An Album of World War I

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WORLD WAR

I

BY DOROTHY AND THOMAS HOOBLER

FRANKLIN WATTS

I

NEW YORK LONDON I

I

1976

G>ver design by Nick Krenitsky

Photographs Forces

courtesy

of:

American

(National Archives):

News

Features:

70;

p.

p.

77

Expedition

(top);

Army

Bettman Archives:

French Embassy Press 13, 19 (top), 30,

&.

16;

Information Division: pp.

49 (bottom),

War Museum:

Imperial

6

p.

(top); Bilderdienst Suddeutscher Verlag: p.

57, 71, 73 (left);

(top), 32, 35, 41, 45, 56 (left), 62, 84 (bottom); International pp. 9, 23

Red Cross Committee: pp. 47, 65 (bottom); Library of Congress: 17, 19 (bottom), 20 (top), 25, 34 (bottom), 37 (top), 38 (bottom), 53 (right), 65 (top), 76; National Archives: pp. 33, 44; New p. 56 (right); New York State Historical Society: p. 75; Novosti (Sovfoto)

York Public Library:

:

PP- 50, 77; Osterreichische Nationalbibliotheil: pp. 14 (top) 40; Radio Times Hulton Picture Library: ,

PP- 31. 37 (bottom), 46, 66, 74, 87 (top); Soviet Life (Sovfoto): p. 93; Sovfoto: p. 6 (bottom); Tass (Sovfoto) p. 61 (right); United Press Inter:

national p.

bottom )

U.S. Army: p. 87 (bottom); U.S. Signal Corps (National Archives) pp. II, 12, 20 (bottom), 21, 23 (bottom), 24 (bottom), 34 (top), 36, 42, 49 (top), 52, 53 (left), 1

:

4

(

;

:

54, 58, 68, 77

88

(top);

(left),

War

U.S.

78 (left), 82, 83, 84 (top), Department General Staff

(National Archives) pp. 7, 10, 24 (top), 27, 28, 29, 38 (top and middle), 39, 43, 48, 51, 54, 55, 59, 61 (left), 63, 64. 67, 69, 73 (right), 78 :

(right), 8r, 88 (bottom), 90, 91.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Hoobler, Dorothy.

An album

of

World War

I.

Includes index.

SUMMARY: An cluding

peace

its

causes,

treaty,

and

account of

World War

campaigns and

battles,

I

in-

outcome,

effects.

—

European War, 1914-1918 Juvenile literature, [i. European War, 1914-1918] I. Hoobler, Thomas, joint author. II. Title. I.

D522.7.H66

940.3

75-44281

ISBN 0-5 3 -01 169-0 1

Copyright

© 1976 by Franklin Watts, Inc.

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America 5

4

3

2

8

5

^CONTENTS ^ PROLOGUE

6

1917

War Europe after the War The Causes of the War War Plans 12 Europe before the

1914

58

The Russian Revolution

7

Action in the West

7

America Enters the

Assassination and the

Road

Action in the West

16

The Two Sides at

War

to

1

22 the

End

of

1

9 14

26

The Fourteen Points The Home Front 75

Victory in the

Armistice

28

Gallipoli

72

West

86

86

86

29

Action in the West

Action in the East Life in the Trenches

EPILOGUE

30 35

36

The War Becomes Worldwide

1916

68

War in the Air 76 War in the West 80 Victory in the East

1915

War

66

72

1918

14

Action in the East

62

Action in the Near East

8

58

40

The Versailles Conference 89 The Peace Treaty 89 The Effects of the War 90

INDEX

42

The Struggle for the

Seas

Action in the West

46

Action in the East

50

42

89

94

Map Europe before the War 8 Map The Battle of the Marne Map The Eastern Front in 9 4 Map The Western Front in 9 8 :

1

:

:

The New Weapons of War Stalemate at the End of 9 6 1

1

52

56

1

1

:

Map: Europe

1

after the Peace

1

26 80

Conference

92

^

PROLOGUE

%

Above: a pleasant

British

garden party shows the way the upper classes in Europe lived before the war.

a

Below:

women's demonstration in Russia in 190'y.

a

EUROPE BEFORE THE In

1

9 14 the countries of

the world

WAR

Europe were the wealthiest and most powerful

had ever known. Europeans controlled much of the world's

manufacturing, mining, and trade.

On the

surface,

European

was

life

glittering

and gay

—

at least for

the wealthy. Expensive homes, lively cafes, and beautiful country scenes

made European

Hfe look gloriously happy.

Underneath the

surface, there

was some

unrest.

workers and farmers did not share in Europe's wealth. assassinations,

and

riots

showed

Many European Strikes, protests,

their discontent.

But the majority were confident about the future. They thought

more progress would allow

all

EUROPE AFTER THE

WAR

By

19 1 8

dead.

Europeans

Europe was devastated. Eight and a half millon

Many more were wounded

had been spent on the war. future.

to share in the prosperity.

Governments had

or missing.

Much

soldiers

were

of Europe's wealth

Bitterness replaced the old confidence in the

map

fallen; the

of

Europe had changed

for-

ever.

"The war

to

end

planted the seeds for a later.

World War

II

all

World War

wars," as

new and more

terrible

[dUttu

•

-

was

called, only

war. Only thirty-one years

broke out and tore Europe apart again.

^-iA

«•

I

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/

NORTH SEA

INMAKK

RMTK

•CopiTih.igin

'(A

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Central Powers and their Allies

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Neutral Nations

GREAT BRITAIN

'

ATLANTIC OCEAN

CAST

Hamburg

^ Engh-r

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London

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Cherbiniri;*

XBELGIUM

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Berlin

GERMANY

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USSIA

NKTH LANDS ^7

• Brest-Litovsk

POLAND

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•Paris

Munich

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Vienna

SWITZ.X

• Budapest^

AUSTRIA-HUNI

BOSNIA- /V y HERZKGOVlNAt.^Be^-ade'^.-.

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ITALY

CORSICA

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e

.

•

Sorajev—

••

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ALBANIA/'

(Fr.) ;

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BULGARIA »^^

•Salonika

Aegean

MEDITER RA NEA N SEA

ALGERIA

Bucharest ',-' •''

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ITK-

SARDINIA?

X

RUIVIANIA

.Sea

TUNIS (Fr.)

THE CAUSES OF THE The war

that

long time.

WAR

a

would destroy European

The

society

had been coming

for a

nineteenth century had been an era of great progress,

and of turmoil and

conflict as well.

New

nations had been created.

The

balance of power that existed in 1815, at the end of the era of Napoleon,

was disturbed.

Adding to the danger was a false sense of security. Local wars had flared up in the nineteenth century, but a major war was regarded as unlikely.

Looking back

the major countries of conflict

(8)

with

at least

at 19 14 today,

Europe had

however, we can see that each of

interests that

would bring

one of the other great powers.

it

into

The Major Combatants • The German Empire had territory

leading power on the Continent. But

was France, waiting

secure. Directly to the west

to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine.

France.

its

were the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, taken from France.

Now Germany was the was not

been created in 1871. Included in

And on

To

the east

the seas the rapidly

Germany

for the chance

was Russia, recently

allied

with

growing German navy competed

with the more powerful British navy.

•

France had not forgotten its humiliating defeat at the hands of Germany in 1871. France was waiting for the chance to reestablish its power on the Continent. France was willing to ally itself with another longtime enemy, Britain, to strengthen its hand against Germany. • The AusTRo-HuNGARiAN Empire was not a nation of one people, but an empire of many nationalities. The peoples that made up the empire were mainly Austrians, Hungarians, and trians

and Hungarians ruled the empire.

Many

Slavs.

Slavs

But the Aus-

who

lived in the

provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to be part of the

Rumania and

new

had designs on

terri-

tory within the empire. Russian ambitions in the Balkans brought

them

nation of Serbia. Furthermore,

Italy

into conflict with the Austro-Hungarians.

•

Italy had become a nation in 1870. But

some

of

which belonged

wanted colonies

•

in

to the

North

Great Britain had

it

wanted more

Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Africa,

which

conflicted with

traditionally followed a

territory,

Italy also

French aims.

poHcy of neutraUty,

now calling for new alliances, to counter the rising power of the German Empire. Britain depended on industrial strength for survival. Germany was a threat to which served

it

well.

Yet some Britons were

that strength, as well as to Britain's naval power.

Kaiser Wilheltn II of Germany (left)

and Emperor Franz Joseph

of Austria-Hungary were

allies.

Wilhelm backed Franz Joseph's e§orts to keep his empire together.

\

Raymond

Poincare

(left)

was president of France.

George V (right) was \ing of England. They are shown here with their wives. Britain

and France,

were starting

often enemies in the past,

to see

each other as

allies.

•

Russia had been defeated by the Japanese in 1905 and was troubled by unrest within its borders. Russia felt a need to prove its strength to the other nations of Europe. It also desired to extend

its

influence

and

protection over the Slavs in Balkan countries.

The Ottoman Empire (the empire "sick man of Europe." The new nations •

garia,

Rumania, and Greece

nations of

would be

— had

of

Turkey) was known

in the Balkans

broken

—

as the

Serbia, Bul-

from the empire. The Europe feared the Ottoman Empire would collapse and there

a fight for

its

off

territory. Russia, in particular,

wanted the Dar-

danelles Strait, a strategic part of the empire.

Serbia had become • was not satisfied with its

m

a nation

during the nineteenth century. But

territory. It

the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

wanted the South Slavic

it

territories

gave some assistance to the Serbian nationalists within Austria-Hungary one of whom would It

also

—

fire

the shot that ignited

World War

I.

Sources of Friction between the Powers

•

In addition to these political conflicts, the causes of the war in-

cluded such forces as nationalism, or patriotism. Nationalism led

(10)

European nations

to

compete

army and navy,

for the largest

or the

greatest industrial development. It also gave groups of subject peoples

the idea of forming independent nations of their own.

•

Militarism, another cause of the war, was similar

Germany wanted a Germany and France competed for larger armies. The

race of today. Because Britain

great navy too.

arms

to the

more one nation

up

built

its

had

a great navy,

army and navy,

the

more other nations

felt

they had to do the same.

•

Another cause was that European nations ruled smaller

and competed with each other

called colonies,

Gathering colonies became Britain

had many

known

as

colonies in Africa

to

countries,

amass more colonies.

imperialism. Both France and

and

Asia.

Now Germany and

Italy

decided they wanted a colonial empire too.

•

Finally, there

nations of Europe

was the system of alliances. For twenty

had been making

would promote

ances

peace.

making

in case of war,

it

alliances. It

years, the

was thought the

alli-

Each country would be protected by others

foolish for one country to

wage war on

an-

other.

The danger

of these alliances

draw

countries could

all

what happened when

that

an argument between two

the other nations into the fight. This

a conflict

World War I. In the summer of

was

is

just

between Austria-Hungary and Serbia

led to

ance^

19 14 there were

The Czar (emperor) Nicholas

composed

II, is

of Russia,

seen here review-

ing his troops. Russia allied with Britain and France

because of

its

growing

rivalry

with Austria-Hungary in the Ball^ans

(11)

alliances.

composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and

to the Triple Entente,

itself

two

and a

fear of

Germany.

The

Italy,

of Britain, France,

Triple Alli-

stood opposed

and Russia.

WAR The

PLANS

Schlieffen Plan

The nations of Europe had prepared a German general named Schlieffen basis tor

German

secret

war

plans. As early as 1905 designed a plan that became the

strategy in 19 14.

Schlieffen realized that since France

many would have to fight

both of them

and Russia were

- Russia

to the east,

allies

Ger-

and France

to the west.

Schlieffen expected the Russians to take a long time to bring their army into battle, because the Russian army was poorly trained and

equipped. So he planned to concentrate the .n order to defeat France quickly. Then

German forces in the west Germany could turn its full

force

on the Russians.

Schlieffen

knew

that a direct attack^

on France would take too long have a small force engage the French at the FrenchGerman border and allow itself to be pushed back slowly into Germany Meanwhile, the greater part of the German forces would march through the neutral country of Belgium. They would cross into France So he planned

to

and

General

Helmuth von Moltke was the German army chief of staff in 1 91 4.

V

He

was

trained in the Schlieffen

Plan but modified the

Germans began

it

when

the war.

General Jo ff re

was

(left)

leader of the French

army

beginning of the war.

at the

Impressed by the leadership

Ferdinand Foch

of General

(right), foffre appointed

him

his assistant.

By

the

end of the war, Foch was

commander

of all the troops

on the western front.

swing around

to trap the

French army fighting

at the

French-German

border.

The Germans were aware that an

invasion of Belgium

would bring

other countries into the war, particularly Britain. But they

quick victory was worth the

When

war did break

risk.

out,

result

was

now slightly. He

von Moltke,

mander, changed the Schlieffen plan forces at the

German-French border than

that the stronger

German

Schlieffen

forces

the

German com-

concentrated more

had intended. The

pushed the French back

where they could defend themselves

a position

felt that a

to

better against the Ger-

mans coming from Belgium.

The French Plan The French were side of the

dedicated to taking back Alsace-Lorraine, on the other

French-German

border. Therefore the French plan

was

to

attack in force directly at the border.

The French were also counting on the fighting spirit of their army. They felt that Alsace-Lorraine was something every Frenchman would fight for with enthusiasm.

Unfortunately, the war would expected.

The

patriotic appeals

face of millions of deaths.

(13)

last

much

would become

longer than either side a horrible joke in the

1914

ASSASSINATION

WAR

THE ROAD TO On

•

June

AND

28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a nineteen-year-old Serbian

revolutionary, fired

two

pistol shots.

One

killed

Archduke Franz Ferdi-

nand, the nephew of Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary and heir to the Austrian throne.

• for

The

other killed Sophie, his wife.

Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible.

On July

5 Austria asked

and received from Germany a "blank check" of support

action Austria-Hungary

might take against

for

any

Serbia.

• On July 23 Austria sent a series of demands to the Serbians. The demands were designed to humiliate and virtually destroy the Serbian nation.

•

Still,

Serbia agreed to most but not all of the demands.

Austria reacted on July 28 by declaring war on Serbia.

sians prepared to

defend Serbia.

ing to Russia to stop mobilizing

The

its

July 3 1 the Germans

army

for war.

The

sent a

warn-

Russians ignored

and Germany declared war on Russia on August

the warning,

France came

On

The Rus-

to the aid of

its

1.

Russian ally by declaring war on Germany.

when the Germans marched into Belgium, they declared war on Germany on August 4. Italy, the third member of the Triple Alliance, refused to back Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy claimed the Triple Alliance was British hesitated, but

for defensive purposes only

Serbia

was not

and Austria's declaration of war against

defensive.

So in August, 19 14, the guns of war went

off.

The

system of

alli-

ances for keeping peace had brought the great nations of Europe into

war with one another.

Above: ArchduJ^e Franz Ferdinand and

moments It

from the sun. Their car made a wrong turn, and

stopped to bac\ up, Gavrilo Princip rushed from the

crowd with a

pistol.

(second from right)

(15)

Sophie,

before they were shot. Sophie has an umbrella to

protect her

when

his wife,

Below: police and

soldiers take Princip

to prison after the assassination.

A to

crowd

German soldiers marching off war. The soldiers are carrying

flowers in their ^

—

-

tn Berlin cheers the

rifles,

and a

civilian

has taJ^en a helmet and -jumped into

•»

line.

ACTION IN THE WEST The German Attack on Belgium

On

August 4 waves

dently into Belgium.

home

to

Liege,

The

before the leaves

King Albert

men

of gray-coated

of

German

marched

confi-

Kaiser had told his soldiers they would be

fell.

They expected

Belgium prepared

"hold to the end."

soldiers

A

key

which was protected by

little

to put

up

resistance.

a stifT hght, teUing his

to the Belgian defense

was the

city of

a circle of forts. It stood directly in the

path of the oncoming Germans.

Germans attacked Liege, which was defended by only 25,000 Belgians. At first the Belgians held. But a Httle-known GerSixty thousand

(16)

Ludendorff led a brigade of

man commander named the defending forts

and captured the

and destroyed the remaining

city.

German

soldiers

artillery

between

soon arrived

defenses.

Brussels, The Germans drove on. By August 20 they had captured Belgian civilians who resisted the capital of Belgium. The Germans shot

Triple Entente countries were the invasion. Later the Allies (as the propaganda weapon against the called) would use these "atrocities" as a

Germans.

German The successes in Belgium led General von Moltke, the front, where commander in chief, to transfer some troops to the eastern move had serious Russians had attacked sooner than expected. This the

consequences

later.

The German March

into France

borAugust the German army had crossed the northern had been pushed back from der from Belgium into France. The French a small group of soldiers Alsace and Lorraine. The British had landed

By

the end of

to help the

The

French defend

British Expeditionary Force, as

for the greater

numbers

decided to

back

fall

retreated to the

German

their border.

troops

crossing the

border into i

France from Belgium.

of

Germans. The

it

River.

called,

British

to a position they could

Marne

was

was no match

and French generals

defend more

easily.

They

The

Marne

Battle of the

As the French and

British fell

confidently through France. left Paris.

mained

The

The

Marne, the Germans marched

to the

The French government,

citizens of Paris panicked.

in the city with a small

nized the citizens for

sions

back

its

number

of

fearing capture,

But General Gallieni

French

soldiers

re-

and orga-

defense.

rapid advance had disorganized the

German army.

Divi-

were becoming separated, and communications were not good.

When

von Moltke gave the order

for the

German

First

Army Group

German army commander in chief

to turn east before reaching Paris, the flank (side) of this

was exposed

to Gallieni's forces.

General

Joffre, the

of the French army, took advantage of the opportunity.

On

September

4,

the French attacked the

the start of a crucial battle.

If

the

German

flank.

Germans reorganized

This was

successfully,

they could win a final victory over the French and the British Expeditionary Force.

French troops

marching north

to

meet the German advance outside

The shown are

Vans.

taxicabs like the

ones later used to transport troops to the battle.

A

French general

speaks to his troops before battle.

The

French placed a high value on enthusiasm.

Speeches

lij^e

were meant

this

to raise

the morale of the men.

As

the battle raged just north of Paris, General Gallieni realized

that reinforcements

were needed quickly.

the "miracle of the Marne."

What happened

The horse-drawn

next

is

taxicabs of Paris

used to drive the French soldiers from Paris to the battle at the River.

About 700

taxis

were used

in

two

Aisne River. France had been saved.

(19)

were

Marne

trips to transport all the troops.

With the additional men, the French turned back the German By September 1 the Germans were in retreat. They fell back 1

called

drive. to the

Left: French troops

gathering at a

rail-

road station. Below: a

German

troop train

going

to the eastern

front.

Transporting

troops quicl^ly was so important

it

was

said that the best

generals could l^eep the railroad timetables in their heads.

The Race After the eral

to the Sea

German

retreat,

General von Moltke was replaced by Gen-

Erich von Falkenhayn as

the "race to the sea" began, as

commander of the German army. Then the Germans tried to repair von Moltke's

blunder of turning east before reaching Paris.

The Germans marched north and west to try to envelop the French flank. The French and British extended their lines to the northwest to keep the Germans from enveloping them. The situation was like an "end run" in football with the sea as the out-of-bounds line. The French and British reached the sea first and blocked the German sweep. But the race did not result in victory for the French

and

British. Instead,

it

estabUshed a Hne of opposing troops 400 miles long, from Switzerland to the

The

North

Sea.

First Battle of

With

the

possible

in the

Ypres

two operating

was

enemy

forces facing each other, the only battle tactic

a frontal attack.

The

favorite places to attack

lines, called "salients."

These were hard

to

were bulges

defend because

they could be attacked from the front and both sides at once.

On

October 20 the Germans attacked a

salient at the Belgian city

of Ypres, a valuable

communications and shipping

region was to be the

site

250,000

men were

battle

A

wounded

either side.

on the western front

German

About

at the first battle of Ypres.

No

This was to be the ghastly pattern of

for nearly the entire war.

sentry overlooj^s the English

Channel

from Belgium. Although the Germans occupied most of Belgium, the Belgian army linJ^ed up with the French and British on the North Sea

and continued

The Ypres

of four bloody battles during the war.

killed or

ground was gained by

center.

to fight for the rest of the war.

ACTION IN THE EAST The

Battle of

Tannenberg

The Russians had promised their French aUies that they would attack Germany in East Prussia as soon as war broke out. And, indeed, the Russians moved faster than the Germans expected.

Two

Russian armies, one in the north and the other farther south,

The first army crossed the border on August 21. Outnumbering the German forces in the area by two to one, the Russians broke through the German defense. The Kaiser brought in General von Hindenburg and General Ludendorff to lead the German forces in East Prussia. The plan was to moved

to the East Prussian border.

attack the

The

let

him advance

result

Battle of

The

Two

into Prussia, then attacked at the

was a smashing

victory for the

end of August.

Germans, known

as the

Tannenberg.

Masurian Lakes weeks later the Germans turned north and

Battle of

branch of the Russian armies

at the Battle of

Russian casualties were very high. Russia lion

at a time.

southern Russian army was led by General Samsonov. Luden-

The dorff

two branches of the Russian army one

men

in the

two

battles,

lost

defeated the northern

Masurian Lakes. Again about a quarter of a mil-

and an equal number of Russian prisoners

were captured. Despite their forces at the

losses,

the Russians succeeded in

away from the battles in France. This helped Marne and saved France.

drawing German the Allied troops

Right: a company of Russian machine gunners.

The Germans before

kjietv the Russians' battle plans

Tannenberg because the Russians did

not use a code

ill)

when sending

radio messages.

J^l.

Above:

this is a

Serbian

ammunition wagon

train

near Belgrade during the fighting. Despite their lack,

of equipment, the Serbs

defeated the Austrians. Far right:

Montenegrin prisoners

war held by AustriaHungary. Montenegro was of

one of the South Slav countries

fighting with Serbia.

After the war these countries united to form Yugoslavia.

Right: this

artillery

field

an Austrian

is

team using a

gun against the Serbs

»

The Austrian

Offensive

The problems

of the

Austro-Hungarian Empire were

army. There was mutual distrust between

officers

and men. The

spoke German, and the soldiers spoke Slavic languages. the troops to the empire

On August

was often

them back. By December,

officers

loyalty of

in doubt.

a quick victory, but the Serbians

19 14, Austria regrouped

tacked Serbia again. This time the Austrians

its

managed

Serbian capital of Belgrade. But they could hold

it

threw

army and

at-

to capture the

for only four days.

Serbians counterattacked, regained the capital, and forced the Aus-

trians

back across the border.

Austria

The

The

its

12 Austria-Hungary invaded the tiny country of Serbia.

The Austrians were confident of

The

reflected in

vs.

Russia

The Carpathian Mountains formed a natural defense line between Austria- Hungary Austrians had no more success against the Russians.

and the Russian province of Poland. But rather than take a defensive position, the Austrians soldiers

gambled on an

attack.

By August 25 Austrian

were deep into Russian Poland. Then the Russians counter-

attacked and drove the Austrians back to the Carpathian Mountains.

The Germans had from advancing

to

send reinforcements to keep the Russian army

farther.

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THE TWO SIDES AT THE END OF At the end

1914

of 19 14 the opposing armies were digging into trenches all

along the eastern and western fronts. Throughout the war these positions

would be strengthened. In the

line 1,900 miles long; in the

east the

opposing forces formed a

west the line ran from the Alps to the

Atlantic.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Side

Germany and Austria-Hungary were

called the Central

Powers

be-

cause of their position in the center of Europe. Because these two countries adjoined each other, communications problems were not so great as those of the Allies.

Powers and made

all

the

Germany was

war

decisions. Finally,

Belgium and important French France's coal and iron resources.

(26)

the leader of the Central

Germany

territory that contained

controlled

80 percent of

The

Allied side had strengths too. (i)

shipping to the Central Powers. (2) their colonies

and

Britain's

The

The

Allies

British

navy cut

had the populations

ofiP

of

empire to draw on for troops. (3) Russia

was showing unexpected strength. The Germans now had

to fight the

two-front war they had wanted to avoid.

In the long run, the Allies' most important advantage was the

sympathy of much of the world because of Germany's actions

in Bel-

needed supplies and help from the United

States.

gium. Both

sides

World sympathy and to the

This

British sea

Germans.

IS

a

German

observation

tower along the trench near Ypres.

A

lines

roof from an

old house has been added to

camouflage the tower.

power kept

this

support from going

Life went on, even though conditions

were desperate

at Gallipoli.

Here

a British soldier pours his early-

morning

tea

on the beach. Below:

Naval guns landed on the beach at Gallipoli.

They were immediately

covered with soldiers' overcoats to hide

them from view. When the

British

withdrew, they bombarded

the supplies

left

behind so the

Turl^s could not capture them.

GALLIPOLI

When

the

Ottoman Empire entered

Powers in 19 14, These

it

the

Mediterranean had

to

The

straits.

shipping to Russia from the

all

go through them. Since the northern supply

routes to Russia were cut off by the receive supplies.

side of the Central

and Bosporus

closed off the Dardanelles

were important because

straits

war on the

Germans, Russia could no longer

Russians asked for British help in opening the

straits.

On February along the

straits

had mined the

Next the

19, 191 5, British ships

and attempted

straits,

and the

to

bombarded the Turkish

The Turks, however,

steam through.

British

had

British tried a land invasion.

to turn back.

Using Australian and

Zealand soldiers (called anzacs), the British landed

on the

Gallipoli Peninsula. But the beaches

hills, at

the top of

forts

at several

New

beaches

were overlooked by steep

which the Turks had placed

batteries of

machine

guns. Despite great efforts, the Anzacs were not able to scale the hills

and take GallipoH. In December the British decided to withdraw.

They had

200,000 men, and in the retreat they feared losing

General Charles

men

in the

didn't even

Monro managed

to evacuate the

over

many more. But

remaining 200,000

middle of the night without losing a single one. The Turks

know the British had

to fire at the

empty

gone. For several hours they continued

British positions.

Austrltan soldiers attaching a TurJ^ish position. of the landing beaches

was called Anzac Cove,

after the initials of the Australian

New

lost

Zealand

Army

Corps.

and

One

ACTION IN THE WEST The

Battle of

Neuve Chapelle

In trench warfare the defense had an advantage over the offense. But before the generals reaHzed

sands of

lives

of territory

The

they threw

trying to break through

changed hands

first

this,

in the

of these attacks

a 2,ooo-yard-long front at

away hundreds

enemy

Only

lines.

of thou-

few yards

a

bloody trench attacks.

was on March

Neuve Chapelle

lo.

The

British

bombarded

for 35 minutes. Because the

Germans were surprised, the British at first broke through their Then the Germans regrouped and pushed the British back.

lines.

Below: camouflage was an important part of trench fortification field

gun could be

The ramp

behind the wheels helped

ward,

It

when

would

The opposing

This

fired with the

tree branches attached.

the recoil

.

the

gun

to

absorb

fired. After-

roll bac/{ into position.

lines set

up

barriers

in front of their trenches to mal^e attaches

trap set

more up

difficult.

At

left is

a

to trip attacl^ing soldiers.

German

soldiers,

protected by gas maskj,

advancing through a

The

cloud of gas.

Germans thought

the

advantage of gas would be to hide attacJ^ing troops.

They

didn't

realize the other side

would panic and run.

The Second

Battle of Ypres

The Germans still wanted Ypres. They decided to use ers

and prisoners

to

a

break through the salient

new

secret

told the British

weapon

—

gas.

town

at the

German

of

desert-

and French of these plans but the

Allied generals did nothing about this information.

On

April 22 a greenish cloud floated toward the AUied

French colonial troops from North Africa were the

The

gas was chlorine, and

and noses

so that

the French line

it

first

burned the inside of the

many choked

to death.

The

to feel

lines.

its effects.

soldiers' throats

Allied soldiers

fled,

and

was broken.

Suddenly there was a 4 J^ -mile gap in the Allied lines. But the Germans hadn't assembled enough men to take advantage of the effect of the gas. Allies

By

Germans were

had sent up more men

After the prise.

the time the

The

first

able to attack effectively, the

to block their path.

gas attack, the

Germans

lost the

advantage of sur-

Allied soldiers protected themselves by wrapping wet ban-

dages across their

faces.

Soon the Allied

side developed gas of

and gas masks became part of the standard equipment of both

(31)

its

own,

sides.

The

Allied Offensive in

General

JofTrc

still

Champagne

believed the

He

war could be won by

a frontal assault

ordered a number of attacks in the area of

on the enemy

lines.

Champagne the German

September, 19 15. At the same time, the British attacked

in

lines farther

north in Artois.

After a long bombardment, the places, but the territory gained

was high. The

German

line

by the Allies was

Allies lost 242,000 soldiers,

was pierced in both slight.

Yet the price

and the Germans 141,000.

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Left: in between the opposing lines of trenches the soldiers

down an enemy attach^. could be cut down by

placed barbed wire and land mines to slow Attacl^ing troops caught by such traps

machine-gun

fire

from the trenches. For

between the trenches came

German

to be called

this reason, the area

"no-man's-land." Above:

soldiers are digging out a railroad tunnel

Belgians. Cutting the railroad lines could slow

movements and give the other

blown up by

down enemy

troop

side time to prepare a defense.

M

Right:

German

troops

advancing toward Warsaw, Poland, which they in early

tool{

August. Hindenburg

and Ludendorff demanded more troops from the com

mand

in the west in the

hope they could completely destroy the Russian army.

Below: Russian prisoners in Poland.

By

191 ^ more than

the

end

of

2 million

Russians had been tal{en prisoner,

and another

million Russians

2

had

been \illed or wounded.

ACTION IN THE EAST The

Battle for Poland

The

battles of 19 14

showed

but not the Germans.

With

that the Russians could defeat the Austrians their supply lines cut

oflf

at the Dardanelles,

on weapons and ammunition. Some Russian solbattle without any weapons. A Russian army saying

the Russians ran low diers

went

was:

"We

into

have one good weapon

— the living heart of the

soldier."

Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia led a major offensive against the Austrian army at the Carpathian Mountains. But the Germans came to the aid of their Austrian allies. Then the Germans counterattacked against the Russians on May 14. The Russian army Early in 1915,

broke and

fled.

The Germans pursued

the Russians through most of

Poland, captured almost 750,000 Russian prisoners, and took most of

Russian Poland.

Even

so,

the victory

was not

as

complete as the Germans wanted.

Their objective had been to destroy the Russian army "for

And

though the Russians were demoralized,

their

army

still

One effect of this Russian defeat was the resignation of Duke as head of the Russian forces. He was replaced by the was completely inept

time."

all

the

existed.

Grand

Czar,

who

at military leadership.

Austrian troops pass through a

Polish village as

they pursue the

Russian army.

Here they

are

buying supplies

from some of the villagers.

THE TRENCHES

LIFE IN

The

No

trenches along the western front were at

first

only shallow ditches.

one realized the trenches would be home for many

soldiers for the

next four years.

As

the

war dragged

on, trenches were

man could walk through them

dug deep enough

without showing his head above ground.

Tunnels and dugout rooms were hollowed out and reinforced sleeping and eating quarters.

The

Belgian so /criers get haircuts from the trench barber. Close-cropped

body

was important because lice,

would body

or "cooties,"

nest in

hair.

to

make

trenches were often connected to the

supply lines by a system of tunnels.

hair

so that a

Left: shellfire all but destroyed

a tree that stands at the this

French

end

soldier's trench.

only protection the

of

The

men had

against shell attaches was from their helmets

and the sandbags

piled above them.

At the Second

Battle of Ypres, the artillery

German

barrage went on for

three days before the gas attac\

began. Below: an exploding shell lights

up the night sky

behind a British

soldier.

trenches offered

some

The

protection

against flying pieces of shrapnel

from such explosions. Shelling often

went on

all night.

Left:

Men m

the trenches were

often poorly supplied.

Here

some ovens made from

oil

are

drums

by British soldiers. Below: four British soldiers playing cards

a pile of trench

mortar

on

shells.

In

between attach^, a great danger

was boredom. dropped, the

When men

morale

failed to be

on guard against the next

attach^.

Defenses for the trenches became stronger as time went on.

Many

were reinforced with wood or concrete. The area between the two opposing sides was protected with barbed wire and land mines.

The

trenches were very uncomfortable to live

men walked

in

mud up

it

rained,

The dampness and bad weather and fungus skin diseases. The men

to their knees.

brought on pneumonia, influenza,

were constantly bothered by filled

When

in.

with the firing of

days without stopping.

rats

and body

Days and nights were

Hce.

artillery guns. Artillery attacks

Many men became

went on

for

"shell-shocked" from the

continual fear and noise.

Most

horrible of all

the other side. This

made

was a

was the order

to

go "over the top" and attack

virtual death sentence.

a successful attack impossible.

The

Machine-gun

elaborate defenses

raked the bodies

fire

of soldiers caught in the tangled barbed wire of "no-man's-land."

British soldiers in a

dugout

shelter during

the Gallipoli campaign.

In November, rain 1

fell

for an entire day on

the

men

in the trenches,

followed by

sleet

and

then a snowstorm that left

two

feet of

Hundreds on both

snow.

of soldiers

sides

drowned

in the trenches.

Many

British soldiers froze to

death as well, for

lac/^

of

warm

clothing.

S^k

The Austrian Alpenf{orps was made up

THE New

WAR

on Austria-Hungary,

The

mountain

fighters.

BECOMES WORLDWIDE

countries entered the

Hungarian

of skilled

territory

its

war

old

by the

in 1915. In

ally.

Italy

May,

Italy declared

had been promised Austro-

Allies.

Italians attacked the Austrians at the Isonzo River

eastern border of Italy. This attack battles of the

war

was launched over and

on the

over. Eleven

Isonzo were fought during the war, and the Italians

lost

every one. Four such battles were fought in 19 15, with the Italians losing 280,000

men.

Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in

September, 1915. For a part of Serbia called

its

help, the Central

Powers promised Bulgaria

Macedonia. The Bulgarians, with

German and

Austrian help, crushed the Serbians. In October, Belgrade, the capital of Serbia,

(40)

fell to

the Central Powers.

The The

year 19 15 also

British,

to defeat the

saw fighting

in the

German

African colonies.

French, and Belgians used Africans from their colonies

Germans

and German East

in the

Cameroons, German Southwest Africa,

Africa.

There was fighting

in the

Near East

as well. Britain,

about the Suez Canal, landed soldiers in Egypt and the Sinai Desert, meeting heavy resistance

moved up through

from Turkish

soldiers.

Japan had entered the war in 19 14 on the Allied side

China

concerned

to

occupy

had been under the influence of Germany. In 191 Japan made 21 demands on China for additional territory. If China

parts of

had agreed China

that

to all of

them,

it

would have become

resisted but lost territory to the Japanese.

The war had now expanded a

A

far

beyond Europe

world war.

native village in the

Cameroons

becomes a victim of the war. Troops fighting against

a colony of Japan.

Germany

are burning

it.

to

become

truly

1916

THE STRUGGLE FOR THE SEAS When

war broke

German

out, the British tried to score a

navy. But the

Germans wanted

and avoided contact with the

Only war.

a

few minor

The German

to save the ships they had,

British.

sea battles

Emden

ship

quick victory over the

were fought in the early stages of the raided Allied merchant ships in the

Indian Ocean but was finally sunk on

November

9,

1914.

The only German sea force of great size not safely in port was commanded by Admiral von Spee. His ships were off the coast of China when the war began. Von Spee set off across the Pacific. Near Chile he met a small British force and destroyed two British cruisers.

The

British

ships of

By

were alarmed, and sent

von Spee. Four of the German ships were sunk. early 19 15

was

it

pete with the British.

Germany, keeping first

thirty ships after the five small

clear that the

The

ships

British

German navy

had thrown

sailing

German

war

around

ports.

materiel. Soon,

At

how-

any ship bound for Germany, including ships

of neutral nations.

Part of the

a blockade

from entering or leaving German

the British stopped only ships carrying

ever, the British stopped

could not com-

fieet

through the North Sea.

Night boat.

firing by a British

gun-

These ships were used as

artillery to

stand onshore and

bombard an enemy

port.

They

could also clear the beaches to prepare for a troop landing.

A

convoy of British ships

the North Sea at night.

in

The

airplane escort was sometimes able to spot approaching sub-

marines. Traveling in groups, or convoys,

merchant ships

could more easily be protected.

^r^

Some

To

break the British blockade, the Germans turned to a

— the

of boat

they were very to

warn

new

type

submarine. Called "U-boats" (for "Undersea boats"), eflfective at

sinking British warships. There was no

way

the above-sea ships in advance or to save the crew of a sunken

Like the

ship.

passengers rescued from the Lusitania.

British, the

Germans saw no

difference between mer-

chant ships carrying war materiel and warships.

A from

tragedy was sure to occur.

New

York

to

taken an ad in the sail

on

it.

The

passenger ship Lusitania

England on May

New

i.

The German embassy had

York newspapers warning passengers not

But only one passenger canceled.

Ireland, the Lusitania

set sail

was torpedoed by

On May

7, ofT

to

the coast of

a U-boat. It sank, causing the

deaths of almost 2,000 passengers, including 128 Americans.

The

attack angered citizens of the United States.

favored entering the war on the Allied

(44)

The Many Americans now

Lusitania incident was a costly mistake for the Germans.

side.

The Battle of Jutland In May and June of 1916

and German

the British

fleets finally

met.

The Germans planned to trap a small part of the British fleet in the North Sea. The British, however, had captured German codebooks and knew about this plan. They sent a large fleet to surprise and trap the Germans. But the British commander was able to escape by some

sacrificing

When

the battle of Jutland

The Germans had been

ships to save the

actually sank

fleet.

was

more

over, both sides claimed victory.

ships,

and German naval weapons

superior. Yet the British maintained control of the seas.

This picture shows a

German

shell

falling near a British cruiser at the

Battle of Jutland.

Much

of the

smoke

was caused by the coal-burning engines of the ships, not by exploding shells.

ACTION IN THE WEST The

Battle of

Verdun

During the winter of 191 5-1 6, General Falkenhayn, the German chief of staff, made plans for an offensive against the French. Falkenhayn picked a spot open to artillery attack yet necessary for the French to defend. His plan was to

inflict

such heavy casualties that the

spirit of

the

French people would be broken.

the

The main objective of the attack was the line of French forts on German border. The principal fort was at Verdun. The Germans

began the attack on February 21 with the heaviest bombardment

Over

a million artillery shells were fired against a 15-mile-wide front.

French troops pass through the ruins of Verdun.

To

the Germans, the

amazing thing was had

yet.

that any troops

lived through the

bombardment.

A

French

medical orderly

bandages a

wounded

soldier.

The French sent General of the

French became "They

the single road that

wagons rushed

was

The slogan moved to protect

Petain to organize the troops. shall not pass." Petain

his line of supply.

food, ammunition,

and

Convoys of trucks and

fresh troops along the "Sacred

Way."

On

February 25 the French to Fort

mans. Fighting shifted

French held grimly on

to

fort at

Douaumont

Vaux, which

fell

fell to

in June.

the GerStill

the

Verdun.

Attacks by the Russians in the east and the beginning of the Allied offensive at the

The

Somme

fighting continued

diverted

on

German

troops

away from Verdun.

a lesser scale all year until the

French retook

Douaumont and Vaux in October and November. The Germans succeeded in draining the French of soldiers. But the Germans lost heavily too. By the end of the summer of 19 16 the French had 315,000 casualties. The Germans had 281,000 casualties

the forts at

during the same period.

(47)

Results of the shelling at the

Somme

battlefield.

Despite the devastation, the

German

trenches

suffered relatively

damage.

little

Some German trenches were as

dug

deep as 40

and were

feet

heavily reinforced.

The

Battle of the

Somme

Because of Verdun, the British had to assume the biggest part in the Battle of the

Somme,

the bloodiest battle of the war. Originally, the

British

commander, Douglas Haig, agreed

Somme

were too great he would stop the

his

that

if

the casualties at the

offensive.

He

did not keep

word. After five days and nights of heavy

bombardment against an 18mile front, the British and French went over the top on July i. The Allies thought there would be nothing left of the enemy defenses but a hole in the ground. Instead, the craters caused it

difficult for the

attacking soldiers to run.

carrying 66 pounds of equipment as well. British soldiers Still

Haig

November.

(48)

The

On

were cut down by machine-gun

refused to break off the attack.

by the shelling made

The

soldiers

the

first

fire in

were each

day, 60,000

no-man's-land.

fighting went

on

till

In the Battle of the

French eral

casualties

Somme,

had 420,000

casualties.

The

were 204,000, and the German about 500,000. Gen-

Haig was promoted

to field

The most important the tank. This

the British

marshal for

work.

his

event of the battle was the introduction of

weapon would change modern

offensive side mobility

and

protection.

tanks were used ineffectively. cally, the Battle of the

Too few

Somme was

used in a major miHtary

At of

the

warfare.

It

gave the

Somme, however,

them were

the

available. Ironi-

the last time cavalry troops were

battle.

L-i

\^

Left: an 8 -inch howitzer firing

during the

barrage at the million

and a

artillery

Somme.

A

half shells

were fired on the German lines in the first six

days of

the Allied attack^. Below:

one of the casualties the Battle of

The

Somme.

final total

was over

The

constant

I million. fire

at

devastated the area.

ACTION IN THE EAST The Brusilov

Offensive

In early 1916 the Allies again asked Russia to open a campaign to

German

troops

away from

gain the territory

it

had

the western front. Russia

lost in 19 15.

On

was eager

draw to re-

June 4 the Russian general

Brusilov attacked the Austro-Hungarian front. In three days the Rus-

army took 200,000 Austrian prisoners. The morale of the AustroHungarian army reached a low point from which it never recovered.

sian

Unfortunately, General Brusilov needed reserve troops to follow

up

the victory. Brusilov's

men were

south of the needed reserves, and

the railroads in the area ran only east to west.

Brusilov decided to advance without the reserve troops.

ran

soldiers

who had

been intended

Verdun. After heavy fighting and great

losses of

men, Brusilov

into Austrians reinforced by for

He

German

retreated.

Rumania had been impressed by the first successes of the Brusilov offensive and entered the war on the side of the Allies. This was a costly mistake. Rumania had a large supply of oil and grain. The Germans quickly overran Rumania and seized the supplies, which were useful in continuing the war.

Russian soldiers

preparing for attacl^.

The French brought soldiers into the

from all

These

war

their colonies

over the world.

soldiers,

landing

at SaloniJ^a, are

Annamites from Cochin China. Cochin China was part of what today

IS

Vietnam.

Since there was not

enough room for the soldiers

coming

into Salonika,

them had

all

to

many

of

go out

into the countryside

nearby. These

two

British officers are

discussing "billets," or living quarters, with a

GreeJ^

countrywoman.

Salonika landed

Greece, in 1915 to help Serbia

Allied troops

first

defend

against attack. After Serbia

itself

at Salonika,

was occupied, the Serbian

troops retired to Salonika. In 19 16 the AUies landed to attack the Central

Powers

of the war.

(51)

They were unsuccessful, Salonika. The Allies continued

in the Balkans.

but a permanent base was estabUshed at to put pressure

more troops there

on the Central Powers from

this spot for the

remainder

THE NEW WEAPONS OF

WAR

When it became apparent that the war would the search began for a super-weapon that

last

longer than expected,

would quickly bring

a dra-

new weahuman lives.

matic victory. Instead of shortening the war, however, the

pons only increased the cost of

Both

it,

both in

money and

in

designed and built huge artillery guns for the days-long

sides

The most extreme example of the great guns was the "Paris gun," which the Germans used to attack Paris. It could fire a cannon shell 82 miles. The Germans brought the barrages that

gun by

since the

city,

from

Paris.

When

the shells began

no one could imagine where they were coming from,

sound of the gun firing could not be heard that

gun was not a

the

attack.

railroad to a forest 75 miles

landing in the

so,

came before each

success. It took 15

minutes to load.

far

Its

away. Even

barrel

had

to

be replaced after firing only 60 shots. Finally, the gun could not be

aimed

A

accurately.

drawing

of the "Parts

gun." The barrel was so heavy that

it

had

supported

to be

from overhead.

tt

didn't

live

up

to

expectations, It

was taken

bac\

to

Germany. It

was never

found

after

the war.

^•'r

More and more poison affected the eyes

types of gas

and skin

gases were developed by both sides. as well as the

masks were produced

lungs and throat. Different

to counter the effect of the gases.

Sometimes changing winds blew the gas back against the

had released

At

first

it.

there

was no way

direct gas attacks

to

toward

enemy troops unless the wind was blowing in the right direction, as shown

above,

hater, cannons were used to fire

containers of gas.

Gas maskj

used early in the war were rags or pieces of cotton dipped in

water or chemicals and tied to the face. Later,

effective gas

more

mas\s were

developed. Masl^s were also

provided for horses,

mules, and guard dogs.

Many

soldiers

who

^^

-^•^

Above: Zeppelins had metal frames underneath a weatherproof bag

filled

gen. This

with hydro-

model has

a plat-

form on top from which guns could

fire at airplanes over-

head. Right: machine guns

were mounted on motorcycles so they could be quickly trans-

ported to any part of the front.

Zeppelins and airplanes were

World War

I.

At

first

used for military purposes in

the beginning of the war, both the airplane

and the

Zeppelin were used for scouting enemy positions. Later in the war,

some were used

for

bombing

missions, but the slow airplane

and even

slower Zeppelin were easily shot down.

Hand-cranked machine guns had been used century, but

shoot

now

(54)

technology produced gas-propelled guns that could

many rounds

easily before a

since the nineteenth

of

ammunition quickly. Mass cavalry charges

fell

squad of machine gunners, and cavalry became obsolete.

winning the war. In 1914 soldiers and equipment were transported by horses and wagons. By the war's end, motor vehicles and trains were the chief means of supply and

Modern

transportation was important to

troop movement. Countries without an extensive railway system, such

and the Ottoman Empire, were

as Russia

The super-weapon built,

although

the tank.

its

Tanks

enemy

disadvantage.

were looking for was actually

importance was not recognized until

easily

no-man's-land with that a

that both sides

at a great

broke through the enemy

ease.

None

of the generals

later.

This was

even crossing the

lines,

seemed

at first to realize

massed attack of troops following the tanks could break the line for

good. Not until

World War

II

were tanks generally

used with troop movements.

The

was not a^ected

tanJ^

by gas or

rifle fire.

Only

a direct hit by a cannon

could stop

it.

• »•

<.

•r^

>';:•

/

'S^^p^u^^

The Germans, all

like

the participants

saw

in the war,

themselves as fighting for a just cause.

poster

This

shows a

German

soldier as

a defender of

freedom of the

It

had been the

seas.

British tradition to

use volunteers in the army. This poster

was typical of the campaign of

vol-

unteer enlistment. In 1916, for the time, the British drafted soldiers.

first

STALEMATE AT THE END OF

1916

From the beginning of the war, both sides made use of propaganda. The British and French called the Germans "Huns" and said they must be defeated to save civilization. The Germans portrayed themselves nobly, as fighters for freedom and the glory of songs, posters,

But the lists

and pamphlets were

reality

were printed

men had gone

all

of? to

newspapers

war

full of

Patriotic

part of the propaganda effort.

and ugliness of the war were

in the

Germany.

felt at

home. Casualty

— thousands of names long. Young

enthusiasm and bravery and

now

they

were never coming back. People side.

The

at

home saw

leaders

had

that

said the

gone by and there seemed

(56)

little

ground was being gained by

war would be

to be

no end

short.

in sight.

Now

two

either

years

had

Germany the Allied shipping blockade was having a serious Food was getting scarce, even in Berlin. It was hard to keep the

In effect.

troops adequately supplied.

kenhayn

at the

increased their

Hindenburg and Ludendorff replaced

end of August. Symbolized by the monogram HL, they

power over

the

government

as well as the

In Austria-Hungary, Emperor Franz Joseph,

dismissed the generals

put

down

who had done

Easter Rebellion of

British attention

army.

who had

reigned

His grand-nephew replaced him on the throne and

since 1848, died.

The

Fal-

so poorly.

1916 in Ireland temporarily diverted

from the war. Money and

the Irish rebels.

soldiers

had

to be used to

David Lloyd George became the new prime

minister of Britain. In France, General Nivelle replaced Joffre as com-

mander

in chief.

But the greatest changes were

would be

a revolution.

into the war, this

One

of a series of

French

Germans of atrocities. Germans claimed by the British

and French.

come

in Russia. In 191 7 there

the entrance of the United States

would bring an end

drawings accusing the

similar atrocities

Along with

to

to the stalemate of 19 16.

1917

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION Discontent

among

the Russian soldiers

for a long time. Soldiers

or training. a

At home,

went

into battle without proper

a corrupt

and

country that was hungry and poor.

showed him

to be

weak and

While these Russian

soldiers

were equipped with

rifles,

were sent

only bayonets tied to

inept.

many

to the front with stickj.

and people had been building

inefficient

The

equipment

government ruled over

Czar's leadership of the

army

A

scene from the Russian revolution.

Bullets are being fired

public library.

Some

from the

people are running

to see\ shelter, while others lie

dead and wounded

in the street.

The February Revolution In

late

February of 191 7,

of Russia. lion.

On March

But the

1 1

riots

broke out in

St.

A

the rebel-

The Czar was

forced to

soldiers joined the rebellion.

new government, under

sky, took over.

"Soviets"

down

the Czar called troops to put

Violence spread throughout the country. resign.

Petersburg, the capital

Workers and

and agreed

the leadership of Alexander Keren-

soldiers

to cooperate

organized committees

known

as

with Kerensky's government.

Now Kerensky made a fatal mistake. The people of Russia wanted peace, food,

and

land.

But Kerensky, under pressure from the

decided to continue the war.

(59)

Allies,

Russian and Austrian soldiers fraternizing at the front in

igiy.

The Russian

Offensive

The Russian army, commanded by General Austrians in the area of the Carpathians. the Austrian

and German

Russian army quit.

The

forces

On

Brusilov, attacked the

July 5 the Russians crushed

and gained 20

soldiers refused to

But then the

miles.

go forward. The Austrians

and Germans counterattacked and regained

all

the lost ground. Bru-

was replaced by General Kornilov, but

to

no

silov

would not

avail.

The

soldiers

fight.

The Bolshevik Revolution Meanwhile, Ludendorff arranged tionary

for a train to take a Russian revolu-

named Nikolai Lenin from Switzerland through Germany and

Finland

to Russia.

and Lenin had

Ludendorff wanted Russia out of the war for good,

said he

would stop the fighting

if

he was in power.

Lenin was the leader of a group called the Bolsheviks. They not only

wanted

to get out of the

workers."

(60;

Today they

war but

are called

also

promised

Communists.

"all

power

to the

In November, 191 7, the soviet and the

withdrew

from

units in the capital

from Kerensky. Lenin, now

their support

the army, ordered a revolt.

control of the country.

army

The

On November

certain of support

7 the Bolsheviks seized

next day, Lenin issued a peace decree, tak-

ing Russia out of the war.

The Treaty

of Brest-Litovsk

Peace negotiations between

Germany and

the Bolshevik government

began in December, 191 7, in the town of Brest-Litovsk. The

when

talks

were

Germans demanded large parts of Russian territory. In January Leon Trotsky began negotiations for the Russians again. Trotsky said Russia would leave the war without signing a formal treaty. The Germans then attacked and took the entire Ukraine, a broken

off

the

great farming area of Russia. Finally the Russians signed the Treaty of

Brest-Litovsk

on March

In the treaty Russia land,

and about half of

was a warning the

war

to

3,

19 18.

lost a third of its

its

industry.

population, a third of

its

farm-

Germany's harshness toward Russia

to the other Allies of

what they could expect

if

they

lost

Germany.

Above: Nikolai Lenin. Left: Russian prisoners playing cards.

A

dead

soldier,

many months. were

unbuned

for

Sights like this

common

during the war.

ACTION IN THE WEST The Nivelle

When

Offensive

General Robert Nivelle took

from General the

German

except that

Joffre in

line.

it

command

December, 1916, he

said

of the

French army

he had a plan to break

Actually the plan was no different from previous ones,

would be launched without an artillery barrage beforehand.

But the Germans found out where Nivelle's attack was place.

They

pulled out of the area and took

defended rear position

known

as the

the French army.

fused to fight.

(62)

loss of

Many

many

positions in the strongly

Hindenburg Line. Even

went ahead with the offensive on April French defeat and the

up

lives.

16.

The

result

This was the

of the soldiers put

to take

down

their

so,

was

last

Nivelle a great

straw for

arms and

re-

Mutiny The mutiny

of the

French troops

lasted for

two months. The French

kept news of the mutiny from the Germans, and there were no

German

attacks during this time.

General Petain was put in charge of the French army. His position

was deUcate. The mutiny

called for discipline, but

punishment might

cause the mutiny to spread. Petain visited the soldiers at the front.

They

were angry because they were being slaughtered for no apparent purpose. Petain

saw

that the soldiers needed a regular system of leaves

from the hardships of the

(vacations), to recover

he restored morale and

was "Lavish with

The

steel,

discipline.

trenches. Eventually,

The new motto

of the

French army

stingy with blood."

Battle of Passchendaele

General Haig persuaded Lloyd George to allow him to launch

still

another British attack, in the area of Ypres. For two years the British

had been digging under the German tons of explosives.

On

positions

and mining them with

June 7 the explosives were

set off.

About 20,000

German soldiers were killed or wounded. The British soldiers pressed forward and took many prisoners. But the Germans recovered and regrouped. The battle went on through a rainy summer that turned the land into a swamp. Finally, winter ended the battle. The British had gained i ,000 yards of territory at the cost of 300,000 British

soldiers.

Machine gunners

in action,

wearing their gas helmets. Since the newly developed

mustard gas burned the sj{in,

the helmet

had

to

cover the entire head.

9

*-:^<^-: ^ 7

^

The

Battle of

The

only bright spot for the AUies in 191 7 was the Battle of Cambrai,

Cambrai

fought in November.

Two

British generals organized

an attack, using

324 of the new tanks. Their objective was the French town of Cambrai, which was surrounded by solid dry ground that could support the attacking tanks. Using a smoke screen, the British successfully penetrated

more than more

5 miles

territory

on the

first

than had been

Haig did not follow up the

day, losing only 4,000 casualties. This

won

the previous four

victory,

however.

He

months

at

was

Ypres.

needed the soldiers

to support Caporetto.

Below: a British soldier

showing the helmet that saved his

life.

Left: a British sign

near Ypres shows the

LYj;«G THOSE SHtLLS THRT'YOU SRW Ifim MUD RRE OM THt WROMG SID^

PICK.THEM U THEM YOU ™t TRKETHEM TO R IF

USE.

YOUP.SEU

DUMP. Iwf'KiSIKI"^^

^^ THE RIGHl

grim humor of the war.

V

An

Italian

motorcycle squad. Part of the

problem with the Italian

army was

its

commander whose motto was

"The

leader

is

always right, especially

he

is

when

wrong."

Italian prisoners with

their Austrian captors.

At

Caporetto, thousands

of Italians deserted.

were said

to

They

have run

to

the Austrian side shout-

"hong

ing,

and "On

The

to

live

Austria!"

Rome!"

Battle of Caporetto

Bad news

arrived

from

Italy.

After the

many

futile

ItaUan attacks at

army once and Austrians attacked at Caporetto on

the Isonzo River, Austria decided to crush the ItaUan for

all.

With German

help, the

October 24 and destroyed more than one fourth of the Italian army.

The

rest of the Italians fled in disorder.

rush troops to support

Italy.

British

and French had

Ultimately the Austrian and

advance was stopped by bad weather.

(65)

The

to

German

ACTION IN THE NEAR EAST Mesopotamia and Palestine The year 19 17 was decisive in the two major

The India.

fighting in the

Near

East.

There were

British victories.

British

Meeting

had invaded Mesopotamia

in 19 15

with a force from

Kut-el-Amara, Iraq. Their objective was Baghdad, the capital the desert heat

and superior numbers

stopped the British offensive.

sawed back and

town

Httle resistance at first, they got as far as the

forth.

At

Through

last,

in

of

Turkish

city.

of

But

soldiers gradually

campaign

the year 19 16 the

March, 19 17, Baghdad

see-

finally fell to

the British forces.

In 19 15 the British had landed in Egypt to protect the Suez Canal

from the Turks. The

British forces

they were stopped until 191 7.

The

advanced terrain

to the city of

was

difficult

Gaza, where

and the weather

scorching.

Czechosloval{tan legionnaires posing before a

pyramid and the Sphinx.

They fought on

the side of the

British in the Egyptian

Mesopotamian

and

desert

campaigns.

m C-A

'^

£.*•

British infantry

during the

Mesopotamian campaign. The temperature in the desert

could

rise as

high as 140 degrees for

an entire day.

tine

AUenby was appointed to head the Palescampaign. Lloyd George asked him to take Jerusalem "as a Christ-

mas

present for the British people." First the British captured the wells

In early 19 17 General

at Beersheba, in

order to have a water supply for the campaign. In

November, Allenby's Jerusalem.

named T.

forces took

Gaza

at last,

They were aided by Arabs E. Lawrence, later

known

led

as

and headed up toward

by a young British

officer

Lawrence of Arabia. Allenby

took Jerusalem in December, giving the British people their present.

Russia In

1

vs.

Turkey

9 16 the Russians captured most of the Turkish province of Armenia.

They found

there the results of the most ghastly event of the war.

Turks had expected the Armenians

to try to gain their

The

independence

by allying with the invading Russians. So the Turks ordered a massacre of the entire

Armenian

and children were

(67)

killed.

population.

At

least a

million men,

women,

:!i^l

American

soldiers

arriving in France

show

their

enthusiasm.

AMERICA ENTERS THE

WAR

Reasons for Entry

A majority of Americans had

long been sympathetic to the Allies.

sinking of the Lusitanm in 1915 had angered

United States had been making loans lost,

these loans

would not be

thought

citizens. Also, the

to the Allied side. If the Allies

repaid. Finally,

German domination of Europe would be But many Americans of German and to the Allies. President

many

The

Wilson had asked

some Americans

against

all

American

Irish descent

Americans

felt

that

interests.

were opposed

to be neutral in

as well as in deed.

Germans announced they were resuming submarine warfare. The United States broke off relations

Then, early unrestricted

in 191 7, the

German government in protest. Another provocation to the United States was the Zimmermann Telegram. The Zimmermann with the

(68)

Telegram was

sent in January, 191 7,

from the German Foreign

Office

German ambassador in Mexico. The British intercepted and decoded it. The telegram told the German ambassador to offer Texas, to the

New

Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico. In return Mexico was to help

attack the United States in case of war.

On March the

16, 191 7,

same day, the Kerensky government came

Americans

felt

the

On

U-boats torpedoed two American ships.

power

to

in Russia.

Most

new Russian government was democratic and

de-

served support against the Germans.

On Powers.

April

19 17, the United States declared

great industrial strength

Its

These Kaiser

5,

was ready

war on the Central

to help the Allies.

men decided to resume unrestricted submarine Wilhelm (center), General von Hindenburg

warfare (left),

General Ludendorff (right). Because the Kaiser's

was withered from childhood

polio,

others to conceal one

it

left

—

and

arm

was the custom for

arm when

in his presence.

The Yanks Are Coming army and navy were small. A law was passed to draft young men, and training camps were set up. The country united behind the war effort. Women moved into jobs left by men. Children collected material that could be used for making

When the

United States declared war,

war equipment. Thousands stamped

flat,

and

were planted

were rescued from the garbage,

of tin cans

tied into bundles.

collected to be used in

its

making

in backyards across

Great mounds of peach

filters

pits

were

for gas masks. Victory gardens

America. Everyone took part in help-

ing win the war.

A mainly

small force of American soldiers was sent to Europe in 19 17, to give a

Jack") was

its

lift

to Allied morale.

General John Pershing ("Black

commander.

American infantrymen

in France, practicing

bayonet thrusts.

Infantrymen were called "doughboys." One explanation for the term dates to Pershing's

army

in Texas.

The

troops on

horsebacl^ called the infantrymen "adobes" because the

dust powdered their uniforms. "Adobes" was shortened to "dobies"

and

later

changed

to

"doughboys."

A

French couple greets

two American

soldiers.

The American Expeditionary Force marched into Paris on July 4. Crowds cheered. Hope arose throughout the AUied countries that the tide of war would now turn. The Americans saw their first action in October. They were sent to a quiet section of the front near the Swiss border. On November 3 a German company on the opposite side opened an attack. They expected the Americans to flee. But the "doughboys" fought bravely. The Germans were thrown back. The Americans lost eleven prisoners and three dead.

(71)

Now they were

in the war.

1918

THE FOURTEEN POINTS On

January

He

peace.

8,

191 8, President

Wilson announced

called his proposals the Fourteen Points.

1

The end

2.

Freedom

3.

The end

4.

Reducing the military arms

5.

Giving rights

6.

Return of Russian choose

of

its

economic trade barriers between countries. races.

to colonial peoples.

own

territory

and allowing Russia

freely

to

government.

8.

Return of Alsace-Lorraine

9.

Adjusting the border of

territory.

to France.

Italy fairly.

Allowing the peoples within the Austro-Hungarian Empire to

form

their

own

countries.

Return of Rumanian, Serbian, and Montenegrin granting Serbia access to the

12.

points were:

of the seas.

Return of Belgian

1 1

The

of secret treaties.

7.

10.

a plan for a lasting

Opening

territory

and

sea.

the Dardanelles Strait

and allowing non-Turks with-

Ottoman Empire to form their own countries. Allowing Poland to become an independent nation and giving

in the 13.

it

14.

access to the sea.

Formation of a world group of nations

to preserve

world peace.

(This was to become the League of Nations.)

All of Wilson's points seemed good for the world. People in countries, including the Central Powers,

if

shadow over

(72)

lead-

who had been fighting since 19 14 felt they should receive they won the war. The greediness of the politicians cast a

ers of nations

territory

were impressed. But the

all

the Fourteen Points.

Right: two

German

sol-

diers with carrier pigeons.

Carrier pigeons were useful for sending

messages because they could not be intercepted

mBx^mm:^ mim^^'

Left: an ambulance driver poses

with a young French admirer.

One

of the reforms Petain carried out •*S^^T''f3S:

in the

^^^

French army was

to

improve

the quality of the medical service.

kjl-n t *

"c:^*

*-

i^

--.*••%

#*j»-^ 4L

Those too young

and

too old

to fight stayed

at

home

to

do

their part by

producing food ivO> f^^

A

female bus conductor collecting

fares

from two servicemen

in

London

Before the war, such a job was considered "improper" for a

woman.

^^^^ soldiers.

THE HOME FRONT As

the casualty

men

to

lists

throw into

ments had

grew,

as

the side "with the

if

On

the

"home

to convince the people that the sacrifice of

had

The men who went never

seemed

would win.

battle"

while. All the countries

tories

it

to draft

men

100,000

last

front," govern-

men was

worth-

to continue the war.

home in the facand on the farms. Women began taking these jobs. Many were again content to be restricted to housework. Their new attitudes

would bring

social

The home

to

war had

to be replaced at

changes after the war.

front

was

also a struggle to

produce enough military

goods. Steel, copper, and tin had to be reserved for military uses. Ger-

many was

particularly short of

raw materials because

of the British

blockade. Walther Rathenau was appointed to take charge of factories in

Germany. Rathenau and

his staff told each

where

to

work, and were not allowed to

brought in from occupied

The money

spent on running the

pean countries had States.

territories to

to

borrow

Governments took over

ment planning continued

help the

war was

and sweaters

for

men

leave.

company what Laborers were

German war

staggering.

heavily, particularly

after the war.

in the

army.

effort.

Most Euro-

from the United

greater economic power,

These boys from Cooperstown, 'New Yorl^,

the

German workers were

goods to make and where to get the materials. told

all

l^nttted sockj

and govern-

WAR The it

to

IN THE AIR

airplane

was

still

have any great

a

new

invention in 19 14. Neither side expected

on the war.

efTect

Its

chief use

was

on enemy troop movements and gim placements. Even uses, the airplane

was not

as

good

pilots usually

began carrying

pistols

waved and

life

for these limited

was usually not

in danger.

each other. As the war went on, pilots

at

rifles

and

firing at each other.

were mounted on planes, but they could shoot only pilot

and spy

as a balloon or a Zeppelin.

In the beginning of the war, a pilot's

Enemy

to scout

Machine guns

off to the sides.

A

attempting to shoot in the direction he was flying often shot off

named Fokker, who worked for the Germans, invented a way to synchronize a machine gim with a propeller. For a while the Fokker planes ruled the skies. Then the Brithis

own propeller. Then

ish

captured one of the Fokkers and developed their

a

Dutch

scientist

A his

French

pilot

gun before

own

fighter planes.

checkj the sight on

talking off. This plane

was a biplane, having two wtngs.

The

faster Fof^\er planes

had only one

wing, malting them easier to maneuver.

r"

Above: most World War

I

planes were single-seaters.

The

pilot

was

own

his

gunner, navigator,

bombardier and, ,

on occasion, photographer. Aerial

photographs were often a great help to forces

on the

ground. Left: the

method

of taking

aerial pictures

was

quite simple. Al-

though bulky by today's standards,

the cameras were lighter than

most

models of the time.

The war Even

in the air captured the imagination of people at

troops in the trenches cheered as they watched a "dogfight" going

on overhead. The propaganda machines helped ing

home.

glamorize the fight-

to

A pilot who shot down 5 enemy planes was known as an ace.

pilots.

The famous Red Baron

of

Germany, Baron von Richthofen, shot down

80 Allied planes before he was killed by a Canadian

pilot.

The

Allied

Frenchman, Rene Fonck, who had 75 "kills." The ace Edward Mannock had 73 "kills" even though he was blind

ace of aces British

was

a

The champion American ace was Eddie Rickenbacker, who shot down 26 enemy planes. In January, 19 15, a new kind of air war began. German Zeppelins bombed British towns and cities. On May 31 London itself was bombed. in

one

eye.

Over the next

18 months, 557 British citizens

were killed and 1,360

bombing attacks by Zeppelins. The Germans hoped that the British would be

injured in

Zeppelin attacks, but the citizens remained calm.

many

Zeppelins from ground

with flammable a

bomb

gas, the

fire

terrified

The Germans

and British airplane

ZeppeUns exploded

if

by the

their skin

lost

attacks. Filled

was pierced by

or incendiary bullet.

German Gotha planes bombed London in a raid that killed or wounded nearly 600 people. In the remaining months of the war, the British developed their own bomber plane. In June, 19 17,

Although none changed warfare

of the

bombing

raids

for the future. Soldiers

was

and

crucial in the war, each

sailors

were no longer the

only ones whose Hves were in danger. In modern war, people living in cities far

home

from the action were exposed

front in the future

Opposite, right: suit."

German

Because the

pilot's

would be

pilot

as

dangerous

modeling an

bombs

the side.

(79)

was often very crude.

inside their

from the

"aviator's

mechanism

Some

for

pilots carried

compartments and threw them over

The bomb shown

here

is

a typical size.

sky.

The

as the battle front.

compartment was cold and windy,

the suit was completely heated. Left: the

dropping bombs

to death

WESTERN FRONT.

Line of Prolonged

:A':^

^S'

1918

OmcimI

tN(.I.ANI)

X

^^^^A

Trench -Warfare, 19 J 7

Hindenburg Line

Passchfndaelc

Calais

^

Limit of

pres*

German

Spring Offensive

LYS ,, OfhUSSIVt ,*

Armistice Line, 1918

Ncuvc,

W

Chapcllc

'.^

Arras* i

SOMMh

OFFBNSIVh

*

,

Compiegne • 'Soisson

X

Chateau

Bclleau!

0»'

Woods^ Marnr

fj^ PARIS

lhicrr\'

"

'Mcaux

^,m

WAR

IN THE

"

FRANCE

WEST

Germany Gambles At

i'stCOSD battle \ or THE MARNH

All

Germans were becoming desperate. The British blockade was more effective than ever. The Germans were running out of supplies. The Americans were in the war. But Ludendorff the beginning of 19 18 the

knew he had

a

few months before the United

States could mobilize

send troops. Also, Russia being out of the war allowed

him

and

to transfer

soldiers to the western front.

In this situation, Ludendorff decided to gamble on total victory in the spring of 191 8. tain

With one

great attack,

Germany might

and France before the Americans could

defeat Bri-

arrive in force.

The Germans picked the weakest spots in the Allied Hnes for assault. The first attacks were in Artois and Picardy. This part of front

was defended by

British

British forces,

the the

Ludendorff hoped to drive the

back to the English Channel.

The battle began on March 21, near Amiens. A thick fog helped the German forces advance without warning. The British line was broken on the first day, and the Germans made greater gains in the next few days. The British began to retreat.

(80)

The

and French held a war

British

termined to hold the line and the to

pursue farther.

The

German

The

driving the British to the

sea,

to the area of

called the Battle of the Lys, he ish forces.

The

offensive

ment and gained

were de-

were too exhausted

soldiers

on April

5.

however, had

failed.

Ypres once again. In an offensive

made another attempt

5 miles the first day.

the front told Ludendorff the

move any

The Germans

men were

breaj^ing through British lines

March, 1^18. Ludendorff counted on using

same

Russia.

tactics that

"We

he explained. British

had worked

for

him

in

The rest follow," What went wrong was that the

chop a

hole.

and French reinforced

holes in the line

quicker than the Russians had been able

An

pressed forward, officer

back from

too busy searching for food to

faster.

The Germans

to crush the Brit-

began April 9 with another huge bombard-

but at a slower pace, over the next several days.

the

British

Battle of the Lys

Ludendorff turned

in

The

The Germans had French countryside. The objec-

offensive stopped

gained 1,250 square miles of desolated tive of

council.

to.

Although the

British

had

ground, their defensive line was

lost

now

drawn together, giving them a superior position. On April 25, the Germans tried to advance again, but the British, with supporting French troops, drove

The Aisne

Now

back the attack.

OflFensive

Ludendorff switched

to the southern part of the western front.

He

chose the area north of the Aisne River on a ridge called

des

Dames. The Germans

tore

started their

through the center of the Allied

Chemin bombardment on May 27. They

line,

and swept forward, crossing

and then the Vesle River. By June 3 they reached the Marne River, east of the town of Chateau-Thierry. They were 37 miles from the Aisne

Paris.

But the Americans were on the way.

The American Third

Division rushed to the Marne.

they passed French soldiers

Americans held the can and other

German

American

who

line at the

told

Marne.

them

A

the

war was

On

over.

the

way

But the

second battle between Ameri-

troops took place west of Chateau-Thierry, with an-

victory.

The German

offensive halted

An American

on June

soldier,

helmet of an

6.

wearing the

officer of the

Prussian Guard, posing in a shell hole.

.-te3

,*s^.

An American machine-gun platoon from the

,^'%

8th Division,

advancing [*''

through a woods

«?%i

>i

in

France

late in the war.

**¥ "^

y_^^^ '•

«^^

\}

:|!^/

7-^g^^,-^..

'•^-i."

^y|?v

^'^1$^^, Americans at a

firing

M^

'*y^^*^

»

*'

German

5.^.r,

airplane. Antiaircraft

guns

^--'^

were used by

'N

both sides but

were not very e'Qective. '

/

v:^

Right:

Germans

defending a position in France.

By

late in

even the

igiS

German

soldiers in the

trenches realized the

war was

lost.

Between August

and October the Allies took^ almost

^00,000 German prisoners.

Below:

British tankj.

The smoke

screen

was often used in attackj to

permit movement

without detection

by the enemy.

The

Allied Counterattack

Now began an Allied Wood,

Belleau

counterattack.

One

of the decisive battles

a hunting preserve west of Chateau-Thierry.

mans prepared

was

at

The Ger-

major defense. The American Second Division,

for a

probably the best American fighting unit, was selected to attack.

On

June

6,

the attack began.

Wood.

southern section of Belleau

marines retreated to allow their

Soon more

units arrived

American marines occupied the

Fierce fighting continued until the

artillery to destroy

and Belleau

Wood

fell

German

on June

Wood was a great psychological victory for

Belleau

positions.

25.

the Americans.

The Germans, who had not beUeved the Americans would fighters, now called them Teufelhunden, or "devil dogs."

be effective

Ludendorff ordered a fourth offensive south of Amiens, which failed after the

ordered his forces to

French and

is

The Second

9 miles. Again Ludendorff

Germans had penetrated strike.

known

This

as the

Battle of the

final effort

came on

July 15 against the

Second Battle of the Marne.

Marne

This time the French were better prepared. The Germans penetrated their Hne, but the

German front

French counterattacked on July

broke.

The

battle

18,

using tanks.

continued for three days. At

its

The

end the

Germans were in full retreat. Ludendorff's gamble had failed. Along the Somme, the British, Canadians, and AustraHans launched a major attack at Amiens on August 8. The attack was planned to make effective use of tanks.

There was no

stead, the tanks led the attack,

In

less

barrage beforehand. In-

artillery

with the infantry following close behind.

than two hours the British captured 15,000 prisoners and 400

German

artillery pieces.

Ludendorfif later wrote: "August 8 was the

German army." big German salient

black day of the

The

last

Saint-Mihiel.

American colonel

lay south of

bombing this position. On September attacked and the bulge collapsed. Now the all

along the Hne.

Germany was only

(85)

at the

town

of

Billy Mitchell led 1,500 Allied planes

in

was launched

Verdun

The

a matter of time.

12

American ground troops

counteroflfensive of the Allies

stalemate was over, and defeat for

VICTORY IN THE EAST The war was going Near East the

badly for the Central Powers on

British troops followed

taking the Syrian city of Damascus.

on October

up

all fronts.

In the

their victory in Jerusalem

The Ottoman Empire

by

surrendered

30.

The Allied soldiers who had been bottled up in Salonika broke out. They routed the Bulgarian army and forced Bulgaria to sign a truce on September

The

The

29.

last

Austrian offensive was stopped on the Piave River in June.

Italians counterattacked across the Piave

forces in late October.

November

and defeated Austria's

Austria-Hungary asked for an armistice on

3.

VICTORY IN THE WEST The

Allied counteroffensive in the west continued.

through the Hindenburg Line

at the

The

British broke

end of September. October saw

The final AUied drive was the during which many Americans lost their

a successful Allied offensive in Flanders.

Meuse-Argonne lives in the

offensive,

Argonne

Forest.

Germany was falling apart. The Kaiser forced Ludendorff to sign, and the German navy mutinied. Finally Hindenburg advised Kaiser to abdicate, and Germany surrendered.

re-

the

ARMISTICE

On November on the

1 1

the armistice

basis of Wilson's

The

armistice

at the front

was signed. The Germans surrendered

Fourteen Points.

was greeted with joy

all

over the world.

The

soldiers

broke into cheers. They ran across the barren and wasted

no-man's-land. In the midst of the destruction there was a feeling of joy.

(86)

The war was

over

The

armistice

celebration as in

It

looked

London's

Fleet Street

:t^ The "Big Four." Left to right:

Lloyd George, Orlando,

Clemenceau, and Wilson.

,V,<'-«tfu_

^'-'^^v^^^-m

-m^^''^^'

Germany's defeated troops arrive in

As

Berlin.

the

men

pass through the

Brandenburg Gate, onlookers little

show

enthusiasm.

Military leaders

':^yi:

such as Ludendorff

were

later to

that the

claim

German

army was "stabbed in the bacl(' by

the politicians

who

surrendered.

nN-'

^

EPILOGUE

THE VERSAILLES CONFERENCE With

the

war

over, all eyes turned to President Wilson.

When

Points had brought hope to millions. at the

end of 191 8, he was greeted

His Fourteen

Wilson arrived

in

Europe

as a hero.

The peace conference met at Versailles in late January. Most of the Orlando of Italy, Clemendecisions were made by the "Big Four"

—

ceau of France, Lloyd George of Britain, and Wilson of the United States.

Contrary to the traditions of European diplomacy, there were countries. All of the winners except

no representatives from the defeated

Wilson wanted

to collect the spoils of war.

THE PEACE TREATY The

treaty that

and the Allied

was

finally written

was

a

mixture of Wilson's idealism

nations' desire to collect spoils.

blamed the war

entirely

A

on the Central Powers,

This section caused bitterness

among

section of the treaty especially

the defeated nations.

Germany.

The

victors

demanded that the losers pay the costs of the war. The treaty returned Alsace and Lorraine to France. Belgium was evacuated, and given a small strip of

Poland was established with

German

territory.

The

country of

taken from Russia, Austria-

territory

Hungary, and Germany. Czechoslovakia was created with territory from Austria-Hungary. Yugoslavia was created from Serbian and Montenegrin land, along with Austro-Hungarian land. Italy gained some territory.

The German

colonies in Africa

Ottoman Empire were come independent Wilson of Nations correct

and non-Turkish

parts of the

entrusted to the Allies. These areas were to be-

later.

justified his

compromises on the grounds that the League

was the most important part

any wrongs written into the

of the treaty.

treaty.

The

league would

But the United States never

joined the league, and the league never had the power that Wilson

thought

(89)

it

should have.

^

THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR World War I changed the lives of millions of people throughout the world. The society of prewar Europe was completely disrupted. The seeds were sown for another great war twenty years later. Costs of the

War

World War

I

lives,

the cost

was the most expensive war fought up was about 8 J^ million

wounded. Almost in action.

Many

18 million soldiers

civilians

were

on by the war took many more

The

soldiers

cost of the

war

killed,

to that time. In

dead and about 20 million

were taken prisoner or missing

and

disease

and hunger brought

lives.

in dollars cannot be measured. Before the war,

— other countries owed "debtor nations" — they owed

the countries of Europe were "creditor nations"

them money. After

money est

19 18 they

to other countries.

were

The United

States

became the world's strong-

nation economically.

Crippled

German

soldiers with artificial

limbs

at worh^ in a

shop

making bandages. One German soldier

who

bitterly resented

defeat was a corporal

named Adolf

Hitler.

In 19^3 he would

come

to

power

in

Germany. In 19^9 his troops marched into Poland, starting

World War

II.

Over and the

town

over, the battles of

war raged around

of Ypres, Belgium. This

is

what remained

of the J oo-y ear-old cathedral in the town.

The Germans

shelled

it

because they said

being used as an observation post.

dead

at Ypres,

140

it

To bury

cemeteries were needed.

was the

NORWAY

FINLAND

<

EUROPE AFTER WORLD WAR New

I

Nations Created by

the Treaty of Versailles

4M\KK ^ -^

GREAT

H\l Ih

—

'%>•

..;

M

,:•

IHl R-.;

-•-. DANZIG •

/

/

/

^ -PRUSSIA" EAST

x{.

Other Major Territorial Changes

^

LITHUANIA/ ,/

•

^

BRITAIN

LATVIA ,

_

•

/

,-

••..,.•

!;

LANDS S

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Englisb Channel

>'

\

\.y-^^»<^CZ: I'f.M

Bay of Biscay -•»...— -.

k

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

GERMAN Y

•-.BELGIUM

AUSTRIA

'~^-,

ITALY

/.

YUGOSLAVIA

ALBANIA'!-" •''

»

'

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

GREECE

S^ MOROCCO (Fr.)

ALGERIA (Fr.)

'

TUNIS (Fr.)

Change in the Map of Europe The war changed the map of Europe

Where the AustroHungarian Empire had been before, there were now two countries, Austria and Hungary, much reduced in size. The non-Austrian and

non-Hungarian slovakia,

parts of the empire

forever.

became

parts of Poland, Czecho-

and Yugoslavia.

Russia

lost territory to

of Latvia, Estonia, status as a

Poland, Finland, and the

new

Baltic nations

and Lithuania. But most important was Russia's new

Communist country which changed the political life of Europe.

Loss of Confidence

The

death of millions of young

possible leaders.

men wiped

out a whole generation of

Those who survived the war were often permanently

The

air of

confidence with

which Europeans entered the war was changed

to fear

and uncertainty.

scarred, either emotionally or physically.

And

the

war

terrible war.

(92)

itself left bitterness

that

would

lead to an even

more

4

•jir'-^^Vv'^^J*'-

'-'*'

^^-

. r-.

'The lamps are going out all

over Europe.

We lit

Sir

will not see

them

again in our time."

Edward

Grey, 191

.

«i^

t

1

1

^

INDEX

(Numbers

in italics indicate information to

be found in captions.)

Africa

(

colonies

)

,

9,

n

,

3

1

,

4 1 89

Bulgaria, 10, 40,

,

86

Air war, 54, 76-79, 8^ Airplanes, 43, 54, l6--jc), 83, 85 Albert,

King

Cambrai, and Battle

of the Belgians, 16

Allenby, Gen.

Edmund, Viscount, 67

Allies, 17, 26, 27, 31, 32, 40, 51, 59, 64, 68,

85, 86,

Caporetto, Battle of, 64, 65

Carpathian Mountains, 25, 35, 60

89

Alsace-Lorraine, 9, 13, 17, 72, 89

American Expeditionary Force, Amiens, 80, 85

7

Casualties, 7, 11, 56, 67, 75, 90, 92

of individual battles, 21, 22, 29, 32, 34,

1

40, 42, 44, 47, 48, 49, 62, 63, 64, 71,

Anzacs, 29

Argonne

64

of,

Cameroons, 41 Camouflage, 27, 30

79,86

Forest,

86

Cavalry, in war, 49, 54 Central Powers, 26, 27, 29, 40, 51, 69, 72,

Armenia, 67 Armistice, 86, 87

86,89

Artillery, 17, 24, 30, 37, 39, 43, 48, 49, 52,

62

Chateau-Thierry, 82, 85

China, 41

Artois, 32,

80

Civilians,

Australian forces, 29, 85

war and,

74, 75, 79,

90

Clemenceau, Georges, 88, 89 Colonies, European, 9, 11, 27, 41, ^i, 72, 89

Austria, 92

See also Austro-Hungarian Empire

Austro-Hungarian Empire (Austrians),

Czechoslovakia, 66, 89, 92 9,

10, II, 15, 24, 25, 26, 35, 40, 50, 57, 60,

Dardanelles

65, 72, 86, 89, 92

Douaumont,

strait, lo,

fort,

29, 35, 72

47

Doughboys, 70, 7 Baghdad, 66

Draft, 56, 70, 75

Balkans, Balkan countries, 9, 10, //, 51

Belgium, 12-13,

i5)

16-17, 21, 26, 27, 33,

36,41,72,89,91

Eastern front, 17, 26

Egypt, 41,66

Belgrade, 25,

Estonia, 92

Berlin, 16, 57,

Europe

40 88 Bolsheviks, 60-61

prewar,

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 9 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 61

life in, 6,

7

war's effects on, 7,

Britain (British), 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18,

Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich von, 21, 46, 57

21, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38, 39, 41, 42-44,

Finland, 92

48, 49, 31, 56, 57, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69,

Flanders,

76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 89

Foch, Gen. Ferdinand, 13

navy, sea power, 9, 11, 27, 29, 42, 44,

45,75 British Expeditionary Force, 17, 18

Brusilov, Gen. Aleksei, 50,

(94)

60

\

90-92

86

Fokker planes, 76 France (French),

9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17,

18, 19, 21, 22, 26, 30, 31, 37, 41, 46, 47,

48, 49, ^i, 56, 57, 62, 63, 65, 68, JO, ji.

5

France {continued)

Lawrence, T.

72,73,76,80,81,82,83,84,85,89 war with Germany ( 1870-7 1 ) 9 ,

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke,

Franz Joseph, Emperor,

Liege,

1

9, 15,

57

E.

(

of Arabia

)

67

,

League of Nations, 72, 89 Lenin, Nikolai, 60-61

16-17

Lithuania, 92

Lloyd George, David, 57, 63, 67, 88, 89 Gallieni,

Gen. Joseph,

6,

18-19

GalHpoIi, 28, 29, ^9, 43

Gas, gas masks, 31, 37. 53' 55, 63, 70

Gaza, 66,

London, 74, 79, 87 Ludendorff, Gen. Erich,

Lusitania, 44,

6-7

George V, King of

Britain, 10

German Empire (Germans),

68

Lys, Battle of the, 81 9, 10, 11, 12,

13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 27,

Machine guns,

29, 50, 31, 32, 33, 35, 38, 40, 41, 44, 46,

Marne

47, 49, 50, 52, 56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 65, 68,

22, 33, 48, 54, 63, 76, 83

River, and battles of, 17, 18, 19, 22,

82,85

69, 71. 73. 75, 76, 79> 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,

Masurian Lakes, Battle

85,86,88,89,90,91

Mesopotamia, 66, 6j

navy, 9,

17, 22, 34, 57, 60,

69,80,81,82,83,85,86,88

11,42,44,45,86

Meuse-Argonne

of,

22

offensive,

86

Greece, 10, 51

Mexico, 69

Haig, Gen. Douglas, 48, 49, 63, 64

Mines, land, 33, 39, 63 Mines, at sea, 29

Flindenburg, Gen. Paul von, 22, 34, 57, 69,

Mitchell, Col. Billy, 85

Moltke, Gen. Helmuth von, 12, 13, 17, 18,

86

Hindenburg

Line, 62,

Hitler, Adolf,

Home

86

21

Monro, Gen. Charles, 29 Montenegro, 24, 72, 89

90

front, 74, 75,

79

Hungary, 92 See also Austro-Hungarian Empire

Near

East, 41,

Neuve

New

Imperialism, 11 Iraq,

Nicholas

Ireland, 57

Isonzo River, battles Italy, 9, II, 15,

Zealand

Nicholas,

66

of,

40, 65

40, 65, 72,

86,89

66-67, 86

Chapelle, battle of, 30 forces,

29

Grand Duke, II,

of Russia, 35

Czar, 11, 35, 58, 59

Nivelle, Gen. Robert, 57, 62

No-man's-land, 33, 39, 48, 55, 86

North

Sea, 21, 42, 43,

45

Japan, 10, 41

Orlando, Vittorio, 88, 89

Jerusalem, 67, 86 Joffre,

Gen. Joseph,

13, 18, 32, 57, 62

Jutland, battle of, 45

Kerensky, Alexander, 59, 61, 69 Kornilov, Gen. Lavr, 60

Ottoman Empire (Turks), 55, 66, 61, 72,86, 89

Palestine,

67

Paris, 18, 19, 21, 52, 71,

82

Paris gim, 52 Latvia,

(95)

92

Patriotism, 10, 13, 19, 56

10, 28, 29, 41,

5

Pershing, Gen. John, 70

Tannenberg, Battle

Retain, Gen. Henri, 47, 63, 73

Transportation, 20, 55 Trenches, trench warfare, 26, 30, 33, 36-39,

Piave River, 86 Poincare,

Raymond, 10

22

of,

48,63

Poland, 25, 34, 35, 72, 89, 90, 92

Triple Alliance, 9, 11, 15

Princip, Gavrilo, 15

Triple Entente,

n,

17

See also Allies

Prisoners, 22, 34, 35, 50, 61, 63, 6^, 84, 85,

Trotsky, Leon, 61

90

Turkey. See Ottoman Empire

Propaganda, 17, 56, 57, 79 Prussia, East Prussia, 22

U-boats

United

Railroads, trains, 20, 24, 33, 50, 55

Rathenau, Walther, 75 Richthofen, Baron Manfred von, 79 Rickenbacker, Eddie, 79

Rumania,

9, 10, 50,

Russia (Russians),

(

submarines ) 43, 44, 68, 69 ,

States, 27, 44, 57, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75,

80, 82, 83, 85, 86, 89,

90

Vaux,

72 6, 9, lo, 11, 12, 15, 17,

fort, 47 Verdun, 46-47, 48, 85 Versailles, peace conference, 89

22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 34, 35, 50, 55, 57, 58,

War

60, 61, 67, 69, 72, 80, 8j, 89, 92

vi^ar

with Japan

(

1905

)

Fourteen Points

Women,

Saint-Mihiel, 85

Gen. Alfred, and plan, 12-13

Sea battles (war at sea), 42-45 Serbia, 9, 10, 11, 15, 24, 25, 40, 51, 72,

89

75

I

90-92

financial cost of, 52, 75,

outbreak

Shipping, 27, 29, 42-44

of,

90

1

peace treaty, 89

Sinai Desert, 41 Slavs, Slavic territories, 9, 10,

Somme, and

82

becomes worldwide, 41 causes of, lo-i i effects of, 75,

89

of, 72, 86,

in wartime, 70, 74,

World War

86

Samsonov, Gen. Aleksandr, 22 Schlieffen,

46,62

front, 13, 21, 26, 36, 50, 80,

Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 9, 16, 22, 69, 86 Wilson, Woodrow, 68, 72, 88, 89

10

,

Saint Petersburg, 59, 61

Salonika, 51,

plans, 12-13,

Western

Revolution, 57-61

24

Battle of, 47, 48-49, 85

See also Casualties

World War

II,

7,

55,90

Sophie (wife of Franz Ferdinand), 15 Spee, Admiral Maximilian von, 42

Submarine war

(

U-boats ) 43, 44, 68, 69 ,

Suez Canal, 41, 66 Syria,

Ypres, and battles

of, 21, 27, 31,

81,91 Yugoslavia, 24, 89, 92

86 Zeppelins, 54, 76, 79

Tanks,49, 53, ^^,64, 84, 85

(96)

Zimmermann Telegram, 68-69

37, 63, 64,