after he
'
Satis
'
inquit
heard that the Boeotians had con-
quered, said, 'I have lived enough.'' id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he moved to Corey ra Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesa:^, as
soon as he could, hurried to the
army;
ubi de Caesaris adventii certiores fact! sunt, legates ad eum mittunt, when they were informed of Caesars arrival, they sent envoys to him. a.
The
Historical Present
may
take the place of the Perfect in this con-
struction.
2.
denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul as, when following an historical tense, take the Plu-
To
atque, as often
perfect Indicative
(compare §§ 288, 3; 302,
3); as,
ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coniciebatur, whenever anybody had offended Verres^s feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur,
whenever the enemy had seen
any men
disembarking, they
attacked them. a.
In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act nite
Frequency')
;
id ubi dixisset;
('
Indefi-
as,
hastam mittebat,
whenever he had said
that,
he
hurled a spear.
3.
Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the PluperThis is regularly the case with
fect Indicative of a single occurrence.
postquam
in expressions
months, years,
annis quam.
etc.),
denoting a definite interval of time (days, annum quam, tribus post
such as post tertium
Thus
:
—
1
88
Syntax.
paucis post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniani venit, a few days after he had departed fro/n Luca he catiie to Sardinia
;
postquam occupatae Syracusae
The Imperfect
4.
est Carthafor Carthage.
erant, profectus
ginem, after Syracuse had been
seized, he set out
Indicative also sometimes occurs to denote a coittinued
state; as,
postquam
Romam
adventabant, senatus consultus
on the march towards Rome, the Semite ivas consulted
postquam sides
struct! utrimque stabant, and were in position.
Rarely
5.
postquam, posteaquam,
after they
est, after they were
;
had been drawn up on
both
cum,
take
following the analogy of
the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,
posteaquam samptu5sa after funerals
fieri
had begun
funera coepissent, lege sublata sunt,
to be elaborate, they
were done away with by law.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Cuxa. A.
288.
A.
Cum
REFERRING TO THE PAST.
Cum, when referring
I.
The
to the past, takes
Indicative (Imperfect,
Historical
Pkiperfect) to denote the point of time at
zvJiicJi
—
Perfect,
or
something
occurs.
B. the
The Subjmictive (Imperfect situation
occurs.
Examples
:
or
circumstances
or Pluperfect) to denote
nnder wJiich
something
—
Indicative.
an turn eras consul, cum in PalatiS mea domus ardebat, or were you const/ 1 at the tiinc when niy house burned up on the l^alatine credo turn cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copils magna artificia fuisse in ea insula, / believe that at the time when Sicily was powetful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that
'/
island
eo tempore parnit
when illo die,
it
cum
ing
was
cum
parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time
necessary to obey
est lata lex
me was passed.
;
de me, on
that day
when
the
law concern-
Cum-C/auses.
1
89
Subjunctive.
Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus
est,
w/ien Lysander desired to chaiige the laws of Lycurgiis, he
was
prevented
cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem immolasse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered
Pythagoras
something 7iew in geometry, he
is
said to have sacrificed an ox to
the Muses. a.
Note
that the Indicative
is
much
less frequent in
such clauses
than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eo die, eo anno, eo tem-
pore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive. 2. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of %uhen, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix,
nondum as, — jam Galli ex^ppido aegre,
;
fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente procurrerunt, the Ganls were already preparing to (logicall)', the maflee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth trons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee) Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse
cognoscunt,
the Treviri
were preparing to attack, when {sudhad arrived
denly) they learned that two legions 3.
To dtnoit
z.
recurring action \n the past
dicative, particularly of the Pluperfect
cum is followed by the In-
(compare §§ 287,
2
;
302, 3); as,
aliquod oppidum veuerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum deferebatur, whenever he had arrired at some town, he was (^always) carried in the same litter to his room ; equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis emittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods.
cum ad
cum
a.
Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive
is
thus used
;
as,
videret minus bene vestltum, suum amiculum dedit, often, xvhenever he saw some one more poorly clothed, lie i^ave him his own mantle cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, as often as they had advanced, the Numidiain ran arvay.
saepe
cum aliquem
This construction
is
frequent in Livy
and subsequent
historians.
'
Syntax.
190
Cum
B.
REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.
When cum
289.
refers to the Present or Future
larly takes the Indicative
;
as,
cum proximus
ardet, your own when yo2ir neighbor'' s house is burning; cum videbis, tum scies, when you see, then you will know.
turn tua res agitur, paries
regu-
it
—
interests
are at stake
The
a.
Indicative of the Present or Future
may
denote also a recurring
action; as,
stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest,
cum homines
pidinibus imperabunt, Jinn friendship can whenever men shall control their desires. C.
290.
I.
Cum
Other Uses of Cum.
Explicative.
Cum,
with the Indicative,
times used to indicate the identity of one act with another
cum
cu-
be established
tacent, clamant, their silence
a shout
is
;
when
(Ht.
some-
is
—
as,
they are
silent, they shout). 2.
Cum
.
.
tum.
.
the cum-clause
is
When cum
in the Indicative
;
.
.
tum mean
cum
when
—
both
.
and,
.
.
has the force of
it may take the Subjunctive as, semper dilexerim, tum tuis factis incensus sum, while I have always loved you, at the same time I am incensed at
while, though,
cum
.
but
;
te
your
co7tduct.
Clauses introduced by AntequaJtn and A.
291.
With the
Priusquam.
Indicative.
Antequam and priusquam (often written ante quam) take the Indicative to denote an .
quam, prius
.
.
.
.
.
actual fact. 1.
Sometimes the Present or F utur e Perfect
prius respondes nihil contra
quam
;
as,
rogo, /£>« answer before [ask;
disputabo priusquam dixerit, / will say
tiothing in
opposition, before he speaks. 2.
Sometimes the
non prius jugulandi
finis fuit,
quam
Sulla
omnes suos
tJiere was no end of viurder until Sulla henchmen with wealth.
explevit, his
Perfect, especially after negative clauses
;
as,
divitiis
satisfied all
Clauses ivith Dum, Donee, B.
With the
191
etc.
SuBjuNt^^wfe!
Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive
292.
to
denote an act as anticipated. Thus the Subjunctive may denote
1.
—
An act in preparation for which the main
a)
act talces place
priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum tion
est,
i.e.
as,
;
—
in anticipa-
of the pght, a treaty was struck.
extension of this usage, the Subjunctive "s sometimes used of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,
By an
tempestas minatur antequam surgat,
An
b)
act anticipated
and
the tempest threatens before
forestalled
as,
;
it
rises.
—
priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled.
An act anticipated and deprecated as, — animum omittunt priusquam loco demigrent,
c)
;
they die
rather than quit their post. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive
2.
by post-Augustan
cially
practically vanished
sol
antequam it set
as,
;
writers,
—
se abderet fugientem vidit
used, espe-
Antonium,
the
sun before
saw Antony fleeing.
Clauses introduced by 293.
is
where the notion of anticipation has
I.
Dum,
regularly takes the Indicative of
luhile,
the Historical Present
Dum, Donee, Quoad.
;
as,
—
dum
inter primores pugnat, sagitta ictus est, AlexAlexander, ander, while he was flghting in the van, was struck by an arrow; dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum pervenit, while these things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli. II.
tive
;
Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as,
—
dum anima
est,
spes
est, as long as there is
Lacedaemoniorum gens the race of the
fortis fuit,
dum
as,
life,
take the Indica-
there
is
hope
Lycurgi leges vigebant,
Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws
of Lycurgiis were in force Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit, Cato, as long as he increased in the fame of his virtues.
lived,
Syntax.
rg2
Dum, donee, and quoad,
III. 1.
The
until,
take:
—
—
Indicative, to denote aji actual event ; as,
donee rediit, f uit silentium, there was silence till he came ferrum in corpora retinuit, quoad renuntiatum est Boeotios vieisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had conquered. a.
In Livy and subsequent historians
dura and donee
take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative;
in this sense often
as,
trepidationis aliquantum edebant, d5nec timor quietem fecisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet. 2,
The
tancy;
as,
Subjunctive,
—
denote anticipation
to
or expec-
exspectavit Caesar duni naves convenlrent, Caesar waited for
the
ships to assemble
dum
hostes veniant, morabor, /shall wait for the enemy
to come.
%^ Substantive Clauses. 294.
A
Substantive Clause
one which as a whole a verb, or denotes
is
serves as the Subject or Object of
some other case
relation.
Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.
A. 295.
These are generally used
as
object-clauses,
occur with the following classes of verbs I.
With verbs
suade, induce,'^
etc.
:
—
and
signifying to admonish, request, commatid, urge, per-
(conjunctions ut, ne)
;
as,
/ demand that it be done (dependent form of the Jussive flat, let it be done I) ; orat, ne abeas, he begs that you will not go away milites cohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, he ex-
postulo ut
fiat,
horted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy Helvetiis persuasit ut exirent, he persuaded the Hehietii
;
to
march
forth. a.
1
Jubeo, command,
moneo, admoneo rogo 6ro, peto, postulo. precor, mando, impero, praecipio suadeo, hortor, cohortor; per-
Especially
flagito;
order, regularly takes the Infinitive.
:
suadeo, impello.
;
;
Substantive Clauses. 2.^
I
signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow}
With verbs
junction vit)
193 etc.
(con-
as,
;
huic concedo ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (dependent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by!) ; cousuli permiasum est ut duas legiones scriberet, the consul was permitted to enroll tiuo legions.
y
With verbs
3.
of hindering, preventingj^
quominu^ quiu)
;
etc.
(conjunctions ne,
as,
ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishitig the litstritm (dependent form after past tense of ne lustrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.) ;
prohibuit quominus in
unum
colrent, he prevented them
from com-
ing together
nee, quin eruniperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could
be prevented
lie
from rushingforth a,
Qmn
used only when the verb of hindering
is
is
accompanied by a
negative, or stands in a question implying a negative
;
it
is
not neces-
sarily used even then.
Clauses introduced by quominus and quin are probably developed from Purpose Clauses.
[4A
With verbs
of deciding, resolving,^
etc.
(conjunctions ut, ne)
;
as,
constitueram ut pridie Idus Aquini manerem, / had decided to remain at Aquinum on the \2tJ1 decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opimius should see to it convenit ut iinis castrTs miscerentur, it was agreed that they should be united in one camp.
(5y With
verbs oi striving,*
etc.
(conjunctions ut, ne)
;
as,
laborabat ut reliquas civitates adjungeret, he was striving to Join the ronaining states to him ; contendit ne ea enuntiarentur, he strove that those things should not be reported. a.
Note.
Conor,
— Verbs
try, alw^avs
of
all
takes the Infinitive.
the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially
in poetry. 1
Especially:
2
Especially:
3
Especially
:
permitto. concedo, non patior. prohibeo, impedio, deterreo. constituo, decerno, censeo, placuit,
convenit, pa-
ciscor. 4
Especially:
o
laboro, do opera m. id ago, contendo, impetro.
Syntax.
194 With a few other
6.
est, sequitur, licet,
expressions, such as
oportet
as
;
reliquum est ut doceam, licet redeas, /£»«
may
necesse
est,
reliquum
,
remains for
//
return
7iie
show,
to
;
oportet loquamur, we must speak.
On
and oportet without
licet
ut, see paragraph 8.
Here also belong phrases of the type: nulla causa est cur,
7.
quare, quin
;
non
est cur,
etc.;
nulla caus -^ est ciir timeam, (originally Deliberative
non
nihil est cur, t/iere is
why
:
etc.
no reason
shoiild Ifear ?
as,
;
why I
should fear
There'' s
no
reason')',
timeam, tliere is no reason why / should fear nihil est quin dicam, there is no reason why I should not say. est quare
Many
8.
of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Sub-
junctive without ut.
In such cases
we must not recognize any omis-
sion of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed
before the ut-clause arose. est, licet,
and oportet
;
This
see 6.
is
regularly the case with
Other examples are
eos hoc moneo desinant, / warn them to stop huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to
296. 1.
—
Here belong clauses
With verbs
:
necesse
visit the states.
O ptativ e.
Substantive Clauses developed from the
B.
mal5
:
—
of wishing, desiring, especially cupio, opto, vol6,
(conjunctions ut, ne); as,
opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbiis reperiatur, / ho^e that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiatur represents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur,
may
no bad man be found!) ; cupio ne veniat, / desire that he 7nay not come. a.
The simple Subjunctive
(without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this
(See ^295, 8.) Examples are vellem scriberes, /£0«/i/ww/4 you were writhig ; vellem scripsisset, I could wish he had written. class.
2.
:
With verbs of/^rt:r/;/^ (timeo, metuo, vereor). and ut means that not ; as,
—
that, lest,
Here ne means
timeo ne veniat, Ifear that he will come (originally may he not come I^m afraid \Jie will'] ) timed ut veniat. I fear that he will not come (originally may he come Ptn afraid {he wonH]). :
;
:
I
Substantive Clauses.
195
Ne non
sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some
particular
word
in the
dependent clause;
non vereor ne hoc non happen
fiat,
/
am
as,
not afraid that this will not
;
vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non possit, he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army.
Substantive Clauses of Result.
C.
Substantive Clauses of Result (introducjd by ut, development of pure Result clauses, and
297.
ut non) are a
occur with the following classes of words As
1
I fear that
:
—
object clauses after verbs of doing, accoinplishing (especially
facio, efficio, conficio).
Thus
:
—
gravitas niorbi facit ut medicina e^eaxawa, the seventy of disease fI takes us need medicine. 2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efEcitur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur,
relinquitur.
ex quo it
ita
:
—
ut voluptas non
follows that pleasure
ut
fit,
Thus
efficitur,
nemo
is
sit
summum \ion\xra., from which
not the greatest good;
esse possit beatus,
tints it
happens that no one can
happy ; accedebat ut naves deessent, another thing was (lit. it was added that ships were lacking). be
^3) As Thus est
:
of ships
predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est, mos also after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc.
consuetudo est
es?;
the lack
;
—
mos hominum it
is the
many D.
ut nolint.eundem pluribus rebus excellere, not to wish the same person to excel in
way of men
thitigs.
Substantive Clauses introduced by Quin.
qum (used somesometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after non dubito, / do not doubt ; quis 298.
Substantive Clauses introduced by
times as subject,
(/"^
196
Syntax.
.
who doubts f ; non (haud) dubium est, there The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:
dubitat,
—
doubt.
is
no
quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae sint who doubts that in virtiie there are riches ? non dubium eiat quin venturus esset, there was no doubt that he ,
was about
to come.
In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes
a.
takes
tlie
place of the quin-clause after
non dubito
as,
;
—
non dubitamus inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were found.
Non
dubito, / do not /icsih2ti\ is regularly followed by the though sometimes by a quin-clause.
b.
Substantive Clauses introduced by Quod.
E. 299.
Quod, the fact
I.
a)
that,
introduces SubstanThis construction occurs
that,
in the Indicative.
tive Clauses especiall}^
Infinitive,
—
In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id, ex eo, inde, etc. Thus
illud, ilia,
:
dignum, quod captivos retinen-
illud est admlratione
dos censuit,
—
of admiration,
this is especially ivorthy
that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept
hoc uno praestamus vel maxime
mur
superior b)
After etc.
;
bene as
feris,
quod coUoquiwe especially
inter nos, in this one respect are
—
to the beasts, fit,
bene
that
we
accidit,
talk ivith each other.
male
fit,
bene facere,
bene mihi accidit, quod mittor ad mortem, // is zv ell for me that I am sent to death bene fecisti quod mansisti. you did well in remaining. ;
1.
Quod
at the
beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force
of as regards the fact that.
Thus
:
—
quod multitudinem Germanorum muniendi causa
in
Galliam traduco, id mei
facio, as regards the fact that
porting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I
am
I am doing
transit
for
the sake of strengthening myself;
quod me Agamemnona aemulari thinking that
putas, falleris, as regards your
I emulate Agamemnon, you are
mistaken.
Substantive Cla?ises.
197
Indirect Questions. 300.
Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used
I.
after verbs of asking, inquiring, telling
take their verb in the Subjunctive.^ (see
may be
162) they
§
d)
By
introduced
2ccvd.
iibi fueris,
They
like.
—
Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs
die niihi
the
Like Direct Questions
quid feceris,
;
as,
—
tell ine
where you were,
wJiat you did;
oculis judicari
uon potest
in
utram partem
fluat Arar,
cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the Arar /lows it
bis bina quot essent, nesciebat, he did not
many two
know how
times two were.
— Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from The difference between the two appears clearly in the following — Note.
Relative Clauses. :
effugere is
nemo
id potest
quod futurum
est,
no one can escape what
destined to come to pass ; but
saepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but it is not eve7i useful to know what is coming to pass. b)
By num
or -ne, without distinction of
meaning
Epaminondas quaesivit num salvus
;
as,
often
—
esset clipeus, or
salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether his shield
was
num
disputatur guestion
is
safe
;
interire virtus in
homine
possit, the
raised whether virtue can die in a
man
;
ex Socrate quaesitum est nonne Archelaum beatum putaret, the guestion was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy. Note.
— Nonne
Indirect Questions occurs only after
in
quaero,
as in the
example above.
last
Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive
2.
of the direct discourse
;
as,
—
neacio quid faciam, / do not know what
what 1
shall
I do
to do.
(Direct:
quid faciam,
.')
Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as con-
sidera desires
quam
of men.
hominum cupidines, consider how varied are the quam variae sunt hominum cupidines
variae sint (Direct
:
I)
198
Syntax.
After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspecto, c5nor, 3. experior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by SI as,
—
;
conantur
perrumpere possint,
si
they try whether they can break
throtigh. a.
Sometimes the governing verb
pergit ad
omitted
is
proximam speluncam
rent, he proceeded
to the
as,
;
si
forte e5 vestigia fer-
nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led
thither,
4.
same
Indirect Double Questions are introduced particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4)
utrum
.
.
an an
.
-ne
in the viz.
;
:
main by the
—
;
;
an;
Examples
ne.
—
:
quaero utrum verum an falsum quaero verumne an falsum sit, quaero verum an falsum sit, quaero verum falsumne sit, a.
sit,
I ask whether it is true orfalse? J
second member of a double question expressed by necne, less frequently by an non as,
'Or
not' in the
;
di
utrum or
5.
Hand
sint necne, quaeritur,
it is
—
is
ordinarily
asked whether there are gods
7tot.
scio an, nescio an, by omission of the
first
member of / avi
the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense inclined to think., probably, perhaps
baud scio an hoc verum 6.
sit,
;
as,
/ a/u
—
inclined to think this
In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative
is
:
is true.
sometimes used
in
Indirect Questions.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 301. (§
Conditional
164) consisting
dition),
Sentences of
two
usually introduced
Apodosis (or
conclusioji).
are
parts,
by
We
types of Conditional Sentences
si,
compound sentences the nisi,
Protasis (or conor
sin,
and the
distinguish the following :
—
Conditional Sentences. Type. —Nothing
First
Implied
to
as
\Qi<)
Reality
the
of
the
Supposed Case. 302.
Here we regularly have the Indicative
I.
hoc credis,
si
Any
and Apodosis.
Protasis
natiirani
sequemur,
si
tense
erras, if you believe this,
numquam
may
be used
both
in
—
as,
;
you are mistaken; -^yr-^ aberrabimus, if we follow
Nature, we shall never go astray ; hoc dixisti, errasti, if you said this, you were in error.
SI
2.
lar (§
Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singu356,3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of
the Indicative
as,
;
—
memoria minuitur, you
exertise
nisi earn exerceas,
memory grows weak
unless
it.
Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protdenotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2 288, 3); as,
3.
asis
si
;
quis equitum deciddrat, pedites circumsistebant, if 3ny one of the horsemen fell, ttie foot-soldiers gathered about him. a.
Instead of
tfll
Indicative, Livy
and subsequent
writers
• employ the
Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote TEpeaJed action si
in
4.
as,
;
—
dicendo quis diem eximei'et,
Where
if {ever) anybody
quando adsideret,
pleading ; si
demands it the Apodosis in conditional senType may be an Imperative or one of the Inde-
the sense
tences of the First
pendent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, SI
SI
consumed a day
if ever he sat by.
etc.)
;
as,
hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent; hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep
Second Type. 303.
— Supposed
silent.
Case represented as Contingent.
Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the
ent or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; si si
si
h5c dicas, erres, hoc dixeris, erraveris,
1
J
if you should say this, taken.
you would
velim Hannibalis proelia omnia describere, dies
I should wish would fail me if
to describe all the battles
me
Presas,
be mis-
deficiat,
of Hannibal, time
Syntax.
200
mentiar, si negem, /should lie, if I shottld deny it; SI tecum patria loqiiatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your country should plead thus with you, -would she not deserve to
haec
obtain her request f
The Subjunctive
a.
in
the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type
of the Potential variety.
is
Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the consummation of a result more positively; as,
b.
—
nullam habet auctoritatem,
aliter si faciat, otherwise, he has no authority.
Type.
Third
— Supposed
if he should do
Case represented as Contrary to Fact.
304.
Here we regularly have the Subjunctive
I.
and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring and the Pluperfect referring to past; as,
Protasis time, SI
SI
—
to
in
both
present
amici mei adessent, opis non indigerem, // my friends were herr, I should not lack assistance; ^ hoc dixisses, errasses, if you had said this, you would have erred
sapientia
non expeteretur,
si nihil efEceret,
philosophy would not
be desired, if it accomplished nothing;
consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless deliberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate. 2.
Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive
past, especially
existing ; as,
—
to
denote a co7itinued
act,
is
found referring to the
or a state of things
still
Laelius, Furius, Cato, si nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium contulissent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato
num
would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been {constantly) helped by them igitur si ad centesimum annum vixisset, senectutis eum suae paeniteret, //" he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have regretted {and now be regretting) his old age?
201
Conditional Sentences.
The Apodosis in conditional sentences of tliis type sometimes 3. stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.— Frequently in expressions of
a)
ability,
obligation,
or neces-
sity; as,
nisi
felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke
—
In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is repreNote. sented as contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood {and they ivould have shaken it off). When the possibility itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive
used.
is
patris loco colere debebas, si ulla in te pietas you ought to revere him as a father, if you had
eum
esset,
any sense of devotion.
With both
b)
SI
the Periphrastic Conjugations
;
—
as,
Pompejus occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri, Pompey had been slain, would you have proceeded
if to
arms ? SI
unum
'diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus you had delayed one day, you would all have
fuit, if
had
to die.
Protasis expressed -witliout SI. 305.
but
I
.
may be
The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context as, ;
haec non sciiberentur, otherwise {i.e. if matters were otherwise) these things would not be written non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigeutes, retinere virtutem, you cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to alioqiii
pleasure. 2.
Soinetimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive serves as
Protasis.
Thus:
—
eras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, ask to-morrow,
etc.)
it
shall be given
you
(lit.
;
haec reputent, videbunt,
// they consider this, they will see
(lit.
let
them consider, etc. cave haec facias, beware not to do this ! (Originally do this ! then beware! i.e. if you do it, beware I Hence beware not to do it!) ;
:
Syntax.
202
Use 306.
Nisi,
I.
tives a single
;
but
ferreus essem, si te NOT love you. In the In the
—
amarem, / should
be
non amarem, / should
example,
first
non
nega-
as,
ferreus essem, nisi te ;
SI Non, Sin.
negatives the entire protasis; si
jinless,
word
loved you
of Nisi,
it is
hard-hearted unless J
be
hard-hearted if I did
the notion of loving you that
negatived,
is
second, the notion of loving.
Si non
2.
When
a~)
minus) must be employed
(si
an apodosis with
at,
:
—
tamen, certg
follows
;
—
as,
dolorem si non potuero'frangere, tamen occultabo, I cannot crush my sorro2v,yet I will hide it.
When
b)
an affirmative protasis
if
repeated in negative form
is
as,
gratiam si non feceris, shall be deeply grateful; ifyou it, I do you ignoscam, if do not do it, I shall pardon you.
si feceris,
But
a.
if
magnam habebo
the verb
is
;
omitted in the repetition, only si
minus
admis-
is
sible; as,
hoc
si
assecutus sum, gaudeo;
have attained
tills,
I
am glad;
si
minus,
me
consoler, ///
if not, 1 console myself.
Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in 3. meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin as, hunc mihi timorem eripe si verus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus, ;
—
;
ut tiniere desinam, fotmded, that that
I may
I may
as,
;
of this fear; if it
is
it
is
well
groundless,
for
combining with negatives (n5n, nemo,
—
nihil cogitavit nisi a.
nie
cease to fear.
Nisi has a fondness
4.
nihil)
relieve
not be destroyed; but if
Non
and
caedem, he had no thought
but murder.
nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.
Nisi forte, nisi vgro, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed 5 (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,— nisi vero, less
to
quia perfecta res non est, non videtur punienda, unnot seem indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does
merit punislimcnt.
Clauses of Comparison.
— Adversative
203
Clauses.
Conditional Clauses of Comparison. 307.
I.
Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro-
duced by the particles, ac si, ut sT, quasi, quam si, tamquam They are folsi, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam. lowed by the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis, as indicated in the following examples :
—
tantus patres metus cepit, velut si jam ad portas hostis asset, as great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy were already at the gates ; sed quid ego his testibus uto r quasi res dubia aut obscura sit, dnt why do I use these witnesses., as (/ should do) if the matter
were doicbtfid or obscure tibi tamquam si emeris
serviam
though you had bought
me
argento, / will
serz'e
you as
me for money.
kind the Latin observes the reguSequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English uses the Past and the Past Perfect. 2.
Note that
in sentences of this
lar principles for the
%^ Concessive Clauses.
Concessive is best restricted to those from the Jussive Subjunctive which developed clauses that, etc. (see § 278); as, granted have the force oi
The term
308.
'
'
bonus imperator, granted that he is a good commander yet robber, and a thief at hoc verum sit, granted that this is true
sit fur, sit sacrilegus, at est
ne
sit
summum malum is a.
not the greatest
dolor,
evil,
yet
malum it is
licet,
dicam quod
evil.
(see
\
295, 6)
sentio, they may all shout,
Quamquam,
etc.
Clauses introduced by quamvis, quamquam,
tametsi, cum, aWioitgh, while sive,'
a
what I thitik.
Adversative Clauses with QuamvTs, 309.
an
—
{but) I shall say
is
certe est, granted that pain
cei'tainly
Here also belongs the use of the Subjunctive with licet where licet has the force of he may, they may, etc. ; as,
fremant omnes
he
often
classed
as
'
etsi,
Conces-
are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive
Syntax.
204
As
clauses.
a rule, they do not gi-aiit or concede any-
thing, but rather state that something
something
the adver-
and are properly Subordinate Adversative
The
Clauses.
true in spite of
They accordingly emphasize
else.
idea,
sative
is
different particles used to introduce these
clauses have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows 1.
:
Qiiamvls, howeve?'
—
iiutcJi, alt/ioiig/i,
does not introduce a state-
ment of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense as, homines quamvis in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum animis relaxantur, in however stirring events men may engage, yet at ;
non
—
times they relax their energies est potestas opitulandi lei piiblicae quamvis ea prematur periculis, there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by dangers.
2. fact,
Quaniquam,
etsi, tanietsi, although, introduce a statement of
and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense);
quamquam omnis efiicit,
cially
virtus nos
allicit,
tamen
as,
jiistitia
id
maxime
although all virttte attracts us, yet justice does so espe-
;
Caesar, etsi nondum consilium liostium cognoverat, tamen id quod accidit suspicabatur, Caesar, thougJi lie did not yet know' the plans of the enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred. a.
Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if. Tiie latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible
(See \\ 302-304.)
for si.
3.
Cum,
although,
is
Atticus lionores non
followed by the Subjunctive; as,
petiit,
cum
ei paterent, Attic us did not seek
honors, though they were open to him. 4.
Licet sometimes loses
its
verbal force (see § 308, a) and sinks to It takes the
the level of a conjunction with the force of although.
Subjunctive, Present or Perfect licet
omnes
as,
—
—
{yet) I will lend aid.
hang over me, 5.
;
terrores in^pendeant, succiirrani, though all terrors
Quaniquam,
principal clauses
;
with the force
as,
quamquam
—
and
yet,
is
often used to introduce
quid loquor, and yet why do I speak?
Clauses of Proviso.
quamquam
In post-Augustan writers
6.
junctive, while
quamvis
is
— Relative Clauses. is
205
Thus
either the Indicative or the Subjunctive.
:
—
q-uamquam moveretur his vocibus, although he was moved by quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought quamvis infesto animo psrveneras, though you had come with
Bum^ Modo, Duinmodo,
Clauses with
Suband takes
freely construed with the
often used to introduce statements of fact,
words
these
hostile intent.
denoting a
Wish
or a Proviso.
These
310.
particles
are followed by the Subjunctive
(negative ne) and have two distinct uses
They
I.
:
—
are used to introduce clauses embodying a zvish
entertained by the subject of the leading verb as, multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam cSnsequantur, many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power {if only they ;
may attain) omnia postposul, dum praeceptis patris paierem, / made everyt/ang secondary, in
else
nil
obstat
tibi,
dum
desire that
They
II.
that
')
;
oderint,
as,
—
dum
your
are
my
desire to obey the injunctions of
sit ditior alter, nothing hinders
ne
tieighbor
used
metuant,
may
to
let
them
my father
you
in
your
not be richer thattyou.
express
hate,
a proviso-'
{'
provided
provided they fear
manent ingenia seiybus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men retain their faadties, provided only they retain their interest and vigor ,•
nubant,
dum
ne dos
goes with
Note. original
fiat
comes,
let
them marry, provided no dowry
it.
— Of these two uses
one
;
of dum, modo, and dummodo, the first is the grown out of the first, and frequently retains the origioderint, dum metuant.
the second has
nal notion of wishing, as in
Relative Clauses. 311.
Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pro-
nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs. 312.
I.
Relative clauses usually stand
in
especially clauses introduced by those General
doubled or have the
suffix
-cunque
;
as,
the
Indicative
Mood,
Relatives which
are
Syntax.
2o6 quidquid id
est,
timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever
it is,
1
Greeks even ivhcn they offer gifts quidquid oritur, qualecunque est, causam a natura habet, wJiatever comes into being, of tuhatever sort it is, has its primal cause
fear
tlie
in Nature.
Any
2.
simple Relative
may
introduce a conditional sentence of any
of the three types mentioned in §§ 302-304
;
as,
—
qui h5c dicit, errat, he who says this is /nistaken (First Type) qui hoc dicat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Second Type) qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have been ;
mistaken.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE {ORATIO OBLIQUA). 313. When the language or thought, of any person is quoted without change, that is called Direct Discourse When, {prdtio Recta); as, Caesar said, 'The die is cast.''
on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, t]iinkiiig, etc., that is called as, Caesar said that Indirect Discourse {Ordtio Obllqtid) ;
Caesar thought that his troops zvere
the die ivas cast; victorious.
For the verbs most frequently employeS
a.
to introduce Indirect
Discourse, see § 331-
MOODS
IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Declaratory Sentences. 314.
I.
change
Declaratory Sentences upon becoming Indirect main clause to the Infinitive with Subject
their
Accusative, while tive
;
as,
—
all
subordinate clauses take the Subjunc-
Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium teneretur non esse ge senatorem, Regulus said that as long as he was held by his (Direct quam diu pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. :
teneor non
sum
senator.)
Indirect Discourse.
The verb
2.
from the context
of saying,
tkinking,
etc., is
207
sometimes
to be inferred
as,
;
Romulus legates circa vicinas gentes misit qui societatem conubiumque peterent urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex infinio nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of intermarriage, (sayifig that) cities, like everything else, start from a
turn
:
modest beginjiing.
/^
Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of
3.
tRe writer are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, and hence regularly take the Indicative
as,
;
ex ea parte vici, quam Gallls concesserat, omnes noctu discessisse, he was iftformed that all had departed by
certior factus
night from that part of the village which he Jiad granted to the
Gauls.
Sometimes a subordinate clause
4.
and
in sense is principal.
Accusative.
qui
is
It
such only in
is
its
external form,
then takes the Infinitive with Subject
This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where
equivalent to et hic,
nam
hic,
etc.
;
as,
—
urbem Atheniensiuni propiignaculum oppositum
dixit
apud quam jam
baiis,
gium, he said the barbarians
like
city
of the Atlieniaiis had been set against the (= atid near it) the fleets met disaster.
a bulwark, near which
of the King had
tivice
Tlie Subject Accusative of the Infinitive
5.
when
it
refers
to
the
id nescire
Mago
is
sometimes omitted
same person as the subject of the leading
verb, or can easily be supplied from the context
cum
esse bar-
bis classes regias fecisse naufra-
diceret,
;
as,
when Mago said he did
not
know
this (for se nescire).
Interrogative Sentences. 315.
I.
becoming tive
;
as,
,
Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunc-
—
Ariovistus Caesari respondit
populum Romanum.
:
se prius in Galliam venisse
Quid
sibi
vellet ?
possessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied
to
quam
Cur in suas Caesar that he
Syntax.
2o8 had come quid 2.
Roman
into Gaiil before the
mean ?
{Caesar)
tibi vis ?
Why
What did
people.
domain ? cur in meas possessiones veins ?) did he come
i?ito
he
(Direct
his
Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked
merely
for-effect,
and being equivalent
emphatic
in force to
statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Dis-
Thus
course.
quid est levius
:
—
what
(lit.
is
= nothing is more trivial) quid esse levius in the In-
inore trivial.,
of the Direct Discourse becomes direct. 3.
Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain un-
changed
in
mood
in the Indirect
quid faceret, what was he
;
as,
to
—
do
(Direct
?
quid faciam ?)
:
Imperative Sentences.
Discourse
direct
as,
;
mllites
—
appear
soldiers
the
as
Subjunctives
the
in
In-
paulisper intermitterent proelium, he
certiores fecit
told
Subjunctives of the
Imperatives or Jussive
All
316.
Direct
stop
to
the
battle
for a
(Direct
little.
intermittite.) a.
The Negative
in
such sentences
ne suae virtuti tribueret,
let
is
ne
as,
;
—
hi/n not attribute
it
to his oivn
valor
TENSES A. 317.
IN
INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Tenses of the
These are used
in
Infinitive.
accordance with the regular
principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in a.
The
Perfect Infinitive
§
270.
may represent any past tense of the Thus
Indicative of Direct Discourse.
scio te haec egisse may mean
:
—
—
/ know you were doing' this. / know you did this. / know you had done this.
(Direct: (Direct: (Direct:
haec agebas.) haec egisti.) haec egeras.)
209
Indirect Discourse.
Tenses of the Subjunctive.
B.
pal
Historical
;
we
vividness,
an
after
principle for the
These follow the regular
318.
of Tenses, being Principal if
it
often
the verb of saying
if
Historical.
is
the
find
historical tense
as,
;
Yet
Present
—
Sequence is
Princi-
for the sake of
Subjunctive used
si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum, Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace,
Caesar respondit,
For the sequence
a.
after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Conditional Sentences of the First Type. 319.
(§^270; B.
to the d).
317,
The
Protasis.
of Tenses.
Examples
:
The
protasis takes those tenses of
required
are
Indirect.
hoc credas, te errare hoc crederes, te errare.
dico, sT
hoc credis, erras,
dixT, SI -
81
,
_
_ ,.
_,
.
hoc credes, errabis,
f -I
I
dico, .
_
dixi,
SI _
SI
hoc credas, te erraturum esse _ _ hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. ;
hoc credideris,
te
erraturum
h5c credidisses,
te
erratiirum
dico, sT SI
by the Sequence
—
Direct. SI
tense of the Indicative
corresponding tense of the Infinitive
Subjunctive which
the
Any
The Apodosis.
A.
changed
is
hoc credideris, errabis,
esse \
;
dIxT, sT
esse. si
hoc credebas, erravisti,
dico, si dlxT, sT
hoc crederes, hoc crederes,
te
erravisse
te
erravisse.
Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after
a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense.
p
Syntax.
210
Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.
The Present Subjunctive of A. The Apodosis. becomes the Future Infiniregularly Discourse Direct the 320.
tive of the Indirect.
The Protasis takes those tenses Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.
The
B.
the
Examples SI
of
Protasis.
:
—
_ _^_ hoc credas, erres,
I
-^
t
dlco, SI ,
hoc credas, te erraturum esse -._ _, _ ,hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. ;
.,.
.
dixi, SI
Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.
A.
321. I.
The
Apodosis.
The Imperfect Subjunctive
becomes
:
—
of the Direct Discourse
a)
In the Active Voice the Future Infinitive.
b)
In the Passive Voice
it
takes the form
futurum esse (fore)
ut, with the Imperfect Subjunctive. 2.
The
becomes a) b)
:
Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse
—
In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse. In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut
with the Imperfect Subjunctive.
The protasis in Conditional SenB. The Protasis. tences of this type always remains unchanged. Examples sT
:
—
dico (dixT),
hoc crederes, errares,
sT
hoc crederes,
tiirum esse sT
hoc credidisses, erravisses,
dico (dlxT),
sT
te
erra-
;
hoc cr§didisses,
te
erraturum fuisse SI
h5c dixisses, punitus esses,
dico (dlxT),
rum 322.
Type
When
sT
hoc dixisses futu-
fuisse ut punireris.
an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third
referring to the past
is
at the
same time a Result
clause, or a
2il
Indirect Discourse. quin-clause (after
non dubito,
etc.),
junctive in the form -urus f uerim
;
as,
it
—
stands in the Perfect Sub-
arma traditurl fuerint/ nisi Caesar subito advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived; dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturiis fueris,i / do not doubt
ita territi sunt, ut
non
that, if you
had said this, you would have made a
mistake.
This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent,
a.
remain unchanged
as,
;
non dubitS quin, do not doubt
si
that,
—
h5c dixisses, vituperatus esses, / if you had said this, you would have
been blamed.
When
b.
an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conThird Type, -urus fuerim (rarely
ditional sentence of the
-urus fuissem)
num,
quaero,
is
used;
as,
hoc dixisses, erraturus
si
fueris
(or
fuisses). it becomes a dependent apodosis Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive
Potui, when
c.
;
in sentences of this as.
—
concursu totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos quoque oratorgs populi studia excitare potuerint, they -were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people
would have been enough
to excite
even
the most apathetic orators.
IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 323.
The
Subjunctive
Indirect character
is
is
often used in subordinate clauses
merely implied by the context;
whose
as,
demonstrabautur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates de immortalitate
animorum
disseruisset, there were explained to
me
be-
arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the im?/tortality of the soul {i.e. the arguments which, it was said, sides, the
Socrates had set forth)
;
Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi dSnavit, Paetusgave me all the books which {as he said) his father had left. 1
Tradituri fuerint and erraturus fueris nre
senting tradittiri
§304.
3. '^)-
fuerunt and erraturus
to
be regarded as repre-
fuisti of Direct Discourse.
(See
Syntax.
212
SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION. 324.
Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Sub-
I.
especially
the
into
frequently attracted
are
junctive
same mood,
not express a fact, but constitute
when they do
an essential part of one complex idea
nemo avarus adhuc inventus
;
as,
—
quod haberet, esset satis, who was satisfied with what tie
est, cui,
no miser has yet been found
had diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et animi et ingeuii reddereut, as they brought forward different arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of
cum
mind and natural
quod ego
bent.
fatear, pudeat, should
I
be ashatned
of a thing which I
admit ? Similarly a
2. is
whole
mos
as,
;
subordinate
Subjunctive
the
put in
—
clause
when
dependent upon an Infinitive form one closely united
the two
est Athenis quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the custom at Alliens every year for those to be publicly eulogised
who have been who fell
(Here the notion of 'praising those
tcilled
in
in battle'
battle.
forms
an inseparable whole.)
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 325.
Supine.
These are the
Infinitive,
Participle,
Gerund, and
All of these partake of the nature of the Verb,
on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other.
Thus
As Verbs,
:
—
—
rt)
b^ c')
As Nouns a) b)
They may be limited by adverbs They admit an object They have the properties of voice and ;
tense.
or Adjectives,
They They
are declined
take
Noun
;
or Adjective constructions.
Noun and
Adjective Forms of the Verb.
THE
seen
in
may be used
This
Note.
INFINITIVE.
without Subject Accusative.
Infinitive
326.
213
either as Subject or Object.
— The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are
the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as,
rent oscula nati praeripere, ajidno sweet children
A. 327.
The
I.
As
-will
still
to
be
nec dulces OCCtir-
run
to
snatch kisses.
Siibject.
Infinitive wIEIiQiii-^Subiect
Accusative
is
{
used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, pporte t, juvat, delectat, placet, libet interest, etc.
conducit, expedit, dece t, pudet,
licet, praestat,
.
as,
;
—
dulce et decorum ,e^t pro patria for
one's country
niori,
// is
and
sweet
noble to die
;
virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem men to endure pain with patience ;
patT,
the
// is
senatui placuit legatSs mittere, the Senate decided Senate) to send envoys.
part of brave
{\\i. it
pleased the
Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may Noun or Adjective in the Accusative as, is one thing to be irascible, aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, 2.
take a Predicate
;
/'/
another
to be
impune quaelibet
angry
;
facere, id est
please with impunity, that But when licet
a.
Noun
is
regem
is to be
esse
is
attracted into the
licuit esse otioso Themistocll,
328.
I.
The
of the
same
volo,
cupi5,
debeo,
lit.
As
Infinitive
many
malo,
nolo;
statuo, constituo, decide;
same case;
as,
zuas permitted to Themisto-
Object.
without Subject Accusative
is
verbs, to denote another action
subject, particularly after
ouglit
it
So sometimes with other Impersonals.
B.
used as the Object of
you
followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate
or Adjective with
cles to be at leisure.
esse, to do whatever
a king.
—
QO^\\.b.va.Qdi\tox, purpose, i7itend',
neglego, neglect vereor, timeo, /ear
Syntax.
214
maturo, festino, propero, contendo, hasten ; assuesco, consuesco, accustom
audeo dare studeo, contends, strive par5, prepare (so paratus)
;
incipio, coepi, instituo, begin
pergo, continue ; desino, desisto, cease
possum, can
myself {&o assuetus, Insuetus, assuef actus)
;
;
disco, /earn
;
scio, /enow
;
soleo,
Conor, try
;
how;
am wont
;
as,
—
to /oo/c on these men f Demosthenes ad fluctum maris declamare solebat, Demosthenes
tu hos intueri audes, do you dare used 2.
A
into the
to
declaim by the waves of the sea.
Noun
Predicate
Nominative
as,
;
or Adjective with these Infinitives
is
attracted
—
beatus esse sine virtute
nemo
potest, no one can be happy without
virtue
Cats esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred rather than
to
seem
Infinitive
good
to be
so.
with Subject Accusative.
329.
This
may be used
330.
The
Infinitive with
A.
either as Subject or Object.
As
Subject.
Subject Accusative (like the
simple Infinitive) appears as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, justum est, utile opinio est, turpe est, apertum est, perspicuum est, fama est, est,
spes est, fas
est,
nefas est, opus est, necesse est, oportet,
apparet, constat, praestat,
etc. ;
as,
—
contemni, nothing ought to apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum,
nihil in bello oportet
war
be despised in
manifest that
// is
by nature everybody is dearest to himse/f.
B. 331.
The
As
Object.
Infinitive with Subject
Accusative
Object after the following classes of verbs I.
frequently after verbs of saying,
Most and the
ceiving,
like
{Verba Sentiendi
et
:
—
t /linking,
Declarandi).
is
used as
/inotving,
This
is
perthe
/'
Noun and
Adjective Forms of the Verb.
215 Verbs
regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. that take this construction are,
cognosce
audio, video,
memini
;
;
among
others, the following
;
.
.
.
fateor, respondeo, scribo, promitto, glorior.
certiorem facio Examples :
(tn/ofyn),
—
Epicure! putant
cum
memoria teneo
Also the phrases
{remember^,
aquam
etc.
corporibus simul animds interire,
cureans think that the soul perishes with the body
Thales dixit
sentio,
puto, jiidico, spero, confido sci5, (^say that fiot), trado, narro,
nego
dico, affirmo,
:
e sse initium
rerum,
the Epi-
;
Tliales said that
water was
the first principle
of the nni-verse Democritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritits says nothing
is
everlasting;
spero euni venturum esse, / hope that he will come. II.
With jubeo,
order,
and
'veto, forbid ; as,
Caesar milites pontem facere make a bridge. a.
When
name
the
something
jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to
of the person
who
is
the Passive; as,
Caesar pontem
jubeo and vet5
is
put in
fieri jussit.
With patior and sino, permit, allow
III.
ordered or forbidden to do
omitted, the Infinitive with
is
;
as,
—
nullo se implicari negotio passus est, he did not permit himself be involved in
IV. tive
is
any
With V0I6, nolo, malo, cupio, when different
to
difficulty.
the Subject of the Infini-
from that of the governing verb
;
as,
—
nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, nor do I wish this error be wrested from me eas res jactari nolebat, he was unwilli>ig that these matters should
to
be
discussed te tuis divitils frui a.
When
cupimus, we
desire that you enjoy
the Subject of both verbs
regularly used in accordance with pecially in case of
is
^
esse and Passive
your wealth.
the same, the simple Infinitive 328,
i.
But exceptions occur,
Infinitives; as,
me
esse clementem, I desire to be lenient; Timoleon maluit se diligi quam metui, Timoleon preferred
cupio
is
es-
to
be loved rather than feared. b.
Vol5 and nolo (See
\
296,
I,
a.)
also
admit the Subjunctive, with or without Ut.
2i6
Syntax.
V. With Verbs of emotion {Joy, sorro^u, regret, etc.), especially gaudeo, laetor, doleo aegre fero, moleste feio, graviter fero, uf/i annoyed, distressed ; miror, queror, indignor as, ;
—
;
te salvum advenire, I rejoice that yon arri^ie safely non moleste ferunt se libidinuni vinculis laxatos esse, tJiey are not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion miror te ad me nihil scribere, I -wonder that yon write me 7iothing.
gaudeo
;
a.
Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a
(See
clause as Object.
§
miror quod non loqueris,
Some
VI.
Thus:
299.)
—
quod-
/ wonder that you do not speak.
verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and
the other of the
Thing
second Accusative
;
as,
(§ 178, i)
—
may
substitute an Infinitive for the
cogo te hoc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. te hoc cogo) "docui te contentum esse, / taught you to be content (cf. te modestiam docui, / taught you temperance'). ;
Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.
Those verbs which
332.
in the
Active are followed by
the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the
personal construction in the Passive. following a)
:
—
jubeor, vetor, sinor milites
;
pontem facere
as,
This
is
true of the
—
jussi sunt, the soldiers were ordered
a bridge jussus est, a bridge was ordered built milites castris exire vetiti snnt,'the troops were forbidden to build
pons
fieri
to go out of the camp ; Sestius Clodium accusare n5n est situs, Sestius was
not allowed to accuse Clodius. b)
vide or, / am
seen,
f seem
;
c)
*
as,
videtur comperisse, he seems
to
have discovered.
dicor, putor, existimor, jiidicor (in
dlcitur in Italiam venisse, he
is
all
said
persons) to
;
as,
—
have come into
Italy;
Romulus primus rex Romanorum lus is thought to
fuisse putatiir,
have been the first
kitig
Romu-
of the Romans.
Noun and
Adjective
Forms of
the Verb.
217
d) fertur, feruntur, traditur, traduntur (only in the third person) as,
—
;
fertur
Homerus caecus
fuisse, Hoiner is said to have been
blind;
carmina Archilochi coutumeliis referta esse traduntur, ArcJiilocJtiis's poems are reported to have been fiilt of abuse.
Note. verbs, c)
,
— In d),
compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two more commonly take the impersonal construction; as,
Homerum caecum
traditum est
fuisse, the story goes that
classes of
Homer was
blind.
Infinitive
The
333. etc.;
with Adjectives.
with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus,
Infinitive
see § 328, i) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose
writers
;
as,
—
contentus demonstrasse, contented to have proved; audax omnia perpeti, bold for enduring everything. Infinitive in Exclamations.
334.
The
to
some word
used in Exclamations implying scorn, indig-
Infinitive is
nation, or regf
An
et.
interrogative (or intensive) -ne
in the clause.
Examples
huncine solem tarn nigrum surrexe rose with such eiiil omen for me sedere totos dies in
villa, to stay
:
—
is
often attached
niihi, to think that to-dafs
sun
whole days at the villa
Historical Infinitive. 335.
The
Infinitive
Imperfect Indicative.
is
often used in historical narrative instead of the
The
interim cottidie Cae.sar
Subject stands in the Nominative;
Aeduos frumentum
flagitare,
as,
meanwhile
Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Aedui.
UPARTICIPLES. Tenses of the Participle. 336.
I.
The
Infinitive (see
§
tenses of the Participle, like those of the 270), express time not absolutely, but with
reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.
2
Syntax.
1
The Present Participle denotes action conternfiorary with that of Thus audio te loquentem —you are speaking and I hear yoti; audiebam te loquentem - yoii were speaking and I heard you audiatn te loquentem —you will be speakitig and / shall hear you. 2.
the verb.
:
—
The Present
a.
force
as,
;
—
Participle
sometimes employed with Conative
is
assurgentem regem resupinat, as rise, he threw him down. 3.
The
was t?ying
to
Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of
Thus
the verb.
the king
:
—
locutus taceo = /have spoken and am silent; locutus tacui = /had spoketi and then was silent; locutus tacebo = / shall speak and then shall be silent. 4.
The absolute
time of the action of a participle, therefore,
determined entirely by the 5.
Certain
verb with which Participles
Passive
Perfect
Deponent Verbs
finite
are used as Presents
;
ia
connected.
it is
Deponent and Semi-
of
viz. arbitratus,
ausus, ratus,
gavisus, solitus, usus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus.
Use 337.
As an
of Participles.
may be used
Adjective the Participle
either
as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive. I.
This presents no special
Attributive Use.
amples are
:
—
gloria est consentiens laus
bonorum, ^/^aj
of the good Conon muros a Lysandro dirutos destroyed by Lysander. 1.
a')
Time
;
as,
Thus the
Participle
Participle
b)
the 7inanimous praise
Conon restored
the walls
is
often equivalent to a
may denote
:
—
—
omne malum nascens easily
Ex-
.
Here the
Predicate Use.
subordinate clause.
reficit,
is
peculiarities.
crushed at
A Condition
;
facile opprimitur, every evil
is
birth.
as,
non possumus cibo et potione completi, if gorged with food and drink, wc cannot use our intellects.
mente
uti
Noun and c)
Manner
as,
;
219
Adjective Forfns of the Verb.
—
Solon senescere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem, Solon said he grew old learning jnany new things every day.
d)
Means
as,
;
sol oriens
— diem
conficit, the sun, by
its rising,
makes
the
day. e)
Opposition
('
though
')
;
as,
—
mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicenti credimus, we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth. f) Cause
;
as,
—
perfidiam veritus
ad suos
recessit,
treachery, he returned to his
Video and audio,
3.
ticiple in the Predicate use
own
since
he feared
troops.
besides the Infinitive, take the Present Par;
as,
—
video te fugientem, I see yoti fleeing, a.
So frequently facio, flngo, induco, eis
etc.; as,
Cat5nem respondentem facimus, we ing
to
them
represent Cato reply-
;
Homerus Laertem colentem agrum
facit,
Homer
represents
Laertes tilling the field.
4.
The Future
fined to
writers
its
it is
Active Participle (except futurus)
is
regularly con-
use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later
used independently, especially to denote purpose ;
venerunt castra oppugnaturi,
ihey
came
to assault the
as,
—
camp.
The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is 5. sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive
;
as,
post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city Quinctius defensus, ihe defense of Quinctius ; quibus aninius occupatus, ihe preoccupation of the mind with which] non redditae res, the failure to make restitution. 6.
Habeo
sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predremoved from that of the Perfect
icate construction with a force not far
or Pluperfect Indicative; as,
copias quas coactas habebat, the forces which he had
collected.
Syntax.
220 7.
The Gemndive denotes obligation or necessity. Like it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate. a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus
other Par-
ticiples
—
:
liber legendus, a book worth reading
;
leges observandae, laws deservitig of observance.
More
b)
i)
frequently as Predicate.
(amandus
the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation
In
est, etc.).
In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only
admit
impersonally, but (Gen., Dat., Abl.)
veniendum
est,
;
as,
// is
—
their
ordinary case-construction
necessary to come;
obliviscendum est injuriariim, one
numquara proditori credendum
jmcst forget injuries
est,
you must never trust
a traitor
su6 cuique utendum est judicio, every ma7i must
use his
OTvnjudg/nent. 2) After euro, provide for do, trado, give over ; relinquo, leave; concgdo, liand over; and some other verbs, ,•
.
instead of an object clause or to denote purpose
Caesar pontein
;
as,
Arare faciendum curavit, Caesar proconstructio)i of a bridge over the Arar
in
vided for the
imperator urbeni niilitibus diripieiidani concessit, general Jianded over the 8.
city to the soldiers to
/he
phuider.
For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see
§ 339, i.
THE GERUND. 338.
As
I.
Genitive. «)
noun the Gerund admits noun con-
a verbal
structions as follows
The
:
—
Genitive of the Gerund
With nouns,
as
§§ 200, 202)
as,
;
Objective
—
is
used
—
or Appositional
cupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling ars scribendi, tJie art of writing.
—
b)
With Adjectives as, cupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing.
c)
With causa, gratia
;
;
as,
discendi causa, for the sake of learning.
Genitive (see
Noun and 2.
Adjective Forms of the Verb. Gerund
is
bibendo, water
is
The Dative
Dative.
With Adjectives
a)
aqua
utilis est
;
of the as,
b) With Verbs (rarely)
used
221
—
—
;
useful for drinking.
as,
adf ui scribendo. / was present at the writing. 3.
Accusative.
Prepositions, chiefly
The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with ad and in to denote purpose as,
homo ad agendum 4.
Ablative.
—
;
The
natus
est, niafi is born
Ablative of the Gerund
is
for
used
action.
—
Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause,
a)
(see §§ 218, 219);
mens discendo
etc.
as,—
alitur et cogitandS,
tJie
mifid
is
nourished
and reflection. Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare tutum reddidit. Themistocles made the sea safe by folby learning
lowing
7/p the pirates.
After the prepositions
b)
summa
a,
de, ex, in
;
as,
—
voluptas ex discendo capitur, the keenest pleas-
ure is derived from learning; multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt, there was much discussion by Plato on the stibject of living well and happily. 5.
As
a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative
(without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.
Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund. 339.
I.
Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a
Direct Object, another construction
may
This consists in putting the Direct Object
be,
and very
often
(Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with called the Gerundive Construction. Thus
is
:
Gerund Construction.
cupidus urbem videndi, desirous of seeing the city ; delector oratores legendo, / am charmed with reading the orators.
is,
in the case of the
—
used.
Gerund
it.
This
Gerundive Construction,
cupidus urbis videndae delector oratoribus legendis.
Syntax.
222
2. The Gerundive Construction mitst be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon
a Preposition
;
as,
—
locus castrls muniendis aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp; ad pacem petendam venerunt, they came to ask peace; multum temporis consumo in legendis poetis, / spend f/iuch time in reading the poets.
In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Conmust not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used
3.
struction
substantively.
Thus
regularly
philosophi cupidi sunt
—
verum
investigandi, philosophers are eager
for discovering triitJi (rarely veri investigandi) studium plura cognoscendi, a desire of knowing more (not plurium ;
cognoscendorum)
.
From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used Gerundive Construction but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (origas, inally transitive) regularly admit it 4.
in the
;
;
hostes in
—
spem potiundorum castrorum venerant,
enemy had
the
conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp.
The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestrT, when used in the 5. Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives
used substantively.
Thus
:
—
mulier sui servandi causa aufugit,
the
woman fled for
the sake
of
saving herself ISgatl in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves ;
So nostri servandi causa, /
of saving ourselves.
Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction
to denote 81
the sake
purpose ;
as,
is
used
—
arborum truncT sive naves deiciendi operis essent a barbaris missae, tf trunks of trees or boats should be sent down by the barbarians for the purpose of destroying the structure.
some
ex-
decemviri legibus scribundia, decenwirs for codifying the laws ; quTndecimviri sacris faciundis, quindecefnvirs for perfonning
the
7.
The Dative
of the Gerundive Construction occurs in
pressions which have the character of formulas
sacrifices.
;
as,
Coordinate Conjunctions.
340.
I.
purpose legati
The Supine as,
;
—
in
223
THE
SUPINE.
-um
used after Verbs of motion to express
is
ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, envoys came sar a.
to congratulate
him.
The Supine
-um may
in
pacem petitum voys b.
to
Ro/ne
Note the phrase
:
Cae-
take an Object; as,
oratores to
to
Romam
mittunt, they send en-
ask for peace.
—
do (colloco) filiam nuptum, / give my daughter
in
mar-
riage. 2.
The Supine
in -u is
used as an Ablative of Specification with
facilis, difficilis, incredibilis,
fas est, nef as est,
opus est
;
jucundus, optimus,
as,
haec res est facilis cognitu, this thing is easy hoc est optimum factu, this is best to do. a.
Only a few Supines
etc.
—
in -u are in
common
;
also with
to learn
use, chiefly
;
auditu,
cognitu, dictu, factu, visu. b.
The Supine
in -u never takes
Chapter VI.
—
an Object.
Particles.
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 341.
Copulative
Conjunctions.
These join one word,
phrase, or clause to another. I.
a')
^)
et simply connects.
-que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where members have an internal connection with each
the two
other
;
as,
—
parentis liberique, parents and children cum homines aestu febrique jactantur, ivhen people are tossed about with heat
and fever
224
Syntax. c)
atque (ac)
usually emphasizes the second of the two things
— and a?id indeed, and in fact. of likeness and difference atque (ac) has the than. Thus: — connected,
ego idem sentio ac tu, I think the haud aliter ac, not otherwise tlian.
2.
After words
also,
force of as,
satne as you
d)
neque (nee) means and
a)
-que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses it is appended to the first word of the second clause but when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly appended to the next following word as,
not, neither, nor.
;
;
ob eamque rem, and on
—
of that thing.
accoioit
U)
atque
c)
vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu. et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests
is
used before vowels and consonants
upon a
word
special
;
ac never before
;
—
as,
vetus et non ignobilis orator, an old and not ignoble orator d)
For and nowJiere, and never, and
3.
Correlatives.
correlatively
et
as,
;
.
.
—
Copulative
et, both
.
neque (nee)
cum
.
turn
.
et a.
.
Note
.
.
.
.
and neque (nee), .
.
neque
.
.
.
.
.
nor;
same time
but also.
neque
;
that the Latin, with
its
tendency
.
.
emphasize
to
et
et.
.
.
.
.
et, et
antithetical relations, .
.
.
neque, where
employs but a single connective.
In enumerations
The
frequently used
—
the English
a)
neither
at the
.
often uses correlatives, especially
4.
etc.
.
.
.
:
.
.
ullus,
Conjunctions are
tum, while tum, not only
.
.
.
Less frequently
.
Latin regularly
no7te, the
nee usquam, nee umquam, nee
said
different
— members of
a series
without connectives (Asyndeton
ex cupiditatibus odia,
;
may
follow one another
see § 346).
Thus
:
—
discidia, diseordiae, seditiones,
bella nascuntur,/)-^/// covetous desires spring up hatred, dissensions, discord, sedition, wars.
225
Coordinate Conjunctions.
The
b)
members may Thus
different
(Polysyndeton).
:
—
severally be connected
by et
horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, hours and days and years and niontJis pass away.
The connective may be omitted between
c)
the former members,
while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et)
;
as,
—
Caesar in Caruutes, Andes Turonesque legiones deduCaesar leads his legions into the territory of the
cit,
and Turones.
Carnutes, Andes,
Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative.
342.
aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually ex-
a)
1.
clusive
—
mors venit aut victoria laeta, glad victory conies.
cita
-ve
vel,
b)
as,
;
tives
;
swift death or
imply a choice between the alterna-
(enclitic)
—
as,
{^either')
qui aether vel caelum nominatur, which
is
called aether
or heaven. 2.
tively
Correlatives. as,
;
—
Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correla-
aut vel sive 343.
Adversative
.
.
.
aut,
eitiier
.
.
.
.
.
vel,
either
.
.
.
.
.
.or] .or',
orif
sive, if
These
Conjunctions.
denote
oppo-
sition. I.
d)
sed,
b)
verum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used. autem, but on the other hand, Iiowever, marks a transition.
c)
1^///',
always post-positive.
It is
Definition. tence, but
d)
is
merely denotes opposition.
A
post-positive
word
is
one that cannot begin a sen-
placed after one or more words.
at,
but,
is
used especially
in disputation,
to introduce
an
opposing argument. ^)
atqui means but yet.
f) tamen,
yet, usually stands after the
emphatic word, but not
always.
g) vero, however, indeed, in truth,
Q
is
always post-positive.
226 2.
Syntax. Note the
correlative expressions
:
—
non solum (non modo) sed etiam, iioi quidem, sed ne non modo non .
.
even
as,
;
non modo
.
.
.
.
non
.
hit also
',
sed ne reprehendo quidem factum
irascor,
am
...
not only not, but not
.
—
tibi
tuum, / not only your action.
not angry 7vith yon, but I do not even blame
But when the sentence has but one member, n5n modo may be used
a.
only
.
.
verb,
and
this
stands with the second
non modo non; as, — adsentatiS non modo amico sed ne libero quidem digna est, flattery
is
for
not only {not) worthy of a friend, but not even of a
free man.
These represent the state344. Illative Conjunctions. ment which they introduce as folloiving from or as in conformity ivitJi what has preceded. 1 itaque = and so, accordingly ff) b) ergo — therefore, accordingly c) igitur (regularly post-positive ^) = therefore, accordingly. 2.
Igitur
never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.
Causal Conjunctions.
345.
an
is
They
explajiation.
These denote
cause, or give
are nam, namque, enim (post-positive),
etenim, for.
Asyndeton.
346.
tween
coordinate
Thus:
narration.
a)
A
The conjunction
members,
—
particularly
Copulative Conjunction
avSritia
infinita,
{and )
is
is
in
omitted
insatiabilis
sometimes omitted belively or impassioned
;
est,
as,
avarice
is
boundless
insatiable
Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeiis Pompcy (and) Marcus Crassus.
The
conjunction
is
regularly omitted between the
names of
consuls when the praenomen {Marcus, Gains, etc. ) is expressed. V)
An
Adversative Conjunction
may be omitted
;
as,
—
rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, argutnents were lacking, {buf) abundance of words was not. 1
Except
in Sallust
and
Silver Latin.
Adverbs.
— Word-Order.
227
ADVERBS. 347.
I.
The
following particles, sometimes classed as
Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs etiam,
:
—
also, even.
quoque quidem
(always post-positive), also. (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word. sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but
It. is
more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis. quidem means not even ; the emphatic word or phrase always stands between as, ne ille quidem, not even he. tamen and vero, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often employed as Adverbs.
ne
.
.
.
;
Two
Negatives.
2.
Negatives are regularly equivalent to an non niilli, some; but when non, nemo,
affirmative as in English, as
numquam, ^/(;., are accompanied by neque quidem, the latter non, non modo, or ne take up the negation and emphasize it as,
nihil, .
.
.
.
.
.
.
;
—
.
.
neque, non
particles simply
habeo hic neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, / have no one, neither friend nor
non enim praetereundum be
passed
a.
Haud
here
relative.
est ne id quidem, /"w not even that must
by. in
Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an. Later
of Adjectives writers use
it
freely with verbs.
Chapter VII.
— Word-Order
and
Sentence-
Structure. A. 348.
"WORD-ORDER.
In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence
the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the
Predicate at the end
;
as,
—
Darius classem quingentarum navium comparavit, Darius got ready a fleet offive Jutndred ships.
Syntax.
228
But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrangement is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sen349.
tence
;
magnus
as,
in
—
hoc bello Themistocles
fuit,
GREAT was
Themistocles in
this uiar
habemus nullum,
aliud iter
course
ot/ier
we have none.
SPECIAL PRINCIPLES. 350.
I.
A
Nouns.
Genitive or other oblique case regularly foL
lows the word upon which a)
it
Thus
depends.
Depending upon a Noun
:
:
—
—
tribunus plebis, tribune of the plebs ; filius regis, son of the king; vir niagni aiiimi, a man of noble spirit. Yet always senatus consultum, plebis scltum. b')
Depending upon an Adjective
:
—
ignarus rerum, ignorant of affairs ; digni amlcitia, ivorthy offriendship plus aequo, more than (what is) fair. 2.
as,
—
An
Appositives.
Appositive regularly follows
its
Subject;
Philippus. rex Macedonum, Philip, king of the Macedonians adsentatio. vitiorum ad]vLtiix, /lattery, promoter of evils. Yet flumen Rhenus, the River Rhine; and always urbs Roma, the city Rome. 3.
The Vocative
usually follows one or
Audi, Caesar, 4.
Adjectives.
tion of Adjectives.
than they follow a.
No On
good prose
in
more words
;
;
as,
hear, Caesar
general law can be laid the whole
down
they precede the
for the posi-
noun oftener
it.
Adjectives of quantity (including numerals) regularly pre-
cede their noun;
as,
omnes homines,
all
men
;
septingentae naves, seven hundred
vessels.
Word-Order. b.
Note the
229
force of position in the following
:
—
media urbs,
t/ie middle of the eity ; urbs media, //w middle city extremum bellum, the end 0/ the war
bellum extremum, c.
Romanus
the last
;
war.
and Latinus regularly follow
senatus populusque Romanus,
tlie
;
as,
—
Ko/naii Senate
and
People
ludi RomanT, the
d.
Roman games
feriae Latinae,
tJie
When
modified both by an Adjective and by a Geni-
tive,
a
Noun
is
Latin holidays.
a favorite order
is
Adjective, Genitive,
:
summa omnium rerum
abundantia,
tJie
Noun
;
as,
—
greatest abun-
dance of all things.
Pronouns. a.
The Demonstrative,
Relative,
regularly precede the
Noun
hic homo,
this
homo, erant duo
that
ille
man man
itinera,
and Interrogative Pronouns
—
as,
;
; ;
quibus itineribus,
etc.,
there were
two
routes, by which, etc.
b.
qui
homo ? what
But
ille in the
sort of a
sense of 'that well known,''
usually stands after
c.
man ?
its
Noun
as,
;
—
^
that famous,''
testula
ilia,
that well-knozun custom of ostracism
Medea
ilia,
that famous
Possessive
Noun
as,
;
and Indefinite
—
my father homo quidam, a certain
;
Medea. Pronouns
usually
follow their
pater meus,
jnan
;
mulier aliqua, some woman. But its
for
meus d.
purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes
Noun
as,'
;
pater,
Where two the Latin
is
nisi forte
seem
to
},i\
father
(i.e.
as
opposed to yours,
his, etc.).
more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, fond of putting them in close proximity; as,
or
ego vobis cessare videor, unless perchance 1 you to be doing nothing.
Syntax.
230
Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they
6.
modify
as,
;
—
valde diligens, exlreinely diligent saepe dixi, I Jiave often said; te jam diu hortamur, we have long paulo post, a little after. 7.
been urging y 021
Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern. a.
But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition
and
case
its
as,
;
—
de comniuni honiinum memoria, co7icerning memory of me7i ad beate vivendum, for livitig happily. b.
When
a noun
modified by an Adjective, the Adjective
is
often placed before the preposition
magno
laude,
Conjunctions.
sunt they often stand
Autem, enim, and third
Words it,
as,
;
ita est
9.
—
enim.y^r
is
put after
its
is
case, see \ 144, 3.
igitur regularly stand in
when combined with est so
first
;
as,
or
it is.
or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to
regularly stand
id ut audivit,
—
Corcyram demigravit, when
some
he heard that (referring
to the contents of the preceding sentence),
eo
—
thing.
For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition
the second place in the sentence, but
part of
as,
witli the highest credit
qua de cansa, for which cause banc ob rem, on account of this
8.
;
in dolore, in great grief
summa cum
c.
the commo7i
//i?
moved
to
Corcyra
;
venisset, timentes confirmat, when Caesar had come thither {i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the
cum Caesar timid. 10.
The
Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which
are etymologically related
;
as,
—
ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scrips!, as /, ati old man, wrote to an old }>ian, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, I have written to a friend concerning friendship.
Word-Order. 1
Special
.
following
a)
:
devices
rhetorical
—
Hyp^rbaton, which
as,
;
—
mihi Originum
seventh book of my
are
the
words that
est in manibus, the
liber
under way ; Orico proficlscitur, having recovered
Caesar
recepto
emphasis
indicating
for
consists in the separation of
regularly stand together
Septimus
231
'
Origines
'
is
Oricus, Caesar set out. d)
Anaphora, which or the
consists in the repetition of the
same word-order
in successive phrases
;
as,
same word
—
sed pleni onines sunt libri, plenae sapientium voces, plena exeniploruni vetustas, dut all books are full of it, the voices of sages are full of examples of it.
c)
it,
antiquity is full of
Chiasmus,^ which consists in changing the as, of words in two antithetical phrases ;
—
order
relative
multos defend!, laesi neminem, many have I defetided, T have injured no one horribilem ilium diem dreadful
to others,
aliis, nobis faustum, that day for us forttmate.
d) Synchysis, or the interlocked arrangement.
This
is
mostly
confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially that of the Imperial Period
;
as,
—
simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium,
«)
;
others were
\^ v^
b)
Thus
:
—
^ w
as,
;
as,
;
esse videtur (close of hexameter). esse potest (close of pentameter).
Cadences frequently employed.
^ Kj
;
w
\j \j \j \j
\j
1 So named from a Thus
—
a sentence certain cadences
much employed.
Cadences avoided.
WW
:
At the end of
Metrical Close.
12.
were avoided
pretended
Pompeian party.
interest in the
;
w ;
;
as,
auxerant.
as,
comprobavit.
as,
esse videatur.
as,
rogatu tuo.
fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter
multos defend!
laesi
neminem
X
{chi).
Syntax.
232
B. 351.
I.
SENTENCE -STRUCTURE.
Unity of Subject.
— In
complex sentences the Latin
regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different
members
aa,
;
—
Caesar prlmum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu remotis equis, ut aequato periculo speni fugae tolleret, cohortatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first removed
own horse from sight, then the horses of all, in order., by making the danger equal, to take away hope offlight, encouraged his men atid joined battle.
his
A word
2.
clause
serving as the
common
Subject or Object of the main
and a subordinate one, stands before both
Aedui cum
;
as,
—
non possent, legates ad Caesarem
se defendere
mittunt, since the Aedui could not defend themselves, they sent envoys ille
to
Caesar
etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate,
tamen paci serviendum
putavit, although he was burning with a desire
to fight, yet he
thought he ought to aim at peace. a.
The same i)
is
When
true also
Subject
the
of
the
main clause
is
Object
(Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause; as,
Caesar,
cum hoc
proficisci,
hastened to
When
2)
nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe this had been reported to Caesar he out from the city. ei
when set
the Subject of a subordinate clause
same time the Object (Direct or clause
;
as,
—
L. Manlio,
cum
biinus plebis
Indirect)
dictator fuisset,
diem
is
main
M. Pomponius
tri-
dixit, AT. Pomponius, tribune of
the people, instituted proceedings against Lucius lius
at the
of the
Man-
though he had been dictator.
Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative more commonly precede the main clause indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow as, postquam haec dixit, prof ectus est, after he said this, he set otd ; 81 quis ita agat, imprudens sit, 7/" any one should act so, lie would 3.
clauses
;
;
be devoid of foresight accidit ut iina nocte omnes
Hermae
// happened thrown down.
deicerentur,
that in a single night all the Hertnae were
—
Sentence-Stmctnre. Sometimes
4.
ordinate clause si
;
Latin the main verb
in
as,
— Hints
—
is
on Style.
233
placed within the sub-
quid est in me ingeni, quod sentiS quam is any talent in me, and I know Jiow little
sit
exiguum, if
there
it is.
The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are
5.
designates a
inserted witliin the
main clause
;
as, - -
qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne aestateni in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire jussit, tJiough Caesar perceived luliy this was said,, yet,, lest he should be forced to spend the suniiner among
Caesar
etsi intellegebat
the Treveri, he ordered Indittioniams to
In the Periodic structure the thought
the sentence this
is
Many Roman
reached.
sentence-structure,
and
character of their language 6.
When
it
in
;
is
come
to
suspended
him. until the
end of
writers were extremely fond of
was well adapted
to the inflectional
English we generally avoid
it.
there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the
Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs.
Thus
—
:
At hostes cum
misissent, qui, quae in castrls gererentur, cognSscerent, ubi se deceptos intellexerunt, omnibus copils
subsecuti ad flumen contendunt, b2tt the enemy when they sejit men to learn what was going on in camp., after dis-
had
had been outwitted, followed with and hurried to the river.
covering that they forces
Chapter VIII. 352.
— Hints
on Latin
In this chapter brief consideration
all their
Style. is
given
to
a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to style
than to formal grammar.
NOUNS. 353.
I.
Where
involved, the Latin
Plural than
is
a distinct reference to several persons or things is
frequently
the English
;
as,
—
much mare
exact in the use
is
of the
Syntax.
234
domds
eunt, they go home
(i.e.
to their hoines)
Germani corpora curant, the Gertnajts care for the body animos militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night.
;
2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singu-
lar
as,
;
—
omnia sunt
perdita, everything
is lost;
quae cum ita sint, since t/iis is so haec omnibus pervulgata sunt, this 3.
is
very well
known
to all.
Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and espeThus bold in the personification of abstract qualities.
The
cially less
:
a puero, a pueris, front boyhood; Sulla dictatore, /;/ Sulla's dictatorship ; me duce, under my leadership Roman! cum Carthaginiensibus pacem fec§runt
—
= Rome made
peace with Cartilage liber doctrinae plenus
=
a learned book
prudentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est
4.
=
Themistocles''s fore-
saved Greece.
sight
The Nouns
Agency
of
and -sor (see
in -tor
permajient or characteristic activity ;
as,
—
§ 147, i)
denote a
accusatorgs (professional) accusers; oratores, pleaders
cantores, singers
;
Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arminius, commonly employed
The
Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of In English
through Gaul of
'
;
'
we say: 'The war against
cities
on the sea
The Latin Thus expression.
at Salaniis''
mode
a)
successit, Numa, successor of Romulus
mea legunt, my readers me audiunt, my auditors.
qui qui 5
of Germany.
as,
;
Numa, qui R5mul6
a Noun.
liberator
denote single instances of an action, other expressions are
To
a.
;
etc.
:
A
Genitive
;
as,
—
in
'
;
'
the book in
Carthage''
my hands
; '
'a journey ;
'
the fight
such cases usually employs another
—
dolor injiiriarum, resentment at
injuries.
Hints on
An
b)
Adjective
urbes niaritimae,
cities
pugna Salaminia,
A
c)
Participle
as,
;
sitional
;
— facta, the battle at Cannae.
A
as,
Relative clause
;
liber qui in nieis
when
on the sea
the figiit at Salatnis.
pugna ad Cannas d)
Note.
235
—
as,
;
Style.
— Yet
—
manibus
est, the book in
my
hatids.
within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepo-
phrases as
the governing
typical examples
:
—
Noun noun
This
moditiers. is
particularly
is
transitus in Britanniam, the passage
excessus e vita, departure from
odium erga Romanos,
to
hatred of the
in patriam, love for
one''s
frequent
following are
Britain
;
life
Romans
liber de senectiite, the book on old age
amor
The
derived from a verb.
;
^
country.
ADJECTIVES. 354.
I.
tives are a)
—
A
Special
Genitive
Equivalents
Latin
;
as,
for
English
Adjec-
— = moral virtues = bodily ills.
virtutes animi
dolores corporis b)
An
Abstract
novitas rei asperitas c)
Noun
=
as,
;
—
the strange circumstance
viarum
Hendiadys (see
=:
rough roads.
§ 374, 4)
;
as,
—
ordo = systematic order ardor et impetus = eager onset.
ratio et
d')
Sometimes an Adverb
omnes circa suos semper 2.
Often a Latin
by an Adjective
;
as,
as,
—
hostes, their perpetual foes.
Noun
—
;
populi, all the surrounding tribes;
is
equivalent to an English
Noun
modified
doctrina, theoretical knowledge
prudentia, practical knowledge ;
oppidum, walled town
libellus,
;
little
book
Syntax.
236
Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper 3. names; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name as, Socrates, homo sapiens = the tvise Socratei Scipio, vir f ortissimus = t/ie doKghty Scipio Syracusae, iirbs praeclarissima = famotis Syracuse. ;
An
4.
Adjective
may
—
be equivalent to a Possessive Genitive
as,
;
—
pastor regius, the shepherd of the king; tumultus servilis, the -uprising of the slaves.
PRONOUNS. 355. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondne.ss for connecting itself with the suboixlinate clause rather than the main
one a
as,
;
—
quo cum quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit, when (Less commonly, 'it was asked of him what 7i>as best, he replied.
cum ab
qui, 2.
both
;
Uterque means
Uterque, ambo. as,
—
uterque frater rately)
ambo
eo quaereretur, respondit.)
abiit, each
tiuo brothers
ambo means
departed
{i.e.
sepa-
;
fratres abierunt,
The
a.
of the
each of two;
the two brothers departed together.
i.e.
uterque occurs
Plural of
i)
With Nouns used only
2)
Where
— in the Plural (see § 56)
;
as,
in utrisque castris, in each camp. there
persons or things
;
is
as,
a distinct reference to two groups of
—
clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (sev-
utrique duces eral in number) were famous.
VERBS. 356. supplied
I. :
a)
—
In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs a Passive
By
the corresponding verbal
esse,
etc.
;
as,
Nouns
in
—
in odio
sumus, 7i>e are hated sum, /am envied
in invidia
;
is
combination with
Hints on
Style.
is admired oblivione obruitur, ke is forgotten
237
admiratioiii est, he
overwhelmed by
(lit. is
oblivion)
in usu esse, to be used.
By
b)
agitarl as Passive of persequi
temptari 2.
The
Thus
the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. ;
lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin
nent
;
as,
—
as Passive of adoriri.
Sometimes by the Perfect Passive
a)
:
—
adhortatus,
is
supplied
Participle of the
—
Depo-
tiainitg exhorted;
veritus, having feared. b)
—
By the Ablative Absolute as, hostium agris vastatis Caesar exercitum reduxit, hav;
ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his c)
army.
By
subordinate clauses
eo
cum
;
as,
—
advenisset, castra posuit, having arrived he pitolled a camp ;
hostes qui in
urbem
there,
irruperant, the enemy having burst
into the city. 3.
The
Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of
the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense the English drink.'
But
'
Yon can drive a horse in Latin this use is
yon
to water, but
(=
'one'').
ca?t't
Cf.
make him
mainly confined to certain varieties of
the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§ 280), Jussive (§ 275), Deliberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included
under
videres. yon could
§ 302, 2, see
and 303.
Examples
:
—
;
utare viribus use your strength ; quid hoc honiine facias, what are you to do with this mati ? mens quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum instilles exstinguuntur senectute, tJie intellect and mind too are extinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouritig oil into the
lump
tanto amore possessiones suas amplexl tenebant, ut ab eis membra divellT citius posse diceres, they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies.
Syntax.
238
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 357.
I
To
.
denote
'
so
many
years,
etc.,
afterwards or before
'
the
Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with
post and ante
Thus
(see § 223), but has other forms of expression.
:
—
post quinque B\va.o^, five years afterward ] paucos ante dies, a fczu days before; ante quadriennium,/"^^'/" ji?fl';\y before; post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus, /£>//;- days after we the city
left
ante tertium
annum quam
decesserat, three years before he had
died. 2.
same
Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the
The
Infinitive
;
as,
—
Romanes Hannibalem
vicisse constat.
Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans. Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infinitive
;
—
as,
Romanos ab Hannibale
victos esse constat,
// is
well established
that the Ro/iians were defeated by Hannibal.
PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OP THE DATIVE. 358.
I.
The English /^r does
notion in Latin, but vis. in the senses
a)
is
•
In defense of;
as,
pro patria mori, b)
not always correspond to a Dative pro with the Ablative,
often the equivalent of
— to die for one''s coitfitry.
Instead of in behalf of ;
as,
unus pro omnibus dixit, one spoke for all. haec pro lege dicta sunt, these things were said
in behalf
of the law. c)
In proportion
to
;
as,
—
pro multitudine hominum, tion.
in proportion to the
poptda-
Hints on Similarly, English to
2.
when
it
239
Style. indicates
motion
rendered in
is
Latin by ad. a.
Note, however, that the Latin may say either scribere ad aliquem, or scribere alicui, according as the idea of motion is
or
is
not predominant.
So
in several similar expressions.
In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contendifig with, sometimes This construction is a Grecism. Thus
3.
take the Dative.
:
—
se miscet viris, he mingles with the men contendis Homero, you contend with Homer.
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, I. Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession ; as, Dative of the 359.
—
hortiis patris est,
mihi hortus
The
2.
est,
the garden
is
my father''s ]
I possess a garden.
Latin can say either stulti or stultum est dicere, it is but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Gen-
foolish to say; itive
;
as,
—
sapientis est haec consider
this.
secum
reputare,
// is
the
part of a wise
man
to
Part VI. PROSODY.
360.
Prosody treats of metres and
361.
Latin Verse.
versification.
Latin Poetry was essentially different
from English. In our own language poetry is and poetical form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables. Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poetical form consisted in a certain succession of /ojig and short syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time. This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages. English is a strongly accented language in which quantity is relatively subordinate. Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative language, in which accent was relatively subordinate. in character
based upon
accent,
QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 362.
and
The
general principles for the quantity of vowels
syllables
have been given above
peculiarities are to be noted here I.
(§ 5.
A A.
vowel 2),
is
usually short
:
in
—
§ 5.
The
following
when followed by another vowel
but the following exceptions occur: 240
—
Quantity of Vowels and Syllables.
In the Genitive termination -ius (except alterius); as, illius, Yet the i may be short in poetry as, illius, totius.
a)
totius.
;
In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension
b)
spei (§ 52, i). excepting fit and forms where i is followed by fiebam, fiat, fiunt but fieri, fierem.
But
as, diei, aciei.
In fi6,
c)
Thus
3.
A in
as,
dius, Aeneas,*Dareus, heroes,
diphthong
is
composition
is
A
word
is
;
when one
long, even
when both consonants
is
in the follow-
Occasionally the syllable
word
in the following
are
by two consonants
of the consonants
terret popiiluni.
as,
;
etc.
usually long (§ 5. B. 2), but the preposition often shortened before a vowel as, praeacutus.
syllable containing a short vowel followed
(§ 5. B. 2) ino^
er.
;
:
Greek; 2.
;
fidei, rgi,
In a few other words, especially words derived from the
d)
prae
241
;
as,
long
is
pro segete
spicas. 4.
A
jugum 5.
vowel before j is regularly long, but bijugis, quadrijugis.
is
short in
compounds
of
as,
;
Compounds
of jacio, though written
illicit,
adicit,
have
etc.,
though written inj-, adj-. The actual pronunciation of such words is not clear. Reicio has e.
the
first
syllable long, as
Quantity of Final Syllables. A. 363.
I.
situations
:
Final a
—
is
ejidiiig
a Vowel.
i?i
mostly short, but
is
long in the following
a)
In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension
b)
In the Imperative
c)
Final e
a)
;
as,
postea, interea, is
In the Ablative
as,
porta.
;
as, triginta,
con-
etc.
usually short, but
die, re;
;
lauda.
In indeclinable words (except ita, quia) tra,
2.
Final Syllables
is
long
—
Singular of the
hence hodie, quare.
Fifth
Declension
;
as,
Here belongs also fame
(§59.2.^). b)
c)
In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation habe, etc. ; yet occasionally cave, vale.
;
as,
mone,
In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declension,
along with fere and ferme.
saep6 have e. d) In e, de, me, te, R
se,
ne
(^not. lest),
Bene, male, temerg,
ne
(verily).
Prosody.
242 3.
Final
usually long, but
i is
short in nisi and quasi.
is
ubi, have regularly
tibi, sibi, ibi,
ibidem, ibique, ubique. Final o is regularly long, but 4.
5.
modo
but sometimes
i,
short
is
1
Mihi,
yet always
;
—
a)
In ego, duo,
b)
Rarely
c)
Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, amo, le6. In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro as, profundere, proficisci, pr6fugere.
Final
u
364.
I
.
The
and
in
Fi7tal Syllables ending in a Consonant.
Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are following words, however, have a long vowel
:
sal, sol,
Lar, par, ver, fur, die, due, lac, en, non, quin, sin, sic, cur, hie
Also adverbs
{this).
in e
;
as, hie,
hue,
amas.
2.
Final syllables in -as are long;
Final syllables in -es are I'egularly long, but are short
as,
^
istie, illuc, etc.
3.
a)
;
always long.
is
B.
short.
{only), cito.
the First Person Singular of the Verb,
in
terras,
—
In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems (§ 33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in the Genitive; as, seges (segetis), obses (obsidis), miles,
dives. b) 4.
But a few have -es
vis. pes, aries, abies, paries.
;
In es {thou art), penes.
Final -os
usually long, but short in 5s (ossis),
is
imp5s. 5.
Final -is
is
usually short, but
is
long
compds,
—
a)
In Plurals; as, portis, hortis, nobis, vobis,
b)
In the Nominative Singular of
Nouns
nubis (Ace).
of the Third Declen-
sion with long vowel in the Penult of the Genitive
Samnis c)
d) In
force
-via,
thou wilt Final -us
a)
as,
In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of
the Fourth Conjugation
6.
;
(-itis).
is
;
;
la, t/con
;
as,
goest
audis. ;
fis
;
sis; velis
(mavis, quamvis, quivis,
usually short, but
is
long
;
nolis
;
vis.
etc.).
—
In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative. Accusative,
and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension 1
Rarely hic.
;
as,
fructus.
243
Verse-Structure.
In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem as, palus (-udis), servitus (-utis), tellus (-uris).
b)
Greek Nouns
365.
Latin their original quantity; as,
retain in
Aenea, epitome, Delos, Pallas, Simois, Salamis, Didus, Paridi, Yet Greek nouns in -wp regularly aer, aether, crater, heroas. shorten the vowel as, rhetSr, Hector. ;
VERSE - STRUCTURE
.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 366.
I.
The
nically called a
metrical unit in versification
mora
{yj).
A
is
long syllable (_)
a short syllable, techis
regarded as equiva-
lent to two morae.
A
2.
Foot
:
—
Feet of Four Morae.
Feet of Three Morae.
_
w
Trochee.
^
_
Iambus.
following are the most
The
a group of syllables.
is
important kinds of feet
_
w w w
A Verse is a succession of feet. The different kinds of verses are named
3. 4.
v^
Dactyl.
_
Anapaest.
Trochaic, Iambic, Dac-
Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their
tylic,
structure.
thus 6.
In every foot the long syllable naturally receives the This prominence is called ictus. ^ It is denoted
Ictus.
5.
o-reater :
prominence.
Z.
w w
Z.
;
^ The
Thesis and Arsis.
which receives the
syllable
ictus is
the rest of the foot is called the arsis. called the thesis Elision. Final syllables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m 7. In are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. Probably the reading, we ordinarily omit the elided syllable entirely. ;
ancients slurred the words together in
cated as follows
rendum a.
;
:
corporeln uno
;
This may be indi-
some way.
multum
ille et
;
monstrum
hor-
causae irarum. Omission of after
elision
is
called
hiatus._
monosyllabic Interjections;
—
as,
O
It
occurs especially before and
et praesidium.
1 Ictus was not accent, neither stress accent nor musical accent, simply tne quantitative prominence inherent in a long syllable.
— but was
Prosody.
244
8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a caesura {cutting). Every verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis. 9.
A CataVerses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one
lectic verse is
or
more
syllables
;
At the end
10.
its last
foot complete.
Hence the
of a verse a slight pause occurred.
either long or short (syllaba
may be
syllable
an Acatalectic verse has
final
anceps), and may
ter-
minate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with a vowel. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated
1 1
as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the nuniber (pairs of feet)
which they contain.
of dipodies
Dactylic verses are measured by
and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter,
single feet,
accordingly.
SPECIAL PECULIARITIES. 367.
I
.
interior of a
Synizesis (Synaeresis) Two successive vowels word are often united into a long syllable as, .
in the
;
aureis, deinde, anteire, deesse. 2.
Diastole.
A
syllable usually short
is
sometimes long;
as,
videt, audit. 3.
Systole.
A
syllable usually long
is
sometimes short;
as,
steterunt. a.
Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. usually represent an earlier pronunciation which
They
had passed
out of vogue in the ordinary speech. 4.
After a consonant,
i
and u sometimes become
preceding syllable then becomes long;
abjete for abiete 5.
Sometimes V becomes u silua for silva
;
;
;
j
and
v.
The
as,
genva
for
genua.
as,
dissoluo
for
dissolve.
Such a verse is Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. an Hypermeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by Synapheia. Thus ignari hominumque locoruinque'^ erramus. 6.
called
:
—
7.
Tmesis
{cutting).
into their elements
8.
A
Syncope. ;
—
as,
245
Compound words
are occasionally separated
as,
;
quo me cunque
consonants
Verse-Structure.
rapit tempestas, for
short vowel
repostus
quocunque,
etc.
sometimes dropped between two
is
repositus.
for
THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. The
Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, But in all the feet except the fifth a spondee (_ _) may take the place of the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either 368.
I.
Dactylic
consists theoretically of six dactyls.
The
long or short (syllaba anceps). the scheme of the verse
:
—
Z.CO, jIowi jIoo. j^ctd, 2.
Sometimes we
called Spondaic. fifth
and sixth
A
find a
spondee
feet are generally
3.
deum
.rlwv/, /- :^-
in the fifth foot.
Such verses are and the
dactyl usually stands in the fourth place,
armatumque auro cara
following represents
made up
of a quadrisyllable
;
as,
—
circum.spicit Oriona
suboles,
magnum
Jovis iiicrementum.
Caesura. a)
The eter
favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic is
after the thesis of the third foot
arma virumque cauo l>)
as,
—
Trojae qui primus ab
Hexam-
oris.
Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second foot
;
as,
—
Inde torS c)
||
;
||
pater Aeneas
||
sic orsus
ab alto
est.
Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short lables of the third foot
O
pass! graviora
||
;
as,
—
syl-
dabit deus his quoque finem.
This caesura is called Feminine as opposed to the caesura after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under a and d)
Prosody.
246
A
d)
pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot.
This the
called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as
is
Romans from
it
was borrowed by
Thus
the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks.
Bolstitium pecori defendite
;
{|
jam venit
—
:
aestas.
DACTYLIC PENTAMETER. 369.
I.
The
Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts,
each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long
Spondees may take the place
syllable.
in the first part,
of the
The
but not in the second.
at the close of the first half of the verse
The scheme
word.
2.
—
always ends a
The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with The two arranged alternately form the so-called EleThus Distich. Vergilium vidi tantum, nee amara Tibullo Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.
the Hexameter. giac
is
the following:
dactyls
long syllable
:
—
IAMBIC MEASURES. 370.
I.
The most important Iambic
Trimeter (§ 366, lectic verse.
1
It consists of six \J
Beatus
The Caesura quently 2.
in
verse
Iambi.
W
Its
W
ille
qui procul negotiis.
usually occurs
in
is
an acata-
pure form
W
\J
the Iambic
is
This
1) called also Senarius.
is
:
—
\J
the third foot
;
less fre-
the fourth.
In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach
foot but the last.
In the
odd
(^
^) may stand in any and fifth) may stand a two are less frequent.
v.y
feet (first, third,
Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last Sometimes a Proceleusmatic (w w \j w) occurs. 3.
dom
In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great freeis
permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus,
ijiz.
the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely
admitted in any foot except the
last.
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
I.
JULIAN CALENDAR.
I. The names of the Roman months are Januarius, FebruaMartius, Aprllis, Maius, Junius. Julius (Quintilis ^ prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilisi before the Empire), September, October, November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mensis understood. 2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month
371.
:
rius,
:
a) b)
The Calends, the first of the month. The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, in
c)
—
but the seventh
March, May, July, and October.
The
Ides, usually the thirteenth of the
month, but the
fif-
teenth in March, May, July, and October.
From these points dates were reckoned backward; consequently days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the Calends of the month next following. 3.
all
4.
The day
before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any
month is Nonas, Idus. The second day bedie tertio ante Kalendas, Nonas, etc. Simi-
designated as pridie Kalendas,
was designated as day before was designated as die quarto, and so on. These designations, of course, are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series. fore
larly the third
5.
name of the month is added in the form Kalendas. N6n5s, Idus. Various forms which that given under d) is most common:
In indicating dates, the
of an Adjective agreeing with of expression occur, of
a)
—
die quinto ante Idus Martias
;
quinto ante Idus Martias c) quinto (V) Idus Martias d) ante diem quintum (V) Idus Martias. b)
;
;
1
Originally the
Roman year began with March. This explains September, etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc.
Quintilis, Sextilis,
.247
the
names
Supplements
248 6.
to
the
These designations may be treated
the prepositions in, ad,
ex
;
as,
Grammar. as nouns
and combined with
—
ad ante diem IV Kalendas Octobres, up to the 28/// of September. ex ante diem quintum Idus Octobres, /r^w tlie \th of October. i
7.
In leap year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February.
24th was designated as ante diem VI the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal. Mart.
The
372
Kalendas Martias, and
Figures of Syntax.
II.
ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES.
= = C. = Cn. = D. = K. = L. = M. =
373.
Mam. = Mamercus.
Aulus. Appius. Gaius.
A.
App.
N. P.
Gnaeus. Decimus. Kaeso.
Q. Sex. Ser.
Lucius.
Sp.
Marcus. M'.= Manius.
III.
I.
T. Ti.
Figures of Syntax.
Ellipsis
the omission of one or
is
sed enim audierat, but 2.
= Numerius. = Publius. — Quintus. = Septus. = Servius. = Spurius. = Titus. = Tiberius.
FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC. A.
374.
249
Brachylogy
is
was
(^she
more words
afraid), for she
as,
;
had heard,
etc.
a brief or condensed form of expression; as,
ut agar sine cultiira friictuosus esse non potest, sic sine doctrina animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultiva-
mind {cannot
tion, so the
be productive) without learning.
Special varieties of Brachylogy are
a)
Zeugma,
in
—
which one verb
is
made
minis aut blandimentis corrupta,
to stand for
=
two
;
as,—:.
(terrified) by threats
or corrupted by flattery. b)
Compendiary Comparison, by which object
is
mentioned instead of the object
dissimilis erat Chares
eorum
a modifier of an itself;
Chares was different from their conduct i.e. Chares's conduct and character were 3.
Pleonasm
is
4.
Hendiadys
nouns joined by
and
(eV
Sto.
lit.
I will first
Suotv, 07ie
;
as,
—
lit.
character,
;
as,
say in advance. is the use of two noun modified by a
through two)
a conjunction, in the sense of a
Genitive or an Adjective
—
different, etc.
an unnecessary fullness of expression
prius praedicam,
as,
et factis et moribus,
febris et aestus, the heat offever celeritate cursuque, by swift run/iing.
Figures of Syntax
250
in
and
Rhetoric.
Prol^psis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet 5. advance of the action which makes it appropriate as, ;
Bubmersas obrue puppes, overwhelm and sink
i.e.
should expect
Thus
it
—
:
Marcellus
Both
Anacoluthon
Anci
filii
of Ancus
quam
is (lit.
tardus sit, you know how slow you know Marcellus, how slow he is).
varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry. is
struction of the sentence .
.
;
as,
—
impensius
.
.
.
a lack of grammatical consistency in the con-
.
eis indignitas crescere, then the sons
their indignation increased all the more.
Hysteron Prdteron
7.
ships,
their ships.
to stand as subject of a subordinate clause.
nosti Marcellum
turn
overwhelm their submerged
The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we
a.
6.
Ut.
order of two words or phrases
consists in the inversion of the logical ;
as,
—
media arma ruamus =
moriamur arms and die. et in
us rush into the midst of
let
B. Figures of Rhetoric. 375.
2.
tions
:
Litotes
I.
affirmative
;
as,
is
—
the use
haud parum laboris, non ignore, / am not
ignorant
Oxymdron
combination
as,
—
is
the
negatives for an emphatic
of two
tto little toil (i.e.
_
(i.e. I
.
much
am
/-
;
contradictory
of •
toil)
well aware)
concep-
77
sapiens insania, wise folly. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words 3. presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial) as, sensim sine sensu aetas senescit.
Onomatopoeia is the suiting of sound to sense as, 4. quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum, 'And shake ;
with horny hoofs the solid ground.''
INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. Note.— Compounds
are not given unless they present
some
The
special irregularity.
references are to sections.
ascendo, 122,
I,
ColO, 122,
4.
I, 5.
abicio, 122, III.
^ssuefacio, 122, III.
commlniscor, 122, V. comperio, 123, V. compleo, 121, I.
abnuo, 122,
II.
assuefio, 122, III.
concutio, 122, III.
aboleo, 121,
I.
aspicio, 122, III.
abdo, 122,
assentior, 123, VII.
I, 2.
audio, 123,
condo, 122,
I.
abstergeo, 121, III.
aufero, 129.
absum,
augeo, 121, III.
125.
accendo, 122,
aveo, 121,
I, 4.
N. 2.
II, a,
accidit, 138, III.
accio, 121,
I, 2.
conlero, 129.
N.
confiteor, 121, VII. congiuo, 122, II. consenesco, 122, IV,
2.
consero, 122, consero, 122,
I,
5.
I,
6 {plant).
cado, 122, I, 2. caedo, 122, I, 2.
consido, 122,
I, 4.
calefacio, 122, III.
conspicio, 122, III.
calefio, 122, III.
constat, 138, III.
caleo, 121, II, a.
constitu5, 122, II.
calesco, 122, IV, 2.
consuesco, 122, IV,
advenio, 123, IV.
cano, 122, I, 2. capesso, 122, I,
consulo, 122, I, 5. contineo, 121, II,
affero, 129.
capio, 122, III.
I,
accipio. 122, III.
acqulro, 122,
I, 6.
actio, 122, II.
addo, 122, I, 2. adhaeiesco, 122, IV, adiplscor, 122, V.
adolesco, 122, IV,
adsum,
i.
125.
afficio. 122, III.
affligo, 122,
I,
a.
I,
agnosco, 122, IV, ago, 122,
I.
2.
coqno, 122,
crepo, 120, II.
algeo, 121, III.
censeo, 121, cerno, 122,
amicio, 123, III.
am5,
120,
cieo, 121,
ango, 122,
cresco, 122, IV,
cubo, 120,
6.
I,
I,
i.
II.
cupio, 122, III.
II, b.
I,
a.
I, I,
curro, 122,
I, 2.
I.
cingo, 122,
I.
amplectoi", 122, V.
a.
1, b.
I,
a.
circumsisto, 122, claudo, 122, I, I,
D.
I, 2.
aperio, 123, II.
claudo, 122,
I,
7.
debeo, 121, II, a. decerno, 122, I, 6.
appeto, 122,
coenio, 122, coepT, 133.
I,
3.
decet, 138, II.
arceo, 121,
I, 7.
I, 6.
II, a.
arcesso, 122,
I,
6.
ardeo, 121, III. aresco, 122, IV,
arguo, 122,
II.
2.
b.
dedecet, 138,
coerceo, 121, II,
a.
cognSsco, 122, IV, cogo, 122, I, 3. colligo, 122,
I,
3.
251
b.
contingit, 138, III.
careo, 121, II, a.
alo, 122,
I, 5.
6.
I, 2.
carpo, 122, I, I, cave5, 121, V.
cedo, 122,
I, 3.
consisto, 122,
I.
II.
dedo, 122, I, 2. defendo, 122, I, deleo, 121, daligo, 122,
I.
I,
3.
4.
i.
Index
252 dem5,
122,
I, 3.
desero, 122, desino, 122,
I, 5.
6.
I,
desuin, 125. dico, 122,
differo, 129. diligo, 122,
references are to sections.
ferveo, 121, VI.
ingemlsco, 122, IV,
figo, 122,
Insum, 125.
I, I, b.
findo, 122,
I, 2,
N.
intellego, 122,
fingo, 122,
I, I,
a.
interficio, 122, III.
flecto, 122, I, fleo, 121,
I, 3.
dimico, 120, dirimo, 122,
I, b.
I.
II.
floreo, 121, II, a, N.
I,
fiuo, 122, II.
3.
diripio, 122, III.
floiesco, 122, IV, 2.
diruo, 122, II.
lodio, 122, III.
discerno, 122, disco, 122, IV, dissero, 122,
frango, 122,
I.
do, 127.
fruor, 122,
doleo, 121,
domo,
frigeo, 121, II, a, N. 2.
fugio, 122, III. fulcio, 123, III.
a.
I, \,
L. labor, 122, V.
fulget, 138, I.
E.
I,
laedo, 122,
furo, 122,
lambo,
I,
7.
G.
II, a,
gemo, N.
i.
122,
gero, 122,
gradior, 122, V.
I,
VII.
licet, 138, II.
loquor, 122, V. liiceo, 121, III.
H.
esurio, 123, VI.
evado, p. 87, footnote, evanesco, 122, IV, 3. I,
I,
5.
4.
habeo, 121,
ludo, 122,
luo, 122, II.
haereo, 121, III. haurio, 123, III. horreS, 121,
I,
N.
II, a,
i.
M. maereo, 121, malo, 130.
I.
N.
I, I, b.
lugeo, 121, III.
II, a.
exerceS, 121, II, a. experior, 123, VII. expleo, 121,
II, a, N. 2.
explico, 120, II.
ignosco, 122, IV,
exstinguo, p. 87, footnote, extimesco, 122, IV, 2.
illicio, 122, III.
matiiresco, 122, IV,
imbuo, 122, II. immineo, 121, II,
I.
maneo,
121, III.
facio, 122, III.
incipio, 122, III.
medeor, 121, VII. memini, 133. mereo, 121, II, a. mereor, 121, VII. mergo, 122, I, i, b.
fallo, 122, I, 2.
incolo, 122,
metior, 123, VII.
VII. faveo, 121, V. ferio, 123, VI.
incumbo,
indulged, 121, III. induo, 122, II.
mico, 120,
fero, 129.
infero, 129.
misceo, 121,
F.
impleo, 121,
I,
implico, 120,
fateor, 121,
i.
I, 3.
liceor, 121,
5.
I, 3.
eo, 132.
excudo, 122,
7.
VII.
libet, 138, II.
a.
gigno, 122,
121, II, a, N. i.
lego, 122,
I, 5. I, I,
emineo,
excolo, 122,
I,
lavo, 120, III.
elicio, 122, III.
122,
122,
lateo, 121, II, a, N.
3.
effugio, 122, III.
egeo, 121,
I, 6.
I, I, ^.
largior, 123,
effero, 129.
emo,
lacesso, 122,
3.
fungor, 122, V.
I, 2.
I,
a.
fulgeo, 121, III.
fundo, 122,
edo, 122, edo, 122,
jubeo, 121, III. jungo, 122, I, I, juvo, 120, III.
V.
II, b. II, a.
120, II.
duco, 122,
V.
irascor, 122,
jacio, 122, III.
I, 5.
frico, 120, II.
I, 3.
jaceo, 121, II, a.
I, 3.
frenio, 122,
I, 5.
distinguo, p. 87, footnote, divido, 122, I, I, b.
doceo, 121,
i.
foveo, 121, V.
I, 6.
2.
intersum, 125. invado, p. 87, footnote, invenio, 123, IV.
flo, 131.
a.
I, I,
Principal Parts
to the
The
a, N. 2.
N.
II.
I, 5.
122,
I, 5.
metuo,
minuo,
122, II. II.
122, II. II, b.
3.
of the Most Important Verbs. The miseret, 138, II.
patefacio, 122, III.
misereor, 121, VII.
patefio, 122, III.
mitto, 122,
I, I, b.
pateo, 121,
molo,
I, 5.
patior, 122, V.
122,
paveo, 121, V.
morior, 122, V. moveo, 121, V.
pello, 122,
perdo, 122,
I, 2,
rego, 122,
IV^, 3.
perlego, 122,
nolo, 130.
n5sc6, 122, IV, I, I,
peto, 122,
I.
piget^ 138, II.
a.
pingo, 122,
i, I, a.
resists, 122, I, 2.
restinguo, p. 87, footnote, retineo, 121, II, b.
rideo, 121, III.
rodo, 122, I, I, rubeo, 121, II,
rumpo, a.
I, 1,
placeo, 121,
122,
I, 3.
ruo, 122, II.
I, I, b.
S.
pluit, 138, I.
obdiiresco, 122, IV, oblino, 122,
3.
I, 6.
oblivTscor, 122, V.
obmutesco, 122, IV, obruo, 122, II. obsolesco, 122, IV,
obsum,
3.
i.
125.
poUeo,
121, II, a, N. 2.
b.
saepio, 123, III.
polliceor, 121, VII.
salio, 123, II.
poUuo, 122, II. pono, 122, I, 6.
sancio, 123, III.
posco, 122, IV, possido, 122, I,
possum,
obtineo, 121, II,
sapio, 122, III. I.
sarcio, 123, III.
4.
scindo, 122,
126.
poto, 120,
scrlbo, 122,
I.
I, I,
praebeo, 121,
offero, 129.
praestat, 138, III.
seco, 120, II.
praesum, 125. prandeo, 121, VI. prehendo, 122, I, 4. premo, 122, I, i, b.
sedeo, 121, V.
prodo, 122,
sero, 122,
I.
operio, 123, II. oportet, 138, II.
opperior, 123, VII. ordior, 123, VII. orior, 123, VII.
II, a.
I, 2.
promo, 122, I, prosum, 125. prosterno, 122, pudet, 138, II.
pungo,
paenitet, 138, II.
palleo, 121, II, a, N.
pando,
122,
parco, 122, pareo, 121,
I,
122,
sculpo, 122,
a.
sepelio, 123,
I.
sequor, 122, V. 6.
I,
I, I, a.
sileo, 121, II, a, N. i. I, 6.
I, 2.
I.
sino, 122,
I, 6.
solvo, 122,
I,
sono, 120,
II.
4.
spargo, 122,
I,
sperno, 122,
I, 6.
I, ^.
splendeo, 121,
I, 2.
quaer5, 122,
a.
I, I,
sentio, 123, III.
serpo, 122,
3.
4.
II, a.
N.
I, 2,
scTsco, 122, IV, 2.
odi, 133.
oleo, 121, II, a, N.
b.
a, N. i.
II, a.
plaudo, 122,
O.
VII.
respuo, 122, II.
I, 3.
6.
I,
reminlscor, 122, V. reor, 121,
repo, 122,
I, 3.
permulceo, 121, III. perpetior, 122, V. pervado, p. 87, footnote,
II, a.
I, 3.
reperio, 123 V.
perfruor, 122, V. i.
a.
I, I,
relinquo, 122, N.
I, 2.
perfringo, 122, I, 3.
V.
122,
refert, 138, II.
3.
I.
noceo, 121,
nubo,
refercio, 123, III.
perficio, 122, III.
I, I, b.
rapio, 122, III.
refero, 129.
percrebresco, 122,
niteo, 121, II, a, N. nitor, 122,
I,
I, b.
I,
reddo, 122, I, 2. redimo, 122, I, 3.
I, 2.
percello, 122,
nascor, 122, V.
ningit, 138,
i.
pendeo, 121, IV. pendo, 122, I, 2.
nanciscor, 122, V.
neglego, 122,
N.
HI.
pellicio, 122,
perago, 122,
necto, 122,
R. rado, 122,
II, a,
moneo, 121, II, a. mordeo, 121, IV.
N.
253
references are to sections.
pario, 122, III.
quatiS, 122, III.
pasco, 122, IV, I. pascor, 122, IV, i.
queror, 122, V. quiesco, 122, iV.
II, a,
spondeo, 121, IV.
I, 6.
statuo, 122, II.
sterno, 122, i.
I, 6.
-stinguo, 122,
I,
I, a.
N.
i.
254
Index
to the
The strepo, 122,
I, 5.
texo, 122,
strideo, 121, VI. stringo, 122, I, i, a. struo, 122, II.
studeo, 121,
II, a, N. i.
suadeo, 121,
III.
I,
timeo, 121, tingo, 122,
.
tollo, 122,
5.
V.
3.
supersum, 125. sustineo, 121, II,
veho, 122,
torreo, 121, II, b.
b.
I, 2. I, I,
tremo, 122,
taceo, 121, II, a. taedet, 138, II.
temno,
122,
tendo, 122, teneo, 121,
a.
tero, 122,
2.
II, b.
I, 6.
terreo, 121, II, a.
i.
vereor, 121, VII. vergo, 122, I, 7. verro, 122,
I,
verto, 122,
I,
4. 4.
vescor, 122, V.
video, 121, V. b.
I, 2.
vigeo, 121, II, a, N. vincio, 123, III. vinco, 122,
U. a.
ulciscor, 122,
ungu5,
122,
V.
I, I, a.
urgeo, 121, III. uro, 122,
I,
I,
ufor, 122, V.
a.
viso, 122,
I, 4.
vivo, 122,
I, 1,
a.
V0I6, 130.
volvo, 122,
I,
4.
vomo,
I,
5.
122,
i.
I, 3.
vireo, 121, II, a, N.
a.
I, i, I,
a.
5.
I, 2.
I, I,
I,
4.
veto, 120, II.
I,
tundo, 122,
I,
I,
venio, 123, IV.
tribuo, 122, II.
tego, 122,
vello, 122,
tono, 120, II.
trado, 122, traho, 122,
I, 1, b.
valeo, 121, II, a.
N.
I.
trudo, 122, I, I, tueor, 121, VII.
tango, 122,
vado, 122,
a.
I, I, I, 2,
tonat, 138,
torpeo, 121, II, a, N. torque5, 121, III.
suo, 122, II.
Verbs.
II, a, N. i.
tondeo, 121, IV.
subigo, 122, 1,3.
subsum, 125. sum, 100. sumo, 122, I,
Most Important
references are to sections.
voveS, 121, V.
i.
GENERAL INDEX. references are to sections and paragraphs.
The
Ablative case, with prepositions,
213 -a,
ending of nom. sing., Greek nouns, 22,
for e in
a, ab, ads, use, 142, i
a.
;
ist decl.,
20;
with verbs of
with town names,
ads, 142,
Absolute ablative, 227.
denote separation, 214. with town names, 229, 2.
time, of participles, 336, use of verbs, 174, a.
to
-a- stems, 20.
Abstract nouns,
Abbreviations of proper names, 373. Ablative case, 17 213 f. formation of sing, of adjs. of 3d dec!., 67, a 70, 1-5. genuine abl. uses, 214 f.
-abiis, 21, 2, e).
;
;
absolute, 227. 222.
55, 4, c).
= as, than, 341,
i,
c).
Acatalectic verses, 366, 9. Accent, 6; in gen. of nouns in -ius
and Accompaniment, -iu7n, 25, I
and
2.
abl. of, 222.
of duration of time, 181.
221
of result
produced, 173,
B
;
176.
of extent of space, 181.
2, e).
of limit of motion, 182 f. of person or thing affected, 173,
of cause, 219. of comparison, 217.
of degree of difference, 223. of fine, 208,
;
;
;
of accordance, 220, 3. of attendant circumstance, 227,
ac, 341, i,b')
12, 2, b)
4.
Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3. Accusative case, 17 172 f.
of agent, 216.
accompaniment,
8.
I.
absens, 125.
229, 2. to denote agency, 216.
of
218, 8.
filling,
with adjs. of plenty, 218,
i.
142
f.
in
2, d.
of manner, 220.
;
exclamations, 183.
as subj. of inf 184. with adv. force, 176, ,
of means, 218. of penalty, 208,
A
175-
3.
with compounds, 175, 2. with passive used as middle, 175,
2, 6.
of place where, 228.
of place whence, 229.
2,rf).
of price, 225.
cognate ace, 176, 4. Greek ace, 180. synecdochical ace, 180. two aces., direct obj. and pred. ace, 177; person affected and result produced, 178; with compounds oi trans,
of quality, 224. of separation, 214.
of source, 215.
of specification, 226. of time at which, 230. of time during which, 231, of time within which, 231. of
way by which,
218, 9.
\\'nh/ucid,/}d, 218, 6.
i.
with other compounds, 179, 2 179 with prepositions, 141; 179 f. retained in pass., 178, 2. Accusing, verbs of, coiistr., 208 f. ;
255
256
General Index. The
accuso, constr., 178,
references are to sections and paragraphs.
aequor, decl., 34.
d).
i,
aequum
acer, 68.
Acquitting, verbs
ac
si, 2,07,
ad,
'
constr., 208
of,
toward,'
'
= agg-,
in vicinity
150
f.
derivation
354;
;
of,
and 2d
of 1st
decl., 63
ai?i,
;
;
-er,
in -ills, 71, 4; comparative 3; lacking, 73, 3; defective comparison,
71,
not
admitting comparison, 75; comparison by magis and 7)iaxime, 74. numerals, 78 f. syntax, 233
force of comp.
special Latin
and
superl., 240,
i.
as pred. ace, 177, 2. position of adj., 350,
i.
2.
in
2.
2.
formation
in -iter
from
and
and
comparison,
-o,
adjs. in -us, 77, 4.
-titn,
91, 2.
252, 2
;
66
77,
5.
77, 2.
92,
;
66
alter,
253.
used correlatively, 253, 3,
i.
N.
92,
i
used
;
correlatively,
I-
Alternative questions, 162, 4; 300,4.
indirect,
alter uter, 92, 2.
gender
of, 26, i, b).
115.
sum, 115. 2, a 355,
2.
;
=
amplius quam, 217, 3. an, 162, 4, and a) 300, 4; haud scib an, nescio an, 300, 5. ;
Anacoluthon, 374, 6. Anapaest, 366, 2. Anaphora, 350, 11, b). Anastrophe of prep., 141, 144. 3anceps (syllaba anceps)
,
2;
142,
3;
366, 10.
Androgeds,AQ'i\., 27.
animal,
aniini, 232, 3.
special meanings, 347. position, 350, 6.
Answers,
conjunctions, 343.
;
i. ;
as preps., 144, 2. derivation of, 157.
Adversative clauses, 309.
i
Alliteration, 375, 3.
numeral, 79.
acdes, 61.
aliquis dicat, d'lxerit,
;
I.
atnplius
140, 157.
-tus
280,
2.
;
aliquis, 91
ambo, 80, amo, loi.
constr., 235, B, 2, c; 254, 4.
adultus, 114,
91
am aturus
constr., 207.
Adverbs,
aliqu'i,
amandus sum,
4.
= arr-, 9, 2. ads- — ass-, 9, 2. adulescens, 9, 2. adulter, decl., 23,
alacer, comp., 73, 4.
aliqua, 91,
alvus,
adr-
ad sensum,
decl.,
135, N.
Alphabet, 3.
all-, 9, 2.
admoneo,
ist
allicio, 109, 2, b).
equivalents of Eng. clause, 241,
rel.
sing.,
V'o, 135-
alius ac, 341, 1, c). Allia, gender of, 15,
adjs., 354, i.
equiv. to
case-ending, gen.
alius,
not followed by infinitive, 333. not used with proper names, 354, equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4.
f.;
abl., 216.
-alls, 151, 2.
ff.
agreement, 234 f. used substantively, 236 f. denoting part of an object, 241, with force of adverbs, 239.
76
2.
poet., 21, 2, b).
of 3d decl., 67 ff. in abl., 70, 5. comparison of adjs., 71 f. in
=
id aetatis, 185,
;
Agency, dat. of, 189; Agent, abl., 216. -di,
ff.
in -ius, gen. sing., 63, a.
adl-
e)
ager, dec!., 23.
f,
73;
i,
-aeus, 152, 3. aevoin, 24.
182, 3.
of,'
9, 2.
62
Adjectives,
271, i, b).
aetas, decl., 40,
I.
-ades, 148, 6, a.
adg-
est,
aes, 57, 7.
f.
decl., 39.
anndn, 162,
4.
162, 5.
ante in expressions of time, 144,
Antecedent of
rel.,
i
;
251.
attraction of, 251, 4.
incorporated with
rel.,
251, 4.
357,
i.
General Index. The Antecedent omitted, 251,
i.
B.
repeated with rel., 251, 3. Antepenult, 6, 2. antequain, with ind., 291 with
balneum, babieae, 60, subjv.,
;
bellum, decl., 23. ^tf«^,
;
in
comparison, 77,
benevolens, 71,
5,
i.
a).
bijugis, 362, 4.
Apodosis, 301. conditional
of
sent,
type,
ist
-(5//w, 150, 4.
bonus, 63
302, 4.
Apposition, 169; partitive, 169, 5; with voc. in nom., 171, 2; genitive, 202. Appositive of locative, 169, 4; with ace. of limit of motion, 182, 2, a; with
town names
whence,
in abl. of place
(^^5,
comparison, 72.
;
41.
Brachylogy, 374, 2. Bucolic diaeresis, 368, -bulum, 147, 4.
3, d.
-butidus, 150, I.
2.
position
of,
C.
350, 2.
Archujs, 22.
caedes, decl., 40.
argiio, constr., 178,
Caesura, 366, 8
I, rf).
-aris, 151, 2.
hexameter,
in dactylic
Calendar, 371 372. Calends, 371, 2, a), ;
atfniger, deal., 23, 2. Arsis, 366, 6.
canis, 38, 2.
arx, decl., 40. -as, old Gen. sing., ist decl., case-ending,
capio,
no.
carbasus, gender
of, 26, I, b).
career, carceres, 61.
21, 2, a).
ending of Greek nouns, nom.
sing.
in, 22.
Cardinals, 78,
i
;
79
81, i
;
decl., 80.
;
caro, 42.
afis, abl.
Aspirates,
of patrials
carrus, carruin, 60,
in, 70, 5, c).
Asyndeton, 341, at, 343, I. d).
4,
a)
;
8,
4
f.
;
9, 2.
castrum, castr a, 61. Catalectic verses, 366,
346.
-dtim, 157, 2.
atomus, gender atque, 341,
2, (5)
<^il^'t<
I. ^)-
343.
i.
Cases, 17; alike in form, 19; 170 Case-endings, 17, 3.
2, 3, c).
Assimilation of consonants,
Causal
of, 26, i, c).
= as,
;
341,
i,
of,
etc.,
295, 7.
286 285 clause of characteristic with accessory notion of
c).
abl.
clauses,
ff.
g.
causa, nulla causa est cur,
Attendant circumstance,
221
;
2, e).
Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5 of relatives, 250, 5 subjunctive by attraction, 324; of adjectives, 327, 2, a; ;
;
328, 2.
;
;
cause, 283, 3. conjunctions, 345. causa, with gen., 198, i.
Cause, abl. cave, 363,
of,
219; 227,
d^.
2,
2, (5).
cave ne in prohibitions, 276, -ce, 6, 3 f. 87, footnote 2.
c.
;
audeb, 114, audio, x
;
368, 3. calcar, decl., 39.
-ariuin, 148, 3. -drius, 151, 2.
227,
2.
barbitos, decl., 27. belli, 232, 2.
292.
Anticipation, 374, 5. -anus, 151, 2; 152, I 3. Aorist tense, see Historical perfect.
229,
257
references are to sections and paragraphs.
cedo, cette, 137, 3.
i. ;
I,
with pres. partic, 337, a).
celer, 68, 2. celb, constr., 178, i,
autem, 343, i, c) 350, 8. Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, auxilium, auxilia, 61.
cendtus, 114,
;
-dx, 150, 2.
3.
5.
e').
2.
cetera, 185, 2. ceter'i,
253, 4. Characteristic, clauses
203, I
;
abl., 224.
of,
283
;
gen.
of,
General Index.
258 The Chiasmus, 350,
11, c).
circumdo, constr., 187,
i, a.
citerior, 73, i.
Conditional clauses of comparison, 307. sentences, ist type, 302; in indir. disc, 319; 2d type, 303 in indir. disc, 320; 3d type, 304; in indir. disc, 321; abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, b) introduced by relative pronouns, 312. ;
cito, 77, 2, a.
civitds, decl., 40,
I, e.
;
clam, 144, 2. Clauses, coord, and subord., 164, 165. Clauses of characteristic, 283 purpose, ;
282; result, 284; causal, 285; temporal with postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, etc. with cu/it, 288 substantive 287 clauses, 294 f. condition, 301 f. concessive, 308; adversative, 309; wish ;
;
;
;
or proviso, 310
relative,
;•
clipeus, clipeum, 60,
311
f.
283
;
f.
i.
confldb, 219,
coepi, 133; coeptiis est, 133,
Cognate ace, coj^o, 178, I,
d)
;
gender
comedo, 128, cometes,
2,
partially
double,
f.
to J-stems, 40.
3, 3.
;
2, 9.
in
of,
stems, 29
2.
into
8;
omission of
fi-
f.
following analogy of
;
l-
stems, 40. cbnspicio, 109, 2, b).
I.
gender, 15, B, N. nouns, 12, I. vowels, 5, A, 2, N. syllables, 5, B, 3.
constare, 218, 4.
i.
Construction ace to sense, 254, 4 235, B, 2, c). consuetudo est, with substantive clause, ;
comiiionefacio, 207.
commoneo, 207. communis, with gen., 204, 2; with
297. 3consiievi dat.,
= pres.,
Comparison of adjs., 71
262,
Contending, verbs contentus, 219,
2, a.
A.
of,
with dat., 358,
contineri, with abl, 218, 4. contra, 144, i.
adjs. in -dictis, -ficus, -volus, 71, 5.
Contraction,
f.
defective, 73. abl. of, 217.
7, 2.
length of vowel as result
,
of, 5,
A,
1,6).
Comparatives, occasional meaning, 240. two required in Latin, 240, 4. Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, V).
Convicting, verbs
Compounds,
cbpia, copiae, 61.
,
separation into syl158 f. lables, 4, 4; spelling of, 9, 2. Compound sentences, 164. ;
Conative uses of
pres., 259, 2 of imperf., of pres. partic, 336, 2, a. Concessive clauses, 308 although as ;
;
'
'
;
Condemning, verbs
of, constr.,
Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3; 342, adverbs, 140.
-ciilitm
,
4.
147, 4.
-cuius {a, urn), 148,
208
f.
f.
Copulative conjunctions, 341.
cotttdie, 9, 2.
12, 2, a).
f.
cor, 57, 7. cormi, decl., 48.
-crum, 147,
subjunctive, 278. Conclusion, see Apodosis.
208
165.
conjunctions, 341
istic,
283, 3.
of, constr.,
Coordinate clauses,
accessory idea to clause of character-
Concrete nouns,
3.
i.
participles as adjs., 71, 2.
260, 3
division
f.
nals, 8, 3; assimilation of, 8, 4
Common
204,
2
Consonant changes,
'Z'Z.
comitia, 230,
adapted
2,
syllables, 4, 2
a).
pecul-
Conjunctions, 341 f. with inf., 295, 5, a. Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses. cofisistere, with abl., 218, 4. Consonant stems, 29 f.
combinations
of, 26, i, b').
;
cbiior,
,
331, VI.
the four conju-
;
;
176, 4.
Collective nouns, 12, colus,
i.
i.
gations, 98 periphrastic, 115 iarities of conj., 116.
Consonants,
12.
a.
I,
Conjugation, 11; 93
Close of sentences, cadences used, 350,
——
and paragraphs.
references are to sections
i.
cum, appended, 142, 4. cum, when,'. 288-290. '
2.
General Index. The
de decet, 175, 2, c). Defective verbs, 133
cutn, adversative, 309, 3.
causal, 286,
2.
explicative, 290. to denote a recurring action, 288, 3
of accompaniment, 222. tuiii, 290, 2. cum cum pr'tmum, 287, i. .
.
Demonstrative pronouns, 87 Denominative verbs, 156. Dental mutes, 2, 4. stems, 33. verbs, 112
.
cum, spelling
Deponent
meanings,
of, 9, i.
331, IV, and a. cur, nulla causa est cur, 295, 7.
cupio, 109,
a)
2,
— pentameter,
dextrum, 185,
Uates, 371, 2-5; as indeclinable nouns, in leap year, 371, 7. 371, 6
die, 116, 3.
;
;
irregular, ist decl., 21,
decl., 47, 5
;
4th decl., 49,
and 3; 186
decl., 52, I
;
3.
2.
2, t)
;
2:3; 5th
dico,
dictum est, 332, note. accent of compounds of, in imper.,
116, 3.
dicus, comparison of adjs.
ff.
of direction, 193.
dies, decl., 51
of indir. obj., 187.
Difference, abl. of degree
of advantage or disadvantage, so
difficile est, 271, \,b').
I.
of person judging, 188,
2, a).
stems,
d).
with adjs., 192. with compound verbs, 187, III. with intrans. verbs, 187, II. II, b.
3.
with abl. instead of gen. of whole,
inf.,
decemvir, gen. plu.
270,
2.
of, 25, 6, b").
decet, 175, 2, c).
Declaratory sentences in indir. disc, 314. Declension, 11; heteroclites, 59. stems and gen. terminations, 18. ,
purpose,
i.
i
3,
;
2
diphthong
;
diphthongs
;
gender
shortened,
of, 26, i, c).
i.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 342. dissimilis,
comp., 71,
4.
Distributives, 78, i; 79; 81,
compared,
dives, 70,
2, e).
debu'i in apodosis, 304, 3, a).
debut, with pres.
2,
Dipodies, 366, 11. Direct reflexives, 244,
diu,
I, a.
debebam,
4.
object, 172.
dat., 188, 2, b).
dea, deabiis, 21,
41
362, 2. diphthotigus,
I.
with verbs oi tnhigling, 358,
223.
verses, 366, 11.
Diphthongs,
with pass, verbs, 187, with trans, verbs, 187,
of,
in rel. clauses of
;
Diminutives, 148,
of reference, 188.
— - ethical
comp., 71,
digmis, 226, 2
Dimeter
i.
;
2,
gender, 53.
;
282, 3.
2, c).
of possession, 190; 359, of purpose, 191 339, 7.
in, 71, 5.
decl., 47, 8.
difficilis,
of local standpoint, 188,
368, 3, d).
dicitur,
Dido,
of separation, 188,
d.,
2.
of agency, 189.
called, 188,
246.
;
forms with passive semi-deponents,
Diaeresis, 366, 8; bucolic
369.
Diastole, 367,
201,
52,
i.
dap is, 57,6.
de,
;
deus, 25, 4. devertor, 114, 3.
D. Dactyl, 366, 2. Dactylic hexameter, 368.
D ative, 17
;
b)
112,
Derivatives, 147 f. Desideratives, 155,
;
deterior, 73,
3d
f.
114.
-ciindus, 150, I.
—
nouns, 54
;
315. 3-
when suddenly,' 288, 2. with abl. of manner, 220; with abl.
'
f.
4; 57; comparison, 73. Deliberative subjv., 277 in indir. disc, ;
;
289, a.
,
259
references are to sections and paragraphs.
77,
4.
i.
I.
dixti, 116, 4,
c.
do, 127.
doceo, with ace, 178,
VI. do7iii, 232, 2.
domo, 229, I, b). domos, 182, I, b.
I,
b)
;
with
inf.,
331,
General Index.
26o The domutn, 182,
i,
references are to sections and paragraphs.
b)\ 'house,' in ace, 182, I
note.
domus, 49, donee,
epulum, epulae, 60,
4.
with ind., 293;
with subjv., 293,
Double consonants,
2.
2, ^).
-^r, decl.
dubium
due, 116, 3. duco, accent of
est,
,
in imper.,
of,
in
^/ ind., 293 with subjv., wishes and provisos, ;
gen.
et
.
a
I,
341, is,
310.
;
enumerations, 341,
in
.
neque, 341,
.
2, (5).
f/jj,
'even
if,'
2, a.
-etum, 148, -^«j, 151,
3.
I.
with abl., instead of gen. oi 142, 2 whole, 201, I, a; with abl. of source.
^;t:,
stems, 51. -e, ending of
5.
'although,' 309, 2;
309,
dux, decl., 32.
4, c).
«(?«, 341, 2, f).
^A7, of, 25, 6, ^).
a*
3.
Ethical dative, 188,
if^
2.
in, 40, i,
247, 4.
etiam, in answers, 162,
duumvir, gen. plu.
^,
Greek nouns, nom.
22; in dat., 5th decl., 52, 3. -e, abl. of participles in -ans, -his,
sing, in,
;
215,
I.
exposed, constr., 178, in,
70, 3.
ex sis to,
exspecto, 9, 2. exteil, exterior, 73, 2.
edlc, 116, 3.
extremus, 241,
ex, use, 142, 2.
i,
a),
9, 2.
ecquis, 91, 6.
e,
nouns
decl. of
-is,
100; omitted, 116, 5. est qui, with subj., 283, 2.
esse,
et,
310.
dummodo,
sin^,.
in, 22.
116, 3.
293, III, 2;
in, 23.
-emus, 154. -^i^, ending of Greek nouns, nom.
constr. with, 298.
compounds
duim, duint, 127, 2. -dum, 6, 3. du7n, temporal with
nouns
of
2, 9.
questions, 162, 4; indirect, 300, 4. Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative.
duo, 80,
equabus, 21, equos, 24.
III, 2. doiio, constr., 187, i, a.
diibito,
ep is tula, 9, 2. epitome, 22.
i.
edd, 128.
educ, 116, ^^(7,
3.
/at, 116,
84.
egomet, 84, 2. -IJ, gen. of 5th decl, 52, -^w, 148, 6, f/V/j,
/j!<;/7^,
facilis,
I.
comp.,
i.
in imper., 116, 3.
,
Elegiac distich, 369,
falsus, 73, 3.
2.
Elision, 366, 7.
fame,
Ellipsis, 374, I.
familias, 21,
um^, 148, Emphasis, 349.
-ellus (a,
71, 4.
facio, 109, 2, a).
(5).
as poss., 86,
3.
77, 3.
2,
a).
fari, 136.
I.
Enclitics, accent of
59, 2, b).
y*^^, 58.
preceding
syllable,
Endings, personal of verb, 96 tion of words, 147 f. enim, 345. -ensimus (-ensumus), 79, N. -ens is, 151, 2; 152, 3. eo, 132; cpds., 132, I.
Epexegetical genitive, 202. Epistolary tenses, 265.
fauces, decl., 40,
Fearing, verbs
6,3;
in
forma-
of,
I, <^).
constr., 296,
2.
fellx, 70.
Feminine, see Gender.'
Feminine caesura, 368, femur, -y^'r,
3, t.
42, 4.
decl. of
nouns
in, 23,
2; adjs., 65,
y^/o, 129.
/^r/«, 75, -ficus,
2.
comparison of adjs.
in, 71, 5.
1.
261
General Index. The Jidei, 362,
references are to sections
and paragraphs.
Future tense, 261
I, b.
with imperative force,
;
261, 3.
fido, 114, I. fldo, with abl., 219,
time in the subjv., 269. perfect, 264 with future meaning,
i, a.
ftdiis, 73, 3.
;
fierem, fieri, 362, Fifth decl., 51
133. 2.
c).
i,
imperative, 281,
f.
futurum
Figures of rhetoric, 375.
i.
esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3.
of syntax, 374.
G. gaudeo, 114, i. Gender, 13-15; in ist decl., 20, 21; in 2d decl., 23; exceptions, 26; in 3d
fill, 25, 3._
fUia,filiabus, 21,
2, e).
Final clauses, see Purpose clauses. Final consonant omitted, 8, 3. Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364. finis, fines, 61.
decl.,
gener, decl., 23,
peculiarities, 21.
;
i,
a),
2.
of 52, 3; of ist decl. in -ai, 21, 2, b) 1st decl. in -as, 21, 2, a) "gen. plu. -uyn ;
'
;
-um for -drum, 25,6; gen. plu. lacking, 57, 7; syntax of, 194 f.
for -arum, 21, 2, d)
I.
fore ut, 270, 3. forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote
Formation of words, 146
of indefinite price, 203, 4. of indefinite value, 203, 3.
f.
fors, forte, 57, 2, a.
fortior, 69.
of material, 197.
fortis, 69.
of measure, 203,
fortuna, fortunae, 61.
of origin, 196.
48
49, i
dat.
;
;
in
-«,
49,
2;
dat. abl. plu. in -ubus,
of separation, 212,
2.
Frequentatives, 155,
with 204,
2, 7.
;
70, 6.
i
;
in
gerundive
constr., 339, 4. fugio, 109, 2, a).
ful, fuisti, etc., iox sum,
es,
etc.,
tenses, p. 60, footnote
;
in
gerundive
dec)., 40, i, d).
furto,
220, 2.
;
with
participles,
position of gen., 350,
I.
genus, decl., 36; id genus, 185, I. -ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2; adjs., 65, with object, 338, 5. in com- Gerund, 338
I,
;
;
p.
61,
footnote.
fur,
204
;
fruor, with abl, 218,
1
adjs.,
a.
;
//-«^^«, 57, 6.
fungor, 218,
I,
with causa, gratia, ig8, i. of plenty and with verbs, 205 f. want, 212 with impers. verbs, 209.
decl., 48.
frugi, compared, 72
3.
subjective, 199.
2.
fretus, 218, 3.
pound
of the whole, 201. objective, 200.
2.
freniim, plu. of, 60,
fr actus,
of quality, 203.
appositional, 202.
49,3fraude, 220,
Fricatives,
2.
of possession, 198.
conj., 107. decl.,
;
of characteristic, 203, i. of charge with judicial verbs, 208.
2.
I, c.
-i,
in 5th
;
2, a).
Foot, in verse, 366, 2. For,' its Latin equivalents, 358, fore, page 57, footnote 3.
gen. in
50;
;
f.
Jiagito, constr., 178,
Fourth Fourth
decl.,
Genitive, 17 ; in -I for -it, 25, i and 2 of 4th decl. in -i, 49, i of 5th decl. in -i, 52, 2; of 5th decl. in -ei, 52, i; in -e,
First conj., loi.
foris, 228,
in 4th
;
fio, 131. fid, with abl., 218, 6.
fodio, 109,
;
determined by endings, 14; by signification, 15, A heterogeneous nouns, 60.
Finite verb, 95.
First decl., 20
f.
43
decl., 53;
constr., 339, 4.
Gerundive, 337, 7. Gerundive const., 339, 1-6;
in
passive
gen. deperiphrastic conj., 337, 7 f. noting purpose, 339, 6: with dat. of ;
purpose, 192, 3;
339, 7.
262
General Index. The
gnarus, not comparer],
Gnomic
present, 259,
gradior, 109,
references are to sections and paragraphs.
t-stem, vis, 41. in abl., 3d decl, 38,
75, 2.
i
perfect, 262,
;
i.
J,
2, c.
15.
gratia, with gen., 198,
i
;
;
39.
patrials, 70, 5, c). -ia, 149.
Greek nouns,
2d decl., 27; gender, 26, i, c) 3d Greek ace, 180 Greek nouns ist decl., 22;
exceptions
in
;
decl.,
47
;
gu=gv,^,
trimeter, 370.
-ianus, 152, 2.
1.
-ias, 148, 6, b).
-Ibam, in imperf., 116,
3.
Guttural mutes,
2, 4.
in future, 116, 4, Ictus, 366, 5.
-J(55,
stems, 32.
-icus, 151, 2;
H.
?(/
habeo, with perf. pass, partic, 337, 6.
Hadria,
Iambus, 366, 2. Iambic measures, 370.
;
in verse, 365.
grus, decl., 41,
kaud, use, 347,
2,
2, 3,
a
a), footnote
hand scio
;
i.
ifl'
an, 300, 5.
have, 137, 5.
Hendiadys, 374,
152, 2.
^«t)rf,
247,
I,
idem
Ides, 371, 2, c).
Heterogeneous nouns, Hiatus, 366, 7, a. hie, 87 246, I 246, hiems, 35, footnote.
60.
-Jrf5,
147, 3, c).
idoneus, ;
historical present,
B
259, 3 268, 3 historical perfect, 262, historical infinitive, 335. ;
;
clause
rel.
of
purpose.
-idus, 150, 3.
ending, 116,
4, a.
igttur, 344, I, c). z^/zw, decl., 38.
Hortatory subjv., 274. hortus, decl., 23. hoscine, 87, footnote 2.
-lie,
148, 3.
llion, dec]., 27. -z//>,
2.
151, 2.
-His, 150, 4.
2.
Illative conjunctions, 344.
humilis, conip., 71,
the following,' 246, 2 87 the former," 246, i; 'the well-known,' 246, 3; position, 350, 5, (5.
Hie,
4.
humus, gender of, 26, i, 3). Hyperbaton, 350, 11, «). Hypermeter, 367, 6. Hysteron proteron, 374, 7.
'
illuc, 87,
-im., in
becomes/, g,
367, 4; instead of
;
;
footnote
-im,
a
in
i.
ace, 3d
'
3.
-illus (a, um'), 148,
I. ;
with
282,3. -ier, inf.
honor, decl., 36.
host is, decl., 38. hnjusce, 87, footnote
ac, 248, 2.
-ides, 148, 6, a).
2.
Historical tenses, 258
some words,
second per-
-ides, 148, 6, a).
;
humi, 232,
Indefinite
Idem, 87; 248.
4.
Heteroclites, 59.
;
2.
iJ.
Ideal 'you,' see son.
heri, 232, 2.
;
4, ^). iJ).
aetatis, 185, 2.
id genus, 185, i. /a' temp or is, 185,
21, i.
Hard consonants,
I
i
70, 5.
;
participles, 70, 3.
gratia, griitiae,
61.
J, I,
a
adjs., 67, 3,
Grammatical gender,
i.
decl., 38, I.
-is in subjv., 116, 4, d.
impedimentum impedimenta, ,
61.
Imperative, 281 tenses in, 94, 3!; 281, future indie, with force of, 261, 3. ;
;
l-stems, 37 _ -I,
;
39
;
not always ending in
-is,
38. 3-
as protasis of a conditional sent.,
gen. of 2d decl, nouns in -ius and -turn in, 25, I
and
2.
gen. of 4th decl., nouns in -us, 49, gen. of 5th decl., nouns, 52, 2.
305, 2; as apodosis, 302, 4. sent, in indir. disc, 316.
i.
Imperfect tense, 260; conative, 260, 3; with /aw,
etc.,
260, 4.
General Index. The Imperfect
subjv.
conditional
in
sent,
referring to the past, 304, 2. Impersonal verbs, 138; gen. with, 209; in passive, 256, 3; 187, \\,b\ with substantive clauses of result, 297, 2; with infin.,
327, I 330. impetus, defective, 57, 4. ;
Implied inius,
indir.
bottom
'
disc, 323. of,'
241,
263
references are to sections and paragraphs.
i.
mops, 70, 2. inquam, 134. Inseparable prepositions, 159,
3,
N.
instar, with gen., 198, 2; 58.
Instrumental uses of
abl., 213; 218 ff. Intensive pron., 88. Intensives (verbs), 155, 2. inter to exprt-ss reciprocal relation, 245. interest, coViSU., 7x0; 211.
in, prep., 143.
interior, 73,
in with abl. of time, 230, 2; 231.
Interjections, 145.
-ma,
Interrogative pronouns, 90. sentences, 162; particles, 162, 2; omitted, 162, 2, d) in indir. disc, 315.
148, 5.
Inceptives, 155, i. Inchoatives, 155, I.
;
Indeclinable adjs., 70, 6; 80, 6. nouns, 58 gender of, 15, 3.
Intransitive verbs in passive, 256, 3
Indefinite pronouns, 91 252. Indefinite second person, 280, 3 302, 2. Indicative, 271.
-inus, 151, 2
;
356, 3
;
;
apodosis of conditional sent, of
type, 304, 3 a) and b). indiged, constr., 214, i, N. 2. rel.
clause
of purpose, 282, 3.
Indirect discourse, 313 f. implied indir. disc, 323 subordinate clauses in ind., ;
—
300
of 3d type, 322,
in conditional sent.
;
h.
-IS,
ace. plu.,
iste,
87
decl.,
footnote
37
40.
;
3.
270; 326
4 87, footnote answers, 162, 5. ;
itaque, 344, itdque, 6, 6.
i.
Infinitive, in -ier, 116, 4,
fut.
3d
2.
istic, 6, 4.
inferior, 73, 2.
in,
in, 23.
246, 4.
;
istuc, 6,
tenses
152, 3.
abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c).
-Itis,
,
ita, in
InJim us, 241,
nouns
148, 6, b).
object, 187. ,
of
-is,
reflexives, 244, 2.
htfertim
;
;
istaec, 87,
314. 3questions,
i
Irregular nouns, 42; verbs, 124 f. is, 87; 247; as personal pron., 247,
;
->.
152,
;
verbs of 3d conj., 109. ipse, 88 249 as indir. reflexive, 249, 3. ipslus and ipsorum, with possessive pronouns, 243, 3.
-ir, decl.
with
;
187,
-io,
;
3d
ittdignus, with abl., 226, 2
;
11, b.
;
in
i.
a; meaning of
a)
;
of, 6, 6.
iter, 42, I.
periphrastic
-ium, gen. of nouns
in, 25,
gen. plu., 3d decl., 37
future, 270, 3.
without subj. ace, 326-328 with subj. ace, 329-331.
;
b)
314, 5.
;
f.;
2
ending of
;
39; 40; 147,3,
148, 2.
gen. and
-lus,
with adjs., 333.
voc
sing, of
nouns
in, 25,
and
2; of adjs., 63, a: 151,2; 152,2; -lus for -lus, 362, i, a). 152, 3 I
denoting purpose, 326, N. in abl. abs., 227, 3.
3.
accent
-itia, 149.
ff.
perf. inf., 270, 4;
i,
;
-Ivus, 151, 2.
in exclamations, 334.
historical
inf.,
335.
2
Infitias, 182, 5.
y,
Inflection, 11.
jacio,
Inflections, 11
ingens,Ti,
4-
injuria, 220, injussu, 57, I inl-
—
ill-,
IT.
2. ;
9, 2.
innixus, 218,
3.
219, 2.
I,
;
length of vowel before, 109, 2, a)
5,
compounds
;
A, of,
362, 5ja7n, etc., with present tense, 259, 4 imperfect, 260, 4.
jecur, 42, 3. joco, 220, 2.
JOCUS, plu.
of, 60, 8.
i, c).
9,
;
3
with
General Index.
264 The jiibeo, 295, I, a\
jugerum,
references are to sections and paragraphs.
i.
magnus, compared, 72.
331, II.
yapiter, 41. Juratus, 114,
2.
male, comparison, 77, maleduc7is, 71, 5, a),
59,
Jure, 220, 2. y«j est, with substantive clause, 297, jussu, 57, I 219, 2.
malim, 280, 2, a. mallem, 280, 4. malo, 130; with
3.
subjv., 296,
;
Jussive subjv., 275 30s. 2juvat, 175,
juveitis,
;
I.
equiv. to a protasis,
and a; with
331, IV,
inf.,
a.
I,
matus, comparison, 72. Diane, 58.
Manner,
2, c).
abl. of, 220.
tnare, 39, 2; marl, 228,
38, 2; 73, 4.
i, t).
m.as, decl., 40, i, d).
/^,
K.
Masculine, see Gender.
L.
7naleiies, materia, 59, 2, a),
I.
I,
Masculine caesura, 368, 3
Labial mutes, 2, stems, 31. laevuin, 185,
mature, compared, 77, I. maturus, compared, 71, 3.
4.
Lacedaemoin, 232,
compared
mdxiiiie,
4.
tnaxumlis,
2.
/rt//j, decl., 33. largior, 113.
with, 74.
9, i.
Means,
abl. of, 218.
medius,
'
middle
241, i.
of,'
Length of syllables, 5, B. Length of vowels, 5, A.
Mediae (consonants),
lentus, 151, 3.
?!!ei,
t/ied, 84, 3.
leo, (iecl., 35.
2, 3,
b)
as objective gen., 242,
2.
vtelius
Liber, decl., 23,
2.
est,
viejtior, 70, 2.
liberta, llbei tabus, 21, 2,
-men, -mentum, 147, 4. mensis, 38, 2, footnote
llberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c). with subjv., 308, a. //«/, 295, 6 and 8 licet, adversative, 309, 4.
men tern
;
mentem
{in
-met, 6, 3
;
,
footnote
i,
a;
I.
84, 2.
linter, decl., 40.
Liquids,
»zJ, dat., 84, I
2, 5.
stems, 34. lis, decl.,
40,
Litotes, 375,
I,
d).
I.
i
in -ae, 21,
;
2,
c)
;
in
-t,
232; apposition with, 169, 4; loc. uses of abl., 213; 228 f. 5;
25,
synta.x,
loco, locis, 228,
syllables, 5,
vowels,
5,
A,
B, I.
longuin
est,
217, 3.
I, b.
in, 175, 2,
aQ,
vfille, fniltia, 80, 5.
minitne, in answers, 162,
vii7iimum, 77,
5, i5).
3.
minus quam, 217,
3.
miscere, with abl., 218, 5 with dat., 358, 3. misereor, with gen., 209, 2. miseresco, with gen., 209,
luhet, lubtdo, 9, i.
^«-*'.
Middle voice, verbs
;
= lo7igius quani,
ludi, 230,
86, 2.
mlror, 113. mlrus, 75, 2.
i.
longius
271,
voc,
2.
minus =
I, b.
locus, plurals of, 60, 2.
Long
;
ml, voc. of fueus, 86, miles, decl., 33. militiae, 232, 2.
litter a. Utter ae, 61.
Locative, 17,
2, a.
venire), 206, 3.
Metrical close of sent., 350, 12. metuo, 296, 2.
2, 4.
2.
271, i b).
memiiii, 133; constr., 206,
tibero, constr., 214, i, N. i.
Lingual mutes,
c.
2.
miseret, constr., 209.
I.
57. 7-
M.
;
magis, comparison with, 74.
magnopere, compared, 77,
mcditim, gen. plu., 25, 6, a). modo, in wishes and provisos, 310. moneo, 103 constr., 178, i, <^). months, decl., 68, i 70, 5, a) names,
i.
;
371.
I.
;
General Index. The
Moods, in
morior, 109,
Mora,
nihil est cur, qiiare, quin, 295, 7.
94, 2.
independent sentences, 271 dependent clauses, 282 f.
in
366,
»/«, 306,
f.
j-J, 306, 5. nisi vero, 306, 5. «J/5r, constr., 218, 3.
;
185,
nix, decl., 40,
i, d). with inf., in prohibitions, 276, nolim, 280, 2, a.
3.
noli,
i.
viultum, jj, 3 compared, 77, i. mvlius, compared, 72 with another ;
adj.,
;
241. 3-
mus, decl., 40, \,d).
Mute
nolle m, 280, 4. wo/J, 130; with
inf., 331, a; with subjv., 296,
2,
mtitare, with abl., 218, 5.
Mutes,
nomen,
decl.,
190,
2, 3.
stems, 30.
Nominative,
N.
Nasals,
used
170;
226,
i.
rioii
286,
14.
?ioii,
343, 2, a. 2, a) 300, i, (5), N. quia, with ind., 286, i,c\ with subjv.,
nonne, 162, ;
modo
;
I, b.
7idn
3 f 162, 2, c) ; 300, I, b) -ne . . an, 162, 4 in indir. double questions, 300,4. ne, in prohibitions, 276; with hortatory ;
.
;
;
subjv., 274 with jussive, 275 with concessive, 278 with optative, 279 in ;
;
substantive clauses, 295 282, i
286,
Nouns,
quident, 347, I,
d)
;
f.
2,
predicate, agreement
fie/ us, 58.
appositives,
Negatives, 347, 2 two negatives strengthening the negation, 347, 2. ;
nemo, 57, 3 252, 6. neq»am,yo, 6; compared, 72. neque, 341, i, d) neque in ;
clauses, 282,
nequeo, i^j,
purpose
i.
253, 6
;
t],
«^^
92,
of, etc.,
agreement
167
of,
f.
etc.,
adj.
forms of the verb, 95,
2.
as pres., 262, A.
novus, compared, 73, 3. of nouns in, 40,
-ns, decl.
I, c).
7.
16; 94, 4. 300, I, b). Numerals, 78 f. peculiarities in use
)ium, 162, 2, b)
;
;
i.
{neu), in purpose clauses, 282,
nihil, 58.
f.
Number,
i.
nescio an, 300, 5.
Neuter, see Gender. ;
147
nulla causa est cur, qudre, quin, 295, nullum, 66; 57, 3; 92, I.
i, f.
compared,
qtiis,
of,
169 f.
Noun and tiovi,
;
neuter, 66
353; derivation
with change of meaning in plural, 61. syntax, 166 f
d).
est, 295, 8. necne, 162, 4.
nescid
;
indeclinable, 58.
i.
nee usquam, 341,
necesse
nequiter,
ff.
always z-stems, 38, I. of agency, force, 353, 4. used in plu. only, 56. used in sing, only, 55. used only in certain cases, 57.
2, a.
nee, 341,
12
as
;
in -is not
ne noil for ui after verbs of fearing, 296,
ns...
I, b.
as objective gen., 242, 2. nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2 possessive gen., 242. 2., a. nosif'i,
296, 2.
;
i, b.
quod, with ind., 286, i,c; with subjv.,
;
;
lest,'
voc,
for
;
for noii
navis, 41, 4.
'
constr.,
2, d).
non quin, with subjv., 286,
ne,
est,
sing, lacking, 57, 6.
natus, constr., 215.
-}ie, 6,
270,
;
in answers, 162, 5, ^) with poten. subjv., 280; with deliberative, 277.
35.
Natural gender,
17;
nom.
Nones, 371,
73, 4, footnotes, 4, 5
;
nomen
;
a
i, a.
noir,
2, 6.
2, 6.
I
;
non modo
Nasal stems, natu, 57,
35
IV and
c.
1.
171, I
n adtilter'inum, -nam, 90, 2, d.
4.
«w/
2, c). I.
seciis,
and
I
nisi forte, 306, 5.
mos, decl., 36 mores, 61. 7)ids est, with substantive clause, 297, mit/iebre
265
references are to sections and paragraphs.
81. i, d.
Jiuper,
compared,
-nus, 151, 2,
77,
I.
cfj
General Index.
266 The
references are to sections and paragraphs.
Participles, fut.
o. -0-,
purpose, 337,
stems
in, 23.
instead of u in some words-, 9, i Object, direct, 172 f. indirect, 187
0,
;
Obhque
2.
olle,
archaic for
-um
later
I.
in
Particles, 139 27.
opes, 61.
oportet, 295, 6
270, 2
and
8.
with pres.
opo7-tiiit, ;
opus
with perf.
inf.
'
inf.,
270, 2, a.
9, I.
;
Patrial adjs., 70, 5, c).
Patronyms,
Oratio Obliqua, 313
f.
Ordinals, 78, i 79. oriundus, constr., 215,
of, 26, 2.
d). Pentameter, dactylic, 369.
penates,6.e.c\., 40, i, 2.
ace, 178, i, a). Orthography, peculiarities, orb, with
Penult, 9.
6, 2.
per with ace. of time and space, 181,
ortus, constr., 215.
Perfect active ptc,
OS, 57. 7-
how supplied
356. 2. Perfect tense, 262; 268,
05, 42.
2d decl., 23. later -ii'' in 3d decl., 36, i. -OS, Greek nouns, 2d decl. later -«j in
,
stem, 97,
Oxymoron,
2.
b)
3,
337. 7.
144, 2.
parte, 228,
infin.,
tives,.
I, ^.
ff.
;
133, 2.
in indir. disc, 322; in passive,
270, 3.
2d
sing,
of indefinite
Personal pronouns, 84; 242; as subject, omission of, 166, 2; as objective geni-
61.
I.
Participles, in -ans
I.
subject, 356, 3.
333.
Participial stem, 97, III
336
contracted, 116,
^< I-
Persons, 95, 4;
2,
partem, 185,
;
fut. inf.,
2, 4.
Parasitic vowels, 7, 3.
^a/".f, pai'tes,
I.
formation, 118.
Periodic structure, 351, 5. Periphrastic conj., 115; 269,3; '" ^°^' ditional sentences of the 3d type, 304,
palam,
Palatal mutes,
2.
in Latin,
historical perf., 262.
paenitet, with gen., aog.
pai'w, 109,
;
with force of pres., 262
375,
paratus with
II
in -avi, -evl, -Ivl in, 27.
-osus, 151, 3.
tax,
148, 6. 3.
pelagus, gender
;
-OS,
verbs of saying, etc., 332, and note; how supplied when missing, 356, i. patior, 109, 2.,c) 113; with inf., 331, III.
pallium, 77, paulus, 9, 2.
-or, 147, 2.
-o.f,
f.
faruv), comparison. 77, I. parvus, comparison, 72. Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning, ought to have," 175, 2, d); 256; constr. of passive
218, 2.
est,
341
;
Partitive gen., so called, 201.
Optative subjv., 272; 279: substantive clauses developed from, 296. optim cites, decl., 40, I, d). optu?nus,
f.
Parts of speech, 10.
op'inlone with abl., 217, 4. ;
meaning,
Partitive apposition, 169, 5.
opera, operae, 61.
oph, 57, 6
active
with noun equivalent to abstract noun, 337, 5; with liabeb, 337, 6. with video, audio, facio, etc., 337, 3. of deponents, 112, b.
ille, 87.
2d decl., 23. -on, Greelc nouns, 2d decl. in, Onomatopoeia, 375, 4.
-0111,
;
114, 2;
odi, 133.
-olus (a, zati), 148,
perf. pass., 336, 3
force, 336, 2, a. perf. pass., with
cases, 17, 2.
obllv'tstor, constr., 206, 1, b;
denoting
supplied, 356, 2. as pres., 336, 5. pres. partic, 336, 2; with conative
9, 4-
f.
Objective gen., 200.
4;
how
perf. act., ;
119,
act.,
4.
and
;
formation, 119, -f/w, 70, 3;
syn-
242, 2.
endings, 96. piget, with gen., 209.
Place whence, 229; place where, 228. placitus, 114, 2.
General Index. The s,
59, 2, d')
;
plebl, 52,
Plenty and Want, verbs
of,
2.
3.
plerdgue, 6, 5. Pluperfect tense, 263; 287, 2; 288, 3; with imperfect meaning, 133, 2. Plural, 16; in 5th decl., 52, 4; of proper of abstract nouns, names, 55, 4, a) ;
nouns used in, only, 56; stylistic with change of meaning, 61 55, 4, c)
\
;
use, 353,
I
posuini, 126; with present infin.'
of,
243,
I
might,'
a).
in
;
expressions
357- IPost-positive words, 343, posteaqiiam, 287, I 4.
I,
;
with gen., 201, I,
;
with
abl., 218, i
77,
;
270,
c.
with
pres.
inf.
=
'
could
have,'
2.
potuerim, in dependent apodosis, 322, praesens, 125. prec'i,
-em,
-e,
a
3,
who," 241,
first
with ace,
;
tenses, 258
list,
2.
p. 251.
f.
I. i.
ind., 291;
with subjv.,
procul, 144, 2.
method
Prohibitions,
of
expressing,
276.
Pronominal adjs., 253. Pronouns, 82 f. personal, omission ;
f.
;
f.
;
;
syntax, 242
possess., 243 f
reciprocal, 245
f.
;
f.
.
.
;
;
;
;
of,
as
per-
reflex.,
demonstra-
relative, 250 f. 246 f 252 i. position, 350, 5 355. Pronunciation, Roman, 3. tive,
;
indef.,
;
prope, compared, 77, i. Proper names, abbreviated, 373.
nouns,
c.
12, I.
propior, compared, 73, 1
potus, 114, 2.
pransus, 114,
'
pruiceps, decl., 31. Principal parts, 99;
244
i.
potui,poteram, in apodosis of conditional sent, of 3d type, 304, 3, 11) in indir. disc, 322,
in gen.,
Primary tenses, see Principal tenses.
sonal, 242
adj., 73, I.
potu'i,
with gen., 201,
subject, 166, 2
constr., 339, 4.
compared,
words
Prohibitive subjv., 276. Prolepsis, 374, 5.
3, a.
a.
Potential subjv., 272; 280. potior, with gen., 212, 2
,
conwith
;
292; separated, 291.
;
postulo, constr., 178,
potius,
i
144, 2.
priusquam, wiXh
287 separated, 287, 3 with imperf. ind., 287, 4; with subjv., 287, 5. postremus, 241, 2.
gerundive
gnomic, 259,
prior, compared, 73, prius, compared, jj,
c).
posterns, posterior, 73, 2.
postr'idie,
;
historical, 259, 3;
abl. of, 225. pr'idie,
of time,
;
postquiiiii,
;
203, 4-
position
2;
243,
I
with abl. of source,
f.
perfect, 262.
p7-hiius,
I,
214
215-
Price, indefinite, special
I, a.
in
abl. of Sep.,
stem, 97, I; formation, 117.
=
144,
position,
;
Jafn, etc., 259, 4.
2-
Possessive dat., 190; gen., 198; contrasted with dat. of poss., 359, i. objecPossessive pronouns, 86; 243;
271,
N.
3,
;
ative, 259, 2;
Position of clauses, 351, 3. of words, 348; 350; 351.
gen.,
;
159,
prepositional phrases as at350, 7 tributive modifiers, 353, 5; anastrophe of, 144, 3; 141, 2; 142, 3; usage with
a).
I,
;
;
prepositions,
Present tense, 259
2.
;
Pluralia taiitum, 56; 81, 4, h). plus, jo; 70,4; =plus quam, zij, Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b).
post,
;
a; to nom., 328, 2. 177,2. Prepositions with ace, 141; with abl., inseparable as adverbs, 144 142 adjectives, 232, 2
8, a.
Pleonasm, 374,
tive
;
dat., 327, 2,
plenus, 218,
posed, 178,
Predicate nouns, 167 168 in ace, 177 predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to ;
constr., 212,
218, 8.
cf.
267
references are to sections and paragraphs.
;
with ace, 141,
32.
57, 5, a.
Predicate, 163. gen., 198, 3; 203,5.
proprius, with dat., 204, 204, 2.
Prosody, 360 f. pro sum, 125, N.
2,
a; with gen.,
General Index.
268
references are to sections and paragraphs.
The
302, 3
in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4; with ind., 281, 3; in indir. disc, 322 and a; nulla causa est quin, 295, 7.
nan
denoting repeated action, of indef. 2d without SI, 305
Protasis, 301
;
;
;
sing., 302, 2.
quinam,
Provisos, 310.
proxime,
with ace, 141,
-us,
90,
d.
2,
(=
Qulntilis
3.
Julius),
quippe qui, 283,
prudens, 70.
Quiritcs, decl., 40,
-pte, 86, 3.
i,
puer, decl., 23. Purpose, how denoted, 282; 338, 3; 339, 2,6; 340, i; 191; 337.4Purpose clauses, 282; independent of principal verb, 282, 4 339, 6 340, i. ;
;
I
nescio quis, 253, 6
;
with subjv., 284, 4. qiiamquam, with ind., 309, 2; with subjv.,
=
and
'
yet,'
ing a
Quantity,
denot-
;
vowels,
in
;
sub-
regards the fact,' 299, 2. quod audieiim, 283, 5;
'as
quod
sciam,
quod
si,
quoni
,
185, 2.
9, I.
quo minus, 295, 3. quoniam, 286, I.
3, b.
5.
of syllables, of
6
;
fact, 309, 6.
quando, 286,
i
331, V, a;
283,5-
309, 5.
quainv'is, with subjv., 309, I
a.
III, 2.
stantive clauses, 299;
ut,
309, 6;
I,
with subjv., 293,
quoad, with ind., 293;
quod, in causal clauses, 286,
i.
307,
4.
252, 5.
quo, in purpose clauses, 282, ;
;
perl., 240, 3. si,
;
quivis, 91.
abl., 224. 224, 3 quain, in comparisons, 217, 2; with su-
quam quam
252, nisi,
quis quis, 91, 8.
consonants, 74, a.
qiiaero, 300, \,b), N.
quaeso, 137, 2. Quality, gen., 203
si,
=
quisnam, 90, 2, d. quispiam, 91. quisquam, 91 252, ;
letters
90, 2, c;
with ne,
;
tium, 91, 5. quibus, 89.
quis
quisque, 91
Qboth
d.
quis, indef., 91; interr., 90;
pudet, uith gen., 209.
-qu-,
2,7'!--
3.
5, 5,
B A
;
;
363 f. 362
Greek
in
;
quoque, post-positive, 347. -quus, decl. of nouns in, 24.
words, 365. quasi, 307,
I.
quatib, 109, 2, a), -que, accent of
6; 341 queo, 137,
I,
;
word preceding,
b); 2, a)
;
;
6
4, c).
f.
rhetor-
;
162,3; double (alternative), 162, questions in indir.
4; indirect, 300; disc, 315. qui, rel., 89
;
interr.,
nisi,
si,
90
indef.,
;
num,
91,
5;
clauses, 282, 2; abl., 90,
2,
in
91 b;
;
for
with
purpose
2
245
;
;
.
perf.,
refert, constr., 210;
118,
4,
;
a);
in
211, 4. ;
244; 249,3.
rego, 105. rei, 362, I, b).
rcicio, 362, 5.
312;
character-
283. 2.
=
Eng. demonstrative, 251, 6; agreement, 250; fondness for subordinate clauses, 355. pronouns, 89;
8.
synt.ix, 252, 3.
quidem, post-positive, 347,
cf.
pres., 117, 7.
conditional sentences, 312,
quicumque, 91,
1.
250
f.;
clauses with dignus, indignus, ido-
quilibet, 91.
in sub-
result clauses, 284, 3;
stantive
Reduplication in
istic,
I.
quicuni, 89.
quin, in
85,
Relative clauses, 311;
2, a.
quia, in causal clauses, 286,
quidain, 91
2.
Reciprocal pronouns,
Reflexive pronouns, 85
quis in indir. questions, 90, n'e,
rapid, 109, 2, a) rastrum, plurals of, 60,
253. 3-
I.
Questions, word, sentence, 162 ical,
3
6,
clauses, 295, 3
;
298
;
= qui
neus, 282, 3.
of purpose, 282, 2; of result, 284,
2.
General Index. The
and
Relative, taking ace.
269
references are to sections and paragraphs. infin. in
indir.
Sentences, classification, 160
and compound, 164;
disc., 314, 4.
ure, 351
religul, 253, 5.
sentence questions, 162,
;
Separation, dat.
remin'tscor, constr., 206, 2. reposed, constr., 178,
2,
188, 2, d)
of,
3; abl., 214. Sequence of tenses, 267 sequor, 1 13
a),
i,
requies, requiem, requietem, 59,
c).
res, decl., 51.
ace. of, 173, B; 176; clauses 284; 297; in dependent apodosis, 322, and a; sequence of tense in,
Result,
;
;
268.
Si-rvos, 24.
sese. 85.
268, 6.
{= Augustus), 271 Short syllables, 5, 5, 2; vowels, si, with indir. questions, 300, 3
revert or, 114, 3. Rhetorical questions, 162, 3 indir. disc, 315, 2.
Rhotacism,
8, I 2.
;
36,
i.
i,
c)
277, a
;
;
Sextllis
tasis,
in
•
301
;
pronunciation, Root, 17, 3, footnote i.
nouns
omitted, 305.
;
178,
i,
similis, with dat., 204, 3;
a).
comp., 71, minus, 306, 2.
3
3.
si
simul, 144,
in, 40, I, c).
2.
I, b.
snnul
ruA,
228,
I, c.
si non, 306, I
;
with gen., 204,
4.
;
229,
b
2.
slgni/er, decl., 23, 2.
e,
I,
A,
in pro-
sileiitio, 220, 2.
Roman
rus, 182,
5, ;
silvestris, 68, 3.
rpgo, constr., 178,
-rs, decl. of
2.
gen., 212,
of,
rogatu, 219,
simple
;
senteiitui, 220, 3.
reiiiex, decl., 32.
ru
f.
sentence-struct-
ac, 287, I
2.
;
and
2.
sin, 306, 3.
57, 7.
Singular, second person indefinite, 280, 3 -s,
monosyllables in, preceded by one or more consonants, 40, i, b). decl. of
comparison,
sa,.er,
65
satfie,
compared,
sa^, 57,
7
Smelling, verbs
of, constr., 176, 5. 2, 3, b),
socium, gen. plu., 25,
"jj, i.
J-o/,
sa.nbris, 68, 3.
soled, 114, I.
j5/«j, 66;
sajve, salvete, 137, 4.
Sonant consonants,
decl., 40,
I,
Sounds,
quod sciam, 283, 5. scrlbere ad allquem, 358,
Source,
;
2.
2.
2.
classification, 2.
spei, 362, I, b.
conj., 103
;
decl, 23
second person
:
peculiarities,
indefinite, 280,
3
302, 2. Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses. 356, 3
secus,
footnote
Specification, abl. of, 226.
2.
244.
25
2, 3, b),
of the letters, 3. abl., 215.
scio,
Second
6, c).
solus est qui with subjv., 283,
Soracte, 39,
d).
sane, in answers, 162, 5. sapid, 109, 2, a)
j^,
2.
57, 7.
sat-iltaris, 73, 4.
Sammtes,
footnote
socer, decl., 23, 2.
73, 3.
sales, 61.
;
302, 2.
;
Soft consonants,
j--stems, 36. ;
356. 3
;
sino, with inf., 331, III.
;
compared,
77, i.
Spelling, see Orthography.
Spirants,
Spondaic
2, 7.
verses, 368, 2.
sponte suH, 220, 3. spontis, -e, 57, 2,
(5.
secus (vir'ile secus), 185, i; 58.
Stem,
sed, 85, 3.
verb, 97, 117. Style, hints on, 352
5^^,343,
17, 3.
,
I,
a).
sed'ile, decl.,
Semi-deponent verbs, Semivowels, 2, 8. senex, 42 compared, ;
su
39.
= sv,
f.
3, 3.
and
114.
sub, with ace.
73, 4.
Subject, 163 nom., 166; ace, 184; subject ace. of inf., 184 omitted, 314, 5.
abl., 143.
;
;
Genet'al Index.
270 The
references are to sections and paragraphs.
Subjective gen., 199. Subjunctive, tenses in, 94, 3. in independent sentences, 272; by attraction, 324; tenses of, 266 f.
metiiod of expressing future time
269 273
optative (wislies), 279; poten280; in clauses of purpose, 282;
f.
tial,
Syntax, 160
;
Systole, 367, 3.
taedet, 209.
talentuni, gen. plu., 25, 6, d).
tamen, 343, i,/
of characteristic, 283; of result, 284; of cause, 286; temporal clauses wuh
tametsi, 309,
postquam, pos/eagiiani, 287, 5 temporal clauses with aim, 288-290; with antequam and priusguam, 292 with dum, donee, quoad, 293, III, 2; sub-
tanton, 6, 4.
questions, 300 in apodosis of first type conditions, 302, 4 jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition, 305, 2; with with necesse veliit, tamquam, etc., 307 with est, oportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8 with quamvis, licet, 308, a 309, 4
ted, 84, 3.
;
;
clauses, 294
stantive
f.
indir.
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
qiiamquam,
etsi,
cum,' although,' 390
f.
sublatus, p. 99, footnote.
subm-
= summ-, 9,
;
quod, 299.
-tds,
149
gen.
;
;
sessive gen., 244,
Tasting, verbs
;
= pos-
2.
Tenses, 94, 3; 257
of inf., 270; oi 317; of participles, 336; of subjv., 266; sequence of, 2.^6 in indir. disc, 317; 318. Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnote I.
Terminations,
ff.
;
17, 3.
-termis, 154.
terra marique, 128,
I, C.
I
-tinus, 154. -tid,
I.
Superlative
73,
lacking,
2.
73,
4
;
force
of,
Supine, 340.
ut,
296,
dec).,
28
/.
2.
147, 3.
Tmesis, 367, 7. -tor, use of nouns totus,
240, 2.
;
within which, 231.
;
timed ne and
compared,
f.
during which, 181
at which, 230;
supellex, 42,
2.
109
;
157, 2.
231,
a.
11.
6.
Third conj., 105 gender in, 43 f.
sudpte, suapte, 86, 3.
66
;
228,
1,
in,
353, 4.
b).
trabs, decl., 31.
Surd consonants,
2, 3,
a), footnote
i.
sustul'i, p. 99,
traditur, tradifum
est,
trans, constr. of verbs
decl., 41.
footnote.
I 244 S7{iis quisque, 244, Syllaba anceps, 366, 10. Syllables, 4; quantity of, 5, i?. ;
;
4, a.
Transitive verbs, 174. ires, 80, 3.
tribus, decl., 49, 3.
6.
Trimeter verses, 366,
Synaeresis, 367,
i.
Syncliysis, 350, 11, d).
trim, 81, 4, b'). triumvir, gen. plu.
Syncope,
Trochee, 366,
4
;
367, 8.
332, N.
compounded
179.
Synapheia, 367,
7,
2.
indir. disc,
inf. in
Time,
'
suus, 86,
in,
tener, 64.
-tiyn,
top of,' 241, i. sunt qui, with subjv., 283,
siis,
nouns
of, constr., 176, 5.
Temporal clauses, 287 fF. temporis (id temporis), 185,
Thesis, 366.
su?n, 100.
superiis,
decl. of
-tdtis,
I, e).
4P,
Tetrameter verses, 366,
I. ;
super, 143,
307.
si,
terrestris, 68, 3.
Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote i 147 f. as objective gen., 244, 2 sill, 85
summtis,
2.
tamquam, tamquam
tenus, position, 142, 3.
2.
Sutjordinate clauses, 165. Substantive clauses, 294 f. without ut, 295, 8; of result, 297; introduced by suiter, 143,
i.
f.
in,
concessive),
deliberative,
Synizesis, 367,
jussive,
(hortatory,
volitive
;
proiiibitive,
Synecdochical ace, 180.
2.
11.
of, 25, 6, ^).
with,
General Index. The -trum, 147,
utrdqiie, 6, 5.
4.
utrum
tu, 84. -tiidd,
271
references are to sections and paragraphs.
.
.
an, 162, 4
.
300, 4.
;
149.
objective gen., 242,
tut, as
2.
V.
-tura, 147, 3, a). tus, 57, 7. -tits,
z/,
147, 3;
becomes
/«/^, tutemet, 84, 2.
vds, 59,
U.
u,
becomes
-ve, 6,
some words,
a, instead of i in I
9, i
;
in-
9, 4.
;
;
;
3.
73,
I.
2.
150, 2;
I.
1st decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, ^)
;
2d
gerund and gerundive,
-undus, -undl, in 116, 2.
66
i
92,
;
unus
;
est
qui,
with
subjv., 283, 2.
3.
4.
i, rf).
Verbs, 94 f. personal endings, 96 deponent, 112; archaic and poetic forms, ;
116, 4; irregular, 124; defective, 133; impersonal, with substantive 138 clauses of result, 297, 2; omission of, transitive, 174 used abso166, 3 lutely, 174, a; passives used as middles, of smelling and 175, 2, d.) tasting, constr., 176, 5; not used in passive, 177, 3, a; intransitives impersonal in passive, 187, \\, b; 256,
neuter nouns of 2d decl. usque ad, 141, i. usus est, with abl., 218, 2. «/, temporal, 287, i; 2; »^,
pose clauses, 282;
in, 26, 2.
«/Z,
result
in
in pur-
clauses,
=
III;
with
preps.,
constr.,
of judicial action,
constr.,
derivation of, 155 f. inceptive 208 or inchoative, 155, i frequentative or ;
;
3;
254
desiderative,
2;
155,
denominative, 156;
155,
agreement
of,
f.
Verb stems, 97; formation vereor,
13 296, 2. Vfrgilius, gen. of, 25, 1
vera, 343,
of,
117
f.
;
I,
g)
;
in
i.
answers, 162,
Verse, 366, 3. Verse-structure, 366
5.
f.
Versification, 361. versus, 141, 2.
283, 3.
verum, 343,
I.
utercunique, 92,
vesperi, 232,
2.
I.
2.
vestri, 242, 2.
355,
vestrum,
2.
as gen. of whole,
possessive gen., 242,
utervis, 92, 2. utilius est, 271,
b).
vesper, decl., 23, 2.
i, d).
uterlibet, 92, 2. ;
i,
vescor, vvith abl., 218,
I.
ater, decl., 40,
uterque, 92, 2
compounded
;
ne, 282, i, b. ut ne ut non instead of «^, 282, \, c; in clauses of result, 284, 297. ut qui, introducing clauses of character-
uter, 66; 92,
3;
intensive,
284; in substantive clauses, 295 f. substantive clauses without, 295, 8 with verbs of fearing, 296, 2.
307,
;
;
187,
-wj,
si,
2,
;
uni), 148,
(fl,
decl., 25, 6.
istic,
a.
280,
;
compared,
ulthnus, 241,
ut
with super!., 240,
vehm,
;
ullus, 66.
unus,
1, b"). ;
venter, decl., 40,
4th decl., 49, 2. aiJ/, with ind., 287, i 2 with gen., 201, -ubus, dat. plu., 4th decl., 49, 3.
-«w,
342,
;
vet, 342, I, b)
velut, velutsl, 307, I.
-«, dat. sing.,
-«/«j-,
3.
I.
3
vellem, 280,
v, 367, 4.
M-stems, 48. «-stems, 41.
ulterior,
i^.
i7j.
Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, vatmus, gender of, 26, i, b).
tussis, decl., 38.
stead of ^,9,
«. 36'7,
wa/^, 363, 2,
151, 4.
i,
veto, with inf., 331, II.
b).
utinam, with optative subj., 279, i and 2. utor, with abl., 218, i in gerundive ;
constr., 339, 4.
242,
2, a.
vetus, 70;
compared,
73, 3.
vi, 220, 2.
vicetn, 185,
i
;
vicis, vice, 57, 5, b.
2;
as
General Index.
2/2 The
references are to sections and paragraphs.
victor, decl., 34.
Vowel changes,
viden,
vulgtis,
6, 4.
-iiMw,
video, with pres. partic, 337, 3.
gender
-i/a^,
7.
of, 26, 2.
decl. of
nouns
in, 24.
vigil, decl., 34. violetiter, 77, 4, a. zz/r,
W.
decl., 23.
gen. plu. of nouns
,
with, 25, 6,
gender
Wishes, subjunctive
I.
Vocative case, 17; 25, I
;
i
19,
position
of,
Voiceless consonants,
171; in
;
-i
279; see Opta-
in,
questions, 162,
b).
f.
i.
X.
2, 3, a.
X, 2, 9. i.
-X, decl. of
monosyllables
one or more
cons., 40,
in, i,
preceded by
b).
9, I.
void, 130; with
inf., 331, a; with subjv., 296,
IV and i,
a; 270,
a.
volt, 9, I.
voltus, 9,
y, I. I. '
I.
voluntate, 220, -volus,
Word-formation, 146 Word-order, 348 f.
Word
Voices, 94; 256; middle voice, 256, Volitive subjunctive, 272 f.
2,
for
350, 3.
Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a. Voiced consonants, 2, 3,
vohtus,
expressing
etc.,
tive subjunctive.
of, 26, 2.
z/w, dec!., 41.
-/>,
clauses with dum,
a, 310.
iJ).
virile seats, 185,
virus,
compounded Wish,
You,' indefinite, 356, 3
2.
comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. sounds of the, 3, i quan2, I
Vowels,
tity of, 5,
;
A\ contraction
asitic, 7, 3.
;
of, 7, 2;
par-
2, 1,
i;
2, 9.
Zeugma,
374, 2, a).
;
280, 3
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