Osprey, Men-at-Arms #224 Queen Victorias Enemies (4) Asia Australasia and the Americas (19

224

OSPREY· ME -AT-ARMS SERIES

QueenVictoria's Enemies (4): ~ia, ~stralasia and the~mericas

~JEN-flT-ARMS

EDITOR: :\IARTIl\'

SER I ~:S

\\'I~DROW

QueenVictoria's Enemies (4):

~ia, ~stralasia and the~mericas Texlby IAN KNIGHT Colollr!Jlales by R I CHARD SCOLLI NS

OSPREY

PUBLlSIII~G LONDON

Published in '990 b~ O:.prC) Publi~hing: Lid

59 Grosvcnor Slrt."eI. London W I X 9)).\ t Copyright t990 OsprC) I>ublishin~ Lid All rig-Ills rc_,ervrd, Apart from an~ l;lit'
IJrllirhl.ibrur:.rCu/flloguingin l'ublicalioll Dll(a Knight,I.III,I.956Quttll \'ictnria\ EnemiN: .\sia, ,\U:>lnali:1 and the Anwricas. I. Title II, Srollins, Richard III, Sl'I'iN623 ISBN 085015951 (i Filmsct in Great Ilritain Printed through Bookbuilders Lid. I long Konl{

Author's Note .\s umal, se\ crallx"Ople ha\t.' been 1ll000t generous in prO\ iding: infornMtion on their p.1.rtirular fields of (·xl)(·rtise. ~Iy thanks 10 Tim Ryan. for his \Iork 011 the ~I,lOris; and wT('d Hcrbcrt, DougJohnson and Da\id JOlW" \Iho all allowed mc ,(ccess to malerial in their collet"lions. Bryall .\laggs, as {'VI'I" was most generous \\ ilh hissuperh library ofeontc'mporary photographs, ~I~ thanks al~o 10 Claire Colbt,rt, \\ hose consummate ~kill \\ilh cnlarJ.:l'r and dcn-Ioping Allid IlMdc the pholCJKf:lphic cop~ illg JlO!'-.. ible. Readers sccL:ingdelail... of HI'it ish trUOI>S during the ColOllial \Iars ~hould consult ~Iichat'l Banhorp'sseries Thr British Am~)'on Camlmi[!,f1 ill the ~1(,lI·al·AnllS,('ri\'s: \'0. /: /8/6 18.';3 (~IAA (93),_\'0.3: 1854 8/ (J\IAA 19H ,and.\"o./:IIJ&? 1902(~IAA201), Artist's Note Rea(krs ma~ ('arc to nott' Ihat the on~in;\IIMintill~ from \\ hich the colour plait'S in Ihis book \\ere preparcd arc a\-ailablc for pli\'ate sale. ,\11 rcpl'O
For a c:.lt:lloguc of :.III books published ple:lse "rite 10:

b~

Osprq ,\ lilit:.lr~

The i\1arketin~Manager, Consumer Cataloguc I)epartmenl Osprey Publishing Ltd, 59 Grosvenor Street, London, \\'IX 91>:\

Queen /fe/orin's Enemies (4): iJ,frorlllrfioll

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\\arfan' to suppress i\laori oppo~ition 10 s(,ttl('r in X('" Z('.t1and. In olher .tn',.n il amounlro to lillk 11101'(' llHlll slinnishiruc. and incid('llt such as Brookc's call1p.liKIl a1{aill\l lhe piralcs of Borneo, or 1111' Jam... ir;lI1 rnolL of .Ob.'), ha\'(~ Jaq~d) heell rOrK0ltCll. It \Sould he il1l!>O'>sillk il' a book of this l~l)(' 10 C"OIl,ider all oflh("\(" campai~ns full), but il is hopt-d 10 sUK~est \Ol11elhin1{ orlll{' \,.triel) or Ih('fo,c 'small \\.Irs' and orlhe qualill('S lll(,' dispamll' pcopl('s \Sho took lO lhe field to 0pJXN.' the ..pre.leI orlh(" Briti h Empire, ('xpan~i()ll

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Chillf! To the minds ofacquisitivc WCSlcmcrs embarking all a course of empire to enrich their rival national caners, China at the start of the 19th century seemed another India-the prize plum oflhe East, ripe for the pluckin!{. Within its enormous boundaries were 400 million potential customers for the goods produced \\ ith increasing enlcicncy by the processesoflhe Industrial Rc\'olution, and whose unsaved pagan souls \\ere a spur to missiollar~ endeavour. \\'hat \\as more, the administration of the ruling ~Ianchu Quing Ch·inR dynasty seemed hopdCS!;l~ archaic, bureaucratic, inefficient and corrupt, and China·s military forces were weak and anachronistic. Yet the Quing rulers of the Celestial Empire singular!} (;..ikd to see the benefit of contact \\ith Eurol>cans \\ho. from the

majcslyofthc Imperial Palace a! Beijing (Peking), seemed no morc than so mallY uncouth barbarians. The resultant frustration ortlle European powers was 10 be cruelly vented on China, making the 19th century a time of turmoil and connicL

The first British traders had established a 'fae· tory', or trading compound, at the pon of Canton in 1757 but, like their Ponugucsc and French counterpar15, had been expressl) forbidden to move outside ilS confines. The British soon found China to be a ]ucrati,'c market for opium, which was grown on the plains of north central India, and for a \\ hill' pron.'d to be the British East I nelia Compall)'S most profitable export. The Chinese A f.mou.. pholO(l:raph of the afternaath of the ...... ull 00 th.. Da5'l (T.k"l Fon.. io .860. The dead Chinese . .Idiu, ccat"" iJil cl..... rly wear';a! a .... rcoat with ciraoJ.r ..mbroid ...red p ....el oa the Croat; ....d typieal Chiaese weapo... a", Ijllered .bo.. t:

:...~~:~~~i~~~I;:..::~:::,c!..":f:;.~e;:li~~~s::'=~ bamboo shield (Iefl). (Natio...1 Army M ........on)

readily took to the drug, and British resentment at being confined in their area ofoperations mounted throughout the early pan of the century. So did official Chinese disapproval of the opium trade; and in [839 an official was sent by the Emperor to stamp out the import ofopium through Can tOll. The result was the first ofa series of wars against Europeans, in which the issue was essentially the question of free trade, and the international equality such interaction implied. The Opium War lasted from [839 to [842, and set a pattern for latter conflict; it .\,as marked not by continuolls violence, but by occasional outureaks of varying ferocity, interspersed with long negotiations. The Chinese were defeated in the fidd, and were forced to allow the British access to four more ports. They cOlltinued to refuse toallow foreign representatives at the Imperial Court, however, and to refuse to deal with them as independeTlt governments of equal status. In [854 the Opium War treaty came up for revision, and the Chillese showed no sign of changing their altitude. In October [856 a Chinese ship, the Arrow, sailing- under the Union Jack and with a British captain, was boarded by Chinese officials and her crew arrested as pirates. The British representative in Canton demanded an apology, and fighting broke out. The French, no less frllstrated than their British counterparts, were quick to join in to pursue grievances of their own. In December [8S7 Canton fell to the whites, and in \lay [858 the strategically important fons at Dagu (Taku) at the mouth orthe River Peiho, only 100 miles from the capital, were taken. The Chinese opened negotiations and reluctantly agreed to accept foreign embassies at the Court, and Dagu was returned to them. When. in June 1859, British and French ships arrived to deliver their representatives, they tried, against the terms of the agreement, to sait up the Peiho. The Dagu Ions opened fire, and war broke out again. After the inevitable round of delays, evasions, negotiations and ultimatums, the British and French took the Dagu fans by storm in August [860. They then advanced in the laceofvaeillating Chinese opposition to the outskirts of Beijing itself. The Emperor fled, and the Quing dynasty seemed on the point of collapse; unpaid and disorganised Chinese troops roamed the streets of lhe capital

f

A Chinue commander of .860, weadng the Iypical cOlltume of a high.ranking official: a plumed hat, and lunic bearing a panel declaring his Iilalus. This particular man has an Imperial dragon on bis CheSI, whicb indicat"" hill senior posilion. (Nalional Army MUIleum)

while the foreigners looted and burned the Imperial summer palace. At the last minute the Chinese declared themselves willing to accept the AngloFrench demands, and the invaders withdrew, having secured their right to be represented in the Court and to expand their trading activities. Yet the years of comparative peace with the Western powers brought China no respite. \-Vith their authority supreme over such a wide area, across so many geographical zones and over so many disparate groups ofpeoplc, the Quing had to deal constantly with the threats of natural disaster and of rebellion. The last half of the decade \Vas marked by several severe floods, which cost the lives of thousands of ordinary Chinese, disrupted provincial administration, and unsettled the survivors. And in 18~)l a rebellion had broken out which would pose a major threat to the survival of the empire itself. The 'raiping Rebellion was both a religious and a political movement, its leaders having forged a new religion from a fusion of Christian and Chinese beliefs, and it spread rapidly across central China. In lhe cnd it would be bloodily repressed, but not until [4 years later and at the cost of an estimated 20,000,000 dead. The Quing reacted to the Taiping crisis with a

series of military and political rcrorms. but they werc too small and too late to secure China's integrit} in thc face of subsequent forei~11 .tggression. B} the 1880s the 'scramble for empire' was in full swing in Europe, and the ri\'al empires wcre keen 10 detach any Chinese possessions \\ hich \\ere not under effectivc central ('"ontrol. In 188.-1the French moved into Annam (Vietnam), which was thell part orlhe Chinese cmpire, and seizcd it despite the resistancc of the Chincse-backed Black flag movemcnt. Ten years laterJapan. \\ hich had bccn rapidl) modcrnisin'g since enforced contact with the \\'cst30 years before. o\'crran :\Janchuria in a \\ar which exposed the hopeless inadequacy of the Chinese armed forces. In 1896 Gennan), a latc entrant in the race for Colonial acquisitions. ll~ed a disputc involving its missionaries as a pretext for seizing several north China paris. The same year the Russians, not wishing to miss out. seizcd Port Arthur.

The Boxer Uprising Incvitably, the action of the forcign powers pro\'oked biller res('IHment \\ithin China. The DO\\ agel' Empress TL·u.hsi, \\ ho had been implacabl) opposed to contact with \\'CStcrners throughout her time at the Court, and had in 18g8 oustl,d the Emperor in a palace coup and occupied the Imperial throne herself, uscd all lhe intrigues at her disposal to thwan thcm. Yet the greatest challenge 10 foreign intervcntion was to comc not from the top laycrsofChincsesociet)', but from Ihe vcry bottom. Thc Boxcr L:prising which S\\Cpt across northcrn China in tS9g and into thccapital in 1900, besieginl{ the foreigners in the Legations for 55 day,s, was a popular mo\'emcnt firml} rooted in peasant socict}. The ri-Iti qmm movcment, the 'Boxcrs Unitcd in Righteollsness', (irst emerged ill lhe nonhefll H.,avyChin.,s., guns caplur.,.( al Da!fu. (Aulhor's colleclion)

province of Shandong (Shantung) in the spring of 1898. Shandong was a large and impoverished province which had suffered a number of misfortunes. The Taiping armies had raged across it; and in 18g8 the Yellow River, which flows tllfouKh it, burst its banks, killing thousands and depriving millions of their livelihood. Banditry, always an alternative means of Slipport amongst the peasant community in times of hardship, was endemic. furthermore, Shandong was an area greatly aflected by missionary activity, particularly German Catholics OflllC Society oftbe Divine Word, whose aggressive methods were deeply unpopular. With the backing of the Imperial Government to support them, the missionaries were able to claim a special status for their converts, and fi·equently used their influence to interfere with the local adminislration on their bchalf: They therefore attracted a large following from those Chinese at odds with their own authorities, whom the missionaries protected and supported, thus increasing the tensions with orthodox Chinese. Sccrel socicty movelllents were by no means unusual ill China, and the 1''i-he qUtlll were lollowing an established tradition ill which dissatisfaction with Imperial rule was orten lllerged with religious dissension and manial arts tedllliques 10 provide a focus lor rebellion. In 1896 Shandong itsclfhad seen an uprising by a groupcaJled Ihe Big" Sword Society, who, however, had been ruthlessly suppressed. The Boxers United ill Righteousness sometimes translatcd as the 'Righteous and HarmoniOliS fist') were unusual in that they lacked an clement ofreligiolls challenge to Confucian orthodoxy. Indeed, they drew their inspiration from the pantheon of popular Chinese gods, and practised a lorm 01" spiriwal possession whose rituals, involving SOIllCgOllg-jU (kung fu) techlliques, were easy 10 learn. Their appeal spread very rapidly among the young peasant men who were most allccted by economic hardship and most vocal in their rejection of the in(Juenee 01" the foreigners. Their aims and objects were summed up succintly in their slogan 'Fu-Qj/illg mie-)'tl/lg'~'Support the Quing, destroy the foreign'. The movement was essentially an egalitarian onc; indeed, it was theoretically possible for Icadcrship of Boxer groups to change from day to day, according to the shins ofspirit possession, although

in practice a numberofdefilclu leaders did emerge. I t was extremely dillicult for the Imperial authorities to isolate Boxer leaders, however, and as thc movement spread it attracted support within the Court from those who considered the Boxers patriots. The Boxers had no means of acquiring modern arms, and in any case their philosophy rejectcd all things \Vestern. Instead they wcrc armed with traditional Chinese swords and spears. They began by attacking Christians in Shandong, wrecking such manifestations of the loreign presence as telegraph wires and railway lines, and in the summer of 1900 streamed into Beijing. The Court vacillated and at last decided 10 suppOrt A Chin.,,,., flag capturf'd in .860. Most Chin.,..., bannen, including ,hos., of th., BOX.,rlf, wer., ....,ry large, triangular, and bor., pall.,rns rath.,r than inscriptions. (National Arm.y Mus.,um)

A Chin.,,,., official and ....Idieu in Beijing, 'goo, The lIOidjers are wear;ng cypieal Chine.e miliCary eOllCUDle, a "ureoal wilh embroidered pllleh, and II "ilk bllc. (Brya.. Maggs)

them, and in .JUIIC Igoo declared war on Ihe foreign Allies. But Iheir aClion bikd to destroy the Legations and othcr foreign enclaves, and the Allied response was scvcrc. An international expedition of eight nations was mounted which look Bcijing, forced llle Dowager Empress to flee, suppressed the Boxers, and at last opened China fully to foreign influence. I Chinese armies Enough has been said, it is hopl.-d, to suggest something of the confusion which beset the Chinese authorities during the 19th century, and this confusion was inevitably demonstrated in her I ArullaITOulll ..1l1t...f..... lldin~It\A(I:;, rlwHou,.RMI... b) Lrnn ~:.flod;".pla.nb)alrii\\'arnrr

militaryorganisalioll. \\'hCllthe i\lanchus erupted from i\lanchuria and seil.ed the Imperial throne in 1644 their troops were divided into units under diflcrent flags and known as tile Eight Banners. The Ballilermcn became the mainstay of Manchu support, although, as the dynast y became increasingly influenced hy the customs and outlook of the native Chinese, the Bannermen were largely indistinguishable from the rcst of"the population. They were, howe\'cr, a hereditary army, in which each male descendant ofa Manchu was allotted a place and waselllitlcd todraw rations from the Emperor whether he :'Ktually SCI"vcd or not. Although thcy wcre technically required to practise the i\lanchu military ans of archery and horsemanship, their military value dcclined gre.ltly ovcr thc generations. Those Chinese troops who had served the Emperor before Ihe arrival of thc ~lallchlls were reorganised under the name of the Crccn Stan 4

dard, and distributed throughollt the provincial garrisons to act as a police force. One late J 9(hccntury estimatc placed the stf('llgth of the Bannermen at over 200,000 and that of the Green Standard at o\er 500,000, but these figurcs arc artificially high since it \Ias common for onLcers to pocket the pay of men \\ ho only existed on paper. These \Iere the forces available to the Chinese during: the Opium War and the .lrroU' \\'ar. C nfortllnatcly British sources scemed uninterested in the nature oflilc troops opposing them, so it is diOieult to determine \\ hich sections of the Chinese army \Iere actually ('n~aged. During the .JrroU' \\'ar the Chinese at Dagu \lere under the command of a :\Ianchu general named Sen-ko-linch'in. and includ<.'d a large number of :\Ianchu troops-prcsllmabl~ Banncrmen \Iho prO\ided his ca\-a11) arm. The British referred to thcm as

Tartars, and onc eye·witrless account describes them: 'The Tanars \I'cre dressed in the ordinary Chinese hat of black silk, with the brim (urned up all round, and had t\\O ~quirrcls' tails projecting frolllthe hat behind, \1 hich arc the dec-oratiOll only \Iorn by military men. They had on light coloured jackc!:. over a long ullder.garment of' darker matcriaL and hlue trousers tucked into black Tartar boots, The)' \Ierc armed \\ itll spears, hadng red horse·hair hanging from the shaft \1 here it joins the irOll\lork. They rode in short stirrups, and \Iere mounted on hardy \lorking ponies,' A company of80..",", in Tiuljin., pr...-umabty tH:for'" th", atan of b01ililil;rs. They ap~r to be wearinA rflt bead-s.ca......",. and 1H,.,,,,rat h.a"e red armbands, b.iI oLherwi.e Lhey w ... r lh", .rdinary cot
TIl(" majorit) oflhe Chinese troops wore ajacket of brown or yellow, with a long- s1ce\'t'less surcoal bearing ;I circk f)'ont and back and Chinese characters denoting their unit and the \\ord)'ll1/g meaninl{ 'coUl'ag-e' or 'bl';l\e', TIll') \\ore t'ithcr a silk hal or a turban, ,\Ie spears, halberds, tl'idents ilnd s\\ords, The fans at Dagu \\crt' prolfftcd b) emplaced hea\~ aniller~, but maladministration cnsur(,d that mall\ had only poor 1>o\\d(,I' and impro\ised projcctil~, Ollt: Bo..ers capturfl:! by US troop. al TiaojUr., lfte_ fouol pea.....'" lire typicat or tholie who floc:kfl:! 10 joUr. tbe Yi-be qUlin, Note lhal all have the rronl orlbeu- beadlillba"fl:!lllJd wear the queue, (Ubrary OrCo0lrelill)

characteristic Chinese weapon was the jingnl, a large, hea\}', erudc br(";H:h~loOrt, or a rampart, ur till" shoulder ora \\illill~ \'oluntecr. Other Chincs(' \\capons included .!.;n'nadcs and '!>tinkpots' earthenware pots filled \\ith pO\\(\(-r and containing a ruserockels, fired li'om trou,I.;"h.. 01: tub(:s like their Briti~h counterpart"> hut Iwaring an iron arro\\head, and 1>0\\,,> and arro\\.,. The Taipill~ Rcbdlion pl"o\oh'. '1'0 {'ope:' wilh nXional outbreaks a local mililia was rai"t'd. and exisled alolll{l'ide the Gret'll Slilndard. with much Ihe ~ame duties, Graduall~ Ihe militia took on-r from the Greell Siandard. and \\as kno\\n as the

Defence Army. From J86S the Imperial Government also decided to utilise foreign advisers ill an altempt to modernise some of thcjr troops. Attempts were made to form ullits kno\\ n as the Disciplined Forces from the Green Standard, but by 1894;t Japanese intelligence rcpon suggested IhaL onh three-fifths of the Chinese armv was armed \~ith modern firearms, the rest I;avingspears or s\\ords, Photographs of Chinese arsenals in the IBioS sho\\ a \'al'iet) of importcd weapon t)pes, but these hardl) seem to ha\-e made any impacl on front-line troops. The establishment from 1885 of academies on \\"~tern lines to train ollicers does lIot seem to ha\'e impron~d efficiency. as the Chinese sho\\in~ in the war of 189+ was appalling. follow in~ the disaster of the Sino-Japanese \\"ar, it was obvious e\'(~n 10 the Imperial authorities that some attempt \\ould han- to be made to create a force organised alon~ modern lines. The result \\as two armies: the Sdf·Strengthenin~ .\rmy of Chan~ Chih·tung. and the Pacification ,\rm~ of Yuan Shih.1-\. 'ai. The Sclf·Strengthenin~ ,\rm) consisted ofeig-ht batlaliolisofinfantry.l\\o squadrons ofcaval 1') • t\\ 0 brigades ofanillel) and a compan) of engine('I"S. The) \\ere uniformed in \\"estern 5t\le, traintd b\ German officers and xeos, and'anned \\ith G~rmall ~Iauser or S\\edish ~Iannlicher rifl(·s. Thl' Ilaeific::ltion Arm~, also kllO\\ n as the 1\'e\\ I} Created Army, boasted t\\O infantry \\ ings of 1\\0 and three battalions, four troopsofcavalry, all anilln} unit with both heavy and quick-firing arms, and support services and engineers. It had a Ilominal strength ol"i,ooo men. Attempts were also made 10 form new armies from the militia uniLs, although the reorganisation was Ell' from compk'te at the time of thc Boxer rising. Th~' Tenacious Army had 10,000 mcn A fusion of W.,.cern and crad;lional Chinue idea" which in tnan)' wa),. Iypifiell che Imperial army of 'goo' a n.tnparc rifle, a modern veuion of che jin6a1, (Nal;onal Army MUlleum)

The headdr.... of a TiSerma", a .~ion of tile Mandlu Bannennan ann)' which wall re"i"ed co IIUpporC lhe &"era in 19oo, (Nalional Army Muaeun.)

formed into ~o hattalion~. The Kansu Irregulars were recruiLed largely from the 1\loslel11 population of Lhat provincc, and werc descrihed in contemporary accoullts as a disorderly rabble; whilst Sung Ch'ing's Resolute Army !lumbered aboul 10,000 men. 1\1
ineorporatl'd into a 11('\\ so-called Guard's .\rmy and st;llioncd in di, i..ions around northern China. A nl:\\ C('nln' Didsion \\a~ Rmllcd from the Banll('rmell: Ihl' Tenacious Arm} formed the Front Di, ision. and \\as stationro ncar rianjin Ticll",in , the Rnolute .\r01\ I)('('amc the Left Di,i!lion, the ~(",d) Crcatl'C! ,\rm} bcc.lIlw the Ri~ht Di,hion. CSt troop.. '\t're kept out of aCliOIl b} the (";lreful inacti,it) of YU.III Shih-K'ai .1l1d Chan.'t Chihlun~. .\s for the Boxel"\, 'lOme hint.!> h.I\e alr"cad, heen gi\en of th("ir organi..ation. ~Io.. t \\ore til(' ordinary P{';l~,lIlt dl"t.'s!l uf \\hitc 01" IIlue cottOIl tunic and tl"umt'rs. and lik(' all Chill('\(', the} \\orC the front of their h('ad\ \ha,-cr! and their IMir ill a queue, .1 t"ompul'>Ol") badge of allegiance to the ~Iall('hm illSlillllcd g"l'ncratiolls h('fore. B} the time tht' 1lI0\ ('ment had ;Ich"ann'd on Ikijin~ lIliln) Boxers \I){)rted it(,,1lI in red .h h.\{h~es of tht'ir alle~ian("(" to the quan: eith('r;1 rcd head·"fMr, a rl'C1 \\ ,ti..t- ;lsh,;\ n'd apron, or n'd tics around the allklC'l or ..trcamef"i from their \\\ord hilt. Iheir leadel"\ \\ ore no distillS;;"uishins;; m.lrh. ahhoulth a

J,-"o

A ...--oodfll TilM:taa _ dIe field or G"no, He i .. wearias ciriliaa c:cHr1.. R1e; Jlot" lhe broad"..·ord, r1ahl. (Natio..al Army M .._ .. m)

fc\\ ;tfl(..c tcrl the dre~s of Court Oftlci,II .., and Ihe }dlO\\ ridillK jaeket \\01'11 only by senior Quin¥{ COllllll.lIlders. III Beijinl<;, once thc Bos-('rs had rc('(·i\l'C1 the ..upport of the Court. attempl~ \\ere nl.tdc to ory,;;.mio,e thcm as militiit; and di~tinct units \\Cl"(' noted \\c,II"inl{ }c110\\ inSlead of red ill~i~· nia. or hlad. rol)(".. \\ ith a red bandall.t_ I'here \\as c\ ('II .1 lCmalc ~mup called the Red L"lnl("rn~ \\ho \\('re int("nded to pro."ide ..uppOrt for the Boxer soldicr<, thelll\Ch t.... The 1'\ idt'nce "U,I{l.tl' t!l thai thl"(' r('forms \\("t'C scared) ullder \\;1\, lu)\\e\"er, \\Iwn thl" L"pri inl.t \\asdefeated, and Ill()'>t Boxers continued to \\(",11" theiro\\n dothClo thmuJ.:hout. I he Boxers \\('re )oun~.IIl';thh), ;tml kt')ed-up b) their belief in their ritual.. and the im ulnerabilit} \\hich theO)(' promised them. In the ('\cnt, hO\\('\er, the) pro\ed no mort' able 10 \\illtstand the brllwll} dlidellt t... chnolll~n of the 'foreign de\ ii,' than theireounlcrparts itlthc re!otular army.

BlllltfIJl flllfl Tibet In an t:.lrlier title in this scri("fi Ihe Brilish pre· occupation "ith Ihe securit} of India' frollliers has alread) been lIoted. The north-easte!"ll frontier of British India \\as anchored in th(' three Him.ala, an statC'l of :\epal. SiL.kim and Uhutan.

.. Beyond them la} the high, remOie. impenetrable tableland oITibet, which exerted a m)sterious and exotic fascination, but about \\ hich almost nothing was kno\\ n. 1'0 threat in itselr, Tibet \\as a source of Imperial concern because, like Af~hallistan in the \\est, it orrered a potential doom a) to India for Russia. In 1864 Britain moved to secure her position in Bhutan. A series offrontier \'iolations provided an excuse for IJritish and Indian troops to cross into Bhutan. The Bhutanese "'ere not well organist-d, and were largely armed with matchlocks-a later photograph of the king of Bhutan' body·guard shows them \\earing striped baggy robes, and carrying round Indian shields and straight s\\ords-but they put upa spirited resistance. The to\\n of De\\angiri in \\estern Bhutan \\as occupied in December 1864, but the garrison \\as subsequentl) attacked with such \'igour that it \\ as forero to abandon its post and retreat to India. In

Capt.. red TibeUUl troops .fln- till' bIlule or G....... CBry... ~b.u.)

~Iarch 1865 a second campaign was mounted \\ hich systematically reduced the Bhutan~ stockades, reoccupied De\> angiri, and, after the manner ofsuch punitive forays, destro)'cd it before retiring to escape the rain)' season. The upshot was a new treat) \\hich recognised British interests in the area. Tibet continued to be a source of concerll to the Raj throughout the remainder of the century, however. There were frequent skirmishes along its ill.f:lel'incd borders, and the 13th Dalai Lama, the country's spiritual and temporal leader, maintained a lofty indiflcrence to British protestations from his palace at the capital Lhasa. Tibet was nominally a pro\;nce of tht' Chinese empire, although the ~Ianchus held it in onl)' minimal control, and the Dalai Lama steadfastly ignored Anglo-Chil1~ accords on the subjcct. Theil. in

'3

1goo, rumours spread throughout India that Russia \\ as intcnt on mO\ing: into Tibet. In de\\ of Russian acti\'it) in the Far East, and thecollapscof Chinese power follm\ ing: the Boxer Cprising, the rumours seemed plausible. A Russian delegation was reportedly making its \\01) to Lhasa. Apparently unaware of the similarities with the even IS which led to the Second Afghan \\'011', the British demanded that the Dalai L"lma receive an ('(Iua] delegation from them. Lhas.."l failed to respond. The subsequent campaign actuall) l:"llis chronologically outside Queen "ictoria"s rcig"n, but in spirit \.,.as \'ery much a pMt 01" it. A diplomatic mission es,ol'ted by over a thousand British and Indian soldiers was gathtTed on the Tibetall border in December 1903, with orders to march into Tibct and force the Tibetans to come to suitable terms. It \\~Hi r:lCed \\ith tremendous praClical diniculties, marching over some of the highest passes in thc world, and it was to bt" bedevilled b) disagreemellts bet\\een the envoy, Col. Young-husband, and the commander of his escon, and by irresolution all the part of the home and Indian g:on·rnments. On the \\ hole, the Tilx·tan arm) was the least of its problems. There were rumours rife amongst the British that the Tibetans had been armed and trained b, the Russian,. but \\ hen the Tibetan army bl()(:ked thrir advancr at Guru althe end 01" :\lareh J90.~ it was lound to consist of" a peasam levy armC'd \\ith matchlocks and broads\\ords. The Tibetan posilion lay behind a stone wall \\hieh blocked part-but not all-or the track. and one (lank \\as anchorC'd in hills \\hich had been ronified \\ith stonc sal/gars. As tht" British approached a Tibetan ddq.;:ation came to mett theill. It induded two g('nt:rals, from Lhasa and Shigatse, ill yellow and green coalS rcspcclivcly, and wcaring embroidered mitres. :\Iost of the Tibetan soldiers were dn.-. ssed in gre) sheepskin robes, hO\\e\"er. The Tibetans ask('C! the British to halt; Ihey replied they could not, and advanced steadily right up to the Tibetan position. For a moment it looked as il"there would be 110 fighting, but the Tibetans refused to disperse. and attempts to make them dosoled toa scuflleand an exchange of shots. The ensuing battle was little more than a massacre; Tibetan fire was inellectu.al in the face of the British ~Iaxims and Lee·.\letfords. The

Tibetans sullenly \\ithdn·w. lea\-ing their dead stre\\ n behind them; of an initial force of roughl) 1.500. between 600 and 700 \\ere kilkd. British killed and wounded numbered less than a dozen. The 'battle" at Guru set the pattern for future fighting: although the Tibt,tans wert· brave, they were hopelessly outclassed. The British column halted at the hamlet of Chango-Lo opposite the Tibetan fortress of Gyant;;(', but when Tibetan troops \\ cre s.."lid to be mU\lering furthcr alon~ the road to Lhasa a nying column \\ as sent out to intercept them. :\'0 sooner had it left than a I"urther Tibetan force swept down from th(' north and launched a surprise night-attack on Chang-Lo. Preceded by a howling war-cry-describ('d by 011e \\ho heard it as a 'hyena concert' tht' Tibclans rushed up and pokC'd their matchlocks through the loopholes of the British po~ition. But the loop-holes had been built I"or Sikhs. \\ ho \\ ere taller than the Tibetans, and ~o pro\"Cd tOO high for them to firc through; when the British had gathered their wits their return fire drove the Tibetans on' with fearful casualties. A day or two later the advanced pan)" found a Tilx,tan arm) ~kill"ull) emplaced behind stone \\alls across a narro\\ \"alle} and reinforced \\ilh jillgals. The British commandcrdespatched parties of Indian troops, including Gurkhas, to scale the valle) walls on either side of tile Tibetan position. and their enfilading fire soon I"oreed the Tibetans 10 retreat. The Tihetans remained in possession of the fort at Gyantse, howc\"er, from \\ hich their jil/gab \\ere able to fire into the position at Chang-

Lo. i\lore British troops were marchl'd up from India; and on 6July, in the face of some Tibetan resistance, the fon was stormed. Within a month the expedition was in Lhasa. The Dalai Lama ned at itS approach, but, with the assistance of the Chinese representative, the Tibetans signed a treat)' accepting British inlluence. The troops soon tired of the m)'steries of Lhasa, \\ hich, apart from the splendid Potala temple, they found squalid and impoverished. No Russian gUlls were found in tllC armoury, and thc rumours of Russian inOllence were found to be a myth. Evell as the expedition gratefully began the long march home, the British government queried itS usefulness and declined to ratify Younghusband's treaty.

Bllrll/fl The Kingdom of Burma, based at .ha on the cClllraJ rcaches of the Ri\'(~r Irrawadd\, 101\ in a slral(:gic position which caused the B:itish' some db.quic!. :\losl importantl), it formed India's eastern boundary, and "as 'reg:arded b) the Supreme Government a~ part of the glads encirding Indian lines ofdcfcncc'; second I} \ it afli-red a potential roule to the anticipated riches of China, Ava, al the beginning of the 19th Ct'lllury, was militarily robust, and followed an CXpllllsionisl philosophy \\ hich seemed to thl'('atl'n I nelia itself. Its soldiers had marched into the Indian border states ofChittagong and. \ssam; and \\ hen allcmplin~ 10 gauge tha's mood. the British found the Burlllest" attitude to diplomatic and commacial conlact 10 be unpredictable and frustrating. In 182,," a dispute O\-er an East India Compan~ trading l>05t had led to a full-scale war \\ hich was intended to bring the Burmcse into line; but they proved tenacious fightcrs, and the conflict was bloody. It won the British some territorial concessions, but once the troops had withdrawn Ava behaved as ifits position remaincd unchanged. So difficult did the British find this that one representativc's reaction to a dispute ,\a~ to order ~a\') ships to open fire on Burmesc ~tockades on the Irra\\add\'. The rNult ,\as the Second Burma Warof 1852, ,~·hich neither side seemed to be ready

to fight; howewr, British troops with Naval protection sailed up the II'I'tockades and drove the defemlers out under a hail R~lar Burmese iAflLDlry Oil tlu, marclL, ,II.". (Aulhor'. COllKtioll)

'5

Li~hl Burn,n;., ~wiv'" !l:un5 n'ou.IIM on .,1"phanlS. A5,"io, constant ,..no"';n5 or ch.,rooU! ".,.,n'5 to haV., mad., an imp...,,,,,ino 00 (h.,ariisi. (AUlhor'5 COIl""lion)

,6

Burmtll...rtill ..ry, ,8". (Aulhor'. colleecion)

Crucified
,7

offire, bdoreoccup)ing :\Iandalayoll :lBGcwber. though some had spears and officers carried EuroThib;n\ surrendt:rcd and \\as sent imo cxile, and pcan swol'ds, The cowalr) were mounted 011 small Britain annexed l.: pper Burma. Tht· victory hard)' ponies and carried the nativc doh s\\ord. pro\l'd illusor). ho\\c\'er. since the defcated Bur· \\hich had a narro\\ blade about 18ins, long, and m~ lroops took to thejun~le andjoitlt'd exi:otin~ \\ as carried in a scabbard from a sling over the bands of tloeo;ts. or bandits. \\ho \\aged a Ruerrilla shoulder, The artilleT) consisted of a \'arict) of \\ar a~ainst the imadeN into the IB90s, On t\\O field pieces, \\ith a large number ofli~h( s\\i\d occasiolls lhc) set (in." to :\1.lndala), and fOI' scveral l;UIIS. some of them mOunted on elephants, :\Iost of the men \\crc I>casant levies and lXM)rl) )cars aner the occupation the) ranged ullchecked throuRh (he jungle mountains which made up train('d, hut the)' seem (0 11:1\'(' been well acquainmuch of thc cOllntr), Thl') \\cre onl) suppl'cssed 1('d with fil'eanns, and \\('re courageous \\ hen well led. The uniform oflhe I'q.:;:ular troops consisted of by a 101lg' and costly w'll'ofatlrition. III tH24 tht: British ill\';ldcrs were much im- a \\ell-made bamboo helmet lacquered red. wilh a Pl'c'i.~t·d by lhe skill of tIl(' Burmcse in building white spike on top; a coloured tunic, and Irousers lortifications. Thc) conSII'UCled large, \\ell·huilt ,\ith a stl'ip(', There seellls to have bcen little stockades of bamlXM) and teak, screcned b) rifle uniformity ofcolouring, ,Ind many soldiers seem to pits, Thc regular Bunnt'SC arlll) seems 10 have han' \\orn the puiSM. the everyda) loineloth of declined in strength and efllciency thlOu~houl the civilian Burmese, either o\'er or instead of their 19th century, but a descrilHion frOm a fc\\ )ears trousers. In 1885 the Mill) had an estimated befon' Ihe war of 1885 !'CHills il 10 ha\c consisted ~tr('lIgth of '20,000, but probabl) did not exceed ofinfanu'Y, caval 1") and aniller) armS. The inr.'ln· 15,000. Supplies of pro\isions, ammunition and tr) \\t're armed for the mOSI part \\ ith muskets, ('quipment "ere erratic, and pay was ortcn great!) in arrears. As a result. mallY discontented soldiers A !r p .( ca..... red d.coit,. ;11 l)'piCIII o:...lun.". NOI" Ihe had all'eady slipped awa)' tojoin the daroils, "' d. a..d dan .word.;n lhe (ore!ro....d. (Br)'a.. Mags.)

'Trial of Pri50aeU'j One of • •erie. of po.ed phot05raphs entitled 'o.coi, h ..atins' whicl> nevercheteu acaaratety r~ Beeu the ap...,.raace of the B..rmen rerril...... (Bryan Mass·)

Ti,e EfIS! fllrlies

Although dismissed:ls b:llldits, the daroits were a symptom of I~Ul"1l1a'S maladministration and the diOicult nature of the coulltry. :\I:lny were simply robbers who preyed 011 unarmed villagers, whilst others had a variety of grievances againstlhe Ava regime. After Ihe British invasion they were joined by Burmese patl'iots, soldiers who refused to ,lccel)( defeat, and royalists seeking to restore Thibaw's rule. This miscellany came together under leaders who call cd themselves bos, 'colonels', Armcd with llluskets and doh swords, and able to survive in steaming jungle environments that were impenetrable to European troops, they were:l formidable guerrilla enemy, Photographs of captured daco;ts show them wearing their hair long, often tied up in a bun and covered by a turban. They worc white cation wnics and \\hite or chequcTed loincloths :lml cloaks,

At the beginning of the 19th century the Dutch enjoyed a mOllOpoly of trade in tIle East Indies; yet by the end oflhe century the British had supplanted them. The British and Dutch wcre nominal allies, butthe British East India Company had cast an ellvious eye over the :\llalay archipelago, seeking a secure port en route to Ihe fRbled wealth of China. It was Ieli to all advcnturous Company employee, Thomas Stamford Raflles, to secure a British toe-hold in the region. Taking advantage of the shifting alliances of the Napoleonic Wars, Ramcs led a Company illvasion ofJava in lSI I, but at thc cess;ilion of hostilities an intcrnational treaty stipulated that it should be returned to the Dutch. ~othingdauntcd,RaOies returned in ISI9 and persuaded a local sultan to give him title to Singapore Island at the extrCtne southerly tip of the ~lalaY;:lll peninsula. Ignoring Dutch protests.

'9

long involvement in Borneo which would cventually sec Brooke installed as the 'White Rajah of Sar;:l\\ak', Piracy was endemic in the :\lala} archipelago, with both :\lalayan and Iban pirate ships, longoarl-d boats known as prahuf, pre}"in~ on peaceful ~hipping, robbing, killinK and enslaving. Brooke beg;:\Il a cOllcerted campaign to suppress piracy \\hich lasted throughout the 1840S. In this he \\as SlippOl'tcd by Capt. Hellr} Keppel of the Royal A'avy and his ship H~IS Dido, N
l\Cl"Q} Zert/fllld

a longbollt which, to his horror, was illt<:rceptcd by native canoes, and his men altacked and murdered. ,\s
Britain \\as at its heig-ht; the European population ofX('\\ Zealand s\\ellcd, and man) ~(aoris found it eas~ 10 sell off under-utilised parcels of land. Yet the \\ hitcs and the .\laoris fundamentall) misunderstood olle another in these exchanges: to the \\ hites thl: purchase was permanent and inalien· able, \\hilst the l\laoris held all land to be in collective ownership, and only inlendcd to sellthc righls 10 live on and work lhe land for a pcriod. The maltcr was further complicated by oftcn complex and cOlltradictory tribal claims which thc \\ hiles seldom bothcred to cxplorc. The result \\ as a snics of connicts of increasing sC\'crit), kllO\\n to the British as the :\(aori \\'ars, and to the .\Iaoris as Tt Rir; Paktha, 'the \\ hite man's an~cr' or, more rc(:cntl) and sig-nificantl}. the Land \,'ars . For the most part these \\ere a succession of regional campaigns as each '\(aori Ho.. ~ Hd,~ (<
CoU~tio..,

tribe came up against the vanguard of European expansion, and made a Sland. The first outbreak occurred in r843 and set the pallern lor future lighting. 'fhe lvlaoris were experts in constructing delCnsive earthworks known as IHIJ, and once a tribc had decided to embark on a campaign it would construct apa and bid the cnemy comc and allack il. With linked entrenchmcnts and wooden screens draped with flax to deaden the eflect of shells, the pa was a formidable obstacle, but it seldom withstood prolonged assault by disciplined troops. By 1846 the hostile ivlaori strongholds had been reduced one by one, and the First i'vlaori War was over. Pakella land-hunger was unabated, however. ChiefTe Hapurona of the Atiawa tribe, who defended the Te Arei ('Tbe Barrier') P/I. against Britisb auack in February and March .86 •. He is bolding .. typical wooden striking weapon, a taiaha. (Ale:llander Turnbull Library)

A remarkable life-shoed sculpture by Ray Dawson showing the beaddr,.,.s of an aroo war_chief. He has huia feathers in his hair, and wearS a shark'" tooth, a bone pendant, and a black trade ribbon in hi.. pierced ear, and a carved tiki charm lIround his neck. {TiJn Ryan)

Throughout the 1850S there were various Ivlaori movements aimed at prcsenting a united front against the whites, but when war came again in r86o-inevitably provoked by a disputed land claim-it remained essentially regional. Allhough some warriors crossed into the territory of neighbouring tribes to support them, the fighting was brgel}' a series of ofu:n llm:o-ordin.1led loca}

outbreaks. By the mid-186os the strongest tribes had been subdued, and there was a shift in the nature oflhe fighting away from set-piece struggles around pas towards free-ranging guerrilla warlare in the bush, where the Maoris were able lo use their reduced numbers and elusiveness to greater advantage. In 1864 a Maori movement known as Pai

.\larju, 'the good and gelllle', sprang up. Originally a mixture of Christianity and :\Iaori beliefs illlcnded to promote friendship between the races, it soon became bitlerl) disillusioned and antiEuropean. Adherents of the cult, known to the whites as J10uhaus from a chant, 'Hau! Hau!', which formed part of their rilUals. prolonged the fighting after the withdrawal of regular British troops ill the late 1860s; and it was not until 18]2 that the last :\Iaori guerrilla, Te Kooti Rikirangi, retired from the field and signalled the dose of the fighting. The ?\laoris had a distinct military code long before the arrival of the /loA-flla. Chiefs were acutely conscious of their I1Il11lfl, or personal power and prestige. Any insult to a man's mOflO, or any other transgression, would call foru/u, a payment in kind

or rcvenge. Vlu could be satisfied at the expense of any mcmber ofthe oflcnder's tribe, which ofcourse provoked further feuds in response, and some :\Iaori tribes were locked in a cycle of retribution which went on for generations. The r-,'laoris had no standing army, but each Illan was a loa or warrior, according to his inclillation and prowess, In war the :\Iaoris fought as a tribe ju·j) or, more often, a sub-tribe (hapu). :\Iaori armies \\cre seldom large -e"en inlhe largest ballicsofthe r860sthe) did not field more than 1,500 men at a time, and sometimes particular bands were quite small. Titokowaru, one of the most dynamic of the guerrilla leaders, began his campaigns with only 60 followers. In bat tic they were led by an ar;J.·j or chier. usually the eldest male of the dominant triballincage, but sometimes a relative whose malla as a warrior \\ as greater. Not until the final stages of the wars did the :\laoris begin to lose respect for traditional leaders and to turn instcad to commOllcrs, such as Te Kooti, whose reputation as warriors overrode their low tribal rank. in bailie the :\Iaori was an individualistic fi1{lner, and personal challenge formed a Strong I)art of his military outlook. lkforc the arrival of the whites the :\Iaoris had a fcw long-range weapons, and most battles wet'c fought at close quarters with a variety of hand-to-hand weapons. 'I'llese chiefly consisted ofa selection of nat, ground clubs of stOlle or whalebone, the edges honed to razor sharpllC.-"SS, and a variet) of two-handed \\ooden striking weapons. nlike many of Qucen

Victoria's enemies the .\Iaoris were quick to appreciate the value of firearms, and even by the start of the first :\Iaori War had acquired large numbers of antiquat cd firearms, many ofthelll exNapoleonic Wars 'Bro\\ n Bess' flintlocks dumped 011 unsophisticated markets across the world when they became obsolete. The i\laori callcd his flintlock Jlgu/u-parera, 'the duck's bill', li'olll the shap(' of the cock, and often decorated the stock with ornately can·ed patterns. Ammunition \\<15 carried in imprO\ised cartouche boxes made of drilled \\ooden blocks wrapped round with a flap of leathcr. In the 18Gos the /lfjJam, or double· barn'lled percussion shot-gun, became popular; its increased rate of fin: and spread of shot were pnrticularly effective in the mist) and c1austro-

~:,,;~"a:C~~~I~:'d~':~~"Id:..e:·.~r::.:oe:o-..rn: (TUn R),u)

...

phobic conditions or lhe bush. Neverthelcss, acquiring sufficient guns, ammunition and spares remained a problem ror the i\ laoris throughout the \\ ars. Bullets had to bt' improvised, powder was or An u'C..U....1 .Iudy of a J\.hori warrior oflbe .86on carrying a tup"'''' doubl,...barrelled ShOI-gu.., and w ... rin!\: a dog kin cape over a dC<'Oraled flu: cloak. (Hawke'. Bay M ..5e.. m d ArIGaIl ..ry)

poor quality, ince the pocket:. could be used to carr~ spare ammunition; and the rapaki, or blanket \\rapped around thc \'aist like a kilt, had all hut replacro the maro. A striking lea lUre orthe i\laori warrior was the l1Ioko, or f;:Kial tattoo. This \\as a ,>cries of raised scars, coloured \... ith blue pignH:llt. which swirled around the contours or the race exaggerating the features. Each lIIoko \\as unique, and although it was nOl an indication orrank, th<.' tattooing process was painful and a lIIoko did embody something ora man'STl/(/I/{/. The head, indeed, was the most sacrcd (/apu) part of lhe bod}', and the heads of f~dlcn warriors were highly prized trophies: LIley were cut ofr and smoke-dried by Ihc vir tors. Ritual cannibalism-the taking- illlO himselfby the victor of some of the dead warrior's malia-was also a reature of tribal \\arran.'; it had died out by the I Rj-os, but \\as revived as a terror lactic by the guerrilla leader Titokowaru. :\Iaori mell wore lheir hair long, usually tied up in a bun to show off their ",oko. By the t860s racial tattooing began to die out among young \\arriors. \\ho grew beards inSlead. 'j'he early practice orrapt, tattooing on lhe

Chinese. l84Os1I860s 1: Manchu cavalryman 2: Matchlock man 3: Chinese orficial or orficer

A

Chinese, 1900 I: Chinese regular 2: Tigcrman 3,4: Boxer rebels

B

Burmese, 1885 I: Regular cavalryman 2: Regular infantryman 3: Dacoit

c

l\1aoris.184{Is 1,2: Warrior1l 3: Chief Hone I-Ieke Pokai of the Ngapuhi tribe

D

l'o1aoris.!860-70 I; Warrior,l860s

2: Chief 3; Warrior. late I860s

E

Australia I: Aboriginal warrior 2:
F

The America8 J: l-enian.c.l866 2: Meli rebel, c,l885 3: Jamaican 'rebel', 1865

G

Miscellaneous warriors I: Bhutanese warrior. c.l865 2: Tibetan soldier. 1904 3: IbanorSeaD)'ak ....'arrior.c.1840

H

bUllocks and thighs, also fell into disuse with the adoptioll of Western dothing. The ~Iaori talent for building fortified emplacements or pas has already been mentioned. In preEuropean times the pa wns almost unassailable, but it still held it.~ own in the age of artillery. Pas usually consisted ofa complex network ofilllerconnccting trenches and pnrapets concealing a number of underground bomb-proof shelters, their approachcs screelll-d b} rifle-pib, and \\ ith carcfully concealed escape pa~ages. The}' \\ ere oflen protected by a double ro\\ of palisndes about 30 ins. apart; the outer screcn \\ns often covered with flax mats attached to the uprig:hts but lea\-ing a gap at the bottom. The defenders, crouching in trenchcs behind the inner palisnde, thereby had a narrow firing slit and an uninterrupted view at ground level. By the 18Gos a double pali<;ade was often dispens<.:d with in fa\'our of a sin~le fence T", Ka.napu, a warrior io Ihe 186os., wearins a 8aI s.... wl d..corated with d08-hair. NOle the .100'" club in hi" w.u.I-b...II. (Aluand"'rTurtlbull Library)

which served as an obstacle rather than a barrier, and slowed the advancing troops at a range where the :\'laori fire was most effective. Sometimes, if wood was not readily available, apa might consist of trenches and ramparts alonc. Although taking pas became a major element in British strategy, the ~Iaoris themselvcs adopted purely pragmatic InCtics: they would defend a pa long enough to innict maximum casualties, then, once it became untenable, abandoll it and build another elsewhere. Another military practice the ~Iaoris ndopted from their paktha enemy \\as the use of war nags. ~Ian}" ~Iaori tribes adopted their 0\\ n flags which were flown O\-er pa.s or used on recruiting marchcs. The lJauhaus believed that the C"nion Flag had enormous mana of its own. and so adopted nags into their rituals to coullter it. ~Iost ~Iaori \\ar flags were oblongs of varying sizes, \\ ith bold colours, and often incorporating crosses, stars or half-moon de,·iccs. The guerrilla leader Te Kooti had a number of flags. the lllost famous of\\ hith \\as T, WtPU, ·the whip', \\hich \\as bright red, 52 feet long. and decorated \\ ith \-arious stars and s} mbois. It had original!) been made for a friendly tribe by Catholic nuns, and was c.aptured by Te Kooti in 1868. It was later taken from him by Colonial troops. Throughout the wars the ~Iaoris proved brave and tenacious fightcrs. At times ruthless and savage, they could on occasion be chivalrous and humorous, nnd they earned a rare respect alllongst the British soldiers who fought against them.

Allstralia OfTicially, the British government regarded Australia as a 'settled' colony rather than a 'conquered' one; the distinction was significant, since underlying it was the assumption that Australia was empty at the time of" the arrival of the first whites in the 18th century. Thisdeeision dfcctively deprived the indigellolls inhabitants, the Aborigines, of any legnl rights to their own land, and ignort.:d a century of conflict which is estimated to have cost the lives of as mallY as 2.000 whites and 20,000 Aboriginl'S. The Aborigines livL-d n simple nomadic lifestyle 33

A "kirmi"h'" th" bU!ib-aD Unall" whicb Iypifi" much of th" fillhtiall oftb" I.ter M.ori eampa.ips. Note that th" W1ll'Tiors h.ve tom.h.wk. Ikru"l ... the back oflbeir belt.. (T• ..-....a..Io.i

MUKum) chara('"lcri~ed b} a dose ph}sical and spiritual relationship \\ith the land. The) did not understand Eurolx';m concepts of land 0\\ nership, and tended to rq;ard European stock as a Ie~itimate addiliOll to thl'ir food source. In retul'll the \... hites. lllany ofthelll ex-conviCts brutalised by their own harsh experiences, regarded the Aharig-ines as a Iluisallc(~, :I11d resented the depletion of their berds. As the frOl1tiers of European settlement expanded from the 1 830s, a pallern of conflict emerged where Ahorigines and settlers (irst Clllll' into cOlllact. Edward Curl', a squatter and anthropologist, describt:d tht: nature of this warfare in thc 1 88os: ')n the first place the meeting of the Aboriginal trilx'S of Australia and the \\hite pioneer results as a rule in war. \\ hich lasts from six months to \ cars, according to the nature of the countl1. the a';lOunt of settlenwnt that takes place in thc neighbourhood. and the procli\'ities of the indi\ iduals con-

3f

n:rned. \"hell '>e\cral squatlersscltle in proximit), and the c()ullIr) they settle is eil.';) of access and \\ithou( fastnt'SSCS to \\ hiclt the Blacks can retreat, the period of warfare is usuall} 'hort ;lIld bloodshed not ('xC('Ssi\·e. On the other hand, in districts \\hich arl' 1I0t easil) tra\'en.cd 011 horseback, in which the \\'hites arc fe\\ in numbers and food is procurable hy the Blacks in fastnesses, the t<.Tm is usual!) prolonged and the sbughter morc considerahle.' As the casualty figures sug,l.{cst, thc stl'uggle was unequaL The esselltially egalitarian naturc of Aboriginal society meant that there werc no established leaders and dccisions \\cre made in tribal council. All able-bodied men might bc \\arriors, their weapons consisting of primiti\'c stone axes, spears, wooden shields, boom~ra"gs. and a woodell club, POillted at both ends, call(:<1 allulla· n"lla. ~Ot that their fighting qualities \\ere by any means despicable. Aboriginal men \\ere experts at survival techniqul..'S and skilled trackers and hunters; neitll('rdid the)' lack courage. as thc explorer Ed\\ard E) re commented:

'II has been said, and is gCll(:rall) believed, lhal Ihe lIati\t's are not courageous. There could not be a g:rciller mistake ... nor do I hold il to be any proof that the) arc cO\\ards becausc they dread or gin" \\a~ before Europeans \\ith firearms. So uncqual a match is nocriterion ofbran·ry. and yet ('\cn thus ... I ha\eseen man~ instann"sofan open and manly illlrepidit) of bearin~ and a proud UIl{IUailin({ glance of e)e. \\ hich in'ilincti\'c1) 'o1'lInped ulxm my mind Ihe com-inion thai the indi\iduah before me \\ere bra\e m('n." Thc<,('ulers reacted harshl) to .\bori/{inal resistan('(' to encroachment on their land. :\Iany. li\'ingill remote districts a long: \\(1) from the centres of JaIl and order, administered tlwir olIn 'justice', and ruthlessly hUllled dOl\ II .\hori/{inal bands bdicn'd guilt) of stock theft. En'l1 \\hen Colonial police WlTe ill\'olved little di",itlction was made bctwcell hostile and friendly g-roup", alld rnan) \\ hiteo; \\a/{ed a war ofextermillaliOl1 on their 0\\11 properly. Settler and t\bori.~ine became lockt'd in a qde of attack and rctribution, often marked b) '><"111(-1' massacres and .urocitit's, Ilhich finall) drow' the ,\bori/{ine back into the inaccessible .\ustralian heartlands \1 here the \\ hites dared not follo\\. The Eureka Stockade The rapid expansion of European settlement during the 19th eentury also brou~llI ib 0\\11 problems, and led to an incident often regarded as ,\ustralia's only formal battle, In 1851 gold was discovered in Victoria, and thousands of hopeful miners flooded into the area from all round the I\orld. The local Colonial administration proved unable to cope with the in nux and the anarchic life-style of lhe miners, and aucmpl('d to discourage prospecting by levying: a heavy liccnce tee. The licellcc proved extrcmely unpopular among the miners, who further rcst'nted the tactics orthe police-many of them ex-convict~-recrllited to enforce it. In t853 the 'diggers' formed the ~liners' Reform Le.ague and e1ectcd Peter Lalor at its head. There \\ere outbreaks of rioting in the gold-fields of Ballarat, and the diggers began to collect arms. Tension mounted throughout 18Sh and in Xovember the authorities reacted b) despatching British troops-from the 12th and 40th

Pill.... Rilukill.uri, one of tloe le.de... of dIe H.u.h.au tnoyeo rn~l. He i. C1Irryiar; • whaleboae club Iuoo_ ••• paru It.odare, (Aleu.oode.. Tunobull Lib...ry)

Regiments to the gold-fields. On the 28th they \\crc met by a mob at \\'arrenheip Gully, and in the ensuing scrimma~e a drummer boy was killed and sc\Cral wldiers wounded. That night the l\lincrs' Rcform League decided to ('rert a stockade to dcknd thc diggings, and two days later I,alor s\\on' ill 500 volunteers under the rebel flag, the 'Southern Cro~s'. On J December thc diggers began to crect a stockade on the Eureka plateau, O\erlooking the road to 1\lcJbourne. Semi-circular in shape, it covered an area of 40 hectares, and was built of wooden slabs barricaded with overtllflwd carts and wagolls. Attempts werc made to organise the diggers into a military force, and Illost were armed with some sort of civilian fircann. A number of pikes-iron blades set on \\ooden poles-\H~re distributed to countcr cavall) attacks. Two unilS of immigrant Americans \Icre particularly well turned out: the Independent California Rangers Re\'oher Brigade

35.

were led by James Magill, a former US infantry officer, and carried Colt revolvers and ~Iexican knives, while the American First Rifle Brigade, led by Capt. Nelson, includcd veterans of the :\lexican \Var. On the nig:ht of 2 December rumours rcached the stockade that troops wcre marching up from .\1e1bourne, and a number of the I~H"(IUipped diggers, led b) James .\Iagill. marched out to meet them. Otherssimpl) slipped awa) in ';(',arch offood and drink. The rumours proved fal<;(', hO\\('\'cr, and may havc been spread deliberatel). <;incc as dawn broke on the 3rd the diggers in thc stockadc saw local police and military detadunenls forming up to attack thcm. 'rhc government force consisted 01'276 men, and there were between ISO and 200 diggers in the stockade. The 'battle of Eureka Stockade' was over in a Haunau prilion"u captured at d,,, W"raroa pat and phot.... graphnlaboard a prillon lihip. (A1".... nder Turnbull Library)

maller of minutes. As the troops advanced to attack the diggers opcned fire, and 011(' ofllcer and four privat(:s \\cre killed. But the wooden slabs pro\·ed 110 obstaclc, and the soldiers bur~t through. Thl're was a hrief mclee-Lalor himself \\as wounded in the ann whilst cheering his ml'n onbefore the diggers broke and fled . .\Iost, ho\\e\er, werc surrounded and captured, and thc soldiers /{iL't.·full) tore do\\n the 'Southern Cros.<;·. Thirt). fi\·c di~gers were killed, and IX:h\ccn 50 and 60 woundt'd. It \\as perhaps a high pricc to pa); but if tht, dig/{crs lost the bat tic, their cau~e triumphed. The rcsultant political storm led to a number of reform~, :lI1d \\ hell the SUl"\·i\·ors \\ ere brought to trial the jur) :Icquitted thclll. Lalor himself was btt'r ekcted as Ballarat's rcpl'l'scnl;Hivc in the Statl' parliament. Bushrangers Finally, no aCCOUtlt of conflict ill Igth-century Australia \\ould be complete wilhout brief refer-

Hupapa Maoris-auxiliari.,s fighting ror Ih., Brilishphotographc:d c.,868. Th., dr.,ss orhosdl., warriors would Dol hav., be.,n m.arkedly difT.,renl al this dale. (Alexander Turn_ bull Library)

A rortific:d pa Iypical or Ihe .860s, when com.plex ouler palisades have given way 10 a light screen serving as a delaying ohstacle 10 auacking troops. (Auckland Insdlute and Mnseurn)

37

Ahbough '1101 prou,c:u,d b)'. pali...d .. lhi" pat r .. t.. rangi, h...... typical compl.." I)'lu..m of ..ntr.. nchment". (Spellc..r Alhum,

A ...Iectioa ofM.ori w .... poa§dispb)-ed on. 8 •• cloak. Top to boUOID' h .. rdwood cl..b (pal.. wabiJr.), do.. bl rr.. Ued SbOf""Sl''' (t..panl)' loag.ha.DdJed lom.b.awk (Jr"' .-.:ta),

Hawk..•.. Ba)' MUIl.. um and Art G .. II .. ry)

wloal bon.. club(patu pa....... ) with dOl':.,.1tiB wri...1 thong, wloal boa.. dub (paf.. Jr«iJI,..) with 8 ... wrisl.tboag. (T .... kiMulIa..n{firnR)"IUl)

d .

('n("(' to Edward 'Ned' Kelly and the thmous ~lInfight at the Clcnro\\ an Inn, Kelly was horn in 185~, thc son of an Irish ex-con\·ict, and /{rc\\ up fI('ar thc villas:.:-c ofCreta in north-eaSI(TIl \ 'iclOria. It was a rcmOte district, and life as a squaller \\as haNh, The Kelly family frequcntly ela!>hed \\ith tl1(: la\\, and young Xed was wanwd sC\'cral times fcll' IX'lIy theft and brawling. At onc point he was arrested on suspicion of heing an accomplice of Ilarry Power, a well-known bushrangcr. The bu~hrangers \H'I'(' outlaws \\ho preycd 011 the tr.lflic around til(' gold-fields, and whose f1amboy had made them folk heroes in the pOOI"(-:>t '('('lion of Ihe $Cttler community, This particular ("harge was dismiss('d: but o\er the next few years :\("« Kelly was in and out ofjail on charges of ~tock thelL assault and drunkcnness. Then, in 1878, a chain ofe"enls hegan whirh \\Quld lead to a two~ C;lr rampage a
The lIlocl< of a 'Brown B.,IIS' musket *howing typical Maori decorative carving, (Tim Ryan.)

39

homestead. A fight brokc out which led to Kelly's mother being arrested and imprisoned for three years. Ned Kelly took to the hills with his younger brother Dan and two friends, Steve Hart and Joe Byrne. Excellent horscmcn and bushmcn, with many friends in the local comll1unity, they eluded police patrols for six months. Then, in October, a party of four policemen disguised as prospectors blundered into thcm. In the ensuing gunfight Xed Kelly shot three of the policemen dead. The police immediately organised a huge man-hunt. but the

Kelly gang continued to elude them. On two occasions they emcrgcd from the bush to slage spectacular bank hold-ups. Kelly, who had a flair for public relations, made 100Is of the police and left public leiters justifying his actions. To the impoverished and oppressed squatters, many of Irish origin and reselltful of English authority in Australia, Kell~ became a folk-hcro. InJune 1880 the gang made its most audacious move. Kcll~'s motivcs ha\c never bcen satisfactorilyexplainooj one theory is that he \\as trying to precipitate an uprising among his supporters, another that he was mere!} trying to force the release of his mother. In all) case. the plan was

audacious and murderous. A man suspeclCd of being a police informer answered a knock at his door late one night and was promptly gunned do\\ n b) Joe Byrne. Thc gang then rode scveral miles across country to the hamlet orClenrO\\an. \\hich abutted the main )'lelbollflle raih\ay line. .\ gim/{ of platc-Iayers were workin~ on the track. and :\cd rorCt.-d them at gunpoint to tear up the rails beroT(' marching them off to the Clenrowan Inn \\ here. with other civilian hostat;:es. they were cntenained b~ the g-ang. :\C(l"s idea \\as that on hcaring oCthe murder the police would rush men to the scene b~ train, and that the~ would be killed \\hel1 the train ran off the broken tracks. Kelly's plan \\as sound, but wem .1\\1'): l1e\\s of the murder was late reaching the polin', and oneofthe hostages slipped away and intern'pted the train. The policc discmbarked and surrounded the inn befon.' dawn on 2UJune. The resulting show-down was ('ertainly spectacular. The gang had anticipated it, and had made bizarre preparations; they had worked some stolen ploughshares into crud(' and cumbersome suits of t in. thick armour. .\!> the police approached the gang took up a position on the inn's \erandah and opened fire; but the armour did not

protect their exposed limbs, and they sustained several wounds when the police returned their fire. Ned Kelly himsclfstumbled off into the darkness, while the others went inside. Police reinforcemenu arrived and spontdic firing continued for scveral hours. Then, in the earl~-morning mists, Xed Kcll) re-appeared. He was wearing an oilskin coat over his armour, and he looked supernaturally large as he lumbered through the tret'S, callin!{ out to the gang members and taunting the Ix>lice. He had been badl) wounded in his left Mm, which he sheltered behind him. but he carrit.'ti a Colt revolver in his right hand, and blasted a\\ a). The police noted \\ith dismay that theil' return fire appeared 10 have no effect. Then a quick-willed sergeant brought KcllydO\\ n with a shot-gun blast to bis legs. He was overpowered and dragged off. ),Ieanwhile the siege of the inn dragged to a mournful conclusion. One of the outlaws, Joe Byrne, was strllck by a stray bullet and bled to death. The police managed to approilch dose enough to the inn to set it on fire, and the hostages Sotn~ of th~ aronour used by th~ K~lJy Caall at doe 'baltle of Gt"Dn>W>lD': h~lon~tI.. brusl- aDd back-plalell. la Ih~ for~ IIrOll.d i. a Coli r"evDh·...1I ri8~ whlclo Nfl! K~Uy carriood, but abaadonfl! M.fon hi. last "land. (Slat" Library ofVicloria)

4'

Ned Kdly: a phOloll:",ph h", JH>"ed (or on Ih", day M.(on hia

Uec..I'Oft. (Sial'" Lib.... ry o(Vic(oriaj

were aIlO\H.·d to come out. Thc badl) charred bodies of Dan Kelly and Stcve Hart \\crc later found in the ruins: they had apparently died in a suieide pact. Kelly recovered from his \\Ollnds and was tried in :\Iclbourne for murder. He \\ent to the gallows on 11 November 1880.

TIle AII/erims Thccollapse ofBrilish power in lhe American \Var of Independence reduced her possessions in the Americas to the disunited provinces that made up British North America-modem-day Canadaand the scallered island and Central American encla\'cs ofthc Caribbean. Trouble (Iared in Canada in 1837, the same year that Quccn Victoria came to the throne. C;lIlada had once been a French possession, and FrenchCanadian settlers. mostly clustered around Qucbec and :\Iontreal in what \\as then Lowcr Canada, were ullsettled by the influx of British

settlers which resulted from lhe economic depressions whicb followed the Napoleonic Wars, Keen to preserve their language and Catholic way of life, they resisted the imposition of an English Protestant authorit). In late 18:n their discontent flared into open rebellion. The rebels of 1837 \\ere civilians with little militar) experience and no training, and their main \\eapons \\cre antiquated flintlock muskets. They wore no uniform, but dressed in long coats, fur caps and leggings against the fierce cold of the Canadian "inter, \\hich, indeed. proved their greatest all}. The Colonial authorities mustered a force of British regulars and local militia and marched them against the rebel concentrations in the villages outside :\Iontreal. For the most part the rebels were easily dispersed by the more disciplined and rUlhless troops, though it proved impossible to pursue lhem thoroughly because of the tcrrain and weather. As a result the rebellion dragged on in fits and starts lIntil 1838, whell the harsh response of the Colonial troopsparticularly the local volllllleers. \\ ho burnt homes and roul1ckd up suspects \\ith elllhusiasmbrought it to a close. The Fenian Raids .\ rather morc ecccntric threat to the stability of Canada came from the Fenian Brotherhood. The depressions \\hich h;:ld sellt so mall} British immigrants to Canada had also led to a hu~e influx into the United Statt:s. particularly b} Irish fleeing the horrors of the Potato Faminc. :\Ian) brought with them a fil'rn: 100·l' of Ireland and a hatrcd of the British, \\ ho at that time occupied the whole of Ireland. 'fhe sons of these immigrants were easily rouscd in lhe cause of Irish freedom, arrd the Fenian Brotherhood WilS one of a Ilumber of organisations set up to fight the opprl'ssor. During the American Civil \Var thousands of mcn from the Irish community enlisted to fight for both sides, and this pool of trained and expcrienced men bec.ame a fertile recruiting ground for the Fenians. Once the Ci\ il \\'ar was O\'er large sums of money were uscd to bu} gO\"Crnmelll surplus firearms and to equip a Fenian arm). The specific aims of the movemellt remain obscure. It \\as intended that they should Illarch into Canada, the nearest British possession. pre-

"umabl) \\ith the inu.'lltion ofTorcillg Ihe British 10 govenllllcni. 'I'llc ~11.·lis wel"(' not COIISUII('(1 or even IllI" barg-aining: table, Since Ihe relationship be· informed, and thl') hecame seriously alarmed at Iwecn Britain and the victorious US \\as cool-the the appnrent threal 10 their territory and \\ay of L:niOll suspected Britain ofsust:linin~ Confedl.'rate life, Tht,) elected a 25-)ear-old ronnel' Classics resislance, and \\as also e) einl{ Canadian t('rritory student, Louis Riel, to repre.'Jenllhem, and formed aequisiti\(1) -lh('r(' was a rcal possibility ofAmer- Ihe(;ol1l;tIXatiOllllld,J/ilis. iean intel"\ention, and thc fCllian hopes Illa) not Riel gathered about 500 armed ~IClis togelher havc becn a~ outlandish as 111(') no\\ SC('Ill, and took over Fort Cal), the local Company 8cl\\een 1866 and 1871 til(' F('nians made three headquaners, from \\hich he attempted loset up a raids acro<;s the border, Thc fiN, in April 1866, provisional go\crumenl. One mall \\ho tried 10 \\as lillie shon of fnrcical, and result<..-d ill the orJ;ani~(' r('SiSIM"d ,llId th(" Briti~h mOlhcr countr) for a-.siSlance. The resultant cnmdelil{hlcd b) Ihe Fenian coll'lpse, The 'iCcond, pai"n was blood INs, and is chidl) rem('mlx'red for ;lboUI a 1l101llh later, \\015 more \ucccssfui. .\larch· the efficielll nnd imaginati\ e \\ ay the British inl{ up from :'\e\\ York ~tate ami Vermont, the commander, Sir Camet \\"olscley, managed to Fenian:'> da..ht"d \\ith Cnnadian militia'lI Rid~e­ transpon his forC(' .Icross hUlldred~ of miles of lrackl(", countr), \\'hen it arri\'('(! al Fort Cal) in \\a), \\ here a unit ofCi\ il \\'''1' \et('ran.s under Col, John O':,\('ill particular!) distin~uish('d itself. But ,\ugu,t 18iO it found that Rid had disbanded his arm) and fled 10,\Ill(,nc . th(' raid collal>st-d \\ ht'n the C.llladi.lllS broul;"ht up r('inforcemellh, and man) Fenian\ \\ere arrC"'itoo .\Ictis di Oilleni 1X' .....i ted, ho\\e\"er. The govon their r('turn to thc ~lal("i. :\othin~ daunted, ernnlt'llt gave them farms aloll1-\" the R<.-d Ri\Cr, bUI O':\cilltried again in .\Ia) 1870; hut b) no\\ the many prefcrr<.'(1 to \(,11 up and move further \\CSt Canadians \\('rl' \\dl prepan'd, and his forces \\ere illlo Saskalche\\ an, \\ here Ihe) Iri(.-d to ding to <,(.'.llterl"tl at the battle ofT rout Ri\er. The Felli,tIl their old life-sl) Ie. But cidlisation \\as ~IO\dy cau.'>C \\<15 1101 helped b) a lraitor in til(' rank... \\ ho pursuill~ them; til(' huffalo \\ ('1"(' d} ingout, farmers disabled llwir one gUll bcfore it could be brollgltl \\ere 1110\ in" in, ami sllr\'(')On \\ere marking out illloaftion, Iheir land\. The) aplX'alt'(! to Riel for help, and he For Ih(' mo"t part the Feniitm probabl) \\ore returlll-d from Anl('rica in carl) 1885. ci\iliall c~tum(' and c;lrried ,\rn('ric.tli Ci\"il \\"ar This time the rising was mort' severe, A party of arms and l'fIUipnll'1I1. ,\ print of the fight at the Ill'\\!) crenl('d Ro)al Calladian ~Iountcd Ridgewa) \ho\\, them uniforllwd ami cnrr)ing a Police rode out to ill\('Stig:lle, and \\ere driven greell flag bl'arinK a Ilarp 01" Erin dnie<.'. It secms back nfter n slifr fi"ht nt Duck Lake in l\larch. unlikel) th,lt Fenian runds stretched 10 a par- Encourag"l'd b) the ~Ictis suc('('ss a group of Cree ticular urlif(wn'r," Ihcse \\l're almost cenainly Indiam, \\110 \\ere closely allied to the Metis and O'Neill's wtnans, weal'illg whate\'l'r they had shared their gricvallCI"S, rose' up and massacred a retained oftheil' old Civil War ullifi.mm. group of Comp:llI) employe('S nl Frog Lake in April. Ci\ilians and i\lounties alike abandoncd The Riel Rebellions OUtlyill~ seltJcmellts and fell hack 011 the IC)1'\ificd ,\ more serious l'('volt hl'Okt' out in 1870 in sotlth- POSI at Batllcford. Hut Canada had made consider· \\('SI Canada, in the pr('sent-da) province or able pro/o{ress sine<.' 1870, and a railway strctched ~Ianiloba. This area \\ as ()\\ ned up to this time b) across mO!>1 of the continent from l'ast to we~l. the Hudson\ Ua} Trading Comp.tll), and thilll) O\er 5,000 militiamen weI"(' transported to the '>('lIled b) Indians and th(' mixed-race descendants scene or the risill/o{. Despite rx:rsistent skirmishing of French trappers, calkd the ~lctis, The ~Ihis the) a(hanccd llllChcckt-d to Riel's hcadcluartcn; livcd a semi-nomadic existence and subsisted b) at the to\\ n ofBalocllt'. 'l'he ~Ietis and their Indian hunting bumllo, In 186g the Hudson's Ba) Com- nllies had construct('(1 rine-pits olllsidc thc 1O\\n, p'tIl) made an a~reenl('llt to sell this district, but the Canadian forc<.'S included anillcr) and kno\\ n as the Red Ri\'('r Colon), to thc Canadian C .. tlinK guns, and thl' to\\n \\:LS stormed in .\Ia)

PiCrT('

lA' HOt'.

P··!,oMIU',

Th'llllu", H'lI"'.

Lou;§ Ri"l. c"nlr". and the Com;ti NlI.lionai d" Mit;!>, 1870, (Nacional A,rchivuofCanll.da)

44

X;l\'iCI' I'JII(('.

\mll'l H('lIl1d...llIil"

B'lllli...'"

"1',

1"'1111\

A ~roup of Rid'. supporten captured ;n ,885' (Nacional A,n:h;ves ofCa...da)

[885. Riel gave himself up on 15 i\lay, and the Crees surrendered on 2J uly. For the most p"rt the ~oYernmelll \\as lenielll in its retribution-the Cree chicfBig Bear ,\as sentenccd to life imprisonment, but later pardoned-but Riel himself \\as found guilt) of treason and halU~(.'d Oil 16 XO\emher 1885. The )'Iclis \\cre an unprofessional arm), but under commandcrs such as Gabriel Dumont the) ,\('re disciplined and, of course, their skill as professional hlllllers added greatly to their militar) prowcss, IlllOlographs ofcaptured ).I(,tis shO\\ them \\caring civilian clothes and buckskins, and Ihey carried t1wir 0\\ n rifles, many preferring l\meriean \\'inchesters.

eommiltcd suicide during the voyage. Although typical ofthe brutality which marked the history of slave-based colonies in the Caribbean, the [865 Jamaica Re,'olt brought little credit to the British Arm).

Jamaica At the opposi1C.· end of the continent, I B65 saw a sad liltle uprising in the colony of:] amaica. Slaver) had been abolished in British colonies in the I 830s, but the majorit)" of the black population on former ~Iavc plantations lived lives of appallillg hardship. In OctobCl' 186S a crO\\d of about 500 black <,eltkrs gathered oUlside the courtholl!>c of the Jamaic'an to\\ II of )'Iorant Bay to protesl at harsh ~ntl'nces gi,en b) thc local magistrate 10 blacks found guilt) of illegally squatting on Cro\\nland. rhe magistratc rcad the Riot Act and ordered the cro\\d 10 disperse. They responded \\ ith a barrage of stones, and the local militia \\ ere ordered to open fire, SC\'eral ofthc crowd \\ ere killed; and the infuriat('d mob burst into the courthouse, sct it ablaze, and killed the magislratc and 15 01 hers. A number of estates \\cre then raided and twO white o\"(~rseers kilkd. This outbreak provoked a terribk l,(,tl'ibution. The governor proclaimed martial law and despalched the 6th Foot to put down the rising. The ~ lamons, descendants ofescaped slaves who maintained their 0\\11 setllernent in Jamaica's remote highlallds and who hired out their services asslavecatchers, ,\ere also called out. Over 400 blacks \\ere rounded upand hanged orshot, and a further 600 flogged. ~lorc than a thousand sCHlers' huts \\cre indiscriminately destroyed. Eye\\itncss ac· COUIllS of these operations, of bodit'S hanging in trees and the massacre of womcn and childrcn, provoked an outcry in Britain; the colonel of the 61h, J. F. Hobbs, was 'invalided' home, but

This style of dn.'ss, Wilh the silk hat and surcoat, remained popular throughout the 19th century. Charges for the matchlock arc carried around the wais\.

.1: Chin~5~ troops, 1839 60 .11: J/allCIIll (Ql'a(,)'moll

KnO\\n 10 the British as 'Tartars'. The reconstruction here is ba~ed on eyewitncss sketches b) 1-1. H. Crealock. Olher illustrations suggest Ihat the )'Ianchu ('..,airy won' the same st~ Ie ofsurcoa[ as the infalllry. The 00\\ was a I>o\\erful coml>osite \\eal>011. .12: .\Ialch/odmall

.Is: ClJint5toifin'aloroifiur Imperial oOieials \\ere distinguished b) thc embroidered pant:! on thcir chesls-junior ranks seem to have had Chinese charactcrs dCfloting their position. senior ones an Imperial dragon-and by charactcristic hals. )'lade offine baskel \\ork, these \\ere decoraled \\ilh red hair plumes and a colou red g'lass bead on tOp. B: Chintst troops, Bour Cprising BI: Cllj1lt5trtgl/(ar

This uniform is typical of the panially Westel'l1ised Imperial forces at the lime of the upl·ising. He is carrying a S\\ cdish )'Iannlicher rifle, B2: Tixermfll/

Traditionally. the Tigermen were lightly armed troops \\ ho acted as skirmishers for the Banncrmen. They were supposed 10 assumc the fiercc qualities of the tiger from their costumc which imilatl'd tiger skins. I)rince Duan (Tuan), a member of thc Imperial COLIrl who suppOrted the Box('rs, :lllcmptoo 10 reYi"e Ihe Tigermen 10 support the uprising. B3' B4: Box" rtlufj

).1051 Boxers were young men who ,\ore their ordinary peasant costume, with perhaps a few

items of red insignia to show their allegiance to the movcment. Rejecting \\'estern \\eapons. they were poorly arllled with swords, spears and halb(·rds. B+ is based on a photograph ofa Illan captur('d during the attack on the Legations. The red apl'Ol1s~one variant of the Boxer insignia-varied considaably in length and cut. some appearing: as a panel 011 the chest, others hanging to the knees. It \\ as common practice to wear the queue tied Ull around the back of the head. The trident \\as a traditional Chinese weapon.

C: Burma C/: Rtgularull'af"(..ymall, c.1885 Regular Burmese troops were distinguishcd by characteristic helmets of lacquered bamboo, although there seems to have been lit tIc uniformity of dress otherwise. 'rhe heavy tattooing all the thigh was a traditional Burmese practicc.

The bayonel char&e .1 Baloehe. Ahhou&h Ihe c..n.di... troops H:em 10 have WOrlll ~Ie"g.rr;" ;nlo aCI;o.., lhjs dram.at;c mualrat;oD aoptUretl the atmosphere or Ihe baltle. (Nal;onat Archives orc..nada)

C2: Rrgulor illjrll/(f)'1Ilall Although this mall is wearing pyjama trousers, man) soldiers seem 10 have \\Ofll the ordinary loincloth. C3: Do(oit

Theda(oilS \\ are onlinaq ci\ilian c1othin\t. and the chequered pallerns depicted here sho\\ clear!) in contemporary photos. DI. D2: .\Ioorill'arriors.18.Jos Traditionall), Illan) .\Iaori \\arriors \\elll into battle naked. 01 is simpl) wearing a \\ar·bclt of Oax \\ith a tomaha\\ k thrust into it at the back. He is \\ielding a ftU'/lattwlla. a \\oodell club \dth a striking edgc along the back or the blade. The fluttering plume was illtended to confuse the enemy. Note tbe tattooing on the buttocks and thighs. Even by the First i\laari \\'<11" mall) warriors, like 02, had acquired firearms. Canouchc boxes were home-made, and haversacks. made or flax, imitated those of British soldiers. In addition to a firearm \\arriars would havc carried a club or halchcl.

DJ: Chiif 110'" /-!,ke Pokai oflh, Ngalmhi Irihe The principal i\laori leader in the First i\laori \\'ar: \\e ha\'c shown him here \\earing a short cape decorated with kiwi feathers O\er a longer flax cloak, and a sea captain's cap which he habituall~ \\ are. E: Jlaor; warr;or.J, IlKio jO E 1 is a \\ arrior in war dress. B~ the IBGos man) warriors wCnt into battle either \\caring a maro, in this case of flax, or a waist blanket. Tomaha\\ ks \\ere usualh tucked in Ihe back of the belt. I>ercussion 'rifles gradually C~lllle to replace flintlocks. E'2 is a i\laori anki or chief. This man is wearing a fine flax cloak with adccOl·atin.' border and black cord streamcrs. He is armed willl a traditional striking weapon, the loio}/(/, and a whalebone club. Thc hl/in fcathers in his headdress ,In' indicative of rank. By the mid-1860s European costume was very popular amongst Maori warriors, and E3 has a typical combination of waist-sha\d, shirt and \\ aistcoat. Facial tattooing had b) this time died out among young men. The lupara shot-gun was a popular wc.apon. Thc flag in the background \\as used b) the ~laoris:.1t thc famous 'Gatc' pa in ,\prill86.t.

F3: Ald 11-,11)'. Jl/l/t 18&1 Australia's most famous outlaw as he appeared at the timeofhis last stand at Glrnrowan, \\caring an oilskin coat over his armour. Badl) \\ounded in the left arm. hc sheltered this behind him. but carried a Coh Xa\y in his ri~lll hand. (,': Th, .lmrrira.5

G,: F",ia",(.1866 ~Iost Fenian volunteers probabl~ \\ore ch·ilian costUllll'S, althou~h as a number \\crc \'cterans of the .\merican Civil War thc~ ma) have \\orn part of their old uniforms, stripped of official insignia. The basis of this man's cosHunc is the uniform of theACW ;"\c\\ York Irish Brignde.

C;l:Meti.5rehf.l.c.I88.5 The ~ICtis also wort.' civilian dress, ils appearance reflec1 ing-1 heir fi'onticr and hunting lilest ylc. They provided tllcirowll \\capons, and American \Vincheste,"<; \\ere popubr. (,'3: Jall/aica" 'rrbtr. ,865 The briefuprisingofblackJarnaican squatters and plantation \\ orkcrs was morc ofa spontaneous riot lhan a rebellion. and the rebels \\ere armed with lillie more than the cane knife CMricd b) this man.

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F: ,11I.Jffalia 1",: .lbor(t:i"a} warrior Aboriginc \\capons consisted ofstone ;lXC'>, spears, clubs and the familiar boomtfangs. The shield ShO\\ll hcre is a large exmnple; some parrying shields wcrt liule morc than two 01' three inches wide. SOIlH.' contcmporary illustralions show atlacking warriors we;lring white clay-paint 011 their litces, bod it's and limbs. F':!:' Digg", Eurrka stockade, 1854 The diggers am,'ctcd a rough uniform ofchequcrcd shirts and 1Il0ll:skin trousers. This man, armed with Colt revolvers and a large knife, is a member of the Independent California Rangers RC\'olver Brigade. The flag behind him is thc rebel 'Southcrn Cross',

III: IJhufant.5~u·arrior,(.lfKj5 !lased 011 a photo of lhe king of Bhutan's Ixxlyguard, this man's costume shows an interesting mix of Tibetan and Indian styles. Beneath the turhan is an iron helmel, and the shicld is a typically Indian desig-n. 'rhe cut of the robes reflects the Tibetan influence. ~lost Bhutanese warriors prohably wore robes of this shape, but les.~ colourful. and were less well armed. 112: Tihrl(Jl/sotdilr,I904 He \\cars thc traditional sheepskin I'Obcs of the Tibetan peaS;lIl!, and is armed with a matchlock with characteristic bipod rest, and a typical sword. "3: Iba" orS~a D]ak warrior, u840 The Iban relied 011 Ix>ison darts and the blow-pipe as their projectile weapon. but also carried a decorated short-sword, the mandau, for close combat and the taking of heads. 47

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