english in pharmacy

GDAŃSKI UNIWERSYTET MEDYCZNY

Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

ENGLISH IN PHARMACY PART I Skrypt dla studentów I roku farmacji

GDAŃSK 2010

Wydano za zgodą Senackiej Komisji Wydawnictw Gdańskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego

Recenzent: mgr Ewa Kocik

© Copyright by Medical University of Gdańsk

ISBN 978-83-602536-3-2

Wydawca: Gdański Uniwersytet Medyczny Zlecenie KW/129/10

Chciałybyśmy serdecznie podziękować wszystkim, którzy przyczynili się do powstania skryptu „English in Pharmacy”, w szczególności mgr Lucynie Lewandowskiej za wielką życzliwość i pracę redaktorską, dr Beacie Cygan i mgr Annie Kuciejczyk za praktyczne rady oraz mgr Ewie Kocik za cenne uwagi językowe. Szczególne podziękowania kierujemy do mgr farm. Joanny Więckowskiej, bez której pomocy merytorycznej i doświadczenia skrypt nie mógłby powstać. Autorki

SPIS TREŚCI 1 PHARMACY STUDENT................................................................................................... 7 1.1 THE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF GDAŃSK......................................................................... 7 1.2 STUDYING PHARMACY IN THE UK ................................................................................. 9 2 MODERN PHARMACY.................................................................................................. 13 2.1 WORKING AS A PHARMACIST IN THE UK.......................................................... 13 3 MEDICAL SPECIALTIES.............................................................................................. 19 4 LABORATORY AND SAFETY RULES ....................................................................... 22 4.1 CHEMICAL GLASSWARE ................................................................................................ 26 5 PHARMACY AND PHARMACOLOGY...................................................................... 30 6 PHARMACOPOEIA........................................................................................................ 33 7 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ............................................................ 36 8 THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS .................................................................. 39 9 DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION................................................................................. 42 10 HEALTHY LIFESTYLE ............................................................................................... 46 10.1 HEALTHY DIET ...................................................................................................... 46 10.2 VITAMINS................................................................................................................ 50 10.3 MINERALS............................................................................................................... 53 11 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.............................................................................................. 58 12 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS ........................................................................................ 64 13 COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE (CAM).......................... 68 14 STRESS MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................ 72 15 THE CELL ...................................................................................................................... 77 16 THE HUMAN BODY..................................................................................................... 80 16.1 THE EXTERNAL PARTS ........................................................................................ 80 16.2 THE INTERNAL ORGANS...................................................................................... 83

17 COMMON DISEASES AND INJURIES.................................................................... 87 17.1 DISEASES................................................................................................................. 87 17.2 INJURIES AND DRESSING MATERIALS............................................................. 91

1 PHARMACY STUDENT 1.1 THE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF GDAŃSK Read the text and translate the words/phrases in bold into English. The Medical University of Gdańsk, one of the leading Polish medical centers, 1) został założony ……………….. in 1945. The University 2) kształci ……………….. more than 5 000 students (full-time, 3) zaocznych ……………….., PhD) in four Faculties: the Faculty of Medicine (Department of Medicine, Division of Dentistry with Dental Techniques, English Division), the Faculty of Pharmacy (Department of Pharmacy, Division of Laboratory Medicine), the Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology and the Faculty of Health Sciences (Divisions of 4) Pielęgniarstwa ……………….., Dietetics, Electroradiology, Physiotherapy, 5) Medycyny Ratunkowej ……………….. and Public Health). The length of studies at the Medical University of Gdańsk varies from six years for students of medicine and five years for those of biotechnology or pharmacy to three years for students of 6) studiów licencjackich .……………….. . The basic teaching at the University is carried out by about 1000 academic teachers, among them: professors, associate professors, assistant professors, assistants, 7) starsi wykładowcy ……………….., lecturers and instructors. Teaching and research are mainly 8) oparte na ……………….. co-operation with three State Teaching Hospitals affiliated to the University. Foreign Languages Department provides courses in Latin and modern languages such as English, German, French, Spanish and also Polish as a foreign language. 9) Władze ……………….. of the Medical University of Gdańsk are the Rector, Vice-Rector in charge of research, Vice-Rector in charge of didactics, Vice-Rector in charge of clinical affairs, Deans and Vice-Deans of specific faculties. The Medical University is now among a few medical schools 10) znany ……………….. all over Europe for quality education, successful physicians and leading medical research.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 1 Explain the difference between: 1) to sit an exam & to set an exam 2) grades & credits 3) a tutor & a lecturer 4) to educate & to bring up 5) an undergraduate & a graduate 6) a syllabus & a curriculum 7) classes & lectures 8) required courses & elective courses EXERCISE 2 Which words/phrases related to education do the following definitions describe? 1) a university building where students live

_ _ r _ _ _ _ _ _

2) a class in which a small group of students meet to study or talk about a particular subject s _ _ _ _ _ _ 3) the money you pay for being taught (two words)

t _ _ _ _ _ _

f _ _ _

4) one of the two periods into which a year at universities is divided _ _ _ _ s _ _ _ 5) someone who is studying at a university to get a master’s degree or a PhD _ _ _ _ g _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6) the amount of money given to someone by an educational organization to help pay for their education s__________ 7) a long piece of writing about a particular subject that you do as part of an advanced university degree such as an MA or a PhD _ _ _ _ _ s 8) a piece of work that a student is asked to do

_ _ _ _ g _ _ _ _ _

PHARMACY STUDENT

9

9) a course that teaches you the skills to do a particular job course 10) a list of the times of classes, lectures, seminars, etc.

v _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ t _ _ _ _

1.2 STUDYING PHARMACY IN THE UK Read the text and put the words/phrases that have been removed back in the correct space. A complete

B on the wards

C prepared

D no matter

E a wide range of

F health care team

G introduced

H experience

I gain

J such as a tablet or capsule

If you want to become a pharmacist in the UK you first need to 1) …………….. a four year degree course in pharmacy (MPharm). This is followed by a year of paid pre-registration training, during which you will get practical 2) ……………….. of pharmacy in hospital, the community or industry. After passing a registration examination at the end of the training year, you are allowed to register as a pharmacist with the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (RPSBG). The MPharm course covers 3) ……………….. sciences: 9 medicinal chemistry (designing and synthesizing pharmaceutical drugs), 9 pharmacology (the study of drug action), 9 biochemistry (the chemical processes in the body), 9 pharmaceutics (formulating a drug into a medicine 4) ………………..), 9 pharmacognosy (the study of medicines that occur naturally), and 9 pharmacy practice (developing the professional roles of a pharmacist such as dispensing drugs, hospital visits, patient care, pharmacy law and ethics).

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

While studying for the MPharm degree you will not only 5) ……………….. the necessary pharmaceutical and scientific knowledge, but also the professional skills to work as a member of the 6) ……………….. . You may be involved in discovering a new drug, , liaising with doctors, nurses and other health care professionals to manage a patient’s care, participating in ward rounds, giving advice about medicines or even marketing new medicines. While studying pharmacy you will develop the following skills: problem solving, critical and rational thinking, evaluation of research and working in a team. The MPharm degree course also incorporates a clinical component: students meet patients 7) ……………….. and interview them regarding their medicines and treatments. Undoubtedly, it gives a realistic insight into the pharmacist’s role in the hospital setting. The training for community pharmacy, by far the largest branch of the profession, starts at the very beginning of the MPharm degree course, when students are 8) ……………….. to law and ethics as part of everyday pharmacy. The skills and scientific knowledge gained in the MPharm degree course are a foundation for a successful career, 9) ……………….. which sector the pharmacist will choose. It is difficult to imagine what fascinating scientific developments the 21st century will bring, and pharmacists must be 10) ……………….. for a profession that never stands still. EXERCISE 1 Look at a typical weekly timetable for the Spring term of the first year from the School of Pharmacy, University of London. It includes 5-6 hours of lectures, 10-15 hours of practicals and 1-2 hours of seminars or tutorials. Classes start at 9.00 am and finish at 5.00 pm every day except Wednesdays, when they finish at 12 noon to allow a free afternoon for sports and other pursuits. Compare

PHARMACY STUDENT

11

this timetable with your own weekly timetable. What are the differences? Are there any similarities? What do you like/dislike about this timetable and your own?

9.00 to 10.00

Techniques of drug analysis - tutorial (every 2nd week)

3.30 to 5.00

Interpretation of prescriptions - tutorial (every 2nd week)

9.00 to 12.00

Techniques of drug analysis – practical

Monday

Tuesday Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

11.00 to 12.00 Pharmaceutics – lecture 12.00 to 1.00

Ethics & law – lecture

9.00 to 10.00

Molecular action of drugs – lecture

10.00 to 11.00 Techniques of drug analysis – lecture 1.00 to 5.00

Compounding of medicines - practical (every 2nd week)

9.00 to 10.00

Techniques of drug analysis – lecture

10.00 to 11.00 Molecular action of drugs – lecture 2.00 to 5.00

Molecular action of drugs – practical

EXERCISE 2 Find the words / phrases in the text which mean the following: 1) is not moving – 2) to take part in an activity – 3) preparing and giving medicines to people – 4) working together and keeping each other informed about what is happening – 5) concerning – 6) a clear understanding of something, especially something complicated – 7) this phrase is used to say that something is much better, worse, etc. than anything else –

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

8) to put your name on an official list – 9) to include something as part of a group, system, plan, etc – 10) to exist –

EXERCISE 3 Translate the sentences into English/Polish. 1) Egzaminy poprawkowe odbywają się w sesji poprawkowej we wrześniu. 2) Osiągnięcia studentów oceniane są na podstawie prac przygotowanych przez studentów i egzaminu pisemnego na koniec semestru. 3) Już na drugim roku studenci odbywają praktyki w szpitalach, klinikach, gabinetach lekarzy pierwszego kontaktu i aptekach. 4) Some parts of the course use a problem-based learning approach where you are given a case study to work on in a small group with the help of your tutor. 5) In the fourth year you undertake a research project and select two specialist electives.

References: 1. http://www.mug.edu.pl/ [15.05.2010] 2. www.gumed.edu.pl [15.05.2010] 3. http://www.science-engineering.net/careers/uk_articles/pharmacy.htm [15.05.2010] 4. http://www.pharmacy.ac.uk/cs_mop.html [15.05.2010]

2 MODERN PHARMACY 2.1 WORKING AS A PHARMACIST IN THE UK Some sentences have been removed from the text. Put them back in the correct space. There are two extra sentences you do not need to use. A They also sell over-the-counter medical products and advise people upon their use. B Like doctors, pharmacists regularly attend ward rounds and collaborate with other health care professionals to invent the most appropriate drug treatment for patients. C They also work on improving existing medicines and finding new ways of formulating old drugs. D They also help people give up smoking, change their diets to make them healthier and give advice on sexual health matters. E If working in a large pharmacy, a pharmacist will work in a team with other pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and sales assistants. F In the UK, pharmacists in the health service work in one of two areas: Hospital Pharmacy and Community Pharmacy. G To practise as a pharmacist you must undertake a four-year pharmacy degree course, which leads to a masters degree in pharmacy (MPharm). Pharmacists provide expert advice on the use, supply, preparation and effects of drugs and medicines. On a day-to-day basis, this could include checking prescriptions and making sure the laws controlling medicines are followed.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

1) ……………………….. There are also many opportunities for qualified pharmacists in industry and research. Community pharmacists work in high street or local chemists. They check prescriptions written by doctors, and prepare and dispense medications to patients. 2) ……………………….. In the UK, the pharmacy also sells toiletries, cosmetics and photographic material. Thus a community pharmacist is often also a business manager responsible for financial management, employment of staff, maintenance of premises and stock control. Community pharmacists are also taking on more of the clinical roles that have traditionally been undertaken by doctors – they manage patients with asthma and diabetes as well as they are responsible for blood pressure testing. 3) ……………………….. Hospital pharmacists are important members of the hospital team work and are responsible for providing, preparing and dispensing drugs and medicines. 4) ……………………….. Apart from working on the wards, hospital pharmacists are involved in the manufacturing of sterile medicines, managing the care of patients, working in the dispensary, providing information on medicines and purchasing medicines for the whole hospital. Some hospital pharmacists specialize as consultants in many areas such as haematology, nephrology, cardiology, urology, diabetes, gastroenterology, infectious diseases, paediatrics, and care of the elderly. Industrial pharmacists are concerned with the discovery of safe and effective new drugs, developing them into effective medicines, and introducing the finished product to the market. 5) ……………………….. Industrial pharmacists work together with different experts in the pharmaceutical industry such as pharmacologists, specialist chemists, or microbiologists.

MODERN PHARMACY

15

EXERCISE 1 Look at the list of work activities and discuss which of them are typical of community pharmacist, hospital pharmacist or both. 1) attending ward rounds 2) selling over-the-counter medicines 3) liaising with physicians, nurses and other health care professionals 4) monitoring every stage of medication therapy 5) dispensing prescription medicines to the public 6) preparing dosette and cassette boxes, usually for the elderly, where tablets are placed in compartments for specified days of the week 7) promoting sales and developing the business 8) managing, supervising and training pharmacy support staff 9) monitoring blood pressure and cholesterol levels 10) supervising the work of less experienced and less qualified staff 11) setting up clinical trials 12) advising patients of any adverse side-effects of medicines or potential interactions with other medicines/treatments 13) providing pregnancy testing 14) making sure medicinal products are stored appropriately and securely to ensure freshness and potency EXERCISE 2 Use the words in capitals to form a word that fits in the context. SONIA PATEL, SENIOR ASSOCIATE SCIENTIST “Fulfilling, 1) FASCINATE (………………..) and fun are a few words I would use to describe working as an industrial pharmacist in Research & Development (R&D) at an international 2) PHARMACY (………………..) company. I am 3) MOTIVATION

(………………..)

by

inventing

new

medicines

that

4)

IMPROVEMENT (………………..) and save people’s lives and I feel like I am doing something positive and 5) REWARD (………………..) on a 6) DAY (………………..) basis. I get to work at the forefront of cutting edge science,

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

alongside world class researchers. Each day is 7) DIFFERENCE (………………..) and involves a combination of laboratory work and attending technical meetings. This 8) DIVERSE (………………..) - in addition to the many opportunities to grow and develop, move departments, travel overseas and take advantage of some 9) EXCEL (………………..) company benefits – makes working in industry an extremely attractive career option. I am thrilled to be part of this industry and I look forward with 10) EXCITING (………………..) to the rest of my career!” EXERCISE 3 Complete the sentences with the correct phrase from the box. Use the correct verb form. take a day off

get good perks

receive a pay rise

retire

be made redundant

work shifts

hand in one’s notice

be promoted

work part-time

commute to work

1) My boss decided to ______________ for personal reasons, but he should be here tomorrow. He said something about visiting his sick mother. 2) She lives far away from the office so she has to _______________ everyday by train. 3) Mark ______________ to senior manager in Sales Department. 4) Employees in most European countries have to ______________ at 65 although some would like to stay on. 5) After two years in the company he ______________. 6) She ______________, such as free healthcare, a laptop, and a company car. 7) When the company had financial problems, a lot of employees ______________. 8) When you make your living as a nurse, you are expected to ______________. 9) As I found a better-paid job, I ______________ immediately. 10) ______________ is the best solution for mothers with small children.

MODERN PHARMACY

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EXERCISE 4 Put the correct personality/character adjective so that it matches the behaviour, and then add a synonym and an opposite. polite

hard working

moody

sociable

down-to-earth

honest

considerate

tense

patient

trustworthy

BEHAVIOUR 1. likes to be with people 2. happy one moment and then sad the next 3. feeling nervous because of something bad that may happen 4. behaves in a way that is correct for the social situation he/she is in 5. you can trust him/her with a secret 6. able to wait calmly for a long time 7. works hard 8. always thinks of what other people want or need 9. does not lie or steal 10. is realistic

PERSONALITY/CHARACTER SYNONYM

OPPOSITE

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

References: 1. http://www.stemnorthofscotland.com/file/188/what-do-pharmacists-do.doc [10.05.2010] 2. http://www.underoak.co.uk/public-training-courses/medical-courses/index.html [10.05.2010] 3. http://www.careersscotland.org.uk/CareerInformation/Occupations/HealthandM edicine/Pharmacy/IndustrialPharmacist.asp [10.05.2010] 4. http://www.alec.co.uk/free-career-assessment/career-information-pharmacyjobs.htm [10.05.2010] 5. http://www.rpsgb.org.uk/pdfs/careersleaflet.pdf [10.05.2010]

3 MEDICAL SPECIALTIES EXERCISE 1 Doctors and specialties. Fill in the missing words. SPECIALIST

SPECIALTY

paediatrician Gynaecology dermatologist Psychiatry ophthalmologist, eye doctor Geriatrics obstetrician Surgery otolaryngologist, e.n.t. doctor Neurology urologist Cardiology allergist and immunologist Family Medicine oncologist Anesthesiology radiologist

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 2 Read the patients’ complaints. Which specialist does each patient need? 1) My baby has an awful rash over her body. I think she’s allergic to formula milk. 2) I’ve just taken a home pregnancy test, and it came out positive. I want to know if the foetus is developing properly. 3) My eyes have been red and my vision has been blurry for a couple of weeks. I’m feeling like I have sand in my eyes. 4) I’ve been having pain in my chest. I’m also having difficulties breathing. 5) My baby has stopped gaining weight since 6 months old. He is 8 months old now and weighs 6.4kg. 6) I work as a teacher and I keep getting sore throat. 7) My daughter gets terrible acne and she has tried different products in the pharmacy but they didn’t work for her. 8) I can feel a little lump in my left breast. There’s a history of breast cancer in my family. EXERCISE 3 Para-medical staff working in a hospital. 1) A specially trained nurse whose job is to help women when they are having a baby – m _ _ _ _ _ _ 2) A medical specialist who uses massage and exercise to treat disease and injury – p______________ 3) Someone trained in emergency first aid – p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4) Someone who is trained to look after people who are ill or injured usually in a hospital – n _ _ _ _ 5) A person whose job is to give people advice what kind of food they should eat – d________ 6) A person who analyses samples of body tissues and fluids taken from patients (2 words) – l _ _ t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

MEDICAL SPECIALTIES

21

EXERCISE 4 Complete the unfinished sentences in the dialogue. Patient: Good afternoon doctor Smith. Doctor: Nice to see you Mrs. Jordan, what seems to be the trouble? P: Well, I keep getting these headaches. D: When …………………………………………………………………………..? P: Usually when I get home from work. D: What ……………………………………………………………………………? P: I usually take an aspirin and it seems to help for some time. D: How long .………………………………………………………………………? P: For the last three or four months. D: Why ..…………………………………………………………………………….? P: It really didn’t seem bad enough to be worth troubling you about. D: Have ……………………………………………………than usual? P: Yes, definitely. Since my colleague was dismissed I’ve been doing his work as well as mine. D: Have .…………………………………………………………………………….? P: Yes, but he says that if I can’t work effectively, I’ll be made redundant too. D: What ……………………………………………………………………….? P: Can you give me a sick note so that I can be off work for some time? D: Would ……………………………………………………….? P: Yes, 10 days would be fine. D: …………………………………………… P: Thank you very much. D: …………………………………………………

4 LABORATORY AND SAFETY RULES A laboratory is a workroom equipped for scientific research, experiments, observation or testing. It can be a place where drugs and chemicals are manufactured. A clinical laboratory is used for examination of materials derived from the human body for the purpose of providing information on diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Most chemical or pharmaceutical laboratories are characterized by controlled uniformity of conditions (constant temperature, humidity, cleanliness). Modern laboratories use a considerable number of instruments and procedures to study, systematize, or quantify the objects of their attention. Procedures often include sampling, pre-treatment and treatment, measurement, calculation, and presentation of results. A chemical laboratory is equipped with various types of glassware and plasticware needed for measurement, pouring, and storage. Volumetric instruments include: graduated flasks, cylinders, pipettes, burettes, and beakers. They should be cleaned after every use following the standard procedure: 1) rinse the glassware in cold water 2) place the glassware in a detergent solution 3) brush it thoroughly 4) wash in running cold water 5) leave the glassware to drain

LABORATORY AND SAFETY RULES

23

Most chemical substances are hazardous and should be handled with precautions. These hazards include toxic and corrosive chemicals that can damage health, and chemicals that can cause fires and explosions. Many accidents occur because the hazard was not known or it was underestimated. The listed below general safety procedures are designed to minimize the likelihood of an accident while working with hazardous chemicals. SAFETY AND LABORATORY RULES for ORGANIC CHEMISTRY LABORATORIES 1) Approved safety goggles must be worn at all times. 2) No food, drinks or smoking are allowed. 3) Work is permitted only during scheduled laboratory periods 4) Know the location of fire extinguishers, safety equipment, and the nearest exit. 5) No unauthorized experiments may be performed. 6) Broken, cracked or chipped glassware must be discarded properly. 7) Never taste or smell chemicals. 8) Avoid contact of chemical substances with the skin. The use of rubber gloves and laboratory coats is recommended. 9) Dispose of chemical waste in a safe way. All potentially infectious waste must be burned in the incinerator. 10) Persons working with human tissue must be vaccinated against HBV (Hepatitis B Virus). 11) Clean your work area and put away all equipment and glassware before leaving. 12) Practical jokes or other behavior that might startle, confuse, or distract another worker must be avoided.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

GEOMETRIC FIGURES Exercise 1 Supply the missing adjectives or nouns.

Noun

square

circle

semicircle

triangle

diamond

spherical

cylindrical

Adjective

GEOMETRIC SOLIDS

Noun Adjective

conical

cubical

pyramidal

Exercise 2 Match the word with the definition a) sphere b) cone c) diamond

d) hemisphere e) cube

1) A figure with four equal sides whose angles are not right angles. 2) A solid figure all points of which are equally distant from a center. 3) A solid figure with a round base and a point at the top. 4) A solid figure with six equal square sides 5) Either of the two halves of the brain.

LABORATORY AND SAFETY RULES

25

EXERCISE 1 Supply the missing words. NOUN

VERB

ADJECTIVE equipped with

measurement deliver storage remove contain safety dispose vaccinated intoxicate explosion avoid EXERCISE 2 Match the synonyms. 1. hazardous 2. disposable 3. contaminated 4. refrigerated 5. soiled 6. labeled

a. stained b. chilled, cool c. risky d. marked, named, tagged e. polluted f. not-returnable

EXERCISE 3 Match the common safety symbols with its meaning.

1. A) flammable B) poison

2.

3. C) explosive D) radioactive

4.

5.

6.

E) corrosive F) compressed gas

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

4.1 CHEMICAL GLASSWARE A short-necked, flat-bottomed flask A long-necked, round-bottomed flask A two-necked, round-bottomed flask A single-necked, round-bottomed flask

Compound adjectives Words like a three-headed / round-bottomed are compound adjectives and they are made up of two or more words, normally with hyphens ( - ) between them.

adj. / adv. + past participle EXERCISE 1 Match the phrases. 1. Organ donors perform

a. a quick-tempered man

2. After a day in the sun I felt like

b. a densely-populated town

3. I wouldn’t like to live in

c. a four-hour movie

4. Intolerant people often have

d. a ten-dollar note.

5. Tom is in love with

e. an ice-cold mineral water.

6. Don't drive the wrong way down

f. a five-page essay.

7. The manager of the bank is

g. a freckled-face girl

8. My homework for tomorrow is

h. a life-giving service.

9. My friend Mike lent me

i. deeply-rooted beliefs

10. The cinema is showing

j. a one-way street.

LABORATORY AND SAFETY RULES

EXERCISE 2 Explain the meaning of the phrases. e.g. a one-eyed sailor - a sailor that has only one eye 1) a tight-fisted undertake- …………………………………………………….. 2) a tone-deaf musician - ……………………………………………………. 3) a self-centered one-time politician - ……………………………………… 4) long-lasting adverse effects - …………………………………………….. 5) well-groomed nails - …………………………………………………….. 6) ill-bred child - …………………………………………………………… 7) black-and-blue eye - …………………………………………………….. 8) a brightly-lit operating theatre - ………………………………………… 9) a strongly-worded letter - ………………………………………………… 10) light-hearted mood - …………………………………………………… EXERCISE 3 Translate into English: 1) kolba płaskodenna ………………………………………………… 2) kolba z trzema szyjami ……………………………………………... 3) kolba kulista z dwoma szyjami……………………………………… 4) jednoręki żeglarz…………………………………………………… 5) długowieczna rodzina ……………………………………………… 6) krótkowzroczna polityka ………………………………………….. 7) sypialnia w jasnym kolorze………………………………………… 8) źle dopasowany garnitur ……………………………………………

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

LABORATORY AND SAFETY RULES

References: 1. http://chemistry.about.com/od/healthsafety/a/aa080104a.htm [02.06.2010] 2. http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/debeck_pt/science/safety.htm [02.06.2010] 3. http://library.thinkquest.org/11430/research/safety.htm [02.06.2010] 4. http://www.laboratoryequipmentworld.com/chemistry-lab-equipment.html [02.06.2010] 5. http://www.thomassci.com/ [02.06.2010] 6. http://www.labdepotinc.com/c-21-laboratory-glassware.php [02.06.2010]

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5 PHARMACY AND PHARMACOLOGY Pharmacology a branch of science that deals with drug action. It is the study of interactions that take place between living organisms and chemical substances that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. The work of pharmacologists concentrates on drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicity and therapy. In industry pharmacologists perform exhaustive tests that are necessary before new drugs can be introduced into medical practice. Detailed observations of drug effects on all systems and organs of laboratory animals are necessary before the physician can accurately predict both the effects of the drug on patients and their potential toxicity to humans. Constant testing is also required for the routine control of drug products and their potency and purity. Pharmacy is a biomedical science and health profession concerned with compounding, dispensing, dosage, and the safe and effective use of medications. Pharmacists, experts on drug therapy, are responsible for the preparation of different forms of medicines, such as tablets, capsules, suppositories and solutions for infusions and injections. They refill prescriptions issued by physicians, dentists, and veterinarians. Apart from dispensing drugs pharmacists counsel patients on the correct use and possible side effects of medicines. They act as an intermediary between physicians and patients. Pharmacists play an important role in health education and prevention. Pharmacognosy is the field of science which deals with medicines derived from natural sources (such medicines may be used in their pure form or as extracts). It is an interdisciplinary study closely related to pharmacology and pharmacy

PHARMACY AND PHARMACOLOGY

practice,

botany,

marine

biology,

31

microbiology

and

herbal

medicine.

Pharmacognosy mainly focuses on biological, biochemical and physical properties of plants and drugs of plant origin. Numerous plants are constantly being tested for their potential medicinal value. However, other types of organisms, such as fungi, bacteria or marine organisms are also the subject of interest. Toxicology is concerned with adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms. It is the study of symptoms, treatments and detection of poisoning, especially in humans. Toxicology is a broad discipline related to pathology, criminology, chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology and many other studies. A toxicologist examines a wide range of problems such as the effects of drug overdose, the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of poisoning in industry, a criminal act which may have led to an unexplained death. EXERCISE 1 Paraphrase the sentences changing the underlined words. 1) The toxicologist investigates such diverse problems as the effects of overdose, treatment, and inexplicable death. The toxicologist……………………………………………………………………… 2) Pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived from plants. Pharmacognostic studies …………………………………………………………… 3) Pharmacognosy deals with physical, chemical and biological properties of drugs. Pharmacognosy ……………………………………………………………………… 4) Researchers in this field evaluate the usefulness of a drug according to its ability to produce desired effects without adverse side effects. Researchers …………………………………………………………………………

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 2 Fill in the following table. Singular

Plural

bacterium fungi phenomenon nuclei alga media criterion data formula EXERCISE 3 Fill in the table. Verb

Noun

Adjective promising

purity derived require diagnosis exhausting cultivation harm (un)known / well-known

References: 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy [02.05.2010] 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacology [02.05.2010] 3. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/455192/pharmacy [02.05.2010] 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacognosy [02.05.2010] 5. http://www.pharmacy.ac.uk/pharmacognosy.html [02.05.2010]

6 PHARMACOPOEIA Pharmacopoeia, unquestionably the most important reference work for pharmacists, is a book containing directions for the identification of chemical substances and the preparation of compound medicines. The word comes from Greek and means “preparation of drugs”. Pharmacopoeia lists all preparations and substances used in current medical practice in a given country. It contains remarkably detailed information concerning the following aspects: 1) the form of the substance (e.g. powder, liquid) 2) physical properties (e.g. taste, colour, odour) 3) solubility (if the substance is soluble in water or alcohol) 4) interactions with other substances 5) pharmacological application (e.g. codeini phosphas – codeine phosphate – an effective painkiller and antitussive agent or efedrini hydrochloridum – ephedrine hydrochloride – an expectorant and nasal decongestant) 6) dosage (e.g. minimum and maximum dose, doses for children and adults) 7) recommended storage (e.g. room temperature, glass or plastic containers, dark place only). Pharmacopoeia is actually used on a daily basis in preparing prescription drugs. It specifies the purity of substances and, where appropriate, biological potency. Detailed directions help pharmacists identify the substances.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

Pharmacopoeia provides information on synthetic substances, natural products (e.g. herbs), biological and biotechnology-derived preparations, vaccines and even dressing materials. EXERCISE 1 Match the terms with their definitions. 1) composition 2) sample 3) reference work 4) vaccine 5) route of administration

A) a book to which you can refer for authoritative facts B) a preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. C) the path by which a drug, poison or other substance is brought into contact with the body D) an arrangement of various parts from which something is made up E) a small part representing the whole

EXERCISE 2 Find the verb or the noun form. VERBS

NOUNS

to describe definition vaccine against flu to regulate preservation to purify to administer drugs

PHARMACOPOEIA

EXERCISE 3 Find the synonyms. -

vaccine against flu = ……………………………

-

drug =…………………….. = ……………………….

-

constituent = …………………..

-

current = ………………………

-

to specify = ……………………

-

chemical properties = chemical …………………………

-

to contain = ………………………

-

appropriate = ………………………

References: 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacopoeia [10.06.2010] 2. http://www.pharmacopoeia.co.uk/ [10.06.2010] 3. http://www.ema.europa.eu/htms/human/presub/q40.htm [10.06.2010]

35

7 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Read the text and answer the questions. There are two main types of properties – physical and chemical – which allow us to distinguish elements and compounds from one another. A physical property is a characteristic that can be observed or measured without changing the fixed composition of the substance. Appearance, density, colour, odour, taste, hardness, concentration, solubility, conductivity, melting point and boiling point are examples of physical properties. Physical properties are contrasted with chemical properties which can only be observed during a chemical reaction. Chemical properties describe how a substance changes into a completely new substance, i.e. a substance is altered in a chemical reaction and exhibits different physical and chemical properties after the change. Flammability and corrosion/oxidation resistance are examples of chemical properties. Physical and chemical properties of iron Iron is a hard, silvery-white or grayish metal. It is odourless, tasteless and insoluble in water. It is ductile, i.e. capable of being drawn into thin wires and malleable, i.e. capable of being hammered into thin sheets. It is one of only three naturally occurring magnetic elements. The other two are nickel and cobalt. Iron is a very active metal. It readily combines with oxygen in moist air. The product of this reaction, iron oxide (Fe2O3), is known as rust. Iron also reacts with very hot water and steam to produce hydrogen gas. It also dissolves in most acids and reacts with many other elements.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

37

1) What is the difference between physical and chemical property? 2) What are the physical properties of iron? 3) How does rust form? EXERCISE 1 Classify the properties of copper into physical and chemical. •

Boiling point - 2570°C

•

Forms a deep blue solution when in contact with ammonia

•

Good conductor of heat and electricity

•

Density - 8.92 g/cm3

•

Forms new substances when combined with nitric acid and sulfuric acid

•

Reddish brown, shiny

•

Forms green copper carbonate compound when in contact with moist air (combines with water and carbon dioxide)

•

Melting point - 1085°C

•

Fairly soft - easily shaped into sheets (malleable) and drawn into wires (ductile)

•

Has good corrosion resistance

EXERCISE 2 Write the names of the following elements. Al

Pb

Ba

Mg

Br

Hg

Ca

N

C

O

Cl

P

Cu

K

F

Ag

Au

Na

H

S

I

Sn

Fe

Zn

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 3 Translate the words/phrases into English. Nitrogen is a colourless, (1) BEZWONNY …………….. gas that makes up 78% of the air by volume. The element seemed so inert that Lavoisier (2) NAZWAŁ ……………….. it azote, meaning “without life”. Nitrogen is (3) NIEZBĘDNY …………….. for life since it is part of DNA, but it is also needed for protein and many other components of the living cell. There is a so-called ‘nitrogen cycle’ in nature - that is, it is possible to trace its movements from the air to plants, to animals, to the (4) GLEBA …………………. where it can be recycled or washed into rivers, and where some microbes can turn it back into nitrogen gas and return it to the atmosphere. About 50 million tonnes of nitrogen (5) UZYSKUJE SIĘ …………………. (use passive) every year, mainly for use in making fertilizers, but also for making plastics, dyes and (6) MATERIAŁY WYBUCHOWE …………………. . Nitrogen in its liquid form is extremely cold and is used for storing items. Fertility clinics store sperm, eggs and embryos used to help (7) BEZPŁODNY …………………… couples become pregnant in ampoules in liquid nitrogen.

References: 1. http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Physic al_Chemical/PhysicalProperties.htm [02.06.2010] 2. http://www.chemistryexplained.com/elements/C-K/Iron.html [02.06.2010] 3. http://www.chemistryexplained.com/elements/C-K/Copper.html [02.06.2010] 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper [02.06.2010] 5. http://moodle.aquinas.ac.uk/file.php/1/PeriodicTable/data/elements/7.htm [02.06.2010] 6. http://www.webelements.com/nitrogen/ [02.06.2010]

8 THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS At present there are 117 known chemical elements. About 20% of them do not exist in nature (or are present only in trace amounts) and are known only because they have been prepared synthetically in laboratories. 7 substances recognized today as elements (i.e. copper, gold, iron lead, mercury, silver, and tin) were already known in antiquity as they occur in nature in relatively pure form. They are mentioned in the Bible and in an early Hindu medical book. 16 other elements were discovered in the second half of the 18th century. 82 more “appeared” with the introduction of advanced analytical methods. 11 of the known elements (hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, and the 6 noble gases) are gases under ordinary conditions, 2 are liquids (mercury and bromine), and the rest are solids. Elements can combine with one another to form a variety of more complex substances called compounds. The number of possible compounds is almost infinite. When two or more elements combine to form a compound, they lose their separate identities, and the product has characteristic features quite different from those of the constituent elements. For instance, two gases hydrogen and oxygen (exhibiting quite different properties) combine to form water, which has completely different properties from either oxygen or hydrogen. In 1869 a chemistry professor from Russia - Dimitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table, arranging the elements by mass. Mendeleev modified his Table all his life and changed the arrangement from vertical to horizontal. The longstanding work led to the formulation of the Law of Periodicity: “The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic mass”.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

The periodic table of the chemical elements provides an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all of the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has a wide application in biology, physics, chemistry and chemical engineering. The arrangement of the periodic table demonstrates recurring (‘periodic’) chemical properties. Elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number (i.e. the number of protons in the atomic nucleus). Rows are arranged so that elements with similar properties fall into the same columns - groups or families. Each element is usually listed with its element symbol and atomic number many versions of the table also list the element’s atomic mass and other information, such as its abbreviated electron configuration, and most common valence numbers. EXERCISE 1 Find the synonyms: 1) completely → _ _ _ _ g _ _ _ _ r 2) amount → _ _ a _ _ _ _ _ 3) occur → _ _ p _ _ _

= t___ p____

4) ordinary → _ v _ _ _ _ e = c _ _ _ _ n 5) to exhibit → _ h _ _

= ____n_____e

6) application → _ _ _ 7) long-standing → _ o _ _ - _ _ s _ _ _ _ 8) to provide → _ _ p _ _ _ = _ i _ _ EXERCISE 2 Change the words in brackets to complete the text. Oxygen was ………………….. (DEPEND) discovered by C.W. Scheele in 1773 and J. Priestley in 1774. However, Priestley is often given ………………….. (PRIOR) because his ………………….. (PUBLISH) came out in print first. We depend upon oxygen for life, as in it’s ………………….. (ABSENT) we suffocate; for heat because wood, coal and gas do not burn without it; and for light when oil, gas or a candle is used. The oxygen of the air breathed into our organisms

THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

is

used

to

…………………..

41

(OXIDE)

foodstuffs

absorbed

during

………………….. (DIGEST). ………………….. (NEAR) 50 % of terrestrial matter is oxygen. Oxygen is a ………………….. (COLOUR) gas, without taste or odour. It dissolves slightly in water. Oxygen is more ………………….. (SOLVE) in water than nitrogen. The ………………….. (SOLVE) of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent. All the ………………….. (KNOW)

metals (excepting silver, gold, and platinum)

combine, when heated, with oxygen to give oxides. Compound substances, if they are composed of elements which combine with oxygen, are able themselves to interact with oxygen. They ………………….. (PRODUCT) a mixture of the same oxides which each element ………………….. (SEPARATE) would give. Liquid oxygen has a pale-blue tint and is a highly ………………….. (REACT) substance.

References: 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table [12.01.2010] 2. http://www.chemicool.com/ [12.01.2010] 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev [12.01.2010] 4. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/cosmostar/html/cstars_mendel.html [12.01.2010] 5. Anna W. Kierczak , English for Pharmacists, PZWL

9 DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION Read the text and decide whether the statements are true or false. Drug abuse refers to using a drug in excessive quantities, or for non-medical purposes. Drug addiction (dependence) describes a compulsion to continue taking a drug in order to feel good or to avoid feeling bad despite its negative and sometimes harmful effects. Addiction often has both physical and psychological components. Physical addiction is characterized by the presence of tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. Tolerance refers to the way the body usually adapts to the repeated presence of a drug. The effects of tolerance mean that increasingly higher doses of a drug are needed to maintain the same effect. Alcohol, barbiturates, heroin and amphetamine are all drugs to which the body can build up tolerance. Withdrawal symptoms are the body’s reaction to the abrupt discontinuation of a drug to which the user has become physically dependent. The symptoms can be overcome by taking more of the drug or by completely doing without the drug. When the user does not have the drug, they often feel ill with flu like symptoms such as shaking, shivering, muscle and joint pain, runny nose, etc. Psychological dependence is when the user experiences an overwhelming desire to continue with the drug experience. This can be because of the pleasurable effects and the desire to keep experiencing them. It can, however, also represent some sort of psychological crutch. The drug experience can become a way of

DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION

43

blocking out reality, making life bearable, and a way of facing the world. Without the crutch life seems worthless. It can happen with any drug or any activity which takes over a person’s life including eating, sex, work, internet, or jogging. The exact cause why people abuse and become addicted to drugs is not known. However, some risk factors increase the likelihood of having an addiction to a legal or an illegal drug. These include: • Type of drug. Some drugs, such as heroin and cocaine, more quickly result in physical addiction than do others. • Genetics. Drug addiction is more common in some families and likely involves the effects of many genes. Having family members with alcohol or drug problems increases the risk of developing a drug addiction. • Personality. Psychological problems, such as depression, attention-deficit disorder, hyperactivity or post-traumatic stress increase the likelihood of drug dependence. Children who exhibit aggressive behaviour, low self-esteem, and a lack of confidence may be prone to turning to drugs. • Social circumstances. Peer pressure and a lack of attachment with parents may increase the risk of addiction. The following substances are commonly abused: • Opiates and narcotics are powerful painkillers that cause drowsiness and feelings of

euphoria.

Exapmles:

heroin,

opium,

codeine,

meperidine

(Demerol).

• Central nervous system stimulants, for example, amphetamines and cocaine. Caffeine and nicotine are the most commonly used stimulants. • Central nervous system depressants such as barbiturates and benzodiazepine (Valium). The most commonly used, by far, is alcohol. These substances produce a calming and anxiety-reducing effect and can lead people to become addicted to them. • Hallucinogens include LSD and psilocybin (“mushrooms”). They can cause hallucinations and can lead to psychological dependence.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

• Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the active ingredient found in marijuana (cannabis) and hashish. It has mild to moderate analgesic effect. Other effects include relaxation and euphoria. Although used for their relaxing properties, THCderived drugs can also lead to paranoia and anxiety. 1) There is no difference between drug abuse and drug dependence. 2) Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms are associated with psychological dependence. 3) Withdrawal symptoms resemble flu. 4) People may become psychologically dependent on drugs only. 5) Drug addiction causes one generation to pass it on to the next. 6) Confident children with healthy self-esteem who are given much parental attention are less likely to develop drug dependence. 7) Peer pressure has little to do with increasing the risk of addiction. 8) Caffeine and nicotine are the most commonly used depressants. EXERCISE 1 Match a verb from column A with a word/phrase from column B. A

B

1) break

a) addicted to cannabis

2) undergo

b) depression

3) prevent

c) screening for drug addiction

4) stay

d) a drug addiction

5) cope with

e) relapse

6) become

f) drug-free

7) come off

g) a mild hallucinogenic effect

8) detect

h) withdrawal therapy

9) produce

i) the drug

10) undergo

j) the presence of a drug

DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION

45

References: 1. http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/drug-abuse-anddependence/overview.html [12.06.2010] 2. http://www.drugscope.org.uk/resources/drugsearch/drugsearchpages/withdrawal [12.06.2010]

10 HEALTHY LIFESTYLE 10.1 HEALTHY DIET Eating a balanced diet is essential to maintaining good health and a sensible body weight. A healthy balanced diet means eating a variety of foods from each food group to provide all the essential nutrients. The five major food groups are: Fruit and vegetables This food group should make up about a third of your daily food consumption. It is recommended to have at least five portions of fruit and vegetables each day. Studies have shown that a diet rich in fruit and vegetables may lower the risk of heart disease, some cancers and obesity. Fruit and vegetables contain diverse antioxidants, protecting the body from harmful free radicals that are thought to be responsible for many forms of cancer. For example, blueberries contain flavonoids that can improve circulation and protect against infection. Consuming broccoli, rich in the antioxidants such as vitamin C and beta-carotene, as well as folate, can protect against cardiovascular disease and cancer. Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta These products should also constitute about a third of your diet as they contain the starchy carbohydrates – the body’s main source of energy. Bread, rice and pasta are produced from grains that can come in two forms – refined or unrefined. In refined grains (white bread, white rice and white pasta) the bran and germ have been removed leaving only the endosperm that is a source of carbohydrates, mainly starch. Whole grains contain the bran, germ and endosperm. The bran provides fibre

HEALTHY LIFESTYLE

47

and the germ supplies protein, vitamins and minerals. Whole grains are also rich in phytochemicals and antioxidants, which protect against cancers, coronary heart disease, and diabetes. Dietry fibre is found in fruit, vegetables and whole grains and plays an important role in maintaining a healthy digestive system. High-fibre foods help your digestive system to process the food facilitating bowel regularity and keeping the gastrointestinal tract clean. Fiber takes longer to digest, so it gives a feeling of fullness for longer. It also helps to control blood sugar and lower blood cholesterol reducing the risk of developing diabetes and coronary heart disease. Milk and dairy foods Milk and dairy products, i.e. cheese, yoghurt and fromage frais are important sources of protein, vitamin A, vitamin B12. They are also a great source of calcium, a mineral which helps to keep your bones and teeth strong. Calcium also regulates muscle contraction (including the heartbeat), and ensures proper blood clotting. Three portions of milk products consumed daily are sufficient to meet your body’s calcium demand. Butter, margarine or cream are not included in this food group as they contain a large amount of saturated fat and should be eaten in moderation. Meat, fish, eggs and beans This food group includes protein coming from both animal and plant sources. Protein is a fundamental component of all living cells essential for growth and repair. Protein consists of long chains of amino acids, some of which must come from foods as your body cannot produce or store them. Foods containing protein include meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, pulses, nuts, seeds, soya products, beans, peas, whole grains, broccoli and spinach. Animal protein contains the full range of indispensible amino acids needed for your diet. However, red meat should be eaten in moderation because of its high content of saturated fat that is responsible for elevated ‘bad’ LDL cholesterol. It is recommended to replace red meat with poultry,

48

Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

fish or shellfish. Fish such as tuna, salmon, mackerel and herring are a good source of omega-3 fatty acids which help to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Foods and drinks high in fat and/or sugar Foods from this group, often known as ‘empty calories’, include cakes, sweets, soft drinks, crisps and most junk foods. These foods should only be eaten occasionally as they contain very few nutrients, but a large amount of saturated fat, trans fatty acids, sugar and salt. Eating a diet rich in foods with a high fat and/or sugar content may lead to the development of certain conditions such as diabetes, coronary heart disease, cancers or hypertension. There are two groups of fat - saturated and unsaturated. Saturated fat is usually solid at room temperature and is found in animal and dairy foods such as meat, butter, lard, hard margarine, cheese, full fat milk, and cream. Too much saturated fat in a diet may increase the risk of heart disease, stroke and some cancers. Unsaturated fat is generally liquid at room temperature and usually comes from plant sources such as avocado, nuts, seeds but is also found in oily fish. Unsaturated fat contains essential fatty acids which cannot be stored in the body so they must be provided in a diet.

Sugar is found naturally in fruit and milk or added to a variety of foods such as soft drinks, sweets and breakfast cereals. Sugars from fruit and milk do not pose any threat to your health whereas foods and drinks with added sugars need to be cut down as they contribute to obesity and dental decay.

HEALTHY LIFESTYLE

49

EXERCISE 1 Here are adjectives which describe taste. Think of an example of a food or drink for each. 1)

hot and spicy - …………………………………………………

2)

rich - ……………………………………………………………

3)

bitter - ………………………………………………………….

4)

sour - …………………………………………………………..

5)

stodgy - …………………………………………………………

6)

sickly - ………………………………………………………….

7)

crunchy - ……………………………………………………….

8)

bland / tasteless - ………………………………………………

9)

savoury - ……………………………………………………….

10) greasy - ………………………………………………………… 11) salty - …………………………………………………………… 12) stale - …………………………………………………………… EXERCISE 2 Choose the most suitable word or phrase to complete the sentences. 1) A ……………….. works in a hotel or restaurant kitchen and often wears a tall white hat. A cook

B cooker

C chef

D chief

2) Would you prefer ……………….. potatoes or French fries with your fish? A mixed

B mashed

C ground

D powdered

3) We would have a ……………….. chicken for Sunday lunch followed by an icecream dessert. A roast

B baked

C fried

D toasted

4) ‘To ………………..’ means to drink a liquid while making a noisy sucking sound. A sip

B gulp

C slurp

D gobble

5) I have a fantastic ……………….. for cheese cake. A prescription

B recipe

C receipt

D recite

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

6) You ……………….. the bread and I’ll make sandwiches for the party. A dice

B chop

C slice

D grate

7) Finally ……………….. some icing sugar on the apple pie. A spread

B squeeze

C dip

D sprinkle

8) Both fresh and ……………….. fruits are a good source of vitamins. A frosted

B chilled

C frozen

D freezing

9) Sushi is a Japanese dish made of ……………….. fish on top of cooked rice. A undercooked

B raw

C crude

D cruel

10) I can’t drink this milk. It’s gone ……………….. . A down

B off

C up

D through

10.2 VITAMINS Vitamins are a group of substances essential for normal cell function, growth and development. Vitamins are different in several ways from other biologically important compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Although these substances also are necessary for the proper function of the organism, almost all of them can be synthesized by animals in adequate quantities. Vitamins, on the other hand, generally cannot be synthesized in amounts sufficient to meet the needs and therefore must be obtained from the diet or administered in synthetic forms. That is why, vitamins are referred to as essential nutrients. Vitamins also differ from the other biological compounds in that relatively small amounts are sufficient to complete their functions. The lack or deficiency of a given vitamin may lead to different diseases and disorders. In 1912 a Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk demonstrated a correlation between poor nutrition and some bodily dysfunctions. Funk believed that some human diseases, particularly beri-beri and scurvy were caused by deficiencies of some chemical factors. As each of the factors had a nitrogen-containing component known as an amine, he called the compounds “vital amines”, later shortened to “vitamines”. The final “e” was later removed when it was realized that vitamins need not be

HEALTHY LIFESTYLE

51

nitrogen containing amines. In 1913 Elmer McCollum an American scientist grouped vitamins into: fat-soluble (stored in the fatty tissue) and water-soluble (not stored in the body, must be supplied daily).

vitamin

biological function

symptoms of deficiency

B1

supports normal nerve function

impairment of the nerves

B2

needed for proper growth; lipid, vitamin, mineral, and drug metabolism; antioxidant

dermatitis, vision disturbances, nervous symptoms

B3

cellular metabolism; fatty acid and steroid synthesis.

skin changes, gastrointestinal symptoms, impairment of the nerves

B6

hemoglobin synthesis, regulation of blood glucose levels

anemia, depression, convulsions, dermatitis

B12

metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids; new cell synthesis, blood formation, and proper neurological function

gastrointestinal and nervous symptoms

C

immune function , antioxidant; synthesis of collagen and hormones

bleeding gums, joint pains, slower wound healing, anemia, lowered resistance to infections

A

proper vision, growth, immune function

vision disturbances, stunted growth, dry skin, diarrhea, susceptibility to infections

D

proper mineralization of bones, proper levels of calcium and phosphorus in blood

defective bone growth in children, soft bones in adults

E

Antioxidant

destruction of red blood cells, infertility

K

blood coagulation

impaired blood clotting, bleeding from internal organs

52

Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 1 Complete the text with the words from the box. abstinence

access

ancient

attempt

comparing conclusively considered contain medicinal

prevent

primary

basis

benefits common

curative

dying

include

used

voyages

provided recommended

The early treatment of scurvy. The need to ……………. fresh plants and raw animal meat in the diet to ……………. diseases was known from ……………. times. People incorporated this into their ……………. knowledge. For example, spruce needles were used in moderate climate in infusions, or the leaves from drought-resistant trees in desert areas. In 1536, the French traveler Jacques Cartier, exploring the St. Lawrence River, ……………. the local natives' knowledge to save his men who were ……………. of scurvy. He boiled the needles of the arbor vitae tree to make a tea that was later shown to ……………. 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams. Throughout history, the ……………. of plant food to survive long sea ……………. has been recognized by authorities. John Woodall, the first appointed surgeon to the British East India Company, ……………. the preventive and ……………. use of lemon juice in his book “The Surgeon's Mate”. The Dutch writer, Johann Bachstrom, in 1734, gave the firm opinion that "scurvy is solely owing to a total ……………. from fresh vegetable food, and greens, which is alone the ……………. cause of the disease." While the earliest documented case of scurvy was described by Hippocrates around the year 400 BC, the first ……………. to give scientific ……………. for the cause of this disease was by a ship surgeon in the British Royal Navy, James Lind. Scurvy was ……………. among those with poor ……………. to fresh fruit and vegetables, for instance sailors and soldiers. Lind ……………. some crew members with two oranges and one lemon a day in addition to regular meals. Other sailors continued on their normal rations. In the history of science, this is ……………. to be the first occurrence of a controlled experiment ……………. results on two populations. The results ……………. showed that citrus fruits prevented the disease. Lind published his work “Treatise on the Scurvy” in 1753.

HEALTHY LIFESTYLE

53

EXERCISE 2 Match the word with its synonym. 1. to impair

2. deficiency

3. to coagulate 4. resistant

5. current

6. growth

d. development e. to damage

f. to induce

7. stimulate a. immune

b. up-to-date

c. to clot

g. shortage EXERCISE 3 Match the word with its opposite meaning. 1. to impair

2. deficiency

3. to coagulate

4. resistant 5. current

6. growth

7. stimulate a. susceptible

b. to deter

c. decline

d. outdated

e. to bleed

f. excess

g. improve

10.3 MINERALS Minerals are constituents of muscles, soft tissues, bones, teeth, and nerve cells. They are necessary for the proper function of both the body and psyche. Although vitamins are indispensable, they can do little for our health without minerals, as they are not absorbed without the aid of minerals. The human organism can “produce” a few vitamins (e.g. vitamin D), it cannot generate a single mineral. All cells, tissues and body fluids (e.g. blood, saliva, urine, sweat) consist of different quantities of minerals. Minerals function as catalysts for various biochemical and biological reactions, such as digestion process, muscle response, hormone production and neurotransmission. CALCIUM is responsible for strong bones and teeth and aids muscle contraction. It plays an important role in regulating heart rhythm and neurotransmission. Calcium treats and prevents osteoporosis, supports proper blood clotting and reduces elevated cholesterol level. Neurologists recommend calcium for attention deficit disorders (ADD & ADHD), insomnia, anxiety and migraine headaches. Dentists prescribe calcium for periodontal disease. Cardiologists understand its value in treating high blood pressure and irregular heartbeat. Pediatricians stress its importance in children’s growth. A deficiency may lead to dental decay, rickets (a softening of bones),

54

Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

nervousness, elevated blood cholesterol level, sleeplessness, cardiac palpitations, high blood pressure, and muscle cramps. The richest source of calcium: milk and milk products. IODINE is the most important constituent of the thyroid gland hormone. It is vital for the proper development and function of the thyroid gland which regulates the body’s production of energy, helps stimulate the rate of metabolism (important in maintaining proper weight), improves mental activity, and the condition of the skin, hair and nails. The human body needs only a trace amount of this mineral. A deficiency in iodine may result in an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter), slow mental reaction (including speech and concentration), dry skin and hair, obesity, loss of physical and mental vitality. The richest source of iodine: sea food, spinach, mozzarella cheese, strawberries, iodized salt. IRON is important in the formation of hemoglobin - the oxygen carrying factor in red blood cells. It supplies every cell in the body with oxygen and also stimulates the immune system. Iron deficiency symptoms are: lack of energy, paleness of skin, abdominal pain, constipation, blood disorders (e.g. anemia). The foods rich in iron: liver, red meat, green vegetables, nuts, whole grains. PHOSPHORUS, present in the bones, blood and internal organs, takes part in almost all physiological chemical reactions. It contributes to the growth of cells and is an important constituent of bones and teeth. It assists blood clotting, heart muscle contraction, regular heart rhythm, and kidney function. A deficiency in phosphorus is rare but may result in stunted growth, weak or fragile bones and teeth, weakness, susceptibility to infections, as well as the loss of appetite and energy. The richest source of phosphorus: almonds, cereals, beef, nuts, eggs and cheese. POTASSIUM is an essential mineral for the undisturbed function of all cells, tissues, and internal organs. As an electrolyte it conducts electrical signals between cells and nerves. Potassium is necessary for regular heart action and controls muscle contraction. Together with sodium it helps maintain the water balance. Together with magnesium helps prevent kidney stones and stimulates the kidneys to eliminate poisonous metabolic wastes.

HEALTHY LIFESTYLE

55

A deficiency of potassium may result in poor reflexes, nervous disorders, respiratory failure, cardiac arrest, and muscle damage. The richest source of potassium: meat, salmon, cod, fruits, vegetables, dairy products. EXERCISE 1 Find the synonyms. 1)

fragile bones = _ _ _ i _ _ _ _ bones

2)

high blood pressure = _ _ p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ n

3)

kidney failure = kidney _ _ _ f _ _ _ _ _ _ n

4)

muscle damage = muscle _ m _ _ _ _ m _ _ _

5)

virtually = p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ l _ _

6)

vital issue = _ _ u _ _ _ _ issue

7)

raised temperature = _ _ _ v _ _ _ d temperature

8)

to produce new cells = to _ _ n_ _ _ _ _ u _ _ new cells

9)

to improve metabolism = to _ n _ _ _ _ _ metabolism

10) to remove poisonous wastes = to _ _ _ m _ _ _ _ _ poisonous wastes EXERCISE 2 Fill in the blanks. verb

Noun

adjective

maintain transmission contracted impairment preventive absorb damage stunted failure supply

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EXERCISE 3 Fill in the blanks with the proper word from Exercise 2. 1) Mr. Jacobson sued his doctors for misdiagnosis and the court ordered the hospital management to pay him ………………….. of € 5.000. 2) Even the director himself admitted that the film was a complete ……………… . 3) According to some findings “Having the TV on constantly can ………………. the language and brain development in little children because it reduces the number of words the kids hear and say”. 4) Jack couldn’t …………………. himself any longer. He simply had to break the news to everyone. 5) The world’s ……………… of fresh water is running out. Already one person in five has no access to safe drinking water. 6) After his father’s sudden death, Tim had to discontinue his studies and find a job in order to ………………….. his family. 7) The Ministry of Health is taking …………………… steps against the flu epidemic. 8) Should hearing - ………………….

children attend special schools or get

integrated with all other children in public schools?

References: 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin [18.01.2010] http://www.realtime.net/anr/vitamins.html [18.01.2010] 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C [03.06.2010] 3. http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Cartier [03.06.2010] 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral [01.07.2010] 5. http://www.cellhealthmakeover.com/what-vitamins-do-what.html [01.07.2010] 6. http://www.healthvitaminsguide.com/minerals/phosphorus.htm [01.07.2010] 7. http://www.wellsphere.com/wellpage/can-vitamin-d-drops-cause-constipationin-infants [01.07.2010] 8. http://www.desertrainnutrition.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath =1_6&products_id=185 [01.07.2010] 9. http://www.livestrong.com/article/13937-fabulous-foods/ [08.06.2010] 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium [08.06.2010] 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine [08.06.2010] 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron [08.06.2010]

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13. http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/potassium-000320.htm [08.06.2010] 14. http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_fruitve g.shtml [16.06.2010] 15. http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_balance .shtml [16.06.2010] 16. http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_carbos. shtml [16.06.2010] 17. http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_dairy.s html [16.06.2010] 18. http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_protein. shtml [16.06.2010] 19. http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_fatsuga r.shtml [16.06.2010] 20. Sabina Jędraszko, An English course for Medical Students, PZWL

11 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Carbohydrates are one of the most abundant and widespread organic substances found in nature. They are essential constituents of all living cells and the primary source of energy for the humans and animals (1g of carbohydrate supplies on average 4 kcal of energy). There are three basic types of carbohydrates: simple (sugars), complex (starch) and fibers. From the chemical point of view, carbohydrates are organic molecules in which carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen bond together in the ratio: Cn H2n On. To release energy the body breaks down carbohydrates during the metabolic processes. The chemical metabolism of the sugar glucose is demonstrated below: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy Living organisms obtain carbohydrates by ingesting foods like potatoes, rice, wheat and corn. These carbohydrates are produced by plants in the process called photosynthesis which transforms carbon dioxide into organic compounds using sunlight energy. 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (from sunlight) → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 All carbohydrates are composed of sugar units (saccharide units). Both monosaccharides - carbohydrates that contain one sugar unit and disaccharides – those made up of two sugar units are called simple sugars. Glucose and fructose are the most common monosaccharides. Fructose is mainly found in most fruits (e.g. apples, blackberries, melon, raspberries). Glucose is the form of sugar which is stored in the human body for energy and also functions as a metabolic

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intermediate. Fasting blood glucose level (sugar level) ranges between 70 and 150 mg. It is elevated after a meal. Persistent elevated glucose levels are indicative of diabetes. Although glucose and fructose have different structures, they have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6). Disaccharides are made up of sugar units bonded together. The most common disaccharide is table sugar – sucrose (a glucose unit bonded to a fructose unit). Complex carbohydrates are polymers of simple sugars. They are long chains of simple sugar units bonded together and referred to as polysaccharides. Starch - the main polysaccharide used by plants to store glucose for further use as energy. Starch is usually stored in seeds. Rich sources of starch are: peas, rice, beans, lentils, corn, potatoes, etc.

Proteins (Greek: “proteios”- the first) are organic compounds present in all living cells. Proteins are truly the physical basis of life. Every function in the living cell depends on proteins. In the form of muscles, tendons, cartilage, ligaments, hair and skin proteins protect and provide the body structure to multicellular organisms. The structure of cells, and the extracellular matrix, is largely composed of proteins. Motion of cells and organisms depends on contractile proteins (e.g. muscles). In the form of hormones, antibodies, enzymes and globulins, proteins regulate, catalyze and protect the chemical reactions in the body. In the form of hemoglobin and various lipoproteins, they are responsible for the transport of oxygen and other substances within the organism. Proteins are an indispensable element of the diet. The lack or insufficient amount of protein intake results in serious diseases. Proteins are also present in antibiotics and vaccines to prevent and fight diseases. However, proteins also have lethal properties. For example, Botulinum toxin is regarded as the most potent poison ever known. According to toxicology studies, a teaspoon of Botulinum toxin is sufficient to kill 1/5 of the world’s population. The

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

poisonous substances produced by tetanus and diphtheria microorganisms are nearly as toxic. Highly poisonous proteins or peptides are also present in the venoms of many vipers and snakes. Proteins are macromolecules. They are constructed from one or more unbranched chains of amino acids; that is, they are polymers. A typical protein contains 200-300 amino acids but some are much smaller (the smallest are called peptides). Compared with lipids and carbohydrates, proteins are different in fundamental composition. Lipids are mainly hydrocarbon in nature (75% to 85% carbon). Carbohydrates are roughly 50% oxygen, and like lipids, often have less than 5% nitrogen (or none at all).On the other hand, proteins and peptides are made up of 15% to 25% nitrogen and an equal oxygen amount. Lipids are a broad class of organic products found in living systems. Most are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (e.g. alcohol). Lipids are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They include: fats and oils, waxes, steroids (e.g. cholesterol), and a few related compounds. The main biological functions of lipids is energy storage (1 gram of lipid provides approximately 9 kcal of energy). Lipids also take part in vitamin absorption (vitamins A, D, E and K). Lipids are often combined with proteins or carbohydrates, and the obtained substances are known as lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharides. Fats (lipids in a solid form at room temperature) and oils (liquid form at room temperature) are made up of 2 kinds of molecules: glycerol and fatty acids joined by dehydration synthesis. Fatty acids are of two types: saturated and unsaturated. Animal fats are a rich source of saturated fatty acids, while plant oils are mostly unsaturated acids. Fats serve many useful purposes (that is why they should not be completely eliminated from the diet). They store energy, help to insulate the body and protect the vital organs.

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EXERCISE 1 Answer the questions. 1) What are carbohydrates and what is their main function? 2) What is the chemical formula of these compounds? 3) Which food products are rich in carbohydrates? 4) What are lipids and what function do they serve? 5) What is the chemical composition of lipids? 6) What are proteins and why are they indispensable to life? 7) Why is Botulinum a dangerous substance? 8) Give examples of diseases that may be caused by the improper amount of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. EXERCISE 2 Match the synonyms used in the text above. 1. obtain

a. convert

2. ingest

b. vital

3. potent

c. main

4. poisonous

d. roughly

5. essential

e. crucial

6. primary

f. powerful

7. approximately

g. raised

8. transform

h. toxic

9. elevated

i. gain

10. indispensable

j. consume

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EXERCISE 3 Use the proper negative prefix: un-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, dis-, mis-, de-, asoluble, adequate, hydrate, sensitize, saturated, decent, mature, relevant, stabilize, sufficient, accurate, approve, convenient, pronounce, personal, visible, tolerant, like, obey, activate, symmetric, comfortable, expected, hear, familiar, moral, legal, understand, legible, direct, behave, mobilize, stabilize. Prefix

Examples

uninilirimdismisdeaEXERCISE 4 Give your own simple definitions of these concepts: 1) diabetes ……………………………………………………………………. 2) metabolism………………………………………………………………… 3) venom……………………………………………………………………… 4) glucose…………………………………………………………………...... 5) disaccharides………………………………………………………………. 6) antibodies………………………………………………………………..... 7) vaccine…………………………………………………………………….

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References: 1. http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/carbhyd.htm [22.06.2010] 2. http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=61 [22.06.2010] 3. http://www.greatvistachemicals.com/biochemicals/ [22.06.2010] 4. http://www.diet-and-health.net/Nutrients/carbohydrates.html [22.06.2010] 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis [22.06.2010] 6. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/list-of-high-carbohydrate-foods.html [22.06.2010] 7. http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/11-nutrients.htm [22.06.2010] 8. http://www.whereincity.com/medical/carbohydrates/ [22.06.2010] 9. http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/lipids.htm [22.06.2010]

12 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS Read the following text and decide whether the statements below are true or false: Acids, bases and salts are three main categories of chemical compounds which have their definite properties. Acids are substances that yield hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Acids in water (aqueous) solutions exhibit the following common properties: they taste sour, turn litmus paper red, and react with certain metals, such as zinc, to yield hydrogen gas. Some common acids that are found in laboratories are hydrochloric acid HCl, sulphuric acid H2SO4 and nitric acid HNO3. Acids that are found in nature are called ‘organic acids’. For examples, citric acid (in citrus fruits), ascorbic acid (or vitamin C, in certain fruits and vegetables), acetic acid (in vinegar) and lactic acid (in buttermilk). Bases are substances that liberate hydroxide ions (OH−) when dissolved in water. Bases in water (aqueous) solutions are characterized by their bitter taste. They also feel slippery and turn litmus paper blue. Commonly found bases in laboratories and in our daily life are: sodium hydroxide NaOH, also known as caustic soda, potassium hydroxide KOH, commonly known as caustic potash, milk of magnesia, Mg(OH)2, liquor ammonia NH3, washing powder and toothpaste. The strength of various acids and bases is expressed on the pH scale that measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH less than 7 is acidic whereas a pH greater than 7 is basic. A pH of 7 is neutral. Strong acids in solution produce a high concentration of hydrogen ions, and strong

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bases in solution produce a high concentration of hydroxide ions and a correspondingly low concentration of hydrogen ions. Strong acids and strong bases make very good electrolytes, i.e. their solutions easily carry electricity. Weak acids and weak bases are poor electrolytes. When a water (aqueous) solution of acid is mixed with a water solution of base, water and a salt are formed - this process is called neutralization. Salts consist of both positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions). The cations are called basic radicals and are mostly obtained from metallic ions (ammonium ion being one exception), while the anions are called acidic radicals and are obtained from acids. Salts are commonly used in our life. For instance, sodium chloride NaCl, or table salt, is used for seasoning and preserving food. Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 is used for the manufacture of glass and soap. Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3, or baking soda, is used as a component of baking powder and in medicines as a mild antiseptic for skin diseases and to neutralize the acidity of stomach. The sulphates are used in making plaster of Paris and in the construction industry. Silver bromide AgBr is used in making photographic films. 1) When dissolved in water acids liberate hydroxide ions. 2) Sulphuric acid is an example of organic acid. 3) Bases turn litmus paper red. 4) Potassium hydroxide KOH is also known as caustic soda. 5) A pH greater than 7 indicates acidity. 6) Strong acids and bases poorly conduct electricity. 7) Neutralization is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base resulting in the formation of water and a salt. 8) Bromides are used in photography.

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EXERCISE 1 Find the words or phrases in the text which mean: 1) qualities – 2) to show a particular quality – 3) to transmit – 4) one of several parts – 5) it helps stop a wound becoming infected – 6) to prepare food so that it will not decay – 7) to add salt, pepper to food so that it tastes better – 8) a quick-drying mixture of a white powder and water used for making plaster casts and to decorate buildings – EXERCISE 2 Match the following compounds with their descriptions. COMPOUND

DESCRIPTION

1 nitric acid

A responsible for the 'fizz' in soft drinks

2 hydrochloric acid

B used in the preparation of plaster and mortar

3 tartaric acid

C used to clean metals, brick and tile, also produced in small quantities in the stomach where it aids digestion

4 sodium hydroxide

D used in the manufacture of car batteries

5 carbonic acid

E helps to neutralize the acidity (of hydrochloric acid) in the stomach, common component of antacids and laxatives

6 calcium hydroxide

F used in the manufacture of fertilizers

7 sulphuric acid

G found in many household items such as detergents, stain removers, bleaches and dyes

8 ammonium nitrate

H used in the manufacture of soap, rayon and paper, its strong solutions are very caustic

9 ammonium hydroxide

I used in the manufacture of fertilizers, plastics, photographic film and dyes as well as in the preparation of such explosives as dynamite

10 magnesium hydroxide

J occurs in grapes and bananas, also found in wine

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

References: 1. http://www.tutorvista.com/bow/acid-bases-and-salt-animation [20.06.2010] 2. http://www.answers.com/topic/acids-and-bases [20.06.2010] 3. http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/184ph.html [20.06.2010] 4. http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/acids-bases-salts/moresalts.php [20.06.2010] 5. http://www.sciencebyjones.com/acids_bases_salts.htm [20.06.2010]

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13 COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE (CAM) Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a group of diverse therapies, practices, products and approaches to healthcare which are found outside mainstream conventional medicine. Complementary medicine is thought of as treatments used in addition to the conventional therapies that may be prescribed by a doctor whereas alternative medicine is generally thought of as being used instead of conventional methods. Complementary and alternative medicine is frequently distinguished by its holistic methods, which means that the practitioner treats the “whole” person (mind, body, emotions and spirit) and not just the disease or condition. The techniques used in CAM are mostly less invasive than conventional medical practices - they do not rely on surgery or conventional medications. Complementary and alternative therapies are based on the body’s innate ability to heal itself and the goal of treatment is to encourage natural healing processes. According to the US National Centre for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) complementary and alternative medicine is classified into the following broad categories: 1. Healing systems are complete sets of theories and practices and many date back earlier than the conventional medicine used in the West today. Examples of alternative medical systems include Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, homeopathy, and naturopathy. Alternative medical systems incorporate many of the

COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE (CAM)

69

different practices into their treatments. For example, the Traditional Chinese Medicine practice of acupuncture may be combined with herbal medicine (a biologically based practice), and Qi gong (an energy therapy). 2. Mind-body medicine focuses on the mind’s role in conditions that affect the body and includes practices such as meditation, yoga, prayer, hypnosis, Tai Chi, and music therapy, which are intended to strengthen the communication between the mind and the body. 3. Biologically based practices use substances such as herbs, foods, vitamins, and dietary supplements that are geared to help heal the body. Examples of herbs include ginseng, ginkgo and Echinacea while selenium is an example of a dietary supplement. 4. Manipulation and touch methods use human touch to move or manipulate a specific part of the body. They include chiropractic, massage, osteopathy, and acupressure. 5. Energy therapies include acupuncture, therapeutic touch, Reiki, magnet therapy, and light therapy. The goal of these therapies is to unblock or re-balance the energy flow in the body.

EXERCISE 1 Answer the questions. 1) What is CAM? 2) What is the difference between complementary and alternative medicine? 3) How is CAM different from conventional medicine? 4) What aim does mind-body medicine have? 5) What substances are used in biologically based practices? 6) What are energy therapies intended for?

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EXERCISE 2 Match the following complementary and alternative therapies with their definitions. Reflexology

Naturopathy

Homeopathy

Iridology

Acupuncture

Ayurveda

Aromatherapy

Chiropractic

Herbalism

Qi gong

1) It is a 3000-year-old Chinese medical system. Hair-thin needles are inserted at certain points in the body to treat various diseases or to relieve pain. 2) It focuses on treating certain disorders through massage of the soles of the feet. 3) It is the world’s oldest and most widely used healing form that uses herbs to treat illnesses such as depression, anxiety and hypertension. 4) It has been practiced primarily in the Indian subcontinent for 5,000 years. It includes meditation and yoga, along with diet and taking herbal remedies for health reasons. 5) It proposes that there is a healing power in the body and with a healthy diet, adequate rest and minimal stress, the body’s own vital forces are sufficient to fight off diseases. 6) This treatment uses minute doses of a substance that causes symptoms to stimulate the body's self-healing response (“like cures like”). 7) It involves the use of essential oils (extracts or essences) from flowers, herbs, and trees to promote health and well-being. 8) It is a component of traditional Chinese medicine that combines movement, meditation, and regulation of breathing to enhance the flow of Qi (vital energy) in the body, improve blood circulation, and enhance immune function. 9) It is based on the principle that the body can heal itself when the skeletal system is correctly aligned and the nervous system is functioning properly. To achieve this, the practitioner uses his or her hands or an adjusting tool to perform specific manipulations of the vertebrae. 10) It analyses the health status of the body by examining the irises of both eyes using a magnifying glass.

COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE (CAM)

EXERCISE 3 Explain the following words and phrases. 1) an approach 2) holistic methods 3) an innate ability 4) to encourage natural healing processes 5) to date back 6) to incorporate 7) to be geared to 8) sufficient 9) to enhance the flow of vital energy 10) correctly aligned

References: 1. http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_body/medical_care/alternative_medicine.html [17.06.2010] 2. http://health.msn.com/health-topics/alternative-medicine/articlepage.aspx?cpdocumentid=100096459 [17.06.2010]

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14 STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress can hurt you or help you. When you are stressed, your body gets ready to deal with a crisis. The good news is that stress is manageable. If you learn simple relaxation techniques, identify the causes of your stress - your “stressors” - and change your thinking about stressful situations, you can reduce stress and lessen its effects on your body. If your stress is related to an anxiety or depression, you can be successfully treated with psychotherapy, medication or both. Stress is defined as “an organism’s response to environmental demands or pressures”. Stress is our physical or emotional reaction to a change or difficult situation. It is not the problem itself. The causes of stress can include any situation or incident that we regard as a threat to our coping strategies. Doctors in general agree that a certain degree of stress is a natural, necessary part of our reaction to the unavoidable changes in our environment. Stress related diseases, however, are caused by excessive and long-lasting demands on the organism’s coping abilities. It is considered that 80-90% of all diseases are stressrelated. Recent studies indicate that some susceptibility to stress is genetic. Symptoms of stress can be generally divided into physical and emotional. Stressrelated physical conditions, such as heart infarct, digestive problems or chronic migraines result from prolonged excessive stimulation of the part of the nervous system that controls the digestion process, blood pressure, and heart action. Stressrelated emotional disturbances are caused by inadequate responses to significant changes in one’s life situation, such as losing a job, retirement, becoming a parent, death of someone close or divorce. In our professional lives, stress-related

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73

conditions often result in an occupational burnout – a loss of involvement or ability to perform one’s job due to prolonged high stress levels. Stress can be treated in many ways. The most common methods are: Pharmacological therapy: includes medicines to regulate e.g. blood pressure, bowel action, skin changes etc and drugs that influence the patient's mood (tranquilizers, antidepressants or sleeping pills). Stress management programs (psychotherapy): refer to either individual or group therapy, and generally are based on the analysis of the stress factors. They usually concentrate on school, job or family related stress. Behavioral approaches: strategies which emphasize relaxation exercises, such as proper breathing techniques, and physical activity programs including walking, jogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Therapeutic massage: improves circulation and stimulates metabolism, relieves muscle stiffness, alleviates the pain and discomfort in the back, legs, feet, neck and arms. It may also reduce inflammation of the muscles, joints and tendons. It is often successfully combined with aromatherapy. Alternative therapies for stress: infrequently recommended or prescribed by doctors, include yoga, herbal remedies, aromatherapy, hypnosis, music therapy, dance therapy, acupuncture, and meditation. It is neither advisable nor possible to eliminate stress completely. Stress significantly stimulates our development and creativity. It is also a powerful motivation factor (e.g. exam nerves and time pressure often help students to get down to work). The way we react to stress, as well as the strategy we choose to cope with it depend on our personality, upbringing, age, the nature of stress factors and many other circumstances. The best, but not the easiest, form of prevention is to develop positive attitudes towards life and the people around us.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 1 What are the most common reactions to difficult situations? Emotional

..………………… , …………………. … , ………………. …………………. , ……………………. , ………………… …………………. , ……………………. , ………………

Physical

…………………… , ……………………. , …………… …………………… , ……………………. , ……………… …………………… , ……………………. , ………………

EXERCISE 2 What are the most effective methods of coping with stress? Avoiding Fighting

…….……………. ,

.………………. ,

……………….

…………………. . , .. ………………. , . ……………… …………………… , ………………… , .. …………….. EXERCISE 3 Fill in the blanks with a proper preposition. 1) A new study has revealed that the genetic and environmental bases …… hormonal response …… stress depend ….. the context in which a child grows up. 2) A single dose of a tranquillizer does not constitute a threat …….anyone. However, a prolonged use of psychotropic drugs (even when they are prescribed) may lead to addiction …….these preparations. 3) Mary was treated ……..antidepressants ……...three months after her husband died in a car accident. She is treated ……..a famous psychiatrist Prof. Sandstone. 4) Some children who had their tonsils removed are more susceptible ….. other throat infections. That is why pediatricians often recommend to vaccinate them …….flu.

STRESS MANAGEMENT

75

5) Try to focus your energy ….. positive thinking and look ….. reasons to feel happy and hopeful every day. Your negative attitude ….. life may lead to emotional imbalance. 6) A new study conducted by doctors ….. California School of Medicine reveals that stress results ….. buildup of abdominal fat and poor eating habits. Researchers claim that there is a link …… stress, the consumption of comfort foods, and the weight gain. 7) Doctors once believed that stomach ulcers resulted ….. stress and spicy food. Today, it is universally accepted that ulcers are caused ….. a bacterium Helicobacter pylori. Recently, scientists have also linked H. pylori ….. stomach cancer and heart disease, and are studying the relationship …… hopes of finding new treatments …… both conditions. EXERCISE 4 Supply the missing words. Nouns

Verbs identify

Adjectives

relaxation threat environmental susceptible disturb prescribed advice consume avoid vary recommended manage

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

References: 1. http://health.yahoo.net/channel/stress.html [05.03.2010] 2. http://www.faqs.org/health/topics/36/Stress-and-stress-management.html [05.03.2010] 3. http://www.holisticonline.com/stress/stress_alternative-therapies.htm [05.03.2010]

15 THE CELL Read the text below and put the words in bold in the correct form so they fit the context. The cell is the smallest structural unit of living matter that is able to function 1) INDEPENDENCE _______________. All living things are composed of cells. There are two 2) DISTINCTION _______________ types of cells: prokaryotic cells, e.g. bacterium and eukaryotic cells found in multicellular organisms such as higher plants, animals and humans. In contrast to eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells lack nucleus and organelles (specialized structures). Though the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells 3) DIFFERENCE _______________, all cells share strong similarities in biochemical function. A cell is bounded by a cell membrane that functions as a semi-permeable barrier allowing nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. In plant cells, an 4) ADDITION _______________ rigid layer called cell wall is present. Made of cellulose, it 5) ENCLOSURE _______________ the cell membrane providing a tough but permeable outer casing for the cell. The cell is filled with cytoplasm, a jelly like substance, which is the site of the cell’s chemical reactions. The cytoplasm contains various organelles. All cell parts, except the nucleus, are 6) LOCATION _______________ in the cytoplasm. The nucleus, a major organelle, is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane and contains the 7) GENETICS _______________ information necessary for cell growth and reproduction. Each cell contains only one nucleus,

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

whereas other types of organelles are 8) PRESENCE _______________ in multiple copies in the cytoplasm. EXERCISE 1 Match different organelles with their description.

MITOCHONDRIA

1) small granules containing acids and digestive enzymes, they break down large food molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids into materials that the cell can use, they also destroy foreign particles in the cell

RIBOSOMES

2) small, granular structures that lie near the cell nucleus in animals, they play a role in cell division

LYSOSOMES

3) variously shaped bodies common in plants, but rare in animals, the most important are the chloroplasts containing chlorophyll

THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

4) it makes direct contact with the cell nucleus and functions in the transport of materials such as proteins and RNA molecules, it is also the site of lipid and protein synthesis

THE GOLGI APPARATUS

5) these structures may be found along the endoplasmic reticulum or floating free in the cytoplasm, this is where the synthesis of protein molecules occurs

PLASTIDS

6) powerhouses of the cell, rod-shaped bodies in which oxygen is trapped and used for the oxidation of carbohydrates

CENTRIOLES

7) it consists of a stack of flattened sacs with membranes that connect with those of the endoplasmic reticulum, located near the nucleus, it encloses protein molecules, and prepares them for transport to the cell’s surface

THE CELL

79

EXERCISE 2 Give opposites to the following adjectives. 1) rigid 2) present 3) outer 4) tough 5) major 6) able 7) permeable 8) rare EXERCISE 3 Find the words/phrases in the above text and Exercise 1 that mean the following: 1) including many things 2) as opposed to 3) different 4) apart from 5) having the wall at its edge 6) letting 7) an outer layer that covers and protect something 8) to surround 9) takes place 10) held and kept so it can be used later

References: 1. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/101396/cell/37353/The-nature-andfunction-of-cells [04.06.2010] 2. http://www.answers.com/topic/cell [04.06.2010]

16 THE HUMAN BODY 16.1 THE EXTERNAL PARTS EXERCISE 1 Group the following words/phrases related to physical description into the following categories. FACE

SKIN COMPLEXION

EYES

HAIR

BUILD

HEIGHT

oval, wrinkles, curly, freckles, slender, thick, smooth, moustache, stocky, a double chin, goatee, overweight, unshaven, rosy, pale, baby-soft, paper-thin, spots, slanted, long/short-sighted, permed, parted, almond-shaped, pimples, salt-and-pepper, receding, bright, fair, shoulder-length, heavy, of average build, dyed, heart-shaped, dry, skinny, bun, lanky, chestnut-brown, chubby, a pot belly, tanned, broadshouldered, shortish, piercing, tiny, bald, obese, bushy eyebrows, spiky, well-built, straight, fringe, squinty, brunette, curvy, gelled, high cheekbones, muscular, of medium height, puffy, highlighted, ponytail, slim

THE HUMAN BODY

EXERCISE 2 Label the following diagram of the human body.

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EXERCISE 3 Which parts of the body do you use the following verbs with? Give examples. 1) point

6) wink

11) clap

16) stare

2) shake

7) yawn

12) glance

17) nod

3) smack

8) sniff

13) mutter

18) pluck

4) lick

9) stub

14) punch

19) clench

5) shrug

10) blow

15) cross

20) fold

EXERCISE 4 Body idioms. Complete the following sentence with one of the body parts from the box. Then try and guess the meaning of the idioms. EYES

HAIR

FEET

HEAD

LEG CHEST

ARMS HAND

EARS MOUTH

1) The party gave us all a chance to really let our __________ down. 2) I can’t finish this cake – I must have bigger __________ than my stomach. 3) Residents are up in __________ about plans for a new road along the beach. 4) My little nephew said people who dislike other people don't like themselves very much. That’s an old __________ on young shoulders. 5) Don’t believe what John says. He’s pulling your __________. 6) Give me a minute to finish my work and then I'll be all __________ to hear about your project. 7) I’ve only been home for a few months and I’ve already got itchy __________. 8) Thanks for listening to me complain about my boss. I just needed to get this off my __________.

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9) I can give you a __________ when you move if you like. 10) Will you stop putting words into my __________ – I never said I disliked classical music.

16.2 THE INTERNAL ORGANS EXERCISE 1 Match the systems with their organs and functions. SYSTEM

ORGANS

FUNCTION

Musculoskeletal / Locomotor System

1. cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, spinal cord, cranial nerves, peripheral nerves

A. Its main role is to breakdown and absorb nutrients that are necessary for growth and maintenance.

Respiratory System

4. mouth, oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, gallbladder, liver, small and large intestines

B. It coordinates and controls actions of internal organs and body systems, receives and processes sensory information from the external environment, and coordinates short-term reactions to these stimuli.

Nervous System

3. bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints

C. It provides support for the body, protects internal organs and allows us to move.

Circulatory System

2. heart, atrium, ventricle, vein, artery, blood

D. It provides gas exchange between the blood and the environment.

Digestive System

5. nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

E. It transports nutrients, gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones and wastes through the body.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 2 Label the following diagram of the internal organs. Use the words from the box.

spleen

oesophagus/gullet

lungs

stomach

pancreas

heart

small intestine

artery

trachea/windpipe

urinary bladder

gall bladder

intestines/bowels

vein

kidneys appendix

liver

large intestine

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EXERCISE 3 Body idioms. Complete the sentences with the correct idiom. make one’s blood boil the back of my hand a pain the neck thumb through

cried one’s heart out on the brain stick your nose into

get cold feet flesh and blood on one’s last legs

1) I _______________ when my best friend moved away. 2) I have to hire Mia. She's my own _______________. 3) I’ve got the latest Madonna’s song _______________ today. 4) I‘ve been to London lots of times and I know it like _______________. 5) Our washing machine is _______________. It’s time we bought a new one. 6) Do you always have to _______________ everything? It’s not your business. 7) It _______________ when people smack their children. 8) You _______________about moving in with your girl-friend, are you? 9) She sat comfortably on the sofa _______________ a glossy magazine. 10) His new colleague is _______________. She keeps complaining about any task she has to do. EXERCISE 4 Which organs do the following definitions describe? 1) It is the front part of the body below the chest and above the pelvis. It contains the stomach and several other organs, including the intestines and the liver. 2) It consists of plasma which contains red blood cells and white blood cells, and platelets. 3) One of the two main tubes coming from the trachea that carries air into the lungs. It has many smaller tubes called bronchioles connected to it. 4) The first section of the small intestine, just below the stomach. 5) A thin layer of cells that lines organs and cavities within the body. 6) The organ in the throat that contains the vocal cords, which produce sounds.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

7) An organ in the body that changes toxins such as alcohol into less harmful substances, and produces bile, urea, and cholesterol. 8) One of the two tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 9) One of the blood vessels in the body that carries blood towards the heart. 10) A small gland located between the cerebral hemispheres of the brain that secretes melatonin.

17 COMMON DISEASES AND INJURIES 17.1 DISEASES Read the text below and put the words in bold in the appropriate form. Influenza,

more

commonly

known

as

flu,

is

an

1)

INFECTION

_______________ disease which attacks the nose, throat or lungs. The flu virus can be easily passed on by breathing in the tiny droplets from the breath of infected people, for example when they cough or sneeze or when people touch objects 2) CONTAMINATION _______________ with the virus. The incubation period is usually two to three days. The main symptoms are a high temperature that comes on quickly, 3) ACHE _______________ muscles and joints, and headaches. Other symptoms may include: chest pains, lack of appetite, fatigue, weakness, a runny or blocked nose, a sore throat, a harsh dry cough, chills, and occasionally nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. People often refer to symptoms of influenza and the common cold as being the same and many of them are indeed similar. However, flu is 4) CONSIDER _______________ more debilitating than common cold and a bad case of influenza has the potential to develop into a more serious condition like pneumonia or sinus trouble and in rare cases it can be life-threatening. Because it is a viral infection it cannot be treated with antibiotics. The best remedy is rest, preferably by staying in bed and drinking plenty of fluids to avoid 5) DEHYDRATE _______________. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as Paracetamol,

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

aspirin or Ibuprofen will reduce fever and muscle aches. Nasal decongestants, cough medicines, gargles or lozenges can help alleviate other symptoms. There are several alternative treatments that may help fight off the virus and recover from influenza. Acupuncture and acupressure are said to stimulate natural resistance, 6) RELIEF _______________ nasal congestion and headaches, fight fever, and calm coughs, depending on the acupuncture and acupressure points used. A herbal remedy such as echinacea can be used to stimulate the 7) IMMUNITY _______________ system and a homeopathic medicine called Oscillococcinum may be taken at the first sign of flu symptoms and repeated for a day or two. It is possible to get vaccinated against influenza, which is especially advisable for the elderly and people with heart and lung diseases. However, the virus mutates all the time and new strains arise. Unfortunately immunity against one strain does not 8) PROTECIVE _______________ against other strains. So, it is necessary to be vaccinated each year. EXERCISE 1 Complete the sentences with an appropriate phrasal verb. You may have to change the tense or form of the verbs. come down with

put on

take out

get over

come out in

pass out

shake off

bring down

come round/to

wear off

1) I’ve got a temperature, a headache, a sore throat… I think I’m _______________ a cold. 2) I’m allergic to cheese. If I have even a slice, I _______________ a rash. 3) I have pneumonia so the doctor _______________ me _______________ a course of antibiotics. 4) The effects of the anaesthetic were starting to _______________. 5) He always _______________ at the sight of blood. 6) When John _______________, he was in intensive care.

COMMON DISEASES AND INJURIES

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7) I can’t seem to _______________ this cold. I’ve tried everything, but it just won’t go away. 8) My daughter is still trying to _______________ that bout of flu she had. 9) Take Paracetamol. It should _______________ your temperature _______________. 10) My tooth was so decayed I had to have it _______________. EXERCISE 2 Complete the sentences choosing the correct answer A, B or C. 1) Her cancer failed to _______________ to chemotherapy. A alleviate

B take

C respond

2) He suffers from a rare disease which he _______________ during his trip to Africa. A gained B contracted C infected 3) The vaccination is given to the elderly who are particularly susceptible _______________ flu. A to B with C on 4) It was a simple operation and the doctors expected him to _______________ a full recovery. A do B make C complete 5) He was admitted to hospital after complaining _______________ pains in his chest. A from B of C with 6) You'll feel much better when the antibiotic takes _______________. A power

B force

C effect

7) When I left hospital I was completely _______________. A cured

B treated

C healed

8) The doctor _______________ some pain-killers for my headaches. A wrote

B prescribed

C advised

9) They operated on him on Monday and he was _______________ from hospital already on Tuesday! A allowed B released C written 10) I went in for my annual _______________. The doctor said I was healthy. A check-out

B check-up

C interview

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

EXERCISE 3 Match the following diseases or conditions with their descriptions. DISEASE ASTHMA

DESCRIPTION an illness with recurrent episodes of significant overeating accompanied by a sense of loss of control, the affected person then uses various methods – such as vomiting or laxative abuse – to prevent weight gain

DIABETES

a condition caused by an overactive thyroid gland, symptoms include: weight loss, increased appetite, nervousness, restlessness, increased sweating and frequent bowel movements, goitre may be present

CHICKENPOX

a health problem arising from eating food contaminated by viruses, chemicals, or bacterial toxins, possible symptoms include: abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and weakness

PERIODONTAL DISEASE

a genetic condition in which a female does not have the usual pair of two X chromosomes, the affected female is short in height and experiences premature ovarian failure that leads to infertility

FOOD POISONING

an inflammatory disorder of the airways, which causes attack of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness and coughing

OSTEOPOROSIS

a life-long disease marked by high levels of sugar in the blood, it causes frequent urination, excessive thirst, hunger, fatigue, weight loss, and blurry vision

STROKE

a disease that affects the tissues that support and anchor the teeth, it causes bleeding, inflamed gums and bad breath, a large pocket forms between the teeth and gums

TURNER SYNDROME

a disease in which bones become thin and lose their density, symptoms include: bone pain and tenderness, fractures of the wrists or hips, loss of height over time and stooped posture

an interruption of the blood supply to any part of the brain, symptoms include: numbness or weakness of the HYPERTHYROIDISM face, arm or leg (especially on one side of the body), vision changes, slurred speech, and dizziness BULIMIA

a contagious childhood disease caused by a virus, the affected child or adult may develop hundreds of itchy, fluid-filled blisters that burst and form crusts

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17.2 INJURIES AND DRESSING MATERIALS An injury is a damage of the body caused by an outside factor, which may be physical or chemical. The most common injuries include: • burns and scalds – caused by excess heat or sometimes cold (e.g. frostbite) • wounds, cuts and scrapes – skin injuries that may cause bleeding • fractures – broken bones • bruises – a hemorrhage under the skin caused by contusion. Sports injuries are caused by a single accident or repetitive traumas associated with physical activities (intense workout). Children and junior athletes develop sports injuries more often than adults. Sports lesions include: bone fractures and dislocations, muscle tears, joint sprains, tendon rupture and other injuries of soft tissues. Approximately 95% of all sports injuries are slight to moderate soft tissue lesions. The most frequent are bruises, cuts, scratches and lacerations. Typical symptoms are: pain, swelling, bleeding, burning and weakness. In such cases treatment is usually limited to disinfecting the broken skin, applying a sterile dressing e.g. an adhesive plaster, or a cold compress administering antiinflammatory drugs or pain-killers. Burns are caused by dry heat, corrosive substances and friction. Scalds are caused by wet heat – hot liquids and vapours. Burns can also be produced by extreme cold, and by radiation, including the sun rays. Signs of a burn are redness, swelling, blisters and pain. Burn treatment consists of relieving pain, preventing infection, and maintaining body fluids, electrolytes. It is recommended to use special ointments to relieve the swelling and redness. Painkillers will help to manage the pain. In some cases, to prevent infection, use a sterile dressing.

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Elżbieta Krawczuk Magdalena Kruk-Pedersen

Wounds and scrapes. Whenever an injury breaks the skin, infection becomes a major concern. If the wound becomes infested, prompt treatment prevents complications and supports healing. Signs of wound infection are: pain (getting worse 2 or more days after the injury), swelling and redness, fever and discharge with pus. For minor wounds, scrapes, and punctures, cleanse the injury with a disinfectant, for example a peroxide solution and cover the affected area with a bandage to stop bleeding and reduce the risk of infection. If necessary cover the wound with antibiotic ointment and an adhesive bandage as a precaution. Equally important is to keep tetanus shots up to date.

References: 1. http://www.answers.com/topic/sports-injuries [01.07.2010] 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wound [01.07.2010] 3. http://www.vitaminuk.com/pages/articles/firstaidforburnsandscalds.htm [01.07.2010] 4. http://www.healthline.com/directory/diseases-and-conditions [22.06.2010] 5 http://www.mayoclinic.com [22.06.2010]

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