Eunuchs - A Wikipedia Book

Eunuchs

Contents 1

Overview

1

1.1

Eunuch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

1.1.1

Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

1.1.2

Eunuchs by region and epoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

1.1.3

Religious castration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

1.1.4

Eunuchs in the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

1.1.5

Non-castrated eunuchs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

1.1.6

Castrato singers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

1.1.7

Eunuchs in the contemporary world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

1.1.8

In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.1.9

Notable eunuchs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.1.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.1.11 Sources and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

1.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

Castrato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

1.2.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

1.2.2

European classical tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

1.2.3

Opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

1.2.4

Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

1.2.5

Modern castrati and similar voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

1.2.6

Notable castrati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

1.2.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

1.2.8

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

1.2.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

1.2

2

Famous eunuchs

26

2.1

Aetios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

2.1.1

Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

2.1.2

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

2.1.3

Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

Artoxares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

2.2.1

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

Bagoas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

2.2 2.3

i

ii

CONTENTS 2.3.1

Biography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

2.3.2

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

2.3.3

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

Bagoas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

2.4.1

Bagoas' kiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

2.4.2

Fictionalized versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

2.4.3

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.4.4

Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.4.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Basil Lekapenos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.5.1

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Cai Lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.6.1

Invention of paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.6.2

Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

2.6.3

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

2.6.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

2.7

Cao Jie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

2.8

Cao Teng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

2.8.1

Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.8.2

Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.8.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.8.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

Cheng Kuang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.9.1

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.9.2

Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

2.9.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

2.9.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

2.10 Cheng Yuanzhen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

2.10.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

2.10.2 Rise to power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

2.10.3 Downfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

2.10.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

2.11 Chrysaphius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

2.11.1 Life and policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

2.11.2 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.11.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.11.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.12 Duan Gui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.13 Ebed-Melech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.13.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.13.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.4

2.5 2.6

2.9

CONTENTS

iii

2.14 Eight Tigers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.15 Eleutherius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

2.15.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.16 Eusebius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.16.1 Biography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.16.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.16.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.17 Eustratius Garidas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

2.17.1 Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

2.17.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

2.18 Eutropius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

2.18.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

2.19 Feng Xu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

2.19.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

2.20 Galli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

2.20.1 About the Galli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

2.20.2 Origins of the name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

2.20.3 The Galli and Attis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

2.20.4 Archigallus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

2.20.5 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

2.20.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

2.20.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

2.20.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

2.20.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

2.21 Gang Bing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

2.21.1 Self-castration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

2.21.2 Memorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

2.21.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

2.21.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

2.22 Ganymedes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

2.22.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

2.22.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

2.22.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

2.23 Gao Lishi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

2.23.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

2.23.2 During Emperor Xuanzong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

2.23.3 During Emperor Suzong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

2.23.4 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

2.23.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

2.23.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

2.24 Guo Sheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

iv

CONTENTS 2.25 Hadim Ali Pasha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.25.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.25.2 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.25.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.25.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.26 Hadân Suleiman Pasha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.26.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.26.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

2.27 Halotus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

2.27.1 Servant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

2.27.2 Poisoning of Claudius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

2.27.3 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

2.27.4 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

2.27.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

2.27.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

2.27.7 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

2.28 Heraclius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

2.28.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

2.28.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

2.29 Hermotimus of Pedasa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

2.29.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

2.30 Hong Bao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

2.30.1 Early career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

2.30.2 Hong Bao on the Seventh Voyage of Zheng He . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

2.30.3 Grave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

2.30.4 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

2.30.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

2.30.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

2.31 Hou Lan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.32 Huang Hao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.32.1 In fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.32.2 Appointments and titles held . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.32.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.32.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.33 Jian Shuo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.33.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

2.34 John the Eunuch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

2.34.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

2.34.2 Eyes On Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

2.34.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

2.35 Judar Pasha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

CONTENTS

v

2.35.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

2.35.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

2.35.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

2.36 Lausus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

2.36.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

2.37 Li Fuguo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

2.37.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

2.37.2 During Emperor Suzong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

2.37.3 During Emperor Daizong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

2.37.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

2.38 Li Lianying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

2.38.1 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

2.38.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

2.38.3 Portrayals in media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

2.38.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

2.39 Liu Jin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

2.39.1 Plotting against the emperor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

2.39.2 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

2.39.3 Personal wealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

2.39.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

2.39.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

2.40 Melito of Sardis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

2.40.1 Melito's Jewish And Hellenistic Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

2.40.2 Peri Pascha - On The Passover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

2.40.3 Issues Raised By The Quartodeciman Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

2.40.4 Apology To Marcus Aurelius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

2.40.5 Melito's High Christology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

2.40.6 Old Testament Canon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

2.40.7 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

2.40.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

2.40.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

2.40.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

2.41 Mohammad Khan Qajar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

2.41.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

2.41.2 Rise to power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

2.41.3 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

2.41.4 Government

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

2.41.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

2.41.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

2.42 Narses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

2.42.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

vi

CONTENTS 2.42.2 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

2.42.3 Early career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

2.42.4 The Nika Riots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

2.42.5 Military career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

2.42.6 Return to Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

2.42.7 Battle of Taginae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

2.42.8 Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

2.42.9 Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

2.42.10 Battle of Mons Lactarius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

2.42.11 Final battles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

2.42.12 Final years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

2.42.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

2.42.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

2.43 Nguyen An . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

2.43.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

2.43.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

2.44 Nikephoritzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

2.44.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

2.44.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

2.44.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

2.45 Origen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

2.45.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

2.45.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

2.45.3 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

2.45.4 Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

2.45.5 Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

2.45.6 Origen's influence on the later church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

2.45.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

2.45.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

2.45.9 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

2.45.10 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

2.45.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

2.45.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

2.46 Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

2.46.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

2.46.2 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.46.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.46.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.46.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.47 Patriarch Nicetas I of Constantinople . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.47.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

CONTENTS

vii

2.48 Peter Phokas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.48.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.48.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.48.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.49 Philetaerus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.49.1 Early life and career under Lysimachus

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

2.49.2 Ruler of Pergamon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.49.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.49.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.50 Philip of Mahdia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.50.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.51 Pothinus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 2.51.1 Depictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.51.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.51.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.52 Qiu Shiliang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.52.1 Background and early career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.52.2 During Emperor Wenzong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

2.52.3 During Emperor Wuzong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.52.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.53 Samonas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.53.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 2.53.2 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 2.53.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.53.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.54 Sima Qian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.54.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.54.2 As Han court official . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 2.54.3 Historian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 2.54.4 Literary figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 2.54.5 Astrologer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 2.54.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 2.54.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 2.55 Staurakios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 2.55.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 2.55.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 2.55.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 2.56 Sun Cheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 2.56.1 Contribution to Emperor Shun's restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 2.56.2 Failed attempt to guide Emperor Shun onto the right path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2.56.3 Later in life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

viii

CONTENTS 2.57 Sun Yaoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2.57.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2.58 Ten Attendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2.58.1 Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2.58.2 Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.58.3 In fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.58.4 Modern references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.58.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.58.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 2.59 Tian Lingzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 2.59.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 2.59.2 During Emperor Xizong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

2.59.3 During Emperor Zhaozong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 2.59.4 Modern references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 2.59.5 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 2.60 Tong Guan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 2.60.1 Life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 2.60.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 2.61 Tutu Chengcui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 2.61.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 2.61.2 During Emperor Xianzong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 2.61.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.61.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.62 Wang Jinghong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.62.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.63 Wang Shoucheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.63.1 During Emperor Xianzong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.63.2 During Emperor Muzong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 2.63.3 During Emperor Jingzong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

2.63.4 During Emperor Wenzong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

2.63.5 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.64 Wang Zhen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.64.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.65 Wei Zhongxian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.65.1 Early life (1568-1585) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.65.2 Early court life (1585-1619) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.65.3 Political rise (1620-1624) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 2.65.4 Donglin Incidents (1624-1627) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 2.65.5 Fall from power and suicide (late 1627) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 2.65.6 Legacy and dramatizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 2.65.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

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2.65.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 2.66 Wimund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 2.66.1 Wimund's origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 2.66.2 Bishop Wimund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 2.66.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 2.66.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 2.67 Xia Yun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 2.68 Yang Fugong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 2.68.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 2.68.2 During Emperor Xizong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

2.68.3 During Emperor Zhaozong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 2.68.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 2.69 Yang Fuguang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 2.69.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 2.69.2 During Emperor Xizong's reign

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

2.69.3 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 2.70 Yishiha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 2.70.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 2.70.2 Amur expeditions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

2.70.3 Later career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.70.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.70.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.70.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 2.71 Yu Chao'en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 2.71.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 2.71.2 During Emperor Suzong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 2.71.3 During Emperor Daizong's reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 2.71.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.72 Zhang Rang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.72.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.72.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.73 Zhao Gao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2.73.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2.73.2 Coup following Qin Shi Huang's death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2.73.3 Calling a deer a horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2.73.4 Alternative viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 2.73.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 2.74 Zhao Zhong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 2.74.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 2.75 Zheng He . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 2.75.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

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CONTENTS 2.75.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 2.75.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 2.75.4 Expeditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 2.75.5 Sailing charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 2.75.6 Size of the ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 2.75.7 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 2.75.8 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 2.75.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 2.75.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 2.75.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 2.75.12 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 2.75.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 2.76 Zheng Zhong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 2.77 Zhou Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 2.77.1 In fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 2.77.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 2.78 Zong Ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 2.78.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 2.79 Zuo Feng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 2.79.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

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Chapter 1

Overview 1.1 Eunuch

order to make them reliable servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great in* For the Hong Kong TV series, see Eunuch (1980 TV se- fluence. [3] Seemingly lowly domestic functions—such ries). For the Channel 4 documentary about voluntary as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter, or even relaying messages— eunuchs, see Eunuchs (Channel 4 documentary). could in theory give a eunuch “the ruler's ear”and imFor the 1986 South Korean film, see Eunuch (film). part de facto power on the formally humble but trusted A eunuch (/ˈjuːnək/; Ancient Greek: εὐνοῦχος) is a servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices (e.g., chancellor originally denoted a servant guarding the entrance to an official's study). Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or to a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least), and were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private 'dynasty'. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants (compare the female odalisque) or seraglio guards. In Latin, the words eunuchus, spado, and castratus were used to denote eunuchs.* [4]

1.1.1 Etymology

The Kızlar Ağası, head of the black eunuchs of the Ottoman Imperial Harem. The title literally means “Chief of the Girls”.

Eunuch comes from the Greek word eunoukhos, first attested in a fragment of Hipponax,* [5] the 6th century BCE comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words.* [6] The acerbic poet describes a certain lover of fine food having “consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese paté like a Lampsacene eunoukhos".* [7] In ancient classical literature from the early 5th century onward, the word generally designates some incapacity for or abstention from procreation, whether due to natural constitution or to physical mutilation. For instance, Lucian suggests two methods to determine whether someone is a eunuch: physical inspection of the body, or scrutiny of his ability to perform sexually with females (Lucian, Eunuchus 12).

man who (by the common definition of the term) may have been castrated, typically early enough in his life for this change to have major hormonal consequences. In some ancient texts, “eunuch”may refer to a man who is not castrated but who is impotent, celibate, or otherwise not inclined to marry and procreate. Castration was typically carried out on the soon-to-be eunuch without his consent in order that he might perform a specific social function; this was common in many societies. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 21st century BCE.* [1]* [2] Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures: courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, soldiers, royal guards, government officials and guardians of women or harem servants.

The earliest surviving etymology of the word is from late antiquity. The 5th century (CE) Etymologicon by Orion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word euEunuch would probably be servants or slaves who, be- nuch: first, to tēn eunēn ekhein, “guarding the bed”, a cause of their function, had been castrated, usually in derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the 1

2

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

time as“bedchamber attendants”in the imperial palace, of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternate etymoloand second, to eu tou nou ekhein, “being good with re- gies offered by Eustathius (“deprived of mating”) and spect to the mind”, which Orion explains based on their others (“having the mind in a good state”), calling these “being deprived of male-female intercourse (esterēmenou analyses “quite subtle”. Then, after having previously tou misgesthai), the things that the ancients used to call declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not a perirrational (anoēta, literally: 'mindless')".* [8] Orion's sec- sonal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his arguond option reflects well-established idioms in Greek, as ment in a different way, saying that the word “originally shown by entries for noos, eunoos and ekhein in Liddell signified continent men”to whom the care of women was and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, while the first op- entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because tion is not listed as an idiom under eunē in that stan- “among foreigners”that role was performed “by those dard reference work.* [9] However, the first option was with mutilated bodies”. cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperor Leo VI Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first opin his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eution.* [17]* [18] In an influential 1925 essay on the word nuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustwor- eunuch and related terms, Ernst Maass suggested that Euthy guardians of the marriage bed (eunē) and claimed stathius's derivation“can or must be laid to rest”, and he that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of em- affirmed the derivation from eunē and ekhein (“guardian ployment.* [10] The emperor also goes further than Orion of the bed”),* [17] without mentioning the other derivaby attributing eunuchs' lack of male-female intercourse tion from eunoos and ekhein (“having a well-disposed specifically to castration, which he said was performed state of mind”). with the intention“that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to One major problem, however, with the derivation from do with desire for the female sex”.* [11] The 11th cen- eunē (“bed”) is that, according to the rules of Greek tury Byzantine monk Nikon of the Black Mountain, opt- vowel contractions (see crasis), the ou in eunoukhos reing instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the quires an o-sound between the contracted words, specifword came from eunoein (eu “good”+ nous “mind” ically e+o, e+ou, o+e, o+ei, o+o or o+ou, and cannot fea* ), thus meaning“to be well-minded, well-inclined, well- ture an a-sound there. [19] As an alpha-declension noun, disposed or favorable”, but unlike Orion he argued that eunē features the stem-vowel -a-, but an a-sound will not this was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious combine with any other vowels to produce the ou that ocforeign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized curs in eunoukhos. All words (other than eunoukhos anyservants.* [12] Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogue In De- way) that are formed by adding onto eunē have an a-sound fence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word or long e-sound in the combined syllable, as in eunater or was from eunoein and ekhein, “to have, hold”, since eunēter (“bed-fellow”), eunaios (“in one's bed”) or * they were always “well-disposed”toward the master eunēthen (“from or out of bed”). [20] By analogy, a who “held”or owned them.* [13]* [14] The 12th cen- compound between eunē and ekhein would be expected tury Etymologicum Magnum (s.v. eunoukhos) essentially to come out as eunēkhos, or in English“eunech”. Even if ( or“holder”) were compounded repeats the entry from Orion, but stands by the first op- the form okhos “carrier” with eunē, as many dictionaries suggest, the stem-vowel a tion, while attributing the second option to what “some from eunē combined with the initial o from okhos would say”. In the late 12th century, Eustathius of Thessalonica combine to form an omega, and the resulting word “ ( bed(Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an carrier”) would be expected to come out as eunōkhos, original derivation of the word from eunis + okheuein, with the English word becoming “eunoch”. On the “deprived of mating”. other hand, the etymology offered by Eustathius (eunis In translations of the Bible into modern European lan- + okheuein) would work only if eunis contributes an eguages, such as the Luther Bible or the King James Bible, sound or o-sound to the compound. Unfortunately, there the word eunuchus as found in the Latin Vulgate is usu- are no known compounds of eunis to use for comparison. ally rendered as officer, official or chamberlain, consis- Consequently, the rules of Greek vowel contraction at any tent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch rate favor the derivation from eunoos and ekhein “ ( having was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious a well-disposed state of mind”). And in fact, other words scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts that have the same ending -oukhos feature a stem-vowel of Israel and Judah included castrated men,* [15] even o in the first word of the compound, such as skēptoukhos, though the original translation of the Bible into Greek rabdoukhos, lampadoukhos, ofioukhos and kleidoukhos. used the word eunoukhos. Be that as it may, virtually all modern reference works The early 17th century scholar and theologian Gerardus cite the derivation from eunē and ekhein (“keeper of the Vossius therefore explains that the word originally desigbed”). nated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived from eunē and ekhein (i.e. “bed-keeper”).* [16] He says the word only came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders 1.1.2 Eunuchs by region and epoch

1.1. EUNUCH Ancient Middle East

3 China

Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Assyrian Empire See also: Category:Chinese eunuchs. (ca. 850 until 622 BCE) and in the court of the Egyp- In China, castration included removal of the penis as well tian Pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra),(30 BCE). Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achamenide Persians.* [21] Eunuchs held powerful positions in the Achaemenide court. The eunuch Bagoas (not to be confused with Alexander's Bagoas) was the Vizier of Artaxerxes III and IV, and was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns, until he was killed by Darius III.* [22]

Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium The practice was also well established in other Mediterranean areas among the Greeks and Romans, although a role as court functionaries does not arise until Byzantine times. The Galli or Priests of Cybele were eunuchs. In the late period of the Roman Empire, after the adoption of the oriental royal court model by the Emperors Diocletian and Constantine, Emperors were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, hair cutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the Emperor and his administrators from physical contact, thus enjoying great influence in the Imperial Court (see Eusebius and Eutropius). Eunuchs were believed loyal and indispensable.

A group of eunuchs. Zhanghuai, 706 AD.

Mural from the tomb of the prince

as the testicles. Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.* [25]* [26]* [27]* [28] From ancient times until the Sui Dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries. Zheng He, who lived during the Ming Dynasty, is an example of such a eunuch. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to its being made illegal.

The Roman poet Martial rails against a woman who has sex with partially castrated eunuchs (those whose testicles were removed or rendered inactive only) in the bitter epigram (VI, 67): “Do you ask, Panychus, why your Caelia only consorts with eunuchs? Caelia wants the flowers of marriage – not the fruits.”* [23] It is up for debate whether It is said that the justification for the employment of this passage is representative of any sort of widely prac- eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since ticed behavior, however. they were incapable of having children, they would At the Byzantine imperial court, there were a great num- not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. ber of eunuchs employed in domestic and administra- In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable tive functions, actually organized as a separate hierar- than the scholar officials. A similar system existed in chy, following a parallel career of their own. Archie- Vietnam.* [29] unuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emamong the principal officers in Constantinople, under the peror and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme emperors.* [24] Under Justinian in the 6th century, the in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel eunuch Narses functioned as a successful general in a Finer points out that reality was not always that clearnumber of campaigns. By the last centuries of the Empire cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who the number of roles reserved for eunuchs had reduced, were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resisand their use may have been all but over. tance of the “virtuous”officials often stemmed from Following the Byzantine tradition, eunuchs had important tasks at the court of the Norman kingdom of Sicily during the middle 12th century. One of them, Philip of Mahdia, has been admiratus admiratorum, and another one, Peter the caid, was prime minister.

jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternate political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.* [30]

4

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ fell to 470 by Khitan Liao dynasty The Khitan adopted the prac1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last tice of using eunuchs from the Chinese and the eunuchs Imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting, died in December 1996. were non-Khitan prisoners of war. The Khitan were a nomadic Mongolic people and originally did not have eunuchs as part of their culture.* [44] When the Khitan Shang dynasty Records of eunuchs in China date to founded the Liao Dynasty they developed a harem systhe Shang Dynasty, when the Shang kings castrated pris- tem with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it. The eunuchs were not Khitan and they came oners of war.* [31] from two sources, all of their eunuchs were captured ethnic Chinese from the Central Plains. The Khitan capQin dynasty Men sentenced to castration were turned tured Chinese people who were already eunuchs at the into eunuch slaves of the Qin dynasty state to per- Jin court when they invaded of the Later Jin. Another form forced labor for projects such as the Terracotta source was during their war with the Chinese Song dyArmy.* [32] The Qin government confiscated the prop- nasty, the Khitan would raid China, capture Han Chinese erty and enslaved the families of rapists who received cas- boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become tration as a punishment.* [33] Men punished with castra- eunuchs. The emasculation of captured Chinese boys tion during the Han dynasty were also used as slave la- guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao Dynasty harem. The Empress Dowager Chengtian bor.* [34] played a large role in the raids to capture and emasculate the boys.* [45] The Khitan Empress Dowager Xiao Chuo Han dynasty In Han dynasty China castration con- (Chengtian) of the Khitan Liao state took power at age tinued to be used as a punishment for various of- 30 in 982 as a regent for her son. She personally led her fences.* [35]* [36] Sima Qian, the famous Chinese histo- own army against the Song Chinese in 986 and defeated * * * * * rian, was castrated by order of the Han Emperor of China them in battle, [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] fighting the re* for dissent. [37] In another incident multiple people, in- treating Chinese army. She then ordered the castration cluding a chief scribe and his underlings, were subjected of around 100 ethnic Chinese boys she had captured in China, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to to castration.* [38] serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en. The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their * * * * Ming dynasty During the early Ming period, China good looks. [51] [52] [53] [54] demanded eunuchs to be sent as tribute from Korea. The History of Liao 遼 史 described and praised Some of them oversaw the Korean concubines in the Empress Chengtian's capture and mass castration of harem of the Chinese Emperor.* [39]* [40] Chinese boys in a biography on the Chinese eunuch Wang * * * * * * * * * * * When the Ming army finally captured Yunnan from Mon- Ji'en. [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] gols in 1382, thousands of prisoners were killed and, according to the custom in times of war, their young sons – including Zheng He – were castrated.* [41]* [42] During the Miao Rebellions, Chinese commanders castrated thousands of Miao boys when their tribes revolted, and then gave them as slaves to various officials.* [42] On 30 January 1406, the Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs in order to give them to the emperor. The Yongle Emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.* [43] At the end of the Ming dynasty, there were about 70,000 eunuchs (宦 官 huànguān, or 太 監 tàijiàn) employed by the emperor, with some serving inside the imperial The Empress is carried and accompanied by palace eunuchs, bepalace. fore 1908

Conquest Dynasties Many of the non-Han Chinese peoples who founded states in China after invading originally did not have eunuchs as part of their culture, but adopted it from the Han Chinese.

Manchu Qing dynasty The sons and grandsons of the rebel Yaqub Beg in China were all castrated. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included his 4 sons, 4 grandchildren (2 grandsons and 2 granddaughters), and 4 wives. They either died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu, or

1.1. EUNUCH were killed by the Chinese. His sons Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors in 1879. They were all underage children, and put on trial, sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father's rebellious “sedition”, or if they were innocent of their fathers' crimes, were to be sentenced to castration and serve as eunuch slaves to Chinese troops, when they reached 11 years old, and were handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated.* [66]* [67]* [68] In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out; Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace.* [69]

5 ery month.* [70] The naesi system was repealed in 1894 following Gabo reform. During the Yuan Dynasty, eunuchs became a desirable commodity for tributes, and dog bites were replaced by more sophisticated surgical techniques.* [71] Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. Court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ± 1.76 years, which was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socio-economic status.* [72] Vietnam The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China. Records show that the Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off.* [73]* [74]* [75]* [76]* [77]* [78]* [79] The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be sterilized with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into the urethra to allow urination during healing.* [80] The eunuchs served as slaves to the Vietnamese palace women in the harem like the consorts, concubines, maids, Queen, and Princesses, doing most of the work.* [81]* [82]* [83]* [84]* [85]* [86] The only man allowed in the Palace was the Emperor, the only others allowed were his women and the eunuchs since they were not able to have sexual relations with the women. The eunuchs were assigned to do work for the palace women like massaging and applying make up to the women and preparing them for sex with the Emperor.* [87]* [88]* [89]* [90]

A Qing dynasty eunuch, China, before 1911

Korea

Lý Dynasty Lý Thường Kiệt was a prominent eunuch general during the Lý Dynasty (1009-1225). Trần Dynasty The Trần Dynasty sent Vietnamese boy eunuchs as tribute to Ming Dynasty China several times, in 1383, 1384 and 1385* [91] Nguyen Dao, Nguyen Toan, Tru Ca, and Ngo Tin were among several Vietnamese eunuchs sent to China.* [92]

The eunuchs of Korea, called Naesi ( , 內侍), were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eu( History of Goryeo”), a compilanuch was in Goryeosa “ tion about the Goryeo period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, the Naesi system was revised, and Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam (Ming dythe department was renamed the“Department of Naesi" nasty) During the Fourth Chinese domination of Viet( , 內侍府).* [70] nam, the Ming Chinese under the Yongle Emperor casThe Naesi system included two ranks, those of Sangseon trated many young Vietnamese boys, choosing them for ( , 尙膳,“Chief of Naesi”), who held the official title their handsomeness and ability, and brought them to Nanof senior second rank, and Naegwan ( , 內官, “Com- jing to serve as eunuchs. Among them were the architectmon official naesi”), both of which held rank as officers. engineer Nguyễn An* [93] and Nguyen Lang (阮浪).* [94] 140 naesi in total served the palace in Joseon Dynasty Vietnamese were among the many eunuchs of different period. They also took the exam on Confucianism ev- origins found at the Yongle Emperor's court.* [95] Among

6

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

the eunuchs in charge of the Capital Battalions of Beijing in An Bang province of Dai Viet (now Quảng Ninh was Xing An, a Vietnamese.* [96] Province) a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore. The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Lê Dynasty In the Lê Dynasty the Vietnamese Em- Tong.* [126]* [127]* [128]* [129]* [130] This incident may peror Lê Thánh Tông was aggressive in his relations with be the same one where Wu Rui was captured.* [122] foreign countries including China. A large amount of trade between Guangdong and Vietnam happened during his reign. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese Nguyễn Dynasty The poet Hồ Xuân Hương mocked her poem as a stand in for criticizing the govcaptured Chinese whose ships had blown off course eunuchs in * ernment. [131] and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch Commoners were banned from undergoing castration in slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by Vietnam, only adult men of high social rank could be modern historians that the Chinese who were captured castrated, most eunuchs were born as such with a conand castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in genital abnormality. The Vietnamese government mantrade between China and Vietnam instead of actu- dated that boys born with defective genitalia were to be ally being blown off course by the wind and they were reported to officials, in exchange for the town being freed punished as part of a crackdown on foreign trade by Viet- from mandatory labor requirements. The boy would have * * * nam.* [97]* [98]* [99]* [100]* [101]* [102]* [103]* [104]* [105]the [106] [107] [108]* [109] option of serving as a eunuch official or serving the palace women when he became ten years old.* [132] This Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were atput in place in 1838 during the Nguyễn Dytacked and captured in 1469 by the Lê Dynasty of Annam law was * nasty. [133] The only males allowed inside the Forbidden (Vietnam) as they were returning to Malacca from China. City at Huế were the Emperor and his eunuchs.* [134] The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.* [91]* [110]* [111]* [112]* [113]

The presence of eunuchs in Vietnam was used by the * A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu reported that when some French colonizers to degrade the Vietnamese. [135] Chinese from Nanhai county escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where Thailand they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that they found out In Siam (modern Thailand) Indian Muslims from the up to 100 Chinese men remained captive in Vietnam af- Coromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace ter they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese and court.* [136]* [137] The Thai at times asked eunuchs after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam. from China to visit the court in Thailand and advise The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by order- them on court ritual since they held them in high reing Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to gard.* [138]* [139] foreign countries.* [114]* [115]* [116]* [117] China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the Burma punishment of prisoners by castration.* [118]* [119] A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang including a young man named Wu Rui were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong's Qin subprefecture (Qinzhou), after which they ended up near the coast of Vietnam, during the Chenghua Emperor's rule (1447 - 1487) . Twelve of them were enslaved to work as agricultural laborers, while the youngest, Wu Rui (吳瑞) was selected for castration since he was the only young man and he became a eunuch attendant at the Vietnamese imperial palace in Thang Long. After years of service, he was promoted at the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497 to a military position in northern Vietnam. A soldier told him of an escape route back to China and Wu Rui escaped to Longzhou. The local chief planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese, but Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang magistrate and then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the palace.* [120]* [121]* [122]* [123]* [124]* [125] The Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư records that in 1467

Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs in Konbaung Dynasty Burma (modern Myanmar) while on a diplomatic mission.* [140]* [141]* [142]* [143] These Muslim eunuchs came from Arakan.* [136]* [137] Ottoman Empire In the Ottoman Empire, eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs.* [144] The Ottoman court harem—within the Topkapı Palace (1465–1853) and later the Dolmabahçe Palace (1853– 1909) in Istanbul—was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: Black Eunuchs and White Eunuchs. Black Eunuchs were Africans who served the concubines and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank. The White Eunuchs were Europeans from the Balkans. They served the recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited

1.1. EUNUCH

7 off Nubian or Abyssinian slave boys around the age of eight. The boys were captured from Abyssinia and other areas in Sudan like Darfur and Kordofan, then brought into Sudan and Egypt. During the operation, the Coptic clergyman chained the boys to tables and after slicing off their sexual organs, and stuck a piece of bamboo into the genital area, then submerged them in neck-high sand to burn. The recovery rate was ten percent. The resulting eunuchs fetched large profits in contrast to eunuchs from other areas.* [151]* [152]* [153]

An identifiable Coptic area named in relation to castration of slaves is the former village of Al-Zawya. Slave traders Chief Eunuch of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II at the Imperial travelling north from the Sudan would castrate their slave Palace, 1912. boys here, before entering Muslim city of Asyut, 10 miles north, where they could be sold. from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch (Kızlar Ağası or Dar al-Saada Ağası). In control of both the Harem and a net of spies in the Black Eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and could thereby gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials.* [145] One of the most powerful Chief Eunuchs was Beshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of Hanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools.* [146]

Coptic involvement Many sources claim that eunuchs in the nineteenth century Ottoman Empire were created mainly at one Coptic monastery, variously said to be called“Abou Gerghè",“Abou Gerhè", or“Abou Gerbe” . Edmund Andrews of the Northwestern University, in an 1898 article called“Oriental Eunuchs”in the Journal of American Medicine, refers to Coptic priests in “Abou Gerhè in Upper Egypt”castrating slave boys.* [147] Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by Peter Charles Remondino, in his book History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present,* [148] published in 1900. He refers to the “Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls “Mount Ghebel-Eter”. He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, "Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan"* [148] published by a French explorer, Count de Bisson, in 1868, though the place does not appear in de Bisson's book.* [149]

Indian subcontinent Eunuchs in Indian sultanates (before Mughals) Eunuchs were frequently employed in Imperial palaces by Hindu rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of the royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of these attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was Malik Kafur, a Hindu boy captured and enslaved (along with tens of thousands of other Hindus who were typically captured during such raids) during the raids of the Delhi Sultanate into Gujarat. He was made into a eunuch, and on account of his good looks became a sexual favorite with Alauddin Khilji. Ziauddin Barani describes in much detail the relations between him and Khilji. Kafur rose to become Malik Naib (head of the army) and led Khilji's expeditions into the Southern India. Eunuchs in Imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or chief eunuch (Urdu: Khwaja Saras) directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength, ability to provide protection for ladies' palaces and trustworthiness, allowing eunuchs to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.* [154]* [155] The hijra of South Asia Main article: Hijra (South Asia) The Ancient Indian Kama Sutra refers to people of a "third sex" (triteeyaprakrti), who can be dressed either in men's or in women's clothes and perform fellatio on men. The term has been translated as “eunuchs”(as in Sir Richard Burton's translation of the book), but these persons have also been considered to be the equivalent of the modern hijra of India.

Remondino's claims were repeated in similar form by Henry G. Spooner in 1919, in the American Journal of Urology and Sexology. Spooner, an associate of William J. Robinson, referred to the monastery as “Abou Gerbe in Upper Egypt”.* [150] Hijra, a Hindi and Urdu term traditionally translated into According to Remondino, Spooner and several later English as “eunuch”, actually refers to what modern sources, the Coptic priests sliced the penis and testicles Westerners would call male-to-female transgender peo-

8

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW bate.* [161] The early theologian Origen found evidence of the practice in Matthew 19:10-12,:* [162] “His disciples said to him, “If such is the case of a man with his wife, it is better not to marry.”But he said to them,“Not everyone can accept this teaching, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can.”(NRSV)

Hijras of Delhi, India

ple and effeminate homosexuals (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third sex). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the majority do not. They usually dress in saris (traditional Indian garb worn by women) or shalwar kameez (traditional garb worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live in the margins of society and face discrimination.* [156] However, they are integral to several Hindu ceremonies which is primary form of their livelihood. They are a part of dance programs (sometimes adult) in marriage ceremonies. They also perform certain ceremonies for the couple in Hindu tradition. Other means to earn their living are: by coming uninvited at weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away.* [157] The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Other sources of income for the hijra are begging and prostitution. The begging is accompanied by singing and dancing and the hijras usually get the money easily. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion; they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, and embarrass them into paying.* [158] Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the Shemale Foundation Pakistan.

Tertullian, a 2nd-century Church Father, described Jesus himself and Paul of Tarsus as spadones, which is translated as“eunuchs”in some contexts.* [163] Quoting from the cited book:* [163] "... Tertullian takes 'spado' to mean virgin ...”. The meaning of spado in late antiquity can be interpreted as a metaphor for celibacy, however Tertullian's specifically refers to St. Paul as being castrated.* [163] Eunuch priests have served various goddesses from India for many centuries. Similar phenomena are exemplified by some modern Indian communities of the Hijra, which are associated with a deity and with certain rituals and festivals – notably the devotees of Yellammadevi, or jogappas, who are not castrated* [164] and the Ali of southern India, of whom at least some are.* [165] The 18th-century Russian Skoptzy (скопцы) sect was an example of a castration cult, where its members regarded castration as a way of renouncing the sins of the flesh.* [166] Several members of the 20th-century Heaven's Gate cult were found to have been castrated, apparently voluntarily and for the same reasons.* [167]

1.1.4 Eunuchs in the Bible

Eunuchs are mentioned many times in the Bible such as in the Book of Isaiah (56:4) using the word ‫( סריס‬saris). Although the Ancient Hebrews did not practice castration, eunuchs were common in other cultures featured in the Bible, such as Ancient Egypt, Babylonia, the Persian Empire and Ancient Rome. In the Book of Esther, servants of the harem of Ahasuerus such as Hegai and Shashgaz as 1.1.3 Religious castration well as other servants such as Hatach, Harbonah, Bigthan, Castration as part of religious practice, and eunuchs occu- and Teresh are referred to as sarisim. Being exposed to pying religious roles have been established prior to clas- the consorts of the king, they would have likely been cassical antiquity. Archaeological finds at Çatalhöyük in trated. Anatolia indicate worship of a 'Magna Mater' figure, a There is some confusion regarding eunuchs in Old Testaforerunner of the goddess Cybele found in later Anatolia ment passages, since the Hebrew word for eunuch, saris and other parts of the near East.* [159] Later Roman fol- (‫)סריס‬, could also refer to other servants and officials lowers of Cybele, were called Galli, who practiced ritual who had not been castrated but served in similar capacself-castration, known as sanguinaria.* [159] ities.* [168]* [169] The Egyptian royal servant Potiphar The practice of religious castration continued into the is described as a saris in Genesis 39:1, although he was Christian era, with members of the early church prac- married and hence unlikely to have been a castrated eutising celibacy (including castration) for religious pur- nuch. The cupbearer who became governor of Judah, poses,* [160] although the extent and even the exis- Nehemiah, may have been a eunuch. tence of this practice among Christians is subject to de- One of the earliest converts to Christianity was an

1.1. EUNUCH

9 healthy”, because they were anatomically able to procreate just like monorchids (D 21.1.6.2). On the other hand, as Julius Paulus pointed out, “if someone is a eunuch in such a way that he is missing a necessary part of his body”(D 21.1.7), then he would be deemed diseased. In these Roman legal texts, spadones are eligible to marry women (D 23.3.39.1), institute posthumous heirs (D 28.2.6), and adopt children (Institutions of Justinian 1.11.9), unless they are castrati.

1.1.6 Castrato singers Main article: Castrato

Rembrandt, The Baptism of the Eunuch, 1626.

Eunuchs castrated before puberty were also valued and trained in several cultures for their exceptional voices, which retained a childlike and other-worldly flexibility and treble pitch (a high-pitched voice). Such eunuchs were known as castrati. Unfortunately the choice had to be made at an age when the boy would not yet be able to consciously choose whether to sacrifice his reproductive capabilities, and there was no guarantee that the voice would remain of musical excellence after the operation.

As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. The practice, known as Ethiopian eunuch who was a high court official of castratism, remained popular until the 18th century and Candace the Queen of Ethiopia. Acts 8:27-39 The refer- was known into the 19th century. The last famous Italian ence to“eunuchs”in Matthew 19:12 has yielded various castrato, Giovanni Velluti, died in 1861. The sole existing interpretations. sound recording of a castrato singer documents the voice of Alessandro Moreschi, the last eunuch in the Sistine Chapel choir, who died in 1922.

1.1.5

Non-castrated eunuchs

Hippocrates describes a particular ethnic group afflicted with high rates of erectile dysfunction as “the most eunuchoid of all nations”(Airs Waters Places 22). According to Aristotle in Generation of Animals (1.2, 4.1), male or female gender is defined by the function played in procreation and consists of two elements: the faculty to procreate and the anatomical parts needed to put that faculty in practice. Any man who either lacked the faculty of procreation from birth, even with a full set of genitals (Gen.An. 2.7), or was eventually deprived of the anatomical parts necessary for procreation met the definition of a eunuch. Hence, the term “eunuch”was applied not only to castrated men, but also to a wide range of men who were unable to procreate. The broad sense of the term“eunuch”is reflected in the compendium of ancient Roman laws collected by Justinian I in the 6th century known as the Digest or Pandects. Those texts distinguish between the general category of eunuchs (spadones, denoting “one who has no generative power, an impotent person, whether by nature or by castration”,* [170] D 50.16.128) and the more specific subset of castrati (castrated males, physically incapable of procreation). Eunuchs (spadones) sold in the slave markets were deemed by the jurist Ulpian to be“not defective or diseased, but

1.1.7 Eunuchs in the contemporary world The hijra of India (see above) may number as many as 2,000,000,* [171] and are usually described as eunuchs, although they may be more of a male-to-female transsexual individual, but have surgical castration instead of reassignment surgery, and seldom have access to hormones. The loss of testosterone and lack of estrogen means their bodies take on the characteristics of postpubertal eunuchs. The most commonly castrated men are advanced prostate cancer patients. In the United States alone there are more than 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer diagnosed each year. It is estimated that over 80,000 of these men will be surgically or chemically castrated within six months of diagnosis.* [172] With the average life expectancy after castration, there are approximately a half million chemically or surgically castrated prostate cancer patients at any time in the U.S. alone. While most of these men would deny the term“eunuch,”they meet all physiological characteristics of post-pubertal eunuchs. Some do, however, embrace the term for the historic and psychological grounding that it gives them.* [173]* [174]

10

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

Convicted sex offenders who have been castrated are rare, although there is debate as to whether the drastic reduction of testosterone and the consequent diminishing of libido might have an effect on recidivism.* [175] A study on eunuchs has found that they live 13.5 years longer than non-eunuch men as a result of a lack of testosterone, which suppresses the immune system, and its resultant negative effects on health.* [176]

1.1.8

In popular culture

• The Last Eunuch, a 1988 Chinese biographical film directed by Zhang ZhiLiang, tells the story of Sun YaoTing, who saw the last royal palace's extravagant lifestyle and experienced the breakdown of the last imperial empire and felt the new changes brought by the new age. • In Mel Brook's 1981 comedy History of the World, Part I, under the section of “The Roman Empire” , an entire scene is devoted to a joke about Eunuchs, the length of African genitals, and the song, "Caldonia"; all rolled into one. Books • Several tales of the Arabian Nights focus on eunuchs* [177] • Eunuchs feature prominently in Montesquieu's 1722 novel Lettres Persanes, about Persian visitors to 18th-century France • Bagoas, the eunuch favorite of Alexander the Great, is the main character and narrator of The Persian Boy, a 1972 historical novel by Mary Renault • The Janissary Tree and its sequels are crime novels set in Istanbul in the 1830s, written by Jason Goodwin featuring Yashim, a eunuch detective • Wilbur Smith's series of novels about Ancient Egypt, beginning with River God, follow the adventures of a talented eunuch named Taita

Black eunuch of the Ottoman Sultan. Photograph by Pascal Sebah, 1870s

Main article: Eunuchs in popular culture

Films

• George R. R. Martin's fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire features the eunuch Varys, also called the Spider, a court official, bearing the title of Master of Whisperers, the equivalent of the real world spymaster. The Unsullied, elite eunuch soldiers are also greatly featured in the books. • In the manga "Red River (manga)" one of the main villains, Urhi, is a eunuch.

• The 2001 documentary film Bombay Eunuch ex- 1.1.9 Notable eunuchs amines the changing role of India's hijras, some of whom are also eunuchs See also: Category: Eunuchs • The 2011 film Nilkantho treats the plight of the Indian hijras with sensitivity • The 2003 documentary film American Eunuchs investigates the underworld of modern eunuchs in America • Kiss the Moon, a 2010 documentary set in Pakistan, portrays three generations of eunuchs examining the ancient rituals and religious beliefs surrounding their community

In chronological order. First millenium BCE: • Aspamistres or Mithridates (5th century BCE): bodyguard of Xerxes I of Persia, and (with Artabanus) his murderer. • Artoxares: an envoy of Artaxerxes I and Darius II of Persia.

1.1. EUNUCH • Bagoas (4th century BCE): prime minister of king Artaxerxes III of Persia, and his assassin. (Bagoas is an old Persian word meaning eunuch.) • Bagoas (4th century BCE): a favorite of Alexander the Great. Influential in changing Alexander's attitude toward Persians and therefore in the king's policy decision to try to integrate the conquered peoples fully into his Empire as loyal subjects. He thereby paved the way for the relative success of Alexander's Seleucid successors and greatly enhanced the diffusion of Greek culture to the East. • Philetaerus (4th/3rd century BCE): founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum • Sima Qian (old romanization Ssu-ma Chi'en; 2nd/1st century BCE): the first person to have practiced modern historiography – gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources in order to write his monumental history of the Chinese empire. • Ganymedes (1st century BCE): highly capable adviser and general of Cleopatra VII's sister and rival, Princess Arsinoe. Unsuccessfully attacked Julius Caesar three times at Alexandria. • Pothinus (1st century BCE): regent for pharaoh Ptolemy XII. • Sporus (1st century BCE): an attractive Roman boy who was castrated by, and later married to, Emperor Nero First millenum CE:

11 it.). Despite the fact that the early Christian theologian Tertullian wrote that Jesus was a eunuch, there is no corroboration in any other early source. (The Skoptsy did, however, believe it to be true.) • Eutropius (5th century): only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished and very influential position of Roman Consul. • Chrysaphius: chief minister of Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, architect of imperial policy towards the Huns. • Narses (478–573): general of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, responsible for destroying the Ostrogoths in 552 at the Battle of Taginae in Italy and saving Rome for the empire. • Solomon: general and governor of Africa under Justinian I • Staurakios: chief associate and minister of the Byzantine empress Irene of Athens • Ignatius of Constantinople (799–877): twice Patriarch of Constantinople during troubled political times [847–858 and 867–877]. First absolutely unquestioned eunuch saint, recognized by both the Orthodox and Roman Churches. (There are a great many early saints who were probably eunuchs, though few either as influential nor unquestioned as to their castration.) • Yazaman al-Khadim (died 891): Emir of Tarsus and successful commander in the wars against Byzantium • Mu'nis al-Khadim (845/846–933/934): Commander-in-chief of the Abbasid armies between 908 and his death,

• Unidentified eunuch of the Ethiopian court (1st century CE), described in The Acts of the Apostles • Joseph Bringas: chief minister of the Byzantine Em(chapter 8). Philip the Evangelist, one of the origipire under Romanos II (959-963). nal seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from the Book of Isaiah (chapter 53). Philip Second millenium CE: explained that the section prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, which Philip described to the eunuch. The • Jia Xian (c. 1010- c. 1070): Chinese mathematieunuch was baptized shortly thereafter. cian, Invented the Jia Xian triangle for the calculation of square roots and cube roots. • Cai Lun (old romanization Ts'ai Lun; 1st/2nd century CE): reasonable evidence exists to suggest that he was truly the inventor of paper. At the very least, he established the importance of paper and standardized its manufacture in the Chinese empire.

• Ly Thuong Kiet (1019–1105): general during the Lý Dynasty in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero.

• Origen: early Christian theologian, allegedly castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12 (For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take

• Pierre Abélard (1079–1142): French scholastic philosopher and theologian. Forcibly castrated by his girlfriend's uncle while in bed. • Malik Kafur (fl. 1296–1316): a eunuch slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khilji, ruler of the Delhi sultanate.

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• Zheng He (1371–1433): famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean. • Judar Pasha (late 16th century): a Spanish eunuch who became the head of the Moroccan invasion force into the Songhai Empire. • Kim Cheo Seon: one of the most famous eunuchs in Korean Joseon Dynasty, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is now the subject of a historical drama in South Korea. • Mohammad Khan Qajar: chief of the Qajar tribe. He became the King/Shah of Persia in 1794 and established the Qajar dynasty. • Zhao Gao: favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si (died 210 BC)

• Wei Zhongxian: most infamous eunuch in Chinese history • Wu Rui: a Chinese eunuch in Lê Dynasty Annam (Vietnam) • Li Lianying: a despotic eunuch of the Qing Dynasty • Boston Corbett (1832 – presumed dead 1894): who killed John Wilkes Booth, castrated himself to avoid temptation from prostitutes • Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922), Italian castrato singer, the only one to make recordings. • Sun Yaoting (1902–1996): last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history

1.1.10 Notes

• Zhang Rang: head of the infamous “10 Changshi” [1] Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Animal and human castration (Ten attendants) of Eastern Han Dynasty • Huang Hao: eunuch in the state of Shu; also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms • Cen Hun: eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period • Gao Lishi: a loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong • Le Van Duyet: famous 18th-century Vietnamese eunuch, military strategist and government official (not a true eunuch, he was born a hermaphrodite) • Senesino (1686–1758): Italian contralto castrato singer. • Farinelli (1705–1782): singer.

Italian soprano castrato

• Giusto Fernando Tenducci (c. 1736–1790): Italian soprano castrato singer. • Li Fuguo: The Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule

in Sumer, Part II: Human castration in the Ur III period. Zinbun [Journal of the Research Institute for Humanistic Studies, Kyoto University], pp. 1–56. [2] Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Female Weavers and Their Children in Lagash – Presargonic and Ur III. Acta Sumerologica 2:81–125. [3] Christine Hsu (2012-09-24). “Eunuch Study Reveals That Castration May Add 20 Years to a Man's Life”. Medicaldaily.com. Retrieved 2014-04-24. [4] “Words”. Archives.nd.edu. Retrieved 2014-04-24. [5] Miller, Margaret (1997). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 0-521-495989. [6] Hawkins, Shane (2013). Studies in the Language of Hipponax. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 111–120. [7] West, M.L., ed. and trans. (1993). Greek Lyric Poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 117. [8] Sturz, Friedrich Wilhelm, ed. (1820). Orionis Thebani Etymologicon. Leipzig: Weigel. p. 58.

• Yu Chao'en: Tang eunuch who began his “career” [9] Liddell, H.G. and R. Scott (1883). Greek-English Lexicon. as army supervisor New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 607–608, 1009.

• Wang Zhen: first Ming eunuch with much power, see Tumu Crisis • Gang Bing: patron saint of eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to the Yongle Emperor • Yishiha: admiral in charge of expeditions down the Amur River under the Yongle and Xuande Emperors • Liu Jin: a well-known eunuch despot

[10] Noailles, P., and A. Dain (1944). Les Nouvelles de Leon VI le Sage. Paris. p. 327. [11] Noailles, P., and A. Dain (1944). Les Nouvelles de Leon VI le Sage. Paris. p. 325. [12] Benesevic, V.N. (1917). Taktikon Nikona Cernogorca. St. Petersburg. p. 99. [13] Gautier, Paul, ed. and tr. (1980). Théophylacte d'Achrida: Discours, Traités, Poésies. Thessaloniki: Association de Recherches Byzantines. pp. 308–309.

1.1. EUNUCH

13

[14] Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2003). The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium. Chicago: University of Chicago. pp. 16, 39. ISBN 0-22672015-2.

[31] Gwyn Campbell, Suzanne Miers, Joseph Calder Miller (2009). Children in slavery through the ages. Ohio University Press. p. 136. ISBN 0-8214-1877-7. Retrieved 11 January 2011.

[15] Kittel, Gerhard, Gerhard Friedrich, Geoffrey Bromiley, eds. (1985). Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Abridged in One Volume. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 277.

[32] Bayerischen Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege (2001). Qin Shihuang. Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege. p. 273. ISBN 3-87490-711-2. Retrieved 11 January 2011.

[16] Vossius, Gerardus (1662). Etymologicon Linguae Latinae. Amsterdam: Lodewijk and Daniel Elsevir. p. 198. [17] Maass, Ernst (1925). “Eunouchos und Verwandtes”. Rheinisches Museum 74: 437. [18] Chantraine, Pierre (1970). Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque - Histoire des mots, Vol. 2, E-K. Paris: Éditions Klincksieck. pp. 385–386. [19] Smythe, Herbert Weir (1920). Greek Grammar. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 20–21.

[33] Mark Edward Lewis (2007). The early Chinese empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press. p. 252. ISBN 0-674-02477-X. Retrieved 11 January 2011. [34] History of Science Society (1952). Osiris, Volume 10. Saint Catherine Press. p. 144. Retrieved 11 January 2011. [35] Britannica Educational Publishing (2010). The History of China. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN 161530-181-X. Retrieved 11 January 2011.

[20] Liddell, H.G. and R. Scott (1883). Greek-English Lexicon. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 607–608.

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[21] Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, 511 pp., Harvard University Press, 1982 ISBN 0-674-81083-X, 9780674810839 (see p.315)

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[22] Diod. xvi. 50; cf. Didymus, Comm. in Demosth. Phil. vi. 5

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[27] Walter Scheidel (2009). Rome and China: comparative perspectives on ancient world empires. Oxford University Press US. p. 71. ISBN 0-19-533690-9. Retrieved 11 January 2011.

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[44] 祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong), 二〇〇九年四月 (April 2009), 12.(Page 18 on online document viewer, Page 12 on actual document)

[29] For an extended discussion see Mitamura Taisuke,Chinese Eunuchs: The Structure of Intimate Politics tr. Charles A. Pomeroy, Tokyo 1970, a short, condensed version of Mitamura's original book = 三田村泰助, 宦官, Chuko Shinsho, Tokyo 1963

[45] 祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong), 二〇〇九年四月 (April 2009), 13.(Page 19 on online document viewer, Page 13 on actual document)

[30] Huang, Ray (1981). 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02518-1.

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• The EUNUCHS AND SINICIZATION IN THE NON-HAN CONQUEST DYNASTIES OF CHINA • JENNIFER W. JAY • UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA, Canada • This paper was presented at the Asian Studies on the Pacific Coast Conference, June 16–18, 1995, at Forest Grove, Oregon, U.S.A. Research for this project was facilitated by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. (Although the link is to a forum, the paper is posted in its full length there since it is not available online as it was never published. The following links are to papers and articles where the original paper by Jennifer W. Jay was referenced in the bibliography) • 5.Jennifer W. Jay. (1995), The Eunuchs And Sinicization In The Non-Han Conquest Dynasties In China, Asian Studies on the Pacific Coast Conference, June 16-18, 1995, at Forest Grove, Oregon, U.S.A. • “Eunuchs and Sinicization in the Non-Han Conquest Dynasties of China.”Selected Papers in ASPAC 1995. Also reprinted in Chinese Culture and Education, Selected Proceedings of the 1995 Annual Meeting of the Chinese-Canadian Academic and Professional Society of Canada, Vancouver, 1995, pp. 25-41. • Jay, Jennifer W • University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada • Eunuchs and Sinicization in the non-Han Conquest Dynasties of China • [5] Jennifer, W. Jay. The Eunuchs and Sinicization in the Non-Han Conquest of China. A paper presented to the Asian Studies on the Pacific Coast Conference 1995. Not published.

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[86] “Bí mật về thái giám trong cung triều Nguyễn”. VnExpress. 18 July 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2013. [106] 中國評論新聞 (in Chinese). Chinareviewnews.com. Retrieved 2014-04-24. [87] Nguyễn Đắc Xuân (13 June 2010). “Thái giám - người phục vụ đặc biệt trong cung Nguyễn”. queviet.pl (Hội [107] " 郑和下西洋与广东商人的海外移民人文历史". 广 người Việt Nam tại Ba Lan). Khoa học Đời Sống. Re州日报大洋网 (life.dayoo.com). 2009-10-20. Retrieved trieved 1 August 2013. 26 July 2013. [88] “Thái giám và bí mật phòng the của vua chúa Việt Nam”. [108] 李慶新. " 貿易、移殖與文化交流:15-17 世紀廣東 Góc Cuộc Sống. Theo Đất Việt. 2 August 2013. Retrieved 人與越南" (PDF). 廣東省社會科學院歷史研究所南 1 August 2013. 開大學中國社會歷史研究中心. p. 12. Retrieved 5 January 2013. 此外, 沿海平民在海上航行或捕撈漁 [89] “Thái giám, loại công chức đặc biệt trong cung Nguyễn” 獵, 遇風漂流至越南者時有發生。如成化十三年, 廣 . Gác Thọ Lộc. Retrieved 1 August 2013. 東珠池奉御陳彜奏: 南海縣民遭風飄至安南被編入 軍隊及被閹禁者超過 100 人。5 成化中, 海南文昌人 [90] Nguyen Dac Xuan (May 2013). “The safe sex and 吳瑞與同鄉劉求等 13 人到欽州做生意, 遇風飄至安 thier(sic) amorous duties”. (No.4, Vol.3, May 2013 Viet南, 當局將他們" 俱發屯田, 以瑞獨少, 宮之"。6... 6 nam Heritage Magazine). Vol.3 (No.4). Retrieved 1 Au《明孝宗實錄》卷一百五十三, 弘治十二年八月辛卯。 gust 2013. [91] Tsai (1996), p. 15 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming [109] 李慶新. " 貿易、移殖與文化交流:15-17 世紀廣東人 與越南". 廣東省社會科學院歷史研究所南開大學中 Tai Huan Kuan), p. 15, at Google Books 國社會歷史研究中心. p. 12. Retrieved 5 January 2013. [92] Nguyẽ̂n (2008), p. 169 The History Buddhism in Vietnam, [110] Rost (1887), p. 252 Miscellaneous papers relating to IndoVol. IIID.5, p. 169, at Google Books China: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple's “Oriental Repertory,”and the [93] Wang (2000), p. 135 Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in “Asiatic Researches”and“Journal”of the Asiatic Society China, p. 135, at Google Books of Bengal, Volume 1, p. 252, at Google Books [94] Goodrich (1976), p. 691 Dictionary of Ming Biography, [111] Rost (1887), p. 252 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo1368-1644, p. 691, at Google Books China and Indian archipelage: reprinted for the Straits [95] Campbell (2009), p. 147 Children in Slavery Through the Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Second Series, VolAges, p. 147, at Google Books ume 1, p. 252, at Google Books

16

[112] Wade 2005, p. 3785/86

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

[122] Cooke (2011), p. 109 The Tongking Gulf Through History, p. 109, at Google Books

[113] " 首页 > 06 史藏 −1725 部 > 03 别史 −100 部 > 49-明 实录宪宗实录 -- > 203-大明宪宗纯皇帝实录卷之二 [123] Wade 2005, p. 2704/05 百十九". 明實錄 (Ming Shilu) (in Chinese). Retrieved [124] " 首页 > 06 史藏 −1725 部 > 03 别史 −100 部 > 47-明 26 July 2013. Simplified Chinese:○ 满剌加国使臣端亚 实录孝宗实录 -- > 146-明孝宗敬皇帝实录卷之一百 妈剌的那查等奏成化五年本国使臣微者然那入贡还 五十三". 明實錄 (Ming Shilu) (in Chinese). Retrieved 至当洋被风漂至安南国微者然那与其傔从俱为其国 5 January 2013. Simplified Chinese:○ 金星昼见于辰位 所杀其余黥为官奴而幼者皆为所害又言安南据占城 ○ 辛卯吴瑞者广东文昌县人成化中与同乡刘求等十 城池欲并吞满剌加之地本国以皆为王臣未敢兴兵与 三人于钦州贸易遭风飘至安南海边罗者得之送本国 战适安南使臣亦来朝端亚妈剌的那查乞与廷辨兵部 求等俱发屯田以瑞独少宫之弘治十年国王黎灏卒瑞 尚书陈钺以为此已往事不必深校宜戒其将来上乃因 往东津点军得谅山卫军杨三知归路缘山行九日达龙 安南使臣还谕其王黎灏曰尔国与满剌加俱奉正朔宜 州主头目韦琛家谋告守备官送还琛不欲久之安南国 修睦结好藩屏王室岂可自恃富强以干国典以贪天祸 知之恐泄其国事遣探儿持百金为赎琛少之议未决而 满剌加使臣所奏朝廷虽未轻信尔亦宜省躬思咎畏天 凭祥州知州李广宁闻之卒兵夺送于分守官都御史邓 守法自保其国复谕满剌加使臣曰自古圣王之驭四夷 廷瓒遣送至京礼部请罪琛为边人之戒奖广宁为土官 不追咎于既往安南果复侵陵尔国宜训练士马以御之 之劝从之瑞送司礼监给役 Traditional Chinese:○ 金星 Traditional Chinese:○ 滿剌加國使臣端亞媽剌的那查 晝見於辰位 ○ 辛卯吳瑞者廣東文昌縣人成化中與同 等奏成化五年本國使臣微者然那入貢還至當洋被風 鄉劉求等十三人於欽州貿易遭風飄至安南海邊羅者 漂至安南國微者然那與其傔從俱為其國所殺其餘黥 得之送本國求等俱發屯田以瑞獨少宮之弘治十年國 為官奴而幼者皆為所害又言安南據占城城池欲併吞 王黎灝卒瑞往東津點軍得諒山衛軍楊三知歸路緣山 滿剌加之地本國以皆為王臣未敢興兵與戰適安南使 行九日達龍州主頭目韋琛家謀告守備官送還琛不欲 臣亦來朝端亞媽剌的那查乞與廷辨兵部尚書陳鉞以 久之安南國知之恐洩其國事遣探兒持百金為贖琛少 為此已往事不必深校宜戒其將來上乃因安南使臣還 之議未決而憑祥州知州李廣寧聞之卒兵奪送於分守 諭其王黎灝曰爾國與滿剌加俱奉正朔宜修睦結好藩 官都御史鄧廷瓚遣送至京禮部請罪琛為邊人之戒獎 屏王室豈可自恃富強以幹國典以貪天禍滿剌加使臣 廣寧為土官之勸從之瑞送司禮監給役 所奏朝廷雖未輕信爾亦宜省躬思咎畏天守法自保其 國複諭滿剌加使臣曰自古聖王之馭四夷不追咎于既 [125]《明孝宗实录》卷一五三，弘治十二年八月辛卯 往安南果複侵陵爾國宜訓練士馬以禦之 [126] Cooke (2011), p. 108 The Tongking Gulf Through History, p. 108, at Google Books [114] Wade 2005, p. 2078/79 [115] Leo K. Shin (2007). “Ming China and Its Border with [127] PGS.TSKH Nguyễn Hải Kế(Associate Professor Dr. Nguyen Hai Ke) (28 March 2013). “CÓ MỘT VÂN Annam”. In Diana Lary. The Chinese State at the BorĐỒN Ở GIỮA YÊN BANG, YÊN QUẢNG KHÔNG ders (PDF) (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. p. 92. ISBN TĨNH LẶNG”. 广州日报大洋网 (www.dayoo.com). 0774813334. Retrieved 5 January 2013. Retrieved 31 January 2014. [116] " 首页 > 06 史藏 −1725 部 > 03 别史 −100 部 > 49明实录宪宗实录 -- > 106-明宪宗纯皇帝实录卷之一 [128] PGS.TSKH Nguyễn Hải Kế(Associate Professor Dr. Nguyen Hai Ke) (22 April 2013).“CÓ MỘT VÂN ĐỒN 百六". 明實錄 (Ming Shilu) (in Chinese). Retrieved 5 Ở GIỮA YÊN BANG, YÊN QUẢNG KHÔNG TĨNH January 2013. Simplified Chinese:○ 癸亥广东守珠池 LẶNG”. 广州日报大洋网 (www.dayoo.com). Re奉御陈彝奏南海县民为风飘至安南国被其国王编 trieved 26 July 2013. 以为军其后逸归言中国人飘泊被留及所为阉禁者百 余人奏下户部请移文巡抚镇守等官禁约军民人等毋 [129] Lê Văn Hưu, Phan Phu Tiên, Ngô Sĩ Liên... soạn thảo 得指以 □ 贩私通番国且令守珠军人设法堤备从之 (1272 - 1697)., eds. (1993). "Đại Việt Sử Ký Toàn Thư". Traditional Chinese:○ 癸亥廣東守珠池奉禦陳彝奏南 Viện Khoa Học Xã Hội Việt Nam dịch (1985 - 1992). 海縣民為風飄至安南國被其國王編以為軍其後逸歸 Nhà xuất bản Khoa Học Xã Hội (Hà Nội) ấn hành (1993). 言中國人飄泊被留及所為閹禁者百余人奏下戶部請 Retrieved 26 July 2013. |chapter= ignored (help) 移文巡撫鎮守等官禁約軍民人等毋得指以 □ 販私通 [130] Lê Văn Hưu, Phan Phu Tiên, Ngô Sĩ Liên... soạn thảo 番國且令守珠軍人設法堤備從之 (1272 - 1697)., eds. (1993). "Đại Việt Sử Ký Toàn Thư". [117]《明宪宗实录》卷一百六，成化八年七月癸亥 Viện Khoa Học Xã Hội Việt Nam dịch (1985 - 1992). Nhà xuất bản Khoa Học Xã Hội (Hà Nội) ấn hành (1993). [118] Tsai (1996), p. 16 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Retrieved 26 July 2013. |chapter= ignored (help) Tai Huan Kuan), p. 16, at Google Books [131] Chandler (1987), p. 129 In Search of Southeast Asia: A [119] Tsai (1996), p. 245 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty Modern History, p. 129, at Google Books (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 245, at Google Books [132] Andaya (2006), p. 177 The Flaming Womb: Repositioning [120] Lary (2007), p. 91 The Chinese State at the Borders, p. 91, Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia, p. 177, at Google at Google Books Books [121] Lary, Diana; Leo K. Shin (2007). Diana Lary, ed. The [133] Woodside (1971), p. 66 Vietnam and the Chinese Model: Chinese State at the Borders (PDF) (illustrated ed.). UBC A Comparative Study of Nguyen and Ch'ing Civil GovernPress. p. 91. ISBN 0774813334. Retrieved 5 January ment in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century, p. 66, at 2013. Google Books

1.1. EUNUCH

17

[134] Fodor's (2012), p. 31 Fodor's See It Vietnam, 3rd Edition, [151] Northwestern lancet, Volume 17. s.n. 1897. p. 467. Rep. 31, at Google Books trieved 11 January 2011. [135] Stearns (2006), p. 1 Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in [152] John O. Hunwick, Eve Troutt Powell (2002). The African China, p. 1, at Google Books diaspora in the Mediterranean lands of Islam. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 100. ISBN 1-55876-275-2. Re[136] Peletz (2009), p. 73 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia trieved 11 January 2011. Since Early Modern Times, p. 73, at Google Books [137] Peletz (2009), p. 73 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia [153] American Medical Association (1898). The Journal of the American Medical Association, Volume 30, Issues 1Since Early Modern Times, p. 73, at Google Books 13. American Medical Association. p. 176. Retrieved 11 [138] Peletz (2009), p. 75 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia January 2011. Since Early Modern Times, p. 75, at Google Books [154]“Akbar-Birbal Anecdotes”. Retrieved 2 November 2008. [139] Peletz (2009), p. 75 Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times, p. 75, at Google Books [155] “Ghilmans and Eunuchs”. Retrieved 2 November 2008. [140] Thant Myint-U (2007), p. 126 The River of Lost Footsteps: [156] Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Histories of Burma, p. 126, at Google Books Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh, Human Rights Watch, August 2003. Report online. [141] Yegar (1972), p. 10 The Muslims of Burma, p. 10, at See also: Peoples Union of Civil Liberties (Karnataka) Google Books Report on Human Rights Violations Against the Trans[142] Takkasuilʻ myāʺ Samuiṅʻʺ Sutesana Ṭhāna (2007), p. 57 gender Community, released in September 2003. ReMyanmar historical research journal, Issue 19, p. 57, at ported in Being a Eunuch, By Siddarth Narrain, for FrontGoogle Books line, 14 October 2003. [143] Fleischmann (1981), p. 49 Arakan, Konfliktregion zwischen Birma und Bangladesh: Vorgeschichte und Folgen des [157] Eunuchs 'cut off man's penis'. By Baldev Chauhan, BBC correspondent in Himachal Pradesh. BBC News. ThursFlüchtlingsstroms von 1978, p. 49, at Google Books day, 24 July 2003. [144] Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford Univ [158] “Dancing eunuchs taxing red-faced shopkeepers. Press 1994. Reuters. November 10, 2006”. Reuters.com. 2006-11[145] Lad, Jateen. “Panoptic Bodies. Black Eunuchs in the 10. Retrieved 6 November 2010. Topkapi Palace”, Scroope: Cambridge Architecture Journal, No.15, 2003, pp.16–20. [159] Roller, Lynn (1999). “In search of god the mother”. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21024[146] Hathaway, Jane (2005). Beshir Agha : chief eunuch of the 0. Ottoman imperial harem. Oxford: Oneworld. pp. xii, xiv. ISBN 1-85168-390-9. [160] Caner, Daniel (1997). “The Practice and Prohibition of Self-Castration in Early Christianity” [147] https://books.google.com/books?ei= . Vigiliae Christianae (Brill) 51 (4): 396–415. BBw5TdWlMsLqgQeK2q3XCA&ct=result&id= doi:10.1163/157007297X00291. JSTOR 1583869. ilIKAQAAMAAJ&dq=the+Coptic+priests+castrate+ Nubian+and+Abyssinian+slave+boys+at+about+8+ [161] Hester, David (2005). “Eunuchs and the Postgender Jeyears+of+age+and+afterward+sell+them+to+the+ sus: Matthew 19:12 and Transgressive Sexualities”. JourTurkish+market.+Turks+in+Asia+Minor+are+also+ nal for the Study of the New Testament (Sage Publications) partly+supplied+by+Circassian+eunuchs.+The+Coptic+ 28 (1): 13–40. doi:10.1177/0142064X05057772. priests+before&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=oriental [148] https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VS-2aLdskbAC& [162] Frend, W. H. C., The Rise of Christianity, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1984, p. 374, which in footnote 45 cites pg=PA99&dq=mount+ghebel+eter&hl=en&sa= Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica VI.8.2 X&ei=AkrFVN78JJLf7Qbb2YH4CA&ved= 0CCIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=mount%20ghebel% [163] Moxnes, By Halvor (2004). “Putting Jesus in his place” 20eter&f=false . Westminster John Knox Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-664[149] https://archive.org/stream/lesfemmesleseun00bissgoog# 22310-6. page/n141/mode/2up [164] “Yellamma cult of India”. Kamat.com. Retrieved 6 [150] Henry G. Spooner (1919). The American Journal of UrolNovember 2010. ogy and Sexology, Volume 15. The Grafton Press. p. 522. Retrieved 11 January 2011."In the Turkish Empire [165] “The Mystery of the Threshold: “Ali”of Southern Inmost of the eunuchs are furnished by the monastery Aboudia”. Web.archive.org. 2006-11-25. Archived from the Gerbe in Upper Egypt where the Coptic priests castrate original on 2006-11-25. Retrieved 6 November 2010. Nubian and Abyssinian boys at about eight years of age and afterward sell them to the Turkish market. The Cop- [166] Christel, Lane (1978). “Christian religion in the Soviet Union”. State University of New York Press. p. 94. tic priests perform the 'complete' operation, that is, they ISBN 978-0-87395-327-6. cut away the whole scrotum, testes and penis.”

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[167] “Some members of suicide cult castrated, CNN, March 28, 1997”. Cnn.com. 1997-03-28. Retrieved 6 November 2010. [168] The Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon at Heartlight. [169] EUNUCH Biblical at Gender Tree. [170] “Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary". Retrieved 21 October 2006.

• McMahon, Keith (2013). Women Shall Not Rule: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 1442222905. Retrieved 5 September 2013. • Peterson, Barbara Bennett, ed. (2000). Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0765619296. Retrieved 5 September 2013.

[171] Reddy, Gayatri, With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India, 310 pp., University of Chicago Press, 2005 ISBN 0-226-70755-5 (see p. 8)

• Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan) (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. ISBN 0791426874. Retrieved 5 January 2013.

[172] Shaninian, Vahakn B., et al. (2006), Determinants of Androgen Deprivation Therapy Use for Prostate Cancer: Role of the Urologist. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 98, pp. 839–45

• Tuotuo. Liaoshi [History of Liao]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974 (or Tuotuo, Liaoshi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974))

[173] http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/27/health/27case. html

• Toqto'a et al. (1344). Liao Shi (宋史) [History of Liao] (in Chinese).

[174] Wassersug, Richard J. (2003). Castration anxiety. OUT, September 2003, pp. 66–72.

• Van Derven, H. J., ed. (2000). Warfare in Chinese History. Volume 47 of Sinica Leidensia / Sinica Leidensia (illustrated ed.). BRILL. ISBN 9004117741. Retrieved 5 September 2013.

[175] Wille, Reinhard & Klaus M. Beier (1989), Castration in Germany. Annals of Sex Research, vol. 2, pp. 103–33 [176] Stay informed today and every day (2013-01-12).“Lifespan and the sexes: Catching up”. The Economist. Retrieved 2014-04-24. [177] “Tale of the First Eunuch, Bukhayt”. Globusz.com. Retrieved 2014-04-24.

1.1.11

Sources and references

• English translation of Rudople Guilland's essay on Byzantine eunuchs “Les Eunuques dans l'Empire Byzantin: Étude de titulature et de prosopographie byzantines”, in 'Études Byzantines', Vol. I (1943), pp. 197–238 with many examples

• Wade, Geoff (2005). “Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource”. Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore. Retrieved 6 November 2012 • Wang, Yuan-Kang (2013). Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231522401. Retrieved 5 September 2013. • 祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong) (April 2009). 辽代后宫制 度研究二〇〇九年四月[Research on the System of Imperial Harem in the Liao Dynasty] (Master's) (in Chinese). 吉林大学 (Jilin University). Retrieved October 4, 2013. • English language Abstracts of the thesis

• Bauer, Susan Wise (2010). The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade (illustrated ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393078175. Retrieved 5 September 2013.

•

• Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James, eds. (2011). The Tongking Gulf Through History (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 1.1.12 0812243366. Retrieved 4 January 2013.

• Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty • Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty • Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty

External links

• Keay, John (2010). China: A History. HarperCollins UK. ISBN 0007372086. Retrieved 5 September 2013.

• The Ancient Roman and Talmudic Definition of Natural Eunuchs

• Lary, Diana (2007). Diana Lary, ed. The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. ISBN 0774813334. Retrieved 4 January 2013.

• The Eunuch Archive

• “Born Eunuchs”Home Page and Library

• Eunuchs in Pharaonic Egypt

1.2. CASTRATO • The Eunuchs of Ming Dynasty China

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1.2.1 History

• Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China • 38 rare pictures of eunuchs during Qing Dinasty • The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium • Long-Term Consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism December 1, 1999 vol. 84 no. 12 4324-4331

1.2 Castrato A castrato (Italian, plural: castrati) is a type of classical male singing voice equivalent to that of a soprano, mezzosoprano, or contralto. The voice is produced by castration of the singer before puberty, or it occurs in one who, due to an endocrinological condition, never reaches sexual maturity. Castration before puberty (or in its early stages) prevents a boy's larynx from being transformed by the normal physiological events of puberty. As a result, the vocal range of prepubescence (shared by both sexes) is largely retained, and the voice develops into adulthood in a unique way. Prepubescent castration for this purpose diminished greatly in the late 18th century and was made illegal in Italy in 1870. As the castrato's body grew, his lack of testosterone meant that his epiphyses (bone-joints) did not harden in the normal manner. Thus the limbs of the castrati often grew unusually long, as did the bones of their ribs. This, combined with intensive training, gave them unrivalled lung-power and breath capacity.* [1] Operating through small, child-sized vocal cords, their voices were also extraordinarily flexible, and quite different from the equivalent adult female voice. Their vocal range was higher than that of the uncastrated adult male (see soprano, mezzosoprano, alto, sopranist, countertenor and contralto). Listening to the only surviving recordings of a castrato (see below), one can hear that the lower part of the voice sounds like a“super-high”tenor, with a more falsetto-like upper register above that. Castrati were rarely referred to as such: in the 18th century, the euphemism musico (pl musici) was much more generally used, although it usually carried derogatory implications;* [2] another synonym was evirato (literally meaning "emasculated"). Eunuch is a more general term, since historically many eunuchs were castrated after puberty and thus the castration had no impact on their voices.

A Byzantine castrato from the 11th century.

Castration as a means of subjugation, enslavement or other punishment has a very long pedigree, dating back to ancient Sumer. In a Western context, eunuch singers are known to have existed from the early Byzantine Empire. In Constantinople around AD 400 the empress Aelia Eudoxia had a eunuch choir-master, Brison, who may have established the use of castrati in Byzantine choirs, though whether Brison himself was a singer and whether he had colleagues who were eunuch singers is not certain. By the 9th century, eunuch singers were well-known (not least in the choir of Hagia Sophia) and remained so until the sack of Constantinople by the Western forces of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Their fate from then until their reappearance in Italy more than three hundred years later is not clear. It seems likely that the Spanish tradition of soprano falsettists may have hidden cas-

20

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

trati. Much of Spain was under Muslim rulers during the Middle Ages, and castration had a history going back to the ancient Near East. Stereotypically, eunuchs served as harem guards, but they were also valued as high-level political appointees since they could not start a dynasty which would threaten the ruler.

1.2.2

European classical tradition

Castrati first appeared in Italy in the mid-16th century, though at first the terms describing them were not always clear. The phrase soprano maschio (male soprano), which could also mean falsettist, occurs in the Due Dialoghi della Musica of Luigi Dentice, an Oratorian priest, published in Rome in 1553. On 9 November 1555 Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este (famed as the builder of the Villa d'Este at Tivoli), wrote to Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (1538–1587), that he has heard that His Grace is interested in his cantoretti and offered to send him two, so that he could choose one for his own service. This is a rare term but probably does equate to castrato.* [3] The Cardinal's brother, Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, was another early enthusiast, enquiring about castrati in 1556. There were certainly castrati in the Sistine Chapel choir in 1558, although not described as such: on 27 April of that year, Hernando Bustamante, a Spaniard from Palencia, was admitted (the first castrati so termed who joined the Sistine choir were Pietro Paolo Folignato and Girolamo Rossini, admitted in 1599).* [3] Surprisingly, considering the later French distaste for castrati they certainly existed in France at this time also, being known of in Paris, Orléans, Picardy and Normandy, though they were not abundant: the King of France himself had difficulty in obtaining them.* [3] By 1574 there were castrati in the Ducal court chapel at Munich, where the Kapellmeister (music director) was the famous Orlando di Lasso. In 1589, by the bull Cum pro nostro pastorali munere, Pope Sixtus V re-organised the choir of St Peter's, Rome specifically to include castrati.* [4] Thus the castrati came to supplant both boys (whose voices broke after only a few years) and falsettists (whose voices were weaker and less reliable) from the top line in such choirs. Women were banned by the Pauline dictum mulieres in ecclesiis taceant (“let women keep silent in church"; see I Corinthians, ch 14, v 34).

1.2.3

Opera

A caricature of Farinelli in a female role, by Pier Leone Ghezzi 1724.

dred years;* [5] an Italian opera not featuring at least one renowned castrato in a lead part would be doomed to fail. Because of the popularity of Italian opera throughout 18th-century Europe (except France), singers such as Ferri, Farinelli, Senesino and Pacchierotti became the first operatic superstars, earning enormous fees and hysterical public adulation.* [6] The strictly hierarchical organisation of opera seria favoured their high voices as symbols of heroic virtue, though they were frequently mocked for their strange appearance and bad acting. In his 1755 Reflections upon theatrical expression in tragedy, Roger Pickering wrote: Farinelli drew every Body to the Haymarket. What a Pipe! What Modulation! What Extasy to the Ear! But, Heavens! What Clumsiness! What Stupidity! What Offence to the Eye! Reader, if of the City, thou mayest probably have seen in the Fields of Islington or MileEnd or, If thou art in the environs of St James', thou must have observed in the Park with what Ease and Agility a cow, heavy with calf, has rose up at the command of the milkwoman's foot: thus from the mossy bank sprang the DIVINE FARINELLI.* [7]

Although the castrato (or musico) predates opera, there is some evidence that castrati had parts in the earliest operas. In the first performance of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607), for example, they played subsidiary roles, including Speranza and (possibly) that of Euridice. Although female roles were performed by castrati in some of the papal states, this was increasingly rare; by 1680, they More modern objections to the existence of castrati in had supplanted “normal”male voices in lead roles, and Europe might centre on the means by which the prepararetained their position as primo uomo for about a hun- tion of future singers could lead to premature death. To

1.2. CASTRATO

21

prevent the child from experiencing the intense pain of castration, many were inadvertently administered lethal doses of opium or some other narcotic, or were killed by overlong compression of the carotid artery in the neck (intended to render them unconscious during the castration procedure).* [8] During the 18th century itself, the music historian Charles Burney was sent from pillar to post in search of places where the operation was carried out: I enquired throughout Italy at what place boys were chiefly qualified for singing by castration, but could get no certain intelligence. I was told at Milan that it was at Venice; at Venice that it was at Bologna; but at Bologna the fact was denied, and I was referred to Florence; from Florence to Rome, and from Rome I was sent to Naples ... it is said that there are shops in Naples with this inscription: 'QUI SI CASTRANO RAGAZZI' “Here ( boys are castrated”); but I was utterly unable to see or hear of any such shops during my residence in that city.* [9] The training of the boys was rigorous. The regimen of one singing school in Rome (c. 1700) consisted of one hour of singing difficult and awkward pieces, one hour practising trills, one hour practising ornamented passaggi, one hour of singing exercises in their teacher's presence and in front of a mirror so as to avoid unnecessary movement of the body or facial grimaces, and one hour of literary study; all this, moreover, before lunch. After, half-an-hour would be devoted to musical theory, another to writing counterpoint, an hour copying down the same from dictation, and another hour of literary study. During the remainder of the day, the young castrati had to find time to practice their harpsichord playing, and to compose vocal music, either sacred or secular depending on their inclination.* [10] This demanding schedule meant that, if sufficiently talented, they were able to make a debut in their mid-teens with a perfect technique and a voice of a flexibility and power no woman or ordinary male singer could match. In the 1720s and 1730s, at the height of the craze for these voices, it has been estimated that upwards of 4,000 boys were castrated annually in the service of art.* [11] Many came from poor homes and were castrated by their parents in the hope that their child might be successful and lift them from poverty (this was the case with Senesino). There are, though, records of some young boys asking to be operated on to preserve their voices (e.g. Caffarelli, who was from a wealthy family: his grandmother gave him the income from two vineyards to pay for his studies* [12]). Caffarelli was also typical of many castrati in being famous for tantrums on and off-stage, and for amorous adventures with noble ladies.* [13] Some, as described by Casanova, preferred gentlemen (noble or otherwise).* [14] Modern endocrinology would suggest that

The castrato Carlo Scalzi, by Joseph Flipart, c. 1737.

the castrati's much-vaunted sexual prowess was more the stuff of legend than reality – in addition to lacking a hormonal (but not a socio-psychological) sex drive, a castrato's remaining genitalia will not develop in size.* [15] Only a small percentage of boys castrated to preserve their voices had successful careers on the operatic stage; the better“also-rans”sang in cathedral or church choirs, but because of their marked appearance and the ban on their marrying, there was little room for them in society outside a musical context.* [16] The castrati came in for a great amount of scurrilous and unkind abuse, and as their fame increased, so did the hatred of them. They were often castigated as malign creatures who lured men into homosexuality. There were homosexual castrati, as Casanova's accounts of 18thcentury Italy bear witness. He mentions meeting an abbé whom he took for a girl in disguise, only later discovering that “she”was a famous castrato. In Rome in 1762 he attended a performance at which the prima donna was a castrato, “the favourite pathic”of Cardinal Borghese, who dined every evening with his protector. From his behaviour on stage“it was obvious that he hoped to inspire the love of those who liked him as a man, and probably would not have done so as a woman”.* [17]

1.2.4 Decline By the late 18th century, changes in operatic taste and social attitudes spelled the end for castrati. They lingered on past the end of the ancien régime (which their style of opera parallels), and two of their number, Pacchierotti and Crescentini, even entranced the icono-

22

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW which contained this instruction: “Whenever ... it is desirable to employ the high voices of sopranos and contraltos, these parts must be taken by boys, according to the most ancient usage of the Church.” The last Sistine castrato to survive was Alessandro Moreschi, the only castrato to have made solo recordings. While an interesting historical record, these discs of his give us only a glimpse of the castrato voice – although he had been renowned as“The Angel of Rome”at the beginning of his career, some would say he was past his prime when the recordings were made in 1902 and 1904 and he never attempted to sing opera.* [18] He retired officially in March 1913, and died in 1922. The Catholic Church's involvement in the castrato phenomenon has long been controversial, and there have recently been calls for it to issue an official apology for its role. As early as 1748, Pope Benedict XIV tried to ban castrati from churches,* [19] but such was their popularity at the time that he realised that doing so might result in a drastic decline in church attendance.* [20]* [21]

Alessandro Moreschi, the last of the Sistine castrati

clastic Napoleon. The last great operatic castrato was Giovanni Battista Velluti (1781–1861), who performed the last operatic castrato role ever written: Armando in Il crociato in Egitto by Meyerbeer (Venice, 1824). Soon after this they were replaced definitively as the first men of the operatic stage by a new breed of heroic tenor, as first incarnated by the Frenchman Gilbert-Louis Duprez, the earliest so-called “king of the high Cs”. His successors have included such singers as Enrico Tamberlik, Jean de Reszke, Francesco Tamagno, Enrico Caruso, Giovanni Martinelli, Beniamino Gigli, Jussi Björling, Franco Corelli and Luciano Pavarotti, among others. After the unification of Italy in 1861, castration for musical purposes was officially made illegal (the new Italian state had adopted a French legal code which expressly forbade the practice). In 1878, Pope Leo XIII prohibited the hiring of new castrati by the church: only in the Sistine Chapel and in other papal basilicas in Rome did a few castrati linger. A group photo of the Sistine Choir taken in 1898 shows that by then only six remained (plus the Direttore Perpetuo, the fine soprano castrato Domenico Mustafà), and in 1902 a ruling was extracted from Pope Leo that no further castrati should be admitted. The official end to the castrati came on St. Cecilia's Day, 22 November 1903, when the new pope, Pius X, issued his motu proprio, Tra le Sollecitudini ('Amongst the Cares'),

The rumours of another castrato sequestered in the Vatican for the personal delectation of the Pontiff until as recently as 1959 have been proven false. The singer in question was a pupil of Moreschi's, Domenico Mancini, such a successful imitator of his teacher's voice that even Lorenzo Perosi, Direttore Perpetuo of the Sistine Choir from 1898 to 1956 and a lifelong opponent of castrati, thought he was a castrato. Mancini was in fact a moderately skilful falsettist and professional double bass player.* [22]

1.2.5 Modern castrati and similar voices So-called “natural”or “endocrinological castrati”are born with hormonal anomalies. such as Klinefelter's syndrome and Kallmann's syndrome, or have undergone unusual physical or medical events during their early lives that reproduce the vocal effects of castration without being castrated. Jimmy Scott and Radu Marian are examples of this type of high male voice.* [23] Michael Maniaci is somewhat different, in that he has no hormonal or other anomalies, but for some unknown reason, his voice did not “break”in the usual manner, leaving him still able to sing in the soprano register.* [24] Other uncastrated male adults sing soprano, generally using some form of falsetto but in a much higher range than most countertenors. Examples are Aris Christofellis,* [25] Jörg Waschinski,* [26] and Ghio Nannini.* [27] However, it is believed the castrati possessed more of a tenorial chest register (the aria “Navigante che non spera”in Leonardo Vinci's opera Il Medo, written for Farinelli, requires notes down to C3).* [28] Similar lowvoiced singing can be heard from the jazz vocalist Jimmy Scott, whose range matches approximately that used by female blues singers,* [29] while the Turkish popular singer Cem Adrian has the ability to sing from bass to

1.2. CASTRATO

23

soprano, his vocal folds having been reported to be three times the average length.* [30] Actor Chris Colfer has a similar range. Colfer has stated in interviews that when his voice began to change at puberty he sang in a high voice “constantly”in an effort to retain his range.* [31] The late musician Jeff Buckley had a four-octave range, which allowed him to cover women's songs in a natural voice and reach notes from bass to soprano.* [32]

• Nicolo Grimaldi (“Nicolini”) (1673–1732)

1.2.6

• Carlo Broschi ("Farinelli") (1705–1782)

Notable castrati

• Antonio Bernacchi (1685–1756) • Francesco Bernardi ("Senesino") (1686–1758) • Valentino Urbani (“Valentini”) (1690–1722) • Giovanni Carestini (“Cusanino”) (c. 1704 – c. 1760)

• Domenico Annibali (“Domenichino”) (1705– 1779) • Gaetano Majorano ("Caffarelli") (1710–1783) • Felice Salimbeni (1712–1752) • Giaocchino Conti ("Gizziello") (1714–1761) • Mariano Nicolini (“Marianino”) (c. 1715–58) • Giovanni Manzuoli (1720–1782) • Gaetano Guadagni (1725–1792) • Antonio Albanese (1729 or 1731–1800) • Silvio Giorgetti (1733-ca.1802) • Giusto Fernando Tenducci (ca. 1736–1790) • Giuseppe Millico (“Il Muscovita”) (1737 – 1802) • Gasparo Pacchierotti (1740–1821) • Venanzio Rauzzini (1746-1810) • Luigi Marchesi (“Marchesini”) (1754–1829) Francesco Bernardi, known as "Senesino"

• Vincenzo dal Prato (1756–1828)

See also: List of Italians § Castrati singers

• Girolamo Crescentini (1762–1848)

• Giovanni Bacchini (“Bacchino”)

• Giovanni Battista “Giambattista”Velluti (1781– 1861)

• Loreto Vittori (1604–1670)

• Domenico Mustafà (1829–1912)

• Baldassare Ferri (1610–1680)

• Domenico Salvatori (1855–1909)

• Atto Melani (d. 1714)

• Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922)

• Giuseppe Panici (1634-1702)* [33] • Giovanni Grossi (“Siface”) (1653–1697)

1.2.7 See also

• Pier Francesco Tosi (1654–1732)

• Cry to Heaven

• Francesco Pistocchi (“Pistocchino”) (1659–1726)

• Farinelli (film)

• Matteo Sassano (“Mateuccio”) (1667–1737)

• Sarrasine

24

1.2.8

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

References

Notes [1] Lancet The Voice of the Castrato, 1998; 351: pp. 187780. [2] New Grove Dictionary of Opera, vol 3, p.529, sv “musico” [3] Sherr [4] Milner, Anthony. (1973).“The Sacred Capons”. Musical Times 114(1561): 250-252

[22] Clapton, N.: Alessandro Moreschi and the World of the Castrato (London, 2008), pp. 180–181, 200 [23] “The Male Soprano Page”. Tp4.rub.de. Retrieved 201508-30. [24] “An Interview With Michael Maniaci”. Opera Today. Retrieved 2015-08-30. [25] Archived 30 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine [26] “Jörg Waschinski, Sopranist”. Joerg-waschinski.de. Retrieved 2015-08-30. [27] Archived 17 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine

[5] see Heriot, A: The Castrati in Opera (London, 1956), p. 31 ff

[28] F. Haböck, Die Gesangkunst der Kastraten, (Vienna, 1923), pp. 10–15

[6] Heriot chs. 1–3 passim

[29] Archived 20 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine

[7] Pickering, R: Reflections on Theatrical Expression in Tragedy (London, 1755), p. 63

[30] Capa, Ebru (7 May 2005).“Kaleydoskop içine hapsolmuş kanatsız bir melek (Angel without wings, captured in a kaleidoscope)" (in török). Hürriyet. Retrieved 26 March 2009.

[8] such procedures are described in D'Ancillon, as translated into English by Samber, R.: Eunuchism Display'd ... (London, 1718), pp. 15–16 [9] Scholes, P (ed): Dr Burney's Musical Tours in Europe (London, 1959), vol 1, p. 247

[31] Milzoff, Rebecca. “Glee’s Chris Colfer on Owning ‘Defying Gravity’and Resembling a Hummel Figurine – Vulture”. Nymag.com. Retrieved 7 November 2011.

[10] see Bontempi, G: Historia Musica (Perugia, 1695), p. 170

[32] “Kingdom For A Kiss - The JB F.A.Q.: Jeff's vocal style and range”. jeffbuckley.com. Retrieved 4 May 2015.

[11] a claim first made in Pleasants, H.,“The Castrati”, Stereo Review, July 1966, p. 38)

[33] Frosch, W.A. (2006). “The sopranos: post-op virtuosi” . The FASEB Journal 20 (6): 475-479

[12] Faustini-Fassini, E.: Gli astri maggiori del bel canto napoletano in Note d'archivio 15, (1938), p 12

Bibliography

[13] see Heriot, p. 141–154

• Bontempi, G: Historia Musica (Perugia, 1695)

[14] Casanova, G. Memoirs (tr. A. Machen, with additional tr. by A. Symons (London, 1894) vol. 4c, ch. 10; available online at www.gutenberg.net

• Casanova, G: Memoirs (tr Machen, A., with additional tr by Symons, A; London, 1894)

[15] but see Barbier, pp. 13–15

• Clapton, N: Moreschi, the Last Castrato (London, 2004)

[16] for a general discussion of castrati in society, see Barbier, ch. 7 [17] Angus Heriot, The Castrati in Opera, London, 1956; Ed Wayne Dynes, Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, New York, 1990 [18] Clapton, N.: Alessandro Moreschi and the World of the Castrato (London, 2008), p. 197–216 [19] Barbier, P. (trans. M. Crosland) (1998).“Chapter 6. The Castrati and the Church”. The World of the Castrati: the history of an extraordinary operatic phenomenon. London: Souvenir Press. ISBN 0-285-63460-7. [20] Frosch, W.A. (2006).“The sopranos: post-op virtuosi”. The FASEB Journal 20 (6): 595–597. doi:10.1096/fj.060402ufm. PMID 16581964. [21] Chadwick, O. (1981). The Popes and European Revolution. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 89. ISBN 0-19-826919-6.

• Freitas, R: The Eroticism of Emasculation: Confronting the Baroque Body of the Castrato (“Journal of Musicology”, vol 20, no 2, Spring 2003, pp 196– 249) • Haböck, F: Die Kastraten und ihre Gesangskunst (Berlin, 1927) • Heriot, A: The Castrati in Opera (London, 1956) • Howard, P: “The Modern Castrato: Gaetano Guadagni and the coming of a new operatic age”, (New York, 2014) • Moran, N: Byzantine castrati (“Plainsong and medieval Music”, vol 11, no 2, Cambridge, 2002, pp 99–112) • Pleasants, H: The Castrati (“Stereo Review”, July 1966)

1.2. CASTRATO • Scholes, P (ed): Dr Burney's Musical Tours in Europe (London, 1959) • Sherr, R: Guglielmo Gonzaga and the Castrati “ ( Renaissance Quarterly”, vol 33, no 1, Spring 1980, pp 33–56) • Rosselli, J: The Castrati as a Professional Group and a Social Phenomenon, 1550–1850, (“Acta Musicologica”, LX, Basel, 1988) • Tougher, S (ed): Eunuchs in Antiquity and Beyond (London, 2002)

1.2.9

External links

• All you would like to know about Castrati • Castrados por amor al arte • Singing Voice: Castrati • Recordings: • Antonio Maria Bononcini's Vorrei pupille belle, sung by Radu Marian • 1904 Recording of Alessandro Moreschi singing Bach/Gounod Ave Maria • Javier Medina Avila, including an audio sample (Riccardo Broschi: Ombra fedele anch'io)

25

Chapter 2

Famous eunuchs 2.1 Aetios

the deposed emperor, the surviving younger sons of Emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775), who had in the past been involved in plots against Irene, were still a potential threat. They were persuaded by sympathizers to seek refuge in the cathedral of Hagia Sophia, where the capital's populace would supposedly rally to them and declare one of them as emperor. No such support materialized; instead, Aetios managed to achieve their surrender, and they were exiled to Irene's home town of Athens.* [1]* [4]

Aetios or Aetius (Greek: Ἀέτιος) was a Byzantine eunuch official and one of the most trusted advisers of Byzantine empress Irene of Athens (r. 797–802). After Irene's rise to sole rule, Aetios developed an intense rivalry with her eunuch chief minister Staurakios. After Staurakios's death, Aetios became the leading man in the state. He plotted to usurp the throne for his brother, Leo, but lost power when Irene was deposed in 802. Irene now divided her favour between Staurakios, her oldestablished chief minister, and Aetios. This began a period of intense rivalry between the two and their respec2.1.1 Biography tive supporters, as they raced to place their relatives in positions of power, so as to secure control of the Byzantine Early years and rivalry with Staurakios Empire after Irene's eventual death.* [5]* [6] This competition came to the fore in 797/798, and intensified in May 799, when Irene fell seriously ill. Aetios, who had won the backing of Niketas Triphyllios, the commander of the Scholai guards, accused Staurakios before the Empress of plotting to usurp the throne. Irene duly convened a council at the Palace of Hieria where she severely rebuked her favourite minister, but Staurakios escaped with an apology.* [6]* [7]

Gold solidus of Empress Irene during her sole rule (r. 797–802).

Staurakios in turn began to distribute bribes amongst the men and lower officers of the Scholai and Exkoubitores regiments, trying to win their support for an eventual coup. Aetios again went to Irene, who in February 800 forbade anyone from the military to contact Staurakios. Coupled with Aetios's own appointment to the powerful post of strategos of the Anatolic Theme, this restored a precarious balance between the two camps. Soon after, Staurakios became very ill, but he continued plotting against Aetios, instigating a revolt against him in Cappadocia before dying in June 800.* [6]* [7]

Aetios first appears in 790, when he was a protospatharios and a confidant of Irene, then the Byzantine empressmother and regent for her young son, Emperor Constantine VI (r. 780–797). In the autumn of that year, Irene tried to sideline her son and assume full rule over the Byzantine Empire. This, however, caused a mutiny by the army in favour of the young emperor. Constantine was installed as sole ruler, Irene confined to a palace in Supremacy and downfall of Aetios Constantinople, and her eunuch protégés, including Aetios, were exiled.* [1]* [2] The revolt was quickly and brutally subdued, and with Aetios was restored to his position, along with the other his rival's death, Aetios stood supreme amongst Emeunuchs, when Irene was recalled to power as a co-ruler press Irene's court. He likely succeeded Staurakios as in 792.* [1]* [3] In August 797, Irene and her powerful eu- logothetes tou dromou, while retaining control of the nuch minister Staurakios succeeded in overthrowing and Anatolics and adding to his command the Opsician blinding (and possibly also killing) Constantine, thus as- Theme. He gained a victory in 800 against the suming governance of the state. However, the uncles of Arabs, which was followed, however, by a defeat in 26

2.2. ARTOXARES

27

801.* [1]* [8] In 801/802, Aetios appointed his brother • Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the ByzanLeo as monostrategos of the themes of Thrace and tine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford Macedonia. Controlling thus the armies closest to ConUniversity Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. stantinople, which comprised about a third of the Byzantine Empire's entire military forces, he was well placed to make Leo emperor. In the words of the chronicler 2.2 Artoxares Theophanes the Confessor, he "ruled by [Irene's] side and was usurping power on behalf of his brother”. Consequently, in 802, Aetios was instrumental in the rejection Artoxares (/ˌɑrtəˈzɛriːz/; Old Persian *Artaxšara) (c. of a marriage offer from Charlemagne, which Irene had 465 BC - after 419 BC) was a Paphlagonian eunuch, who played a central role during the reigns of Artaxerxes I and apparently seriously considered.* [1]* [8]* [9] Darius II of Persia. Aetios's plans for his brother's elevation faltered with the opposition of the other courtiers, who resented his in- According to Ctesias, when he was twenty years old, Arfluence and the insulting manner with which he treated toxares participated in an embassy to the rebel satrap them. Chief among them were Nikephoros, Irene's fi- Megabyzus. King Artaxerxes I and the rebel satrap recnance minister (logothetes tou genikou), but also Niketas onciled in around 445 BC. Nevertheless, Megabyzus fell Triphyllios, Aetios's former ally, and Leo Sarantapechos, again into disgrace and was exiled to a Persian Gulf a relative of the Byzantine empress. Fearing an immi- town. Artoxares, who had helped Megabyzus to gain the nent coup by Aetios, the conspirators, in the morning of favour of the Persian king, was expelled from the court October 31, 802, entered the Great Palace and acclaimed to Armenia. It has been argued that he actually was apNikephoros emperor. Irene was deposed and allowed to pointed as satrap of Armenia, but this is not explicitly stated by Ctesias. retire to a convent.* [10] It is not known what became of Aetios after that. He When Artaxerxes died (424 BC), his sons Xerxes II, most likely lost power upon Nikephoros's accession, but Sogdianus and Darius II Ochus started a civil war against he may be the patrikios Aetios who was killed, along with each other. Arbarius, a cavalry commander, Arsames, Nikephoros himself, in the Battle of Pliska against the the satrap of Egypt and Artoxares all decided to follow Darius. When Darius defeated his brothers, Artoxares Bulgars on July 26, 811.* [1] became one of the most powerful members of the court. Nevertheless, after a short time he plotted against the new king and was executed on the orders of queen Parysatis. 2.1.2 References Artoxares' plot took place just after the revolts of Arsites [1] Kazhdan 1991, p. 30. and Artyphius, and of the satrap Pissuthnes. [2] Garland 1999, p. 82. [3] Garland 1999, p. 83. [4] Garland 1999, pp. 86–87. [5] Kazhdan 1991, pp. 30, 1945. [6] Garland 1999, p. 88. [7] Treadgold 1997, p. 423.

From the Murashu family archives from Nippur, we know a certain Artahshar (Artahŝar), who has been identified with the Artoxares of the classical sources. According to this archives, the domains of Manuštånu (identified with Menostanes, a follower of Sogdianus) passed to Artahŝar after Darius' coronation. Artoxares could have inspired the Greek playwright Aristophanes for the Plaphagonian character in his play The Knights.

[8] Garland 1999, p. 89. [9] Treadgold 1997, p. 424.

2.2.1 References

[10] Garland 1999, pp. 89–90.

2.1.3

Sources

• Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. New York, New York and London, United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3. • Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.

• Bowie, Aristophanes: Myth, Ritual and Comedy (1995 [1993]), Cambridge U. Press. • Clay, A.: The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania. Series A: Cuneiform Texts vol. X, Business Documents of the Marashu Sons of Nippur (1904). • Dandamayev, M.: Encyclopaedia Iranica

“Artoxares”,

in

the

• Lendering, J.: “Xerxes II and Sogdianus”, in http: //www.livius.org.

28

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

2.3 Bagoas

Var. Hist. vi. 8), is without historical basis.* [2]

Bagoas' house in Susa, with rich treasures, was presented This article is about the Persian minister. For other uses by Alexander to Parmenion (Plut. Alex. 39); his gardens of the word, see Bagoas (disambiguation). in Babylon, with the best species of palms, are mentioned by Theophrastus (Hist. Plant, ii. 6; Plin. Nat. Hist. xiii. * Bagoas (Old Persian: Bagoi, Ancient Greek: Βα- 41). [2] γώας Bagōas; died 336 BC) was a prominent Persian Plutarch reports an angry letter from Alexander to Darius, official who served as the vizier (Chief Minister) of the naming Bagoas as one of the persons that organized the Achaemenid Empire until his death. murder of his father, Philip II.

2.3.1

Biography

2.3.2 References [1] Chisholm 1911.

Bagoas was a eunuch who later became the vizier to Artaxerxes III. In this role, he allied himself with the [2] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Rhodian mercenary general Mentor, and with his help Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bagoas". Encyclopædia Britannica 3 succeeded in once again making Egypt a province of the (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 202. Persian Empire (probably from 342 BC). Mentor became general of the maritime provinces, suppressed the rebels in Egypt and sent Greek mercenaries to the king, while Bagoas administered the satrapies and gained such power 2.3.3 External links that he was the real master of the Persian Empire towards • Livius, Bagoas by Jona Lendering the end of Artaxerxes III's reign (Diod. xvi. 50; cf. Didy* mus, Comm. in Demosth. Phil. vi. 5). [1] Artaxerxes IV Arses was the youngest son of King Artaxerxes III and Atossa and was not expected to succeed to the throne of Persia. His unexpected rise to the throne came in 338 BC as a result of the murder of his father and most of his family by Bagoas, when the vizier fell out of favour with Artaxerxes III. Bagoas sought to remain in office by replacing Artaxerxes with his son Arses (Artaxerxes IV), whom he thought easier to control. Arses remained little more than a puppet-king during the two years of his reign while Bagoas acted as the power behind the throne. Eventually, disgruntled by this state of affairs and possibly influenced by the nobles of the Royal Court, who generally held Bagoas in contempt, Arses started planning Bagoas' murder. However, Bagoas again acted first in order to protect himself and managed to poison and kill Arses. Bagoas then raised a cousin of Arses to the throne as King Darius III of Persia. When Darius attempted to become independent of the powerful vizier, Bagoas tried to poison him too; but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself (Diod. xvii. 5; Johann. Antioch, p. 38, 39 ed. Müller; Arrian ii. 14. 5; Curt. vi. 4. 10).* [2] It was said that Bagoas became very wealthy by confiscating the sacred writings of the Egyptian temples and giving them back to the priests for large bribes (Diod. XVI. 51). When the high priest of Jerusalem murdered his brother Johannes in the temple, Bagoas (who had supported Johannes) put a new tax on the Jews and entered the temple, saying that he was purer than the murderer who performed the priestly office (Joseph. Ant. xi. 7.1).* [2] A later story, that Bagoas was an Egyptian and killed Artaxerxes III because he had killed the sacred Apis (Aelian,

2.4 Bagoas Bagoas (Old Persian: Bagoi, Ancient Greek: Βαγώας Bagōas) was a eunuch in the court of the Persian Empire in the 4th Century BC.

2.4.1 Bagoas' kiss According to Plutarch,* [1] Bagoas won a dancing contest after the Macedonian crossing of the Gedrosian Desert. The Macedonian troops, with whom Bagoas was very popular, demanded that king Alexander should kiss Bagoas, and he did so.

2.4.2 Fictionalized versions • Bagoas is the narrator and title character of The Persian Boy, the historical novel by Mary Renault, which portrays him sympathetically. He reappears in a smaller but still significant role in the sequel Funeral Games. • He makes an even briefer appearance in Les Conquêtes d'Alexandre by Roger Peyrefitte. Peyrefitte, unlike Renault, has Bagoas riding to battle by the side of Darius. • He is also a major character in Jo Graham's novel Stealing Fire, part of her Numinous World series. Graham's Bagoas is basically the same as Renault's, except that he is more willing to find a new lover after the death of Alexander.

2.6. CAI LUN

29

• He is played by Francisco Bosch in the Oliver Stone 2.5.1 References film Alexander (2004), which is based in part on Re[1]“Basil The Nothos”in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzannault's writings.* [2] tium, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 270. ISBN 0195046528

2.4.3

Notes

[2] John Julius Norwich, Byzantine: The Apogee, New York, Alfred P. Knopf, 1992, p. 167.

[1] Alexander, 67 [2] Bagoas at the Internet Movie Database

2.4.4

[3] Ring of Basil Lekapenos bearing his seal as parakoimomenos. schlumberger.126 (http: //medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/c33gbrsgh), Gustave Schlumberger collection, BnF

Sources

• Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, xiii; Plutarch, Parallel 2.6 Cai Lun Lives,“Alexander”, 67; Aelian, Varia Historia, iii. 23; Curtius, Historiae Alexandri Magni, vi. 5. 23; x. For lunar crater, see Cai Lun (crater). 1. 25 Cai Lun (simplified Chinese: 蔡伦; traditional Chinese: 蔡倫; pinyin: Cài Lún; Wade–Giles: Ts'ai Lun) (ca. 50 2.4.5 External links AD – 121), courtesy name Jingzhong (敬仲), was a Han dynasty Chinese eunuch and official. He is traditionally • “Bagoas Pleads on Behalf of Nabarzanes,” illu- regarded as the inventor of paper and the papermaking minated parchment by the Master of the Jardin de process, in forms recognizable in modern times as paper vertueuse consolation, in the collection of the J. Paul (as opposed to papyrus). Although early forms of paper Getty Museum had existed in China since the 2nd century BC,* [1] he was responsible for the first significant improvement and standardization of paper-making by adding essential new materials into its composition.* [2] 2.5 Basil Lekapenos Basil Lekapenos (Basil the Nothos (“bastard”) (born 2.6.1 Invention of paper c. 925 - died c. 985)* [1] was the parakoimomenos (chief administrator) of the Byzantine Empire from 945 until Cai Lun (蔡 伦) was born in Guiyang (modern day 985. Leiyang, Hunan) during the Eastern Han Dynasty. AfAn illegitimate son of the emperor Romanos I ter castration followed by serving as a court eunuch from AD 75, he was given several promotions under the rule Lekapenos, he was castrated when young. of Emperor He of Han. In AD 89 he was promoted with In about 945, around the time his father was dethe title of Shang Fang Si, an office in charge of manufacposed, Basil was appointed parakoimomenos by Emperor turing instruments and weapons; he also became a RegConstantine VII, his brother-in-law.* [2]* [3] He retained ular Palace Attendant (中常侍).* [3] He was involved in this position under emperors Romanos II, Nikephoros II, palace intrigue as a supporter of Empress Dou, and in the John Tzimisces. death of her romantic rival, Consort Song.* [4] After the As head of the Imperial administration, he amassed a death of Empress Dou in AD 97, he became an associate large personal fortune. Reportedly, this led to tension of Consort Deng Sui. with John Tzimisces shortly before the Emperor's death In A.D. 105, Cai invented the composition for paper in 976. According to some sources, Basil poisoned the along with the papermaking process —though he may Emperor. have been credited with an invention of someone from He continued in office in the early reign of Basil II but in 985 the young Emperor - wishing to assume the government himself after being dominated by regents and caretaker emperors for thirty years - accused him of sympathizing with the rebel Bardas Phokas and removed Basil from power. All his lands and possessions were confiscated and all laws issued under his administration were declared null and void. Basil Lekapenos himself was exiled and died shortly afterwards.

a lower class.* [5] Tools and machinery of papermaking in modern times may be more complex, but they still employ the ancient technique of felted sheets of fiber suspended in water, draining of the water, and then drying into a thin matted sheet.* [6] For this invention Cai would be world-renowned posthumously, and even in his own time he was given recognition for his invention. A part of his official biography written later in China read thus (Wade–Giles spelling):

30

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS In ancient times writings and inscriptions were generally made on tablets of bamboo or on pieces of silk called chih. But silk being costly and bamboo heavy, they were not convenient to use. Tshai Lun [Cai Lun] then initiated the idea of making paper from the bark of trees, remnants of hemp, rags of cloth, and fishing nets. He submitted the process to the emperor in the first year of Yuan-Hsing [+105] and received praise for his ability. From this time, paper has been in use everywhere and is universally called 'the paper of Marquis Tshai'.* [3]

As listed above, the papermaking process included the use of materials like bark, hemp, silk, and fishing net; his exact formula has been lost. Emperor He was pleased with the invention and granted Cai an aristocratic title and great wealth.

2.6.3 Notes [1] Needham 1985, pp. 38–40 [2] Needham 1985, p. 41 [3] Needham 1985, p. 40 [4] Peterson, Barbara Bennett, ed. (2000). Notable women of China: Shang dynasty to the early twentieth century. M. E. Sharpe. p. 105. [5] Carter, Thomas Francis (1955).“The Invention of Printing in China and Its Spread Westward”. Artibus Asiae Publishers. p. 187. [6] Needham 1985, p. 1 [7] Will Durant, The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Chapter XXV-The Age of the Artists, part 2 (The Revival of Learning)

In 121, Consort Song's grandson Emperor An of Han as- [8] Needham 1985, p. 47 sumed power after Empress Deng's death and Cai was ordered to report to prison. Before he was to report, he [9] Deng, Yinke (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. China Intercontinental Press. p. 21. committed suicide by drinking poison after taking a bath * and dressing in fine silk robes. [7] Cai was later revered in Chinese ancestor worship. Fei Zhu of the later Song Dynasty (960-1279) wrote that a temple in honor of Cai 2.6.4 References Lun had been erected in Chengdu, where several hun• Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin; Needham, Joseph (1985). Scidred families involved in the papermaking industry travence and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. eled five miles (8 km) from the south to come and pay Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08690-6. * respects. [8]

2.6.2

Influence

See also: Paper and Papermaking The creator of this extremely important invention is only somewhat known outside East Asia. After Cai invented the papermaking process in 105, it became widely used as a writing medium in China by the 3rd century.* [6] It enabled China to develop its civilization (through widespread literature and literacy) much faster than it had with earlier writing materials (primarily bamboo and silk, the latter of which was a more expensive medium). By the 7th century, China's papermaking technique had spread to Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.* [9] In 751, some Chinese paper makers were captured by Arabs after Tang troops were defeated in the Battle of Talas River. The techniques of papermaking then spread to the West. When paper was first introduced to Europe in the 12th century, it gradually revolutionized the manner in which written communication could be spread from region to region. Along with contact between Arabs and Europeans during the Crusades (with the essential recovery of ancient Greek written classics), the widespread use of paper aided the foundation of the Scholastic Age in Europe.

2.7 Cao Jie Cao Jie (died 181, simplified Chinese: 曹节; traditional Chinese: 曹節, Pinyin Caó Jié) was an eunuch of the late Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han; he was also one of the Ten regular attendants (also known as the Ten Eunuchs), a group of court eunuchs who held great influence in the Han imperial court. Cao Jie was responsible for the death of Dou Wu and Chen Fan, and the house arrest of Empress Dowager Dou.

2.8 Cao Teng This is a Chinese name; the family name is Cao. Cao Teng (died c. late 150s), courtesy name Jixing, was a eunuch who lived in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. He served four Han emperors (Shun, Chong, Zhi, and Huan). Through his adopted son Cao Song, he was the adoptive grandfather of Cao Cao, the founder of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period. In 220, upon the establishment of Wei by Cao Cao's son Cao Pi, Cao Teng was posthumously honoured as “Emperor Gao of Wei” (魏高帝).

2.9. CHENG KUANG

2.8.1

Life

Cao Teng served as an Attendant at the Yellow Gates (小黃門) in the Han imperial court during the reign of Emperor An. In 120, when Emperor Shun was still a prince, Empress Dowager Deng appointed Cao Teng to serve the prince because Cao Teng was honest, modest and prudent. Cao Teng gained the trust of Emperor Shun and became his personal friend. In 126, after Emperor Shun ascended the throne, Cao Teng was promoted to Regular Attendant (中常侍), the highest possible rank for a court eunuch. After Emperor Shun died, his infant son died after just one year on the throne. The general Liang Ji installed the seven-year-old Liu Zuan (劉纘) on the throne, overruling the popularity of another candidate, Liu Suan (劉蒜). Despite his young age, Liu Zuan showed signs of resentment towards Liang Ji's domineering influence, and was soon poisoned by the general. The imperial court was once again divided in deciding the successor. One group, led by Li Gu, wanted to instal Liu Suan on the throne, while Liang Ji led another faction which supported the young Liu Zhi (劉志). Cao Teng took Liang Ji's side and urged him to defy his critics, and soon the majority backed down.

31

2.8.4 References • de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Brill. p. 48. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. • de Crespigny, Rafe (2010). Imperial warlord : a biography of Cao Cao 155-220 AD. Leiden Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18522-7. • Fan Ye. Book of the Later Han, Volume 78.

2.9 Cheng Kuang The following is a list of fictional people significant to the Three Kingdoms period (220–280) in Chinese history. The list includes mainly characters in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms and those found in other cultural references to the Three Kingdoms.

2.9.1 In Romance of the Three Kingdoms Chapter 1

After Liu Zhi, or Emperor Huan as he came to be known, ascended the throne, Cao Teng was rewarded with enfe- See also: Yellow Turban Rebellion § In fiction and Ten offment as “Marquis of Fei Village”(費亭侯) for his Attendants § In fiction participation in the succession debate. He was later promoted to “Grand Prolonger of Autumn”(大長秋) and • Nanhua Old Immortal (南 華 老 仙), an immortal was placed in charge of the household of Empress Liang who gave a set of books on Taoist magical arts to Nüying. He also served as Coachman of the Changle Zhang Jiao. Palace (長樂宮太僕) of Empress Dowager Liang Na. Cao Teng stayed in the court for 30 years, having served four emperors, and was said to have never made big mistakes. The people he promoted were all very famous throughout the empire, such as Yu Fang (虞 放), Bian Shao (邊韶), Zhao Dian (趙典). Cao Teng was a broadminded person. Once, a provincial governor Zhong Hao (種暠) found evidence that Cao Teng had received bribes and tried, unsuccessfully, to impeach Cao Teng. Despite this, Cao Teng often recommended Zhong Hao to higher positions. Cao Teng was remembered by his contemporaries for his personality and integrity. After Cao Teng died in the late 150s, his foster son Cao Song inherited his marquis title.

• Cheng Yuanzhi (程遠志), a Yellow Turban rebel general killed by Guan Yu. • Deng Mao (鄧茂), a Yellow Turban rebel general killed by Zhang Fei. • Gong Jing (龔 景), the Administrator of Qing Province. He requested aid from Liu Yan when his province came under attack by the Yellow Turban rebels. • Cheng Kuang (程曠), a eunuch and a member of the Ten Attendants. Chapter 2

2.8.2

Family

See also: Yellow Turban Rebellion § In fiction

Main article: Cao Wei family trees § Cao Song

2.8.3

See also

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms

• Yan Zheng (嚴政), Zhang Bao's subordinate. He came under attack by Zhu Jun and Liu Bei. Knowing that defeat was inevitable, he killed Zhang Bao and surrendered. • Gao Sheng (高昇), Zhang Bao's subordinate.

32

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

• Sun Zhong (孫仲), a Yellow Turban rebel general Chapter 7 who occupied Wancheng together with Han Zhong • Lady Wu (吳國太), the younger sister of Sun Jian's and Zhao Hong. They were defeated by Zhu Jun first wife. She also married Sun Jian and bore him and Liu Bei. Sun Zhong was killed by Liu Bei while Sun Lang and Sun Shangxiang. attempting to escape. • Liu Hui (劉恢), the Administrator of Daizhou. He Chapter 8 offered help to Liu Bei. Chapter 3 • Zhao Meng (趙萌), a Han dynasty general. • Cui Yi (崔毅), Cui Lie's younger brother. Chapter 5 See also: Battle of Sishui Pass and Battle of Hulao Pass • Bao Zhong (鮑忠), Bao Xin's younger brother. He was killed by Hua Xiong in a surprise attack near Sishui Pass.

• Diaochan (貂蟬), Wang Yun's foster daughter. She caused Lü Bu and Dong Zhuo to turn against each other. Chapter 9 • Li Bie (李別), Li Jue's nephew. Chapter 11 • Zong Bao (宗寶), a general under Kong Rong. • Huode Xingjun (火 德 星 君; Fire Star Lord), a Taoist deity who decided not to burn Mi Zhu because of his great virtue.

• Yu She (俞涉), a general under Yuan Shu. He duelled with Hua Xiong outside Sishui Pass and was Chapter 13 killed by the latter. • Cui Yong (崔勇), a military officer under Guo Si. • Pan Feng (潘鳳), a general under Han Fu. He enHe was killed by Xu Huang. gaged Hua Xiong in a duel outside Sishui Pass and was killed by the latter. Pan Feng is the subject of a Chinese internet meme involving a line from the Chapter 14 novel, “Here's one of my best men, Pan Feng. He • Xun Zheng (荀 正), a subordinate of Yuan Shu's can destroy Hua Xiong.”This meme is a cultural general Ji Ling. He was killed by Guan Yu. phenomenon and has led to a surge in Pan's popu* larity [1] to rival the more well known figures of the • Fan Cheng (范成), the Administrator of Luoyang Three Kingdoms period. This popularity has been under Cao Cao. attributed to various causes, such as desire to poke fun at traditions as a novelty, to feelings of helplessness and lack of individual recognition in Chi- Chapter 15 nese society. It has spawned multiple fake biogra• Chen Heng (陳橫), a vassal under the warlord Liu phies detailing the supposed exploits of Pan Feng Yao. He defended Jianye together with Xue Li and that were supposedly too great to be mentioned of* Zhang Ying when Sun Ce invaded the city. He was ficially. [2] killed by Jiang Qin. • Mu Shun (穆順), a general under Zhang Yang. He engaged Lü Bu in a duel outside Hulao Pass and was Chapter 16 killed by the latter. • Lady Yan (嚴氏), Lü Bu's first wife. She bore him • Fang Yue (方 悅), a general under Wang Kuang. a daughter. He duelled with Lü Bu outside Hulao Pass and was killed by the latter. • Wei Hong (衛弘), a financial benefactor of Cao Cao. • Wu Anguo (武安國), a general under Kong Rong. He fought against Lü Bu outside Hulao Pass and retreated after his wrist was cut off by Lü Bu. • Zhao Cen (趙 岑), a minor military officer under Dong Zhuo.

• Lady Cao (曹 氏), Lü Bu's second wife and the daughter of Cao Bao. • Lady Zou (鄒氏), the widow of Zhang Xiu's uncle Zhang Ji. She was seized by Cao Cao when the latter occupied Wancheng after Zhang Xiu surrendered. Zhang Xiu was unhappy that Cao Cao had an affair with his widowed aunt, so he launched a surprise attack on Cao Cao, leading to the Battle of Wancheng.

2.9. CHENG KUANG Chapter 17 • Wang Hou (王垕), a supply officer under Cao Cao. He was executed by his lord to appease the soldiers' anger over food shortage. • Zhang Xian (張先), Zhang Xiu's subordinate. He was killed by Xu Chu. • Lei Xu (雷敘), Zhang Xiu's subordinate. Chapter 19 • Liu An (劉安), a hunter. Chapter 23 • Qin Qingtong (秦慶童), a servant of Dong Cheng who was caught having an affair with his master's concubine. He feared for his life so he betrayed Dong Cheng and informed Cao Cao about his master's assassination plot. • Yunying (雲英), Dong Cheng's concubine. She had an affair with Qin Qingtong. Chapter 27 See also: List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms § Guan Yu crosses five passes and slays six generals

• Du Yuan (杜遠), a former Yellow Turban rebel who became a bandit leader. He kidnapped Liu Bei's wives, whom Guan Yu was escorting, and brought them to his bandit stronghold. He was later killed by his fellow Liao Hua, who released the women and sent them back to Guan Yu. Liao Hua explained everything to Guan Yu and was accepted by the latter as a subordinate. • Hu Hua (胡 華), Hu Ban's father. He previously served as a Consultant (議郎) under Emperor Huan before retiring. He met Guan Yu and gave him a letter, telling him to pass it to his son Hu Ban, who was in Xingyang. • Kong Xiu (孔秀), a military officer under Cao Cao. He was in charge of guarding Dongling Pass (south of present-day Dengfeng, Henan), and was killed by Guan Yu when he refused to allow the latter to pass through. • Han Fu (韓福), the Administrator of Luoyang under Cao Cao. He laid in ambush outside Luoyang and fired an arrow at Guan Yu, injuring Guan's arm, and was subsequently killed by Guan.

33 • Meng Tan (孟坦), Han Fu's subordinate. He was killed by Guan Yu while attempting to kill the latter in an ambush outside Luoyang. • Bian Xi (卞喜), a military officer under Cao Cao. He was tasked with guarding Sishui Pass (north of present-day Xingyang, Henan). He pretended to welcome Guan Yu and invited the latter to attend a banquet in a temple, where he had secretly set up an ambush. Guan Yu discovered the ambush, killed Bian Xi, and passed through Sishui Pass safely. • Pujing (普淨), a monk from the same hometown as Guan Yu. He warned Guan about Bian Xi's ambush. • Wang Zhi (王植), the Administrator of Xingyang under Cao Cao. He pretended to welcome Guan Yu and let the latter stay in his guesthouse. That night, he ordered his men to surround the guesthouse and set fire to it, hoping to kill Guan Yu, but Guan had already escaped after being tipped off by Hu Ban. Wang Zhi led his men in pursuit of Guan and caught up with him, but ended up being killed by Guan. • Hu Ban (胡班), Hu Hua's son. He served as Wang Zhi's subordinate. He warned Guan Yu about Wang Zhi's plot and helped Guan escape from Xingyang. • Qin Qi (秦琪), a subordinate of Cao Cao's general Xiahou Dun. He was in charge of guarding a ferry point on the southern bank of the Yellow River. He was killed by Guan Yu in anger when he refused to allow the latter to cross the river.

Chapter 28 See also: List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms § Guan Yu crosses five passes and slays six generals

• Guan Ding (關定), Guan Ping's father. • Guan Ning (關寧), Guan Ping's elder brother. • Guo Chang (郭常), a man whose son stole Guan Yu's steed, the Red Hare. • Pei Yuanshao (裴元紹), a former Yellow Turban rebel who established a bandit stronghold together with Zhou Cang. When Guan Yu passed by their stronghold, the two men pledged allegiance to Guan and became his followers. Zhou Cang accompanied Guan Yu while Pei remained in the stronghold. Not long later, Pei is killed by Zhao Yun when he attempted to steal the latter's horse. • Zhou Cang (周倉).

34 Chapter 30 • Xin Ming (辛 明), a military officer under Yuan Shao. Chapter 32

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS • Yan Ming (晏明), Cao Hong's subordinate. He was killed by Zhao Yun. • Zhong Jin (鐘縉), Xiahou Dun's subordinate. He was killed by Zhao Yun. • Zhong Shen (鐘紳), Xiahou Dun's subordinate. He was killed by Zhao Yun.

• Wang Zhao (汪昭), a military officer under Yuan Tan. He was killed by Xu Huang. Chapter 42 • Cen Pi (岑璧), a general under Yuan Tan. He led See also: Battle of Changban § In fiction the vanguard force when Yuan Tan attacked his halfbrother Yuan Shang, but was killed by Yuan Shang's general Lü Kuang in a duel. • Xiahou Jie (夏 侯 傑), a minor officer under Cao Cao. He died of shock after Zhang Fei bellowed a challenge to Cao Cao and his soldiers at Changban Chapter 33 Bridge. • Peng An (彭安), a general under Yuan Tan. He was killed by Xu Huang. Chapter 45 • Wuhuanchu (烏 桓 觸), the Administrator of You • Cai Xun (蔡勳), Cai Mao's younger brother. He Province. He surrendered to Cao Cao during the originally served Liu Biao but later served Cao Cao Battle of White Wolf Mountain. after Liu Biao's successor Liu Cong surrendered to Cao. He was killed by Gan Ning in a skirmish beChapter 34 tween the forces of Cao Cao and Sun Quan before the Battle of Red Cliffs. • Zhang Wu (張武), a bandit leader in Jiangxia, who • Cai He (蔡 和), Cai Mao's younger cousin. He caused much trouble for Liu Biao, the governor of served Cao Cao after Liu Cong surrendered to Cao. Jing Province. Liu Bei, who was Liu Biao's guest He pretended to defect to Sun Quan's side while then, offered to help to deal with the bandits. Zhang serving as a mole for Cao Cao. Sun Quan's viceroy Wu was killed by Zhao Yun. Zhou Yu knew that he was a spy and used him to • Chen Sun (陳孫), Zhang Wu's companion. He was spread false information in the enemy camp, leadkilled by Zhang Fei. ing to Cao Cao mistakenly believing that Huang Gai was planning to surrender to him. He was executed by Zhou Yu just before the Battle of Red Cliffs. Chapter 36 • Cai Zhong (蔡中), Cai He's elder brother. He also • Liu Mi (劉泌), Liu Feng's maternal uncle. spied on Sun Quan's camp together with his brother, and was killed by Gan Ning during the Battle of Red Cliffs. Chapter 40 • Li Gui (李珪), an adviser to Liu Biao. He was exe- Chapter 48 cuted by Cai Mao. • Lü Tong (呂通), a general under Cao Cao. Chapter 41 Chapter 52 See also: Battle of Changban § In fiction See also: Battle of Changsha (fictional) • Xiahou En (夏 侯 恩), a minor officer under Cao Cao. He was the bearer of the Qinggang Sword (青 釭劍), one of Cao Cao's prized weapons. He was killed by Zhao Yun, who took the sword from him. • Chunyu Dao (淳于導), Cao Ren's subordinate. He was killed by Zhao Yun.

• Liu Xian (劉賢), the son of Liu Du, the Administrator of Lingling. He joined Xing Daorong in the attempt to ambush Liu Bei's forces but ended up getting captured by Zhang Fei. Liu Bei released him, and he was so grateful that he successfully persuaded his father to surrender to Liu Bei.

2.9. CHENG KUANG

35

• Xing Daorong (邢道榮), a general serving under Liu Chapter 58 Du. He wielded a huge battle axe called“Cleaver of • Zhong Jin (鐘進), Zhong Yao's younger brother. Mountains”. When Liu Bei invaded Liu Du's land, Xing duelled with Liu Bei's generals Zhang Fei and • Cao Yong (曹永), Cao Ren's subordinate. Zhao Yun but was defeated and captured by them. He pretended to surrender to Liu Bei, hoping to lure Liu Bei's forces into a trap, but his plan failed and Chapter 61 he was killed by Zhao Yun in the ensuing battle. • Zhou Shan (周 善), a military officer sent by Sun Quan to fetch Sun Shangxiang back to Jiangdong. • Bao Long (鮑隆), Zhao Fan's subordinate. Sun Shangxiang brought along Liu Bei's young son Liu Shan and they boarded the ship captained by • Chen Ying (陳應), Zhao Fan's subordinate. He was Zhou Shan. Liu Bei's general Zhao Yun pursued killed by Zhao Yun. them in an attempt to take back Liu Shan, and he fought with Zhou Shan and his men. Zhang Fei Chapter 53 showed up to help Zhao Yun and he killed Zhou Shan. See also: Battle of Changsha (fictional) Chapter 62 • Gong Zhi (鞏志), an adviser to Jin Xuan, the Ad• Zixu Shangren (紫須上人/紫虛上人). ministrator of Wuling. He urged his lord to surrender when Liu Bei's general Zhang Fei attacked Wuling, but Jin Xuan ignored him. Gong Zhi then killed Chapter 65 Jin Xuan and surrendered to Zhang Fei. Liu Bei ap• Ma Han (馬漢), a military officer under Liu Zhang. pointed him as Administrator of Wuling to replace He was killed by Zhao Yun. Jin Xuan. • Liu Jun (劉晙), a military officer under Liu Zhang. • Yang Ling (楊齡), a general under Han Xuan. He He was killed by Zhao Yun. was killed by Guan Yu. • Jia Hua (賈華), a military officer under Sun Quan. Chapter 66 His lord ordered him to set up an ambush to kill • Mu Shun (穆順), a palace eunuch involved in an asLiu Bei when the latter was meeting Lady Wu in sassination plot against Cao Cao. The plot was masGanlu Temple. However, Liu Bei sensed the amterminded by Emperor Xian, who had the support bush and he pleaded with Lady Wu to spare him. of Empress Fu Shou and her father Fu Wan (伏完). Lady Wu was surprised because she was unaware of Mu Shun helped by delivering letters, but he was Sun Quan's plan to kill Liu Bei, and she shouted for caught and the plot was leaked out. Cao Cao had all the assassins to come out of hiding. Lady Wu Mu Shun, the empress, her father, and their families was furious and wanted to have Jia Hua executed all executed. but spared him when Sun Quan intervened. • Ge Ding (戈定), a man from the same hometown as Chapter 67 Taishi Ci. See Battle of Hefei (208)#In fiction. Chapter 57 • Huang Kui (黃奎), an official who served as a Gentleman (侍郎) in the Han imperial court. He plotted against Cao Cao together with Ma Teng, but their plan was leaked out and Cao Cao had him and his family executed. • Li Chunxiang (李 春 香), Huang Kui's concubine, executed by Cao Cao. • Miao Ze (苗澤), Huang Kui's brother-in-law, executed by Cao Cao.

• Chang Qi (昌奇), a subordinate of Zhang Lu's general Yang Ren. • Yang Song (楊 松), an adviser to Zhang Lu. He was described to be a greedy man who was easily tempted by riches and luxuries. He was once bribed by Liu Bei's forces to speak ill of Ma Chao in front of Zhang Lu, causing Zhang to distrust Ma and eventually forcing Ma to defect to Liu Bei's side. In another incident, Yang Song accepted bribes from Cao Cao's forces to urge Zhang Lu to surrender during the Battle of Yangping. When Zhang Lu eventually surrendered to Cao Cao, Yang Song hoped to be rewarded but Cao Cao denounced him as a disloyal and untrustworthy person and had him executed.

36 • Yang Bai (楊柏), a general under Zhang Lu. Chapter 69

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS Chapter 81 • Li Yi (李意), a mysterious old man who divined the future of Shu Han.

• Zhao Yan (趙顏), a man who had his fortune told by Guan Lu. Chapter 82 Chapter 70

• Tan Xiong (譚雄), Sun Huan's subordinate. He was killed by Guan Xing at the Battle of Xiaoting.

• Xiahou De (夏侯德), Xiahou Yuan's nephew. He • Cui Yu (崔 禹), Zhu Ran's subordinate. He was defended Mount Tiandang during the Battle of killed by Zhang Bao at the Battle of Xiaoting. Mount Dingjun. Liu Bei's forces set fire to his camp and Xiahou De was killed by Liu's general Yan Yan Chapter 83 while he was busy putting out the flames. Chapter 71

• Xia Xun (夏恂), Han Dang's subordinate. He was killed by Zhang Bao at the Battle of Xiaoting.

• Jiao Bing (焦炳), a military officer under Cao Cao. He was killed by Zhao Yun.

• Zhou Ping (周平), Zhou Tai's younger brother. He was killed by Guan Xing at the Battle of Xiaoting.

• Murong Lie (慕容烈), a subordinate of Cao Cao's general Wen Ping. He was killed by Zhao Yun.

• Shi Ji (史 迹), Pan Zhang's subordinate. He was killed by Huang Zhong.

Chapter 73 • Zhai Yuan (翟元), Cao Ren's subordinate. He was killed by Guan Ping at the Battle of Fancheng.

Chapter 84 • Chunyu Dan (淳于丹), Lu Xun's subordinate.

• Xiahou Cun (夏侯存), Cao Ren's subordinate. He Chapter 87 was killed by Guan Yu at the Battle of Fancheng. See also: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign § In fiction Chapter 74 • Lady Li (李氏), Pang De's wife. Chapter 77 • Zuo Xian (左咸), an adviser to Sun Quan. He suggested to his lord to execute Guan Yu. Chapter 78 • Prison Guard Wu (吳 押 獄), a prison guard who looked after Hua Tuo when the physician was imprisoned by Cao Cao. Before dying in prison, Hua Tuo passed the Qing Nang Shu, a medical book written by him, to Wu. Wu's wife later burnt the book to avoid trouble, but Wu returned and managed to salvage only a few pages. Chapter 80 • Zu Bi (祖 弼), Keeper of the Imperial Seal for Emperor Xian. He was executed by Cao Hong for refusing to hand over the seal during Emperor Xian's forced abdication.

• Guan Suo (關索), Guan Yu's third son. • E'huan (鄂煥), Gao Ding's subordinate. • Jinhuan Sanjie (金環三結), a general serving under the Nanman chieftain Meng Huo. He joined Dongtuna and Ahuinan in defending Nanman territory from invading Shu forces led by Zhuge Liang. The Shu army launched a surprise attack on his camp one night, and Jinhuan Sanjie was killed by Zhao Yun during the chaos. • Dongtuna (董 荼 那), a general under Meng Huo. He joined Ahuinan and Jinhuan Sanjie in defending Nanman territory from the Shu invasion. Jinhuan Sanjie was killed in action while Dongtuna and Ahuinan were captured. Zhuge Liang released Dongtuna and Ahuinan, who were grateful to him and decided to help him. They plotted against Meng Huo later and captured their lord and presented him to Zhuge Liang. Zhuge Liang released Meng Huo (for the second time) after the latter complained that he was betrayed and captured by his men and did not have a chance to fight a proper battle. Meng Huo then had Dongtuna and Ahuinan executed for their betrayal.

2.9. CHENG KUANG • Ahuinan (阿會喃), a general under Meng Huo. He was executed by Meng Huo along with Dongtuna. • Mangyachang (忙牙長), a general under Meng Huo. He was defeated in battle by the Shu general Wang Ping and was later killed by Ma Dai. Chapter 88 See also: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign § In fiction

• Meng You (孟優), Meng Huo's younger brother. Chapter 89 See also: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign § In fiction

37 wooden beasts. While he was retreating, the elephant he was riding on threw him off its back and trampled him to death. • Wutugu (兀突骨), the king of Wuge (烏戈) and an ally of Meng Huo. He was described to be gigantic in stature and he dined on venomous serpents. His soldiers wore armour made of dried and oiled rattan, which was light enough to float on water, yet sufficiently hard to prevent sharp blades from penetrating, so they were known as the “Rattan Armour Army”(藤甲兵). He scored initial successes against the Shu forces due to his army's impenetrable armour. However, Zhuge Liang figured out that the armour was flammable, so he ordered his men to lure Wutugu and his soldiers into a trap. Wutugu and his army were set on fire and they all perished in the flames. • Tu'an (土安), Wutugu's subordinate.

• Xi'ni (奚泥), Wutugu's subordinate. • King Duosi (朵思大王), the lord of Tulong Cave (禿龍洞) and an ally of Meng Huo. He assisted Meng Huo in countering the Shu army led by Zhuge Chapter 91 Liang. The poisonous springs and mist outside Tulong Cave posed a big problem to Zhuge Liang and • Zhang Tao (張韜), a close acquaintance of Empress deterred the Shu forces from advancing for quite Guo Nüwang. some time. • Meng Jie (孟節), Meng Huo's elder brother. Un- Chapter 92 like Meng Huo and Meng You, he gave up his old • Han De (韓德), a Wei general who followed Xiahou primitive lifestyle and was assimilated into civil soMao to deal with the Shu invasion led by Zhuge ciety. He helped Zhuge Liang by pointing out the Liang. He was killed by Zhao Yun, who also killed methods to counter the poisonous springs and mist his four sons. outside Tulong Cave. • Yang Feng (楊鋒), a Nanman cave lord and an ally of Meng Huo. He surrendered to Zhuge Liang and helped the latter capture Meng Huo.

• Han Ying (韓瑛), Han De's son. • Han Yao (韓瑤), Han De's son. • Han Qiong (韓瓊), Han De's son.

Chapter 90

• Han Qi (韓琪), Han De's son.

See also: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign § In fiction

• Pan Sui (潘遂), Xiahou Mao's subordinate. • Dong Xi (董禧), Xiahou Mao's subordinate.

• Lady Zhurong (祝融夫人), Meng Huo's wife.

• Xue Ze (薛則), Xiahou Mao's subordinate.

• Cave Lord Dailai (帶 來 洞 主), Lady Zhurong's younger brother. He suggested to Meng Huo to enlist the help of King Mulu and Wutugu to deal with the Shu invaders led by Zhuge Liang.

• Pei Xu (裴緒), a Shu officer ordered by Zhuge Liang to disguise himself as a Wei officer who broke out of the siege at Nan'an. Pei Xu then went to Anding and lied to Cui Liang, luring Cui to lead his army out of Anding to help Xiahou Mao at Nan'an. He was seen through by Jiang Wei (then still a Wei officer) when he tried to lure another Wei commander, Ma Zun, out of his city to help Xiahou Mao.

• King Mulu (木鹿大王), the lord of Bana Cave (八 納 洞) and an ally of Meng Huo. He possessed magical powers and could change the weather and control wild beasts and direct them into battle. He scored some initial victories against the Shu forces with the aid of his powers, but lost when his animals were scared away by Zhuge Liang's flame-spewing

• Cui Liang (崔諒), the Wei Administrator of Anding. He feigned surrender to Zhuge Liang after being surrounded, and attempted to lure the Shu forces

38

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS into a trap at Nan'an. However, Zhuge Liang saw Chapter 102 through his trick, and Cui Liang ended up being • Cen Wei (岑威), a Wei general. killed by the Shu general Zhang Bao.

• Yang Ling (楊 陵), the Wei Administrator of Nan'an. He collaborated with Cui Liang to lure the Shu forces into a trap at Nan'an, but Zhuge saw through their plan, and Yang Ling was killed by the Shu general Guan Xing.

• Zheng Wen (鄭文), a Wei general. • Du Rui (杜睿), a Shu general. • Hu Zhong (胡忠), a Shu general • Qin Ming (秦明), Qin Lang's younger brother.

Chapter 94 • Cheliji (徹里吉), the king of the Qiang people in Chapter 103 northwestern China. • Zhang Qiu (張球), a subordinate of the Wei general • Yadan (雅丹), the chancellor of the Qiang kingdom. Man Chong. He participated in the Battle of Hefei (234) against Eastern Wu, in which he launched a • Yueji (越吉), a Qiang general. fire attack on Zhuge Jin's naval fleet and drove the • Han Zhan (韓禎), a Shu general defending Xiping latter back. (西平). Chapter 95 • Su Yong (蘇顒), Guo Huai's subordinate. • Wan Zheng (萬政), Guo Huai's subordinate. • Chen Zao (陳造), a Wei general. Chapter 96 • Zhang Pu (張普), Cao Xiu's subordinate.

Chapter 106 • Pei Jing (裴景), a Wei general who participated in Sima Yi's Liaodong campaign. • Qiu Lian (仇連), a Wei general who participated in Sima Yi's Liaodong campaign. Chapter 107 • Pan Ju (潘舉), Cao Shuang's subordinate.

Chapter 97 Chapter 109 • Xie Xiong (謝雄), a Shu military officer. He was killed by the Wei general Wang Shuang. • Gong Qi (龔 起), a Shu military officer. He was killed by Wang Shuang. Chapter 100 • Qin Liang (秦良), a Wei general killed by Liao Hua.

• Wang Tao (王韜), Sima Zhao's registrar (主簿). He met Jiang Wei at the Battle of Mount Tielong, and suggested praying for a water spring when water ran scarce. Chapter 110

• Ge Yong (葛雍), Guanqiu Jian's subordinate. • Gou An (苟安), a subordinate of the Shu general Li Yan. He was tasked with escorting supplies to the • Song Bai (宋白), the Prefect of Shen County in Wei. Shu army at the frontline during one of the Northern • Zhu Fang (朱芳), a Wei general. Expeditions. However, he was late by 10 days because he got drunk. Zhuge Liang wanted to have • Zhang Ming (張明), a Wei general. him executed but eventually spared him and had him flogged. Gou An defected to the Wei army later and • Hua Yong (花永), a Wei general. was tasked by Sima Yi to spread rumours in the Shu capital Chengdu, causing the Shu emperor Liu Shan • Liu Da (劉達), a Wei general. to distrust Zhuge Liang and order him to return to Chengdu, resulting in the failure of that Northern Expedition. When Zhuge Liang finally cleared the Chapter 111 misunderstanding with Liu Shan, he asked where • Bao Su (鮑素), a Shu general. Gou An was, but Gou had already fled to Wei.

2.10. CHENG YUANZHEN Chapter 112 • Wang Zhen (王真), Sima Wang's subordinate. • Li Peng (李鵬), Sima Wang's subordinate.

39 Chapter 119 • Zhang Jie (張節), a Wei official who served as a Gentleman of the Yellow Gate (黃門侍郎).

• Zeng Xuan (曾宣), Zhuge Dan's subordinate. He Chapter 120 surrendered to Wei during the Third Rebellion in Shouchun. • Zhang Shang (張尚), a Jin general who killed the Wu general Lu Jing during the conquest of Wu by • Chen Jun (陳俊), Sima Zhao's subordinate. Jin. Chapter 113 • Zheng Lun (鄭倫), Deng Ai's subordinate. He was killed by Liao Hua. • Deng Cheng (鄧程), a Wu politician.

• Chen Yuan (陳元), Yang Hu's subordinate. • Sun Ji (孫冀), a Wu general who replaced Lu Kang as commander-in-chief of the Wu armies to resist the invading Jin forces.

• Gan Xiu (干休), an old man who met the Wu em- 2.9.2 peror Sun Xiu in Qu'e. • Dang Jun (黨均), Deng Ai's advisor. He bribed the Shu eunuch Huang Hao to spread rumours that Jiang Wei would defect, causing Liu Shan to recall Jiang from the battlefield. Chapter 114 • Wang Guan (王瓘), Deng Ai's subordinate. Chapter 116 • Lu Xun (盧遜), a Shu general defending Nanzheng.

Others

• Bao Sanniang (鮑三娘), one of Guan Suo's wives. • Huaman (花 鬘), Meng Huo and Lady Zhurong's daughter. She became one of Guan Suo's wives later. • Ma Yunlu (馬雲騄), a character in the novel Fan Sanguo Yanyi (反三國演義). She was Ma Chao's younger sister and later married Zhao Yun.

2.9.3 See also • List of people of the Three Kingdoms

• Ning Sui (寧隨), Jiang Wei' subordinate. He suggested to attack Yong Province via Konghan Valley 2.9.4 to force the Wei general Zhuge Xu to retreat from Yinping, allowing Jiang Wei to enter Jiange.

References

[1] " 潘凤为什么会受到广大网友的亲睐?"

Chapter 117 • Lady Li (李氏), Ma Miao's wife. She committed suicide when Jiangyou fell to Wei forces. • Peng He (彭和), a Shu general.

[2] 吾有上将潘凤，可斩华雄。虽然只有一句话，却让 他成为最红的三国人物。

2.10 Cheng Yuanzhen

Cheng Yuanzhen (程元振) (died 764?) was a eunuch official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty. He was exceedingly powerful early in the reign of Emperor Daizong and was said to, in his attempts to consolidate his power, have killed or demoted a number of key generals and officials on his own whim, and thus drew the hatred from the other officials and generals. In 763, he was blamed Chapter 118 for not warning Emperor Daizong about the Tufan inva• Lady Cui (崔氏), Liu Chen's wife. She committed sion that eventually caused the capital Chang'an to fall to suicide together with her husband after the fall of Tufan forces, forcing Emperor Daizong to flee. Emperor Shu. Daizong exiled him, and he died in exile. • Qiu Ben (丘本), a Wei general. He tried to convince Zhuge Zhan to surrender at Mianzhu Pass but Zhuge refused. He later organised a surprise attack on the pass, leading to the Shu defeat.

40

2.10.1

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

Background

Cheng Yuanzhen was from Jingzhao Municipality (京兆) -- the special municipality centered on the Tang capital Chang'an. He was a eunuch from his youth and served at the eunuch bureau (內侍省, Neishi Sheng), eventually rising to be the commander of the imperial guard archer corps (內射生使, Nei Shesheng Shi) as well as the deputy director of the imperial stables, under the powerful eunuch Li Fuguo, late in the reign of Emperor Suzong.

2.10.2

Rise to power

In summer 762, Emperor Suzong was seriously ill, near death. By this point, Emperor Suzong's wife Empress Zhang, who was previously allied with Li Fuguo, was no longer allied with him, and she tried to enter into an alliance with Emperor Suzong's son (not her son) the crown prince Li Yu, to kill Li Fuguo and Cheng Yuanzhen and seize power. Li Yu declined, and she then entered into an alliance with Li Yu's younger brother Li Xi (李係) the Prince of Yue, trying to lay a trap for Li Fuguo (and possibly Li Yu). When she issued an edict in Emperor Suzong's name summoning Li Yu, Cheng found out about her plan and detained Li Yu, escorting him to the imperial guard headquarters. He and Li Fuguo then led troops into the palace and arrested Empress Zhang and Li Xi. Upon Emperor Suzong's death, Li Fuguo executed Empress Zhang, Li Xi, and Li Xian (李僩) the Prince of Yan, and then declared Li Yu emperor (as Emperor Daizong).

rejected, and thus he was resentful of Lai. In 763, while Lai was at Chang'an, he and his associate Wang Zhongsheng (王仲升), who was also resentful of Lai, jointly falsely accused Lai of treason. Lai was exiled and, on the way to exile, was ordered to commit suicide. Cheng also disliked the major general Li Guangbi and often submitted reports against Li Guangbi. The general Li Huairang (李懷讓), the military governor of Tonghua Circuit (同 華, headquartered in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), was also falsely accused by Cheng and committed suicide in fear in 763. It was said that given these incidents, all of the generals felt insecure and alienated from the imperial government. Despite this, Cheng was still arrogant and believed that he could grab more power.

2.10.3 Downfall

Throughout the spring and summer of 763, Tufan forces were progressively attacking and capturing Tang prefectures to the west of Chang'an. It was said that despite the generals' urgent requests for aid, Cheng Yuanzhen did not relay the requests to Emperor Daizong. By winter 763, Tufan forces were approaching Chang'an; only then did Emperor Daizong realize the seriousness of the Tufan threat and commission Guo Ziyi to resist Tufan. When Emperor Daizong issued an edict to the various circuits ordering emergency aid, however, the generals refused to respond, and Guo could not quickly gather troops large enough to resist Tufan forces. Emperor Daizong was forced to abandon Chang'an and flee to Shan PrefecFor two months early in Emperor Daizong's reign, Li ture (陝州, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan). Fuguo was exceedingly powerful, so much so that he was The imperial officials who followed Emperor Daizong to telling Emperor Daizong not to bother with any thing and Shan Prefecture blamed the disaster on Cheng—in both just let him handle the matters of state, and Emperor his failure to alert Emperor Daizong as to the seriousDaizong gave him chancellor title, as well as several other ness of the Tufan threat and his alienation of the generals, honorific titles. Cheng was made a commanding general causing a lack of aid to arrive. The imperial scholar Liu of the imperial guards, but was not satisfied, as he wanted Kang (柳伉) submitted a harshly worded petition, askto take over Li Fuguo's power, and therefore he secretly ing that Cheng be executed. Emperor Daizong, however, plotted with Emperor Daizong. With cooperation from remembering how Cheng had protected him in the past, Cheng, later in summer 762, Emperor Daizong, while declined to do so. He did, however, remove Cheng from creating Li Fuguo a prince, stripped Li Fuguo of his mili- his offices and order that he return home. tary command and transferred it to Cheng. Li Fuguo was subsequently assassinated on Emperor Daizong's orders, When Emperor Daizong returned to Chang'an around the new year 764, Cheng heard the news. Putting on women's and Emperor Daizong and Cheng governed together. clothing in disguise, he secretly entered Chang'an and It was said that Cheng was suspicious and jealous of the plotted to return to power.* [1] He was arrested by the senior generals and officials and did what he could to strip Jingzhao Municipality government, and the imperial centhem of power. For example, he was jealous of Guo sors subsequently submitted an indictment against him. Ziyi and often criticized him before Emperor Daizong, In spring 764, Emperor Daizong exiled him to Zhen Preleading Guo, who was fearful of the situation, to resign fecture (榛州, in modern Chongqing), but soon changed his command and remain at Chang'an. When the se- the location of exile to the more prosperous city of nior official Pei Mian had disagreements with Cheng, Jiangling. Cheng died there, in exile, shortly after arrivCheng had Pei demoted to the remote Shi Prefecture (施 ing there. 州, roughly modern Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Hubei). Meanwhile, he sometimes made requests of the general Lai Tian (來 瑱) -- the military 2.10.4 Notes and references governor (Jiedushi) of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangfan, Hubei), which Lai [1] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 223.

2.11. CHRYSAPHIUS • Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 207. • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 222, 223.

2.11 Chrysaphius Chrysaphius (Greek: Χρυσάφιος) was a eunuch at the Eastern Roman court, who became the chief minister of Theodosius II (r. 408–450). Effectively the ruler of the empire during his ascendancy, he pursued a policy of appeasement towards the Huns, which cost the empire far more gold than any military campaign, while amassing a vast fortune in bribes himself. He is depicted as a sinister figure in all the ancient accounts and is pilloried by Edward Gibbon.

2.11.1

Life and policies

The Byzantine historians give us a considerable amount of information on Chrysaphius. His real name was Taiouma (Theophanes 151) or Tumna (Cedrenus I 601) or Tzoumas (Patria II 182; George Codinus 47) or even Ztommas (Malalas 363-6). Chrysaphius exercised a considerable influence on Theodosius II at the end of his reign. According to Malalas, Theodosius II loved Chrysaphius for his beauty (Malalas id and 368). He seems to have risen from among the ranks: according to Malalas, he was a mere cubicularius (servant of the imperial bedchamber); according to the Chronicon Paschale, he was a spatharios (p. 390).

41 and sister from the court, Chrysaphius was effectively ruler of the empire, and it is said that the emperor signed papers without reading them (Theophanes, A.M. 5942). In December 447, the Hunnic king Attila arrived before the walls of Constantinople. Chrysaphius adopted a policy of appeasement, and the imperial government paid Attila a huge tribute to go away, rather than fight. Chrysaphius had also been involved in the ecclesiastical disputes of the time, and taking bribes from the various parties he amassed a great fortune. He was the godson of the aged Cyrillian abbot Eutyches, whom he hoped to place on the episcopal throne of Constantinople and so increase his own political influence. This was prevented by the elevation of Flavian in 447. Chrysaphius therefore induced the emperor to require a gift from the new bishop. Flavian sent the emperor three loaves of consecrated bread, which Chrysaphius rejected, on the grounds that the emperor demanded gold. Flavian refused to supply this on the ground that churchmen should not hand over church property as bribes (Evagrius II.2). This made Chrysaphius his enemy, but Pulcheria was still influential and defended Flavian. Chrysaphius did arrange for a violent enemy of Flavian's, Dioscorus, to be appointed Patriarch of Alexandria, and arranged for the exile of Pulcheria.

In 448 the Eutychian dispute arose, Eutyches bribed Chrysaphius. Flavian was reluctant to be drawn in, but organised a local council in Constantinople, which condemned Eutyches in 448. Chrysaphius, however, was able to use Dioscorus to depose Flavian at the "Robbersynod" (Latrocinium) of Ephesus in August 449. He used the soldiers and puppet clerics to prevent any discussion of the issues. Flavian died a few days after the closure In 441 the city prefect in Constantinople was a pagan poet of the Latrocinium because of the injuries suffered from from Panopolis in Egypt named Cyrus, who was exceed- the mob of Dioscorus' monks, led by the dreaded abbot ingly popular in the city. Thus he incurred the envy of Barsaumas,“a wild, illiterate Syrian archimandrite”.* [1] Chrysaphius, who engineered his downfall. Cyrus saved The Hunnic problem had not gone away. In 449, himself by converting to Christianity, but the malice of Chrysaphius, with the approval of Theodosius, suborned Chrysaphius was not so easily frustrated, and the eunuch Edecon, the chief of Attila's guards, to assassinate him. arranged for him to be appointed bishop of Cotyaeum But he later betrayed the plot to Attila, who demanded in Phyrgia, where the population had lynched the prethe head of Chrysaphius. Chrysaphius sent an envoy with vious four incumbents. In the event, Cyrus survived money, and Attila consented in contemptuous language and returned to Constantinople in 451 after the death of to forgive him and the emperor provided that he received Chrysaphius. an annual compensation payment of 700 pounds of gold In 443, he became chamberlain (praepositus sacri cubi- a year. This burden of taxes on an empire already devculi), which in practice made him the chief minister of the astated by the ravages of the Huns made the already unweak Theodosius II. Chroniclers record that he was all- popular favourite deeply hated. Gibbon remarks that the powerful in the Palace (Theoph. 150; Priscus 227); the money involved would have more than financed any war later Patria (II 182; Codinus 47) names him anachronisti- against Attila. cally as a parakoimomenos, after the all-powerful eunuch The high-handed behaviour at the Latrocinium also backofficials of the 9th-10th centuries. He schemed against fired. There was general opposition to the decisions of the emperor's sister Pulcheria by exalting the influence the council, and Pope Leo I wrote to the emperor and of the empress Eudocia, and succeeded in arranging her demanded a fresh council. withdrawal from the court. Having done this, he intrigued against the empress, accusing her of adultery with Pauli- It seems that Chrysaphius may have fallen out of favour in nus, a boyhood friend of the emperor. She was then ban- the last months of Theodosius' reign. He had an enemy ished in 444. Having removed both the emperor's wife in the Isaurian Zeno, Master of Soldiers, who seems to

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

have threatened a revolt in 449. See John Ant. fr. 84 (De ins.), and Priscus, fr. 5 (De leg. Rom.).

2.13 Ebed-Melech

Ebed-Melech (e-bed-me'-lek, Hebrew: ‫מ ֶל ְך‬ ֶ -‫ ; ֶעבֶד‬Latin: Abdemelech) is mentioned in the Book of Jeremiah as an 2.11.2 Death official at the palace of king Zedekiah of Judah during the Siege of Jerusalem. The name is translated as Servant of Theodosius II died in 450, and was succeeded by the King, and as such may not be his proper name but a Marcian, who married Pulcheria. Both were personal enhereditary title. The text relates that he was an Ethiopian emies of Chrysaphius. (Jer 38:7) and a eunuch. * [1] His fate is described differently in the historians. AcEbed-Melech is notable for rescuing the prophet cording to most, Pulcheria avenged herself against Jeremiah from the cistern into which he had been cast to Chrysaphius by handing him over to his mortal enemy his death (Jer 38:4–13). Later Jeremiah relayed God's Jordanes, who had him put to death (Theophanes 160; message to him saying that he, Ebed-Melech, would Chronicon Paschale 390; Malalas 368; Zonaras; III 107“not fall by the sword”during the Fall of Jerusalem 109, Cedrenus I 601-1603). However, according to Babylonians (Jer 39:15–18) because he had put his trust Malalas, Chrysaphius's cause of death was very different. in Him (God). Chrysaphius had been head of the Green faction, whom Theodosius had protected (Malalas 351). Chrysaphius's death sentence was apparently politically motivated. Sup2.13.1 See also ported by the Greens, Chrysaphius may have incited some unrest, and it is known that Marcian was a partisan of • Proselyte the Blues (Malalas 368). Some say that Marcian ordered him to appear before a tribunal to enquire into his misdeeds. On the way there, the fallen minister was stoned 2.13.2 References to death by a mob infuriated by the high taxes needed to pay Attila's tribute. His immense wealth was confiscated. [1] "www.Bibler.org - Dictionary - Ebed-Melech”. Retrieved The political career of Chrysaphius is recorded by the Byzantine historian Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos, who deals with his actions in the critical years 449-451. Evagrius Scholasticus also records some of his actions in church matters.

2.11.3

References

[1] Holum, K. G., Theodosian Empresses (Berkeley: 1982), pp. 186-187.

2.11.4

External links

• Eudocia

2012-12-18.

2.14 Eight Tigers The Eight Tigers (Chinese: 八虎; pinyin: Bā Hǔ), sometimes referred to as the Gang of Eight (八 党/八 黨), were a powerful group of eunuchs that controlled the Chinese imperial court during the reign of the Ming Dynasty Zhengde Emperor (r. 1505-1521 CE). Led by Liu Jin, the remaining members of the coterie were Ma Yongcheng (馬永成), Gao Feng (高鳳), Luo Xiang (羅祥), Wei Bin (魏彬), Qiu Ju (丘聚), Gu Dayong (谷大用) and Zhang Yong (張永).

• Marcian

2.15 Eleutherius 2.12 Duan Gui Duan Gui (simplified Chinese: 段圭; traditional Chinese: 段珪, Pinyin Duàn Guī) was a eunuch of the late Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han; he was also one of the Ten regular attendants (Also known as the Ten Eunuchs), a group of court eunuchs who held great influence in the Han imperial court. After Emperor Ling died and was succeeded by his son Liu Bian in 189, He Jin, Yuan Shao and Cao Cao invaded the capital for the purpose of defeating the Ten Attendants, leading to He Jin's beheading in the palace courtyard by the Ten Attendants.

Eleutherius (died 620) was Exarch of Ravenna (615– 619). A eunuch, he succeeded John I as exarch. Early in his reign, nearly the entire exarchate was unstable. In Ravenna, there was obvious discontent with the Byzantines; in Naples, a certain John of Conza, separated the city from the exarch's control. Eleutherius arrived in Ravenna and immediately put to death “all who had been implicated in the death of Exarch John and the judges of the State.”Then, after making a courtesy visit to Pope Deusdedit, Eleutherius marched on Naples, and captured that city, killing the rebel John and his supporters.* [1] However, soon after the Lombards threatened

2.16. EUSEBIUS

43

war. Eleutherius was able to sue for peace, promising Eusebius enriched himself taking the properties of those a yearly tribute.* [2] who were put to death on accusations of treason; when Finding the situation in Italy to be unsatisfactory and tak- general Ursicinus refused to give him as a present his ing advantage of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius' pre- house in Antioch, in 359, Eusebius had him recalled from as magister equitum, having Sabinianus as a suboccupation with the Sassanids, Eleutherius proclaimed his office * stitute. [8] himself emperor in 619, with the intent of setting up his capital in Rome. The following year, while on his way to Rome and still deciding how to convince Pope Boniface V to grant him a crown, he was murdered by his soldiers at the fortress of Luceoli, and his head was sent to Heraclius.* [3]

2.15.1

Eusebius was together with Constantius until the Emperor died, in 361. The new Emperor, Julian, set up the Chalcedon tribunal to judge all those officers of Constantius' who had been suspected of corrupt conduct, in particular in the case of the trial and execution of Gallus (Julian's half-brother); Eusebius was accused of plotting against Gallus, was found guilty and put to death.* [9]

References

[1] Raymond Davis (translator), The Book of Pontiffs (Liber Pontificalis), first edition (Liverpool: University Press, 1989), p. 63. [2] Paul the Deacon (4.36). In his translation of Paul's History of the Lombards (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1974, p. 176n. 4), William Dudley Foulke, writes that Eleutherius' tribute was 500 pounds of gold. [3] Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards (4.36), p. 176; Liber Pontificalis (Davis translation), p. 63.

2.16.2 Notes [1] Socrates, ii.2.5-6; Sozomen, iii.1.4. [2] Photius, 256. [3] Socrates, ii.2.5-6; Sozomen, iii.1.4, iv.16.22; Zonaras, xiii.11. [4] Libanius, Orationes, xviii.152, lxii.9; Sozomen, iii.1.4; Socrates, ii.2.5-6; Zonaras, xiii.9; Ammianus Marcellinus, xviii.4.3. [5] Athanasius, 35; Theodoret, ii.16.9.15.

2.16 Eusebius Eusebius (died 361) was a high-ranking officer of the Roman Empire, holding the position of praepositus sacri cubiculi for all the rule of Emperor Constantius II (337361).

2.16.1

Biography

[6] Theodoret, ii.16.28; Palladius, 63. [7] Ammianus Marcellinus, xiv.10.5, 11.2, 11.21; Zonaras, xiii.9; Julian, 272D; Libanius, Orationes, xviii.152. [8] Ammianus Marcellinus, xv.3.2, xvi.8.13, xviii.4.3. [9] Ammianus Marcellinus, xxi.15.4; xxii.3.12; Zonaras, xiii.12; Philostorgius, iv.1; Artemii Passio, 21; Socrates, iii.1.46,49; Sozomen, v.5 8.

Eusebius held the position of praepositus sacri cubiculi 2.16.3 Bibliography in 337,* [1] when Constantine I died; he concealed the will of the Emperor.* [2] Eusebius became a supporter Primary sources of Arianism, influencing the empress and many other eunuchs.* [3] He entered then at the service of one of Con• Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae (“Roman Hisstantine's sons and successors, Constantius II, with whom tory”). he shared the support for Arianism and on whom he exerted a great influence.* [4] • Athanasius, Historia Arianorum (“History of the Arians”). In 354 Eusebius was sent by Constantius II to talk to Pope Liberius and then attended at the meeting between the Emperor and the Pope.* [5] He sent money to the orator Libanius in exile and, in 355, helped those Arian bishops who plotted against Athanasius of Alexandria.* [6] Eusebius followed Constantius into Gaul (353-354) and then to Milan (354). Here he plotted against Constantius' cousin, brother-in-law and Caesar, Constantius Gallus; Constantius ordered him to go to Pula, where Gallus was imprisoned, to question him about his rule in the East.* [7]

• Julian, Letter to the Athenians. • Libanius, Orationes (“Orations”). • Palladius of Galatia, Historia Lausiaca ("Lausiac History"). • Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica “ ( History of the Church”). • Photius, Bibliotheca

44

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

• Socrates, Historia Ecclesiastica (“History of the Church”).

• Hussey, J.M.. The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire. Oxford: University Press, 1986.

• Sozomen, Historia Ecclesiastica (“History of the Church”). 2.17.2 • Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica (“History of the Church”). • Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum (“Extracts of History”). Secondary sources • Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, “Eusebius 11”, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-07233-6, pp. 302– 303.

References

[1] Comnena, pp. 108-109. [2] Buckler, p. 290. [3] Buckler, p, 290, note 3. [4] Hussey, p. 148.

2.18 Eutropius

2.17 Eustratius Garidas Eustratius Garidas (Greek: Εὐστράτιος Γαριδᾶς), was Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople between 1081 and 1084. A monk, he was elevated to the patriarchal throne through the influence of mother of the emperor Alexios I, Anna Dalassene, to whom he had become an intimate advisor.* [1] He was a eunuch. Anna Comnena and other writers describe him as uneducated and of weak character.* [2] Due to his illiteracy and apparent gullibility he was involved in the case of John Italus, whom his predecessor, Patriarch Cosmas I of Constantinople had condemned. Alexios had to take over the case against Italus as Eustratius, in his words,"rather dwelt at leisure and preferred peace and quiest to noisy throngs, and turned to God alone.”* [3] During the war against the Normans, at the beginning of the reign of Alexios in 1081-1082, Garidas did not resist the expropriation of artworks and consecrated treasures of the capital's churches, destined to be melted for currency to pay the army of Alexios I. This lack of reistance was not forgiven by Leo of Chalcedon who sought to expel him from his throne, at one point also accusing him, without evidence, of diverting part of the appropriate treasure for his own use.* [4] Finally accused of heresy, Eustratios was cleared by a commission of inquiry Bust of a Eutropius (probably not the subject of this article) from established by Alexios in 1084, but chose to abdicate. Ephesus, dated to c. 450, in the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna

2.17.1

Source

• Ecumenical Patriarchate

Eutropius (died 399) was a fourth-century Eastern Roman official.

He began his career as a eunuch in the palace of Theodosius I. After Theodosius' death in 395 he successfully arranged the marriage of the new emperor, • Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad. New York: Penguin, Arcadius, to Aelia Eudoxia, having blocked an attempt by 2003. Arcadius' chief minister, Rufinus, to marry the young and • Buckler, Georgina. Anna Komnena: A Study. Oxford: University Press, 1929.

2.20. GALLI weak-willed emperor to his daughter. After Rufinus' assassination that same year, Eutropius rose in importance in the imperial court, and he soon became Arcadius' closest advisor. His ascension to power was assisted by his defeat of a Hun invasion in 398. The next year he became the first eunuch to be appointed a consul. But his enemies Gaïnas, the leader of the imperial army's Gothic mercenaries, and Eudoxia, the empress he had created, engineered his downfall the very year he became a consul.

45

2.20 Galli For the ancient ethnonym Galli, see Gauls. For other uses of the singular form, see Gallus. For individuals surnamed Galli and for other uses, see Galli (disambiguation). A Gallus (pl. Galli) was a eunuch priest of the Phrygian

After Eutropius's fall from power, John Chrysostom's pleas kept him alive for a short time; he was eventually executed before the year ended. During his rise to the consulship, Eutropius earned a reputation for cruelty and greed. He may also have played a role in the assassination of his predecessor Rufinus.

2.18.1

References

• J.B. Bury (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire: see chapters Stilicho and Eutropius (A.D. 396‑397) and Fall of Eutropius and the German Danger in the East (A.D. 398‑400). A full account. • Claudian, in Eutropium. Book I, Book II.

2.19 Feng Xu Feng Xu (traditional Chinese: 封諝; simplified Chinese: 封谞; pinyin: Fēng Xǔ) was an eunuch of the late Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling;

2.19.1

Life

Relief of an Archigallus making sacrifices to Cybele and Attis, Museo Archeologico Ostiense, Ostia Antica.

He was also one of the Ten regular attendants (also known as the Ten Eunuchs) in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. However according to history books, he is not goddess Cybele and her consort Attis, whose worship was included in the twelve eunuchs of Ten regular attendants. incorporated into the state religious practices of ancient Rome. In 184, Zhang Jue, the leader of the Yellow Turban rebels decided to revolt and planned to attack the capital Luoyang in March 5th. Zhang Jue wanted his fac- 2.20.1 About the Galli tion inside the capital, notably the eunuchs in the imperial court Feng Xu and Xu Feng, to start simultaneously, The first Galli arrived in Rome when the Senate offitherefore he made his subordinate Ma Yuanyi to enter cially adopted Cybele as a state goddess in 204 BC.* [1] into the palace in secret. However, another subordinate Roman citizens were prohibited from becoming Galli, Tang Zhou informed Zhang Jue's whole plan to other eu- which meant that they were all orientals or slaves. Under nuchs, and Zhang Jue's plan became known to the world. Claudius, this ban was lifted.* [2] Eventually Domitian The Han government acted swiftly. Ma Yuanyi was ar- reaffirmed that Roman citizens were forbidden to pracrested immediately by government officials, and was ex- tice eviratio (castration).* [3] ecuted in the streets by the method of dismemberment. The Galli castrated themselves during an ecstatic celebraThough history books do not say about the executions of tion called the Dies sanguinis, or“Day of Blood”, which Feng Xu and Xu Feng, it is likely that these two eunuchs took place on March 24.* [4] At the same time they put on were executed also when Han government executed about women's costume, mostly yellow in colour, and a sort of 1,000 Yellow Turban Rebels in Luoyang in 184. turban, together with pendants and ear-rings. They also

46

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

2.20.2 Origins of the name Stephanus Byzantinus said that the name came from King Gallus.* [5] Ovid (43 BC - 17 AD) says that the name is derived from the Gallus river in Phrygia.* [6] The name may be linked to the Gauls (Celtic tribes) of Galatia in Anatolia, who were known as Galli by the Romans. The word “Gallus”is also the Latin word for rooster. While these efforts at“folk”etymologies were widespread in classical times, it has been suggested that gallu comes from the Sumerian Gal meaning“great”and Lu meaning “man”, humans or sexually ambivalent demons that freed Inanna from the underworld.* [7] They originally seem to have been consecrated to the god Enki. By coincidence there was a category of Mesopotamian priests called kalu; in Sumerian gala. These priests played the tympanum and were involved in bull sacrifice. Another category of Mesopotamian priests called assinnu, galatur, and kurgarru had a sacred function. These transgender or eunuch priests participated in liturgical rites, during which they were costumed and masked. They played music, sang, and danced, most often in ceremonies dedicated to the goddess Ishtar.* [8]

2.20.3 The Galli and Attis Fundamental to understanding the meaning and the function of the myth and ritual related to Attis in Rome is his relationship with the Galli. The role of prototype of the mythical castration of Attis for the institution of the “priesthood”of the Galli has almost always been emphasised, even if to different degrees. Scholars have attempted to draw a connection between the episode of the castration of Attis and the ritual mutilation of the Galli as a reflection in myth of a secondary ritual action or conversely, as the mythical foundation of a ritual action. This kind of interpretation appears to be too simplistic as, to some extent, it fails to consider that this connection has served different purposes in different periods. The emasculation of Attis in the“Phrygian”version of the myth is the basis for an institution that is both political and religious, the institution of his priests in Pessinous, the“nonkings”, who don't simply coincide with the Galli.

Statue of a Gallus priest, 2nd century, Musei Capitolini.

wore their hair long, and bleached, and wore heavy makeup. They wandered around with followers, begging for charity, in return for which they were prepared to tell fortunes. On the day of mourning for Attis they ran around wildly and disheveled. They performed dances to the music of pipes and tambourines, and, in an ecstasy, flogged themselves until they bled.* [3]

The earliest references to the Galli come from the Anthologia Palatina although they don't explicitly mention emasculation. More interesting is the fragment attributed to Callimachus, in which the term Gallai denotes castration that has taken place.* [9]

2.20.4 Archigallus The high priests are well-documented from archaeology. At Pessinus, the centre of the Cybele cult, there were two high priests during the Hellenistic period, one with the title of“Attis”and the other with the name of“Battakes”

2.20. GALLI

47 these stimulants of his madness —his shrilltoned cymbals, the noise of his deep-voiced flute, to which the crooked horn of a younger steer gave a curved form, his echoing tambourines, his knives reddened with blood, and the yellow hair which once tossed on his shoulders. Be kind, O Queen, and give rest in his old age from his former wildness to him who went mad in his youth. Greek Anthology, Book VI, 51

Funerary relief of an Archigallus from Lavinium, mid-2nd century AD, Capitoline Museums, Rome.

. Both were eunuchs.* [10] The high priests had considerable political influence during this period, and letters exist from a high priest Attis to the kings of Pergamon, Eumenes II and Attalus II, inscribed on stone. Later, during the Flavian period, there was a college of ten priests, not castrated, and now Roman citizens, but still using the title “Attis”.* [11] In Rome, the head of the galli was known as the archigallus, at least from the period of Claudius on. A number of archaeological finds depict the archigallus wearing luxurious and extravagant costumes. The archigallus was always a Roman citizen chosen by the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, whose term of service lasted for life.* [12] Being a Roman citizen, as well as being employed by the Roman State, meant that the archigallus had to preserve the traditions of Cybele's cult while not violating Roman prohibitions in religious behavior. Hence, the archigallus was never a eunuch, as all citizens of Rome were forbidden from emasculation.* [13] The signs of his office have been described as a type of crown, possibly a laurel wreath, as well as a golden bracelet known as the occabus.* [14] Along with the institution of the archigallus came the Phrygianum sanctuary as well as the rite of the taurobolium as it pertains to the Magna Mater, two aspects of the Magna Mater’s cultus that the archigallus held dominion over.* [14]

2.20.5

Literature

To thee, my mother Rhea, nurse of Phrygian lions, whose devotees tread the heights of Dindymus, did womanish Alexis, ceasing from furious clashing of the brass, dedicate

Clytosthenes, his feet that raced in fury now enfeebled by age, dedicates to thee, Rhea of the lion-ear, his tambourines beaten by the hand, his shrill hollow-rimmed cymbals, his double-flute that calls through its horn, on which he once made shrieking music, twisting his neck about, and the two-edged knife with which he opened his veins. Greek Anthology, Book VI, 94 The priest of Rhea, when taking shelter from the winter snow-storm he entered the lonely cave, had just wiped the snow off his hair, when following on his steps came a lion, devourer of cattle, into the hollow way. But he with outspread hand beat the great tambour he held and the whole cave rang with the sound. Nor did that woodland beast dare to support the holy boom of Cybele, but rushed straight up the forest-clad hill, in dread of the half-girlish servant of the goddess, who hath dedicated to her these robes and this his yellow hair. Greek Anthology, Book VI, 217 A begging eunuch priest of Cybele was wandering through the upland forests of Ida, and there met him a huge lion, its hungry throat dreadfully gaping as though to devour him. Then in fear of the death that faced him in its raving jaws, he beat his tambour from the holy grove. The lion shut its murderous mouth, and as if itself full of divine frenzy, began to toss and whirl its mane about its neck. But he thus escaping a dreadful death dedicated to Rhea the beast that had taught itself her dance. Greek Anthology, Book VI, 218 Goaded by the fury of the dreadful goddess, tossing his locks in wild frenzy, clothed in woman's raiment with well-plaited tresses and a dainty netted hair-caul, a eunuch once took shelter in a mountain cavern, driven by the numbing snow of Zeus. But behind him rushed in unshivering a lion, slayer of bulls, returning to his den in the evening, who looking on the man, snuffing in his shapely nostrils the smell of human flesh, stood still on his sturdy feet, but

48

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS rolling his eyes roared loudly from his greedy jaws. The cave, his den, thunders around him and the wooded peak that mounts nigh to the clouds echoes loud. But the priest startled by the deep voice felt all his stirred spirit broken in his breast. Yet he uttered from his lips the piercing shriek they use, and tossed his whirling locks, and holding up his great tambour, the revolving instrument of Olympian Rhea, he beat it, and it was the saviour of his life; for the lion hearing the unaccustomed hollow boom of the bull's hide was afraid and took to flight. See how all-wise necessity taught a means of escape from death! Greek Anthology, Book VI, 219 Chaste Atys, the gelded servant of Cybele, in frenzy giving his wild hair to the wind, wished to reach Sardis from Phrygian Pessinus; but when the dark of evening fell upon him in his course, the fierce fervour of his bitter ecstasy was cooled and he took shelter in a descending cavern, turning aside a little from the road. But a lion came swiftly on his track, a terror to brave men and to him an inexpressible woe. He stood speechless from fear and by some divine inspiration put his hand to his sounding tambour. At its deep roar the most courageous of beasts ran off quicker than a deer, unable to bear the deep note in its ears, and he cried out,“Great Mother, by the banks of the Sangarius I dedicate to thee, in thanks for my life, my holy thalame and this noisy instrument that caused the lion to fly.” Greek Anthology, Book VI, 220

2.20.6 See also • Taurobolium • Korybantes • Hijra • List of transgender-related topics

2.20.7 Notes [1] Luther H. Martin, Hellenistic Religions: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, 1987, ISBN 019504391X p. 83 [2] Maarten J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult, translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.96:“Furthermore Cybele was to be served by only oriental priests; Roman citizens were not allowed to serve until the times of Claudius.” [3] Maarten J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult, translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.97. [4] Maarten J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult, translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.115: “The Day of Blood (dies sanguinis) is the name given to the ceremonies on 24 March. On this day the priests flagellated themselves until the blood came 662 and with it they sprinkled the effigy and the altars in the temple.” [5] Maarten J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult, translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.96: “But according to others their name was derived from King Gallus 495 who in a state of frenzy had emasculated himself...”and p.199, “495. Steph. Byz. s.v. γάλλος (= H. Hepding, Attis, 74).”

The long-haired priest of Rhea, the newly gelded, the dancer from Lydian Tmolus whose shriek is heard afar, dedicates, now he rests from his frenzy, to the solemn Mother who dwells by the banks of Sangarius these tambourines, his scourge armed with bones, these noisy brazen cymbals, and a scented lock of his hair. Greek Anthology, Book VI, 234

[6] Maarten J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult, translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p.85, referencing Ovid, Fasti IV.9

The priest of Rhea dedicated to the mountain-Mother of the gods this raiment and these locks owing to an adventure such as this. As he was walking alone in the wood a savage lion met him and a struggle for his life was imminent. But the goddess put it in his mind to beat his tambourine and he made the ravening brute take flight, dreading the awful din. For this reason his locks hang from the whistling branches. Greek Anthology, Book VI, 237

[9] Lancellotti, Maria Grazia (2002). Attis, between myth and history: king, priest, and God; Volume 149 of Religions in the Graeco-Roman world. BRILL. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-90-04-12851-4.

[7] Muss-Arnolt, William (1905). A Concise Dictionary of the Assyrian Language. Original from Harvard University: Reuther & Reichard; Lemcke & Büchner; etc., etc. p. 216. [8] Philippe Borgeaud (2004). Mother of the Gods. JHU Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 0-8018-7985-X.

[10] A. D. Nock, Eunuchs in Ancient Religion, ARW, XXIII (1925), 25–33 = Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, I (Oxford, 1972), 7–15. [11] Maarten J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: the myth and the cult, translated by A. M. H. Lemmers, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977, p. 98.

2.21. GANG BING

49

rivals within the palace may accuse him of sexual improprieties with one of the 73 imperial concubines,* [2] Gang Bing decided to execute a plan of terrible self-infliction the night before the emperor left for his trip:* [1]* [2] he [13] The cults of the Roman Empire, The Great Mother and her severed his own penis and testicles with a knife.* [2] The Eunuchs, by Robert Turcan, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996 ISBN general then placed his severed organs into a bag under 0-631-20047-9 p. 49 the saddle of the emperor’s horse.* [3] [12] Dictionary of Roman religion by Lesley Adkins, Roy A. Adkins, Oxford University Press, 1996 ISBN 0-19514233-0 p. 91

[14] The cults of the Roman Empire, The Great Mother and her Eunuchs, by Robert Turcan, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996 ISBN 0-631-20047-9 p. 51

As predicted, when the Yongle Emperor returned from his hunt, one of the emperor's ministers reported that Gang Bing had had inappropriate relations within the imperial harem.* [1] When accused of misconduct, Gang Bing instructed that the emperor's saddle be retrieved 2.20.8 References and requested that the emperor reach inside the bag un• John Bell (1790). Bell's New Pantheon; or Histori- der the saddle. Inside the bag, the emperor found Gang cal Dictionary of the Gods, Demi-gods, Heroes and Bing's shriveled, blackened genitalia. Deeply impressed, Fabulous Personages of Antiquity. London: Printed the Yongle Emperor elevated Gang Bing to the rank of a politically powerful position within the by and for J. Bell at the British Library, Strand. pp. chief eunuch, * * palace; [1] [2] gave him numerous gifts; and proclaimed 26, 82, 90, 322–323. him holy.* [2]

2.20.9

External links

2.21.2 Memorial

• Britannica Online Encyclopædia

After Gang Bing's death around 1411, the Yongle Emperor had his general and chief eunuch deified as the Patron Saint of Eunuchs.* [4]* [5] In addition, the emperor • Lucretius on the Worship of Cybele assigned a plot of land on the outskirts of Beijing as a cemetery for eunuchs and built an ancestral hall in Gang • Paul versus the Goddess: Castration and Male Ho- Bing's honor. In 1530, the ancestral hall was expanded mogenitality and renamed The Ancestral Hall of the Exalted Brave and Loyal (Huguo Baozhong Si), but the temple was popularly known as the “Eunuch’s Temple.”In the early 20th century, the hall was still in use by eunuchs and the 2.21 Gang Bing temple grounds contained courts and halls. In 1950, after the Communist take over of China, the Eunuch's TemThis is a Chinese name; the family name is Gang. ple was renamed Beijing Municipal Cemetery for Revolutionaries and in 1970 was again renamed Babaoshan NaGang Bing (simplified Chinese: 刚秉; traditional Chi- tional Cemetery for Revolutionaries, the name it bears nese: 剛秉; pinyin: GāngBǐng; Wade–Giles: Kang Ping) today.* [4] was a Chinese general and eunuch who served under the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty. • A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities

2.21.3 References 2.21.1

Self-castration

Gang Bing is most notable for his act of self-castration as a display of loyalty to his emperor. He served under the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the Ming dynasty who ruled over China from 1402 to 1424. Historical accounts describe Gang Bing as the emperor's favorite general. Because of this, the Yongle Emperor placed Gang Bing in charge of the palace in Beijing while he left for a hunting expedition.* [1]* [2] At this point political intrigue within the walls of the Forbidden City forced Gang Bing to make a drastic choice. The Yongle Emperor possessed a large harem of concubines; sexual contact with a concubine by anyone other than the emperor was a severe offense. Fearing that

[1] Carter Stent, G. (1877).“Chinese Eunuchs”. Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (11). [2] Panati, Charles (1998). Sexy Origins and Intimate Things: The Rites and Rituals of Straights, Gays, Bis, Drags, Trans, Virgins, and Other. New York: Penguin Books. p. 493. ISBN 0140271449. [3] Lieberman, Tucker (2004). The Soul and the Sun. Xlibris Corporation. p. 46. ISBN 1-4134-6159-X. [4] “View from the Eunuch's Temple”. Powerhouse Museum. Retrieved 2006-11-27. [5] Pattanaik, Devdutt (2001). The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales of Hindu Lore. Haworth Press. p. 13. ISBN 1-56023-181-5.

50

2.21.4

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

External links

• Powerhouse Museum's History and Photo of Eunuch's Temple • G. Carter Stent’s “Chinese Eunuchs.”

2.22 Ganymedes For other uses, see Ganymede. Ganymedes (died 47 BC) was a eunuch in the court of Cleopatra VII who proved an able adversary of Julius Caesar.

2.22.1

Life

Ganymedes was the tutor of Cleopatra's half-sister and rival, Arsinoë. When civil war broke out between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra, Arsinoë sided with Ptolemy, escaping the palace in Ganymedes's company to take command of the army. She executed Achillas, who was the general of the army and Pothinus's co-conspirator in the murder of Pompey, and appointed Ganymedes in his stead.* [1] While Achillas besieged Alexandria, Ganymedes' army was in possession of the sources of the river, which gave him control of the canals that provided Alexandria with water, and, by extension, Caesar's water supply. With this in mind, he separated his portion of the river from Caesar's, and engineered machines to fill up Caesar's canals and cisterns with salt water. Several days of increasingly brackish water panicked Caesar's legionaries to the point where Caesar had to deal with the situation personally. Aware that Alexandria was built on limestone, and that limestone was porous, Caesar ordered wells built, restoring the water supply and calming his soldiers.* [2] Two days after Caesar frustrated Ganymedes' ploy, the Thirty-Seventh Legion, traveling by sea and also desperately short of water, arrived in Egypt but was unable to land at Alexandria due to contrary winds. Caesar went out with his fleet to personally attend to the matter but several of his sailors, sent ashore to find water, were captured by Ganymedes' cavalry, who then informed their general of Caesar's location. Marshalling every ship at his disposal, Ganymedes then engaged Caesar in a naval battle, but Caesar prevailed,* [3] whereupon the disheartened Alexandrians almost gave up the fight. However, Ganymedes succeeded in rallying them once again, and prepared a larger fleet for another engagement, which this time he was sure he could win. This battle, however, against Caesar's admiral Euphranor, resulted in an even more devastating defeat for Ganymedes.* [4] Switching tactics, Ganymedes then focused on bombarding Caesar's forces. This failed to impress Caesar's vet-

erans, although it did result in a stalemate. Afterward, a delegation of Alexandrians petitioned Caesar to return Ptolemy XIII to them, in exchange for Arsinoë, as they had grown weary of Arsinoë and Ganymedes and wished for their King to lead them. Soon, however, Caesar received reinforcements and won the decisive battle. Ganymedes subsequently perished in flight (47 BC).* [5]

2.22.2 Notes [1] Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili 3.112.10-12; De Bello Alexandrino 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.39.1-2 and 42.40.1; Lucan, Pharsalia 10, 520-523 [2] De Bello Alexandrino 5-9; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.38.4; Plutarch, Caesar 49.6 [3] De Bello Alexandrino 10-11; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.38.3 [4] De Bello Alexandrino 12-16; Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.40.3 [5] Florus, Roman History 2.13.60

2.22.3 References • Werner Huß, Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit (Egypt in hellenistic times), Munich 2001, p. 716-718.

2.23 Gao Lishi Gao Lishi (Chinese: 高力士; pinyin: Gāo Lìshì) (684– 762), formally the Duke of Qi (齊 公), was a eunuch official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty, becoming particularly powerful during Emperor Xuanzong of Tang's reign. He is believed to have been in charge of many decisions that were supposed to be the emperor's responsibility during Emperor Xuanzong's later years, and was believed to have been richer than many of the nobility of the era. Despite this, however, he was often viewed as a positive example of eunuch participation in politics for his personal loyalty to Emperor Xuanzong, which withstood despite its putting himself in personal danger later, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong's son Emperor Suzong (when Emperor Xuanzong was Taishang Huang (retired emperor)) as it drew jealousy from fellow eunuch Li Fuguo. Further, during the years of his highest power, he was also said to make no improper influences on governance, and therefore drew no anger from the intelligentsia. Late in Emperor Suzong's reign, he was exiled upon Li Fuguo's urging. After a pardon in 762, he was returning from exile, when he heard of Emperors Xuanzong's and Suzong's deaths. Mourning Emperor Xuanzong bitterly, he grew ill and died.

2.23. GAO LISHI

2.23.1

Background

Gao Lishi was born in 684, when Empress Dowager Wu (later known as Wu Zetian) was successively regent over her sons Emperor Zhongzong (Li Zhe/Li Xian) and Emperor Ruizong (Li Dan). He was from Pan Prefecture (潘州, roughly modern Maoming, Guangdong). His original family name was Feng (馮), and he was reportedly a great-grandson of the early Tang local government official Feng Ang (馮盎). In 698, a local official, Li Qianli (李千里), submitted two young eunuchs to Wu Zetian, who had by that point taken the throne as Empress regnant as tribute; one was Lishi (who had not yet taken the name of Gao at this point), and one was named Jin'gang (金剛). Wu Zetian favored Lishi for his intelligence and kept him as an attending eunuch. Later, however, Lishi committed a minor fault, and she had him battered and expelled from her presence. An older eunuch, Gao Yanfu (高延 福), took Lishi as an adoptive son (and thus had Lishi take his own name of Gao), and as Gao Yanfu had previously served Wu Zetian's powerful nephew Wu Sansi the Prince of Liang, he had Gao Lishi serve Wu Sansi. After about a year, Wu Zetian summoned him back to her palace, and he again attended her. He eventually grew to be exceedingly tall. As he was careful, he was put in charge of announcing imperial edicts, and was eventually promoted to be Gongwei Cheng (宮闈丞), a highly ranked eunuch. During the subsequent return to the throne by Emperor Zhongzong, Gao Lishi cultivated a friendship with Emperor Zhongzong's nephew Li Longji the Prince of Linzi, the son of Li Dan the Prince of Xiang (Emperor Zhongzong's brother and former emperor). In 705, after Emperor Zhongzong's sudden death, Li Longji and Emperor Zhongzong's sister Princess Taiping overthrew Emperor Zhongzong's powerful wife Empress Wei and returned Li Dan to the throne. Li Longji was created crown prince, and he retained Gao on his staff.

2.23.2

During Emperor Xuanzong's reign

In 712, Emperor Ruizong passed the throne to Li Longji, who took the throne as Emperor Xuanzong. However, Emperor Ruizong retained most of the imperial authority as Taishang Huang (retired emperor), and Princess Taiping, through him, continued to exert great influence on governance. As of 713, it was said that five of the seven chancellors at the time -- Dou Huaizhen, Cen Xi, Xiao Zhizhong, Cui Shi, and Lu Xiangxian—were recommended by her (although Lu was not considered a follower of hers). With Emperor Xuanzong and Princess Taiping locked into a power struggle, Zhang Shuo, from his post at Luoyang, had a messenger present Emperor Xuanzong with his sword* [1]—meaning to tell him that it was time to take decisive action. Meanwhile, it was said that Princess Taiping, Dou, Cen, Xiao, and Cui; along with other officials Xue Ji, Li Jin (李晉) the Prince of Xinxing (a grandson of Li Deliang (李德良), a cousin

51 of Tang's founder Emperor Gaozu), Li You (李猷), Jia Yingfu (賈膺福), Tang Jun (唐晙); the generals Chang Yuankai (常元楷), Li Ci (李慈), and Li Qin (李欽); and the monk Huifan (惠範), were plotting to overthrow Emperor Xuanzong. It was further said that they discussed, with the lady in waiting Lady Yuan to poison the gastrodia elata that Emperor Xuanzong routinely took as an aphrodisiac. When this alleged plot was reported to Emperor Xuanzong by Wei Zhigu, Emperor Xuanzong, who had already received advice from Wang Ju (王 琚), Zhang Shuo, and Cui Riyong to act first, did so. He convened a meeting with his brothers Li Fan (李範) the Prince of Qi, Li Ye (李業) the Prince of Xue, Guo, along with a number of his associates —the general Wang Maozhong (王 毛仲), the officials Jiang Jiao (姜皎) and Li Lingwen (李 令問), his brother-in-law Wang Shouyi (王守一), Gao Lishi, and the military officer Li Shoude (李守德) —and decided to act first. On July 29,* [2] Emperor Xuanzong had Wang Maozhong take 300 soldiers to the imperial guard camp to behead Chang and Li Ci. Then, Jia, Li You, Xiao, and Cen were arrested and executed as well. Dou and Princess Taiping committed suicide. Emperor Ruizong turned over imperial authority to Emperor Xuanzong and thereafter was no longer involved in important decisions. As a result of Gao's participation in this action against Princess Taiping and her party, Emperor Xuanzong awarded him by making him a general of the imperial guards, as well as the acting head of the eunuch bureau (內侍省, Neishi Sheng). Gao's general commission made Gao the first eunuch in Tang history to carry the third rank in Tang's nine-rank system, and this was viewed as the start of the rise of eunuchs. Afterwards Gao became one of Emperor Xuanzong's closest confidants, and it was often Gao that Emperor Xuanzong sent to communicate his wishes with key officials. For example, later in 713, when the chancellor Yao Yuanzhi was initially surprised and dismayed when Emperor Xuanzong refused to discuss the commissions of low-level officials with him, Gao spoke with Emperor Xuanzong and was told that the reason was not that he was displeased with Yao, but rather that these were decisions that Yao himself, as chancellor, had the authority to make. After Gao informed Yao this, Yao's apprehensions were dissolved. In 726, when Zhang Shuo was accused of corruption and arrested, it was Gao that Emperor Xuanzong sent to visit Zhang to see how he was doing, and it was at Gao's subsequent intercession that Zhang's punishment was reduced. In 730, when Emperor Xuanzong was beginning to be apprehensive about Wang Maozhong's power and arrogance, it was Gao who suggested that he act first, and in spring 731, Emperor Xuanzong exiled Wang and his associates, and subsequently forced Wang to commit suicide. Thereafter it was said that Gao was particularly trusted by Emperor Xuanzong, who remarked, “If Gao Lishi is here, I can sleep securely.”Gao therefore rarely returned to his own home, and the petitions submitted

52 to Emperor Xuanzong were first screened by Gao before he would pass them on to Emperor Xuanzong—and Gao ruled on the less important matters himself, causing his power to rise immensely. He spent much effort to support his adoptive parents Gao Yanfu and Gao Yanfu's wife.* [3] He also had the commander (jiedushi) of Lingnan Circuit locate his birth mother Lady Mai and send her to the capital Chang'an, so that he could support her. When Lady Mai died, the general Cheng Boxian (程 伯獻) and the official Feng Shaozheng (馮紹正), who had sworn to be brothers with Gao Lishi, both mourned her deeply. Gao Lishi's father-in-law Lü Xuanwu (呂玄 晤) was promoted quickly, as were his brothers and sons, and when Gao Lishi's wife Lady Lü died, the officials and the ordinary citizens all mourned her, to impress Gao. However, it was said that while Gao was powerful, he was careful and modest, and therefore continuously drew trust from Emperor Xuanzong. Among officials and generals who ingratiated him and had him help their advancements were Yuwen Rong, Li Linfu, Li Shizhi, Gai Jiayun (蓋 嘉運), Wei Jian (韋堅), Yang Shenjin (楊慎矜), Wang Hong (王鉷), Yang Guozhong, An Lushan, An Sishun, and Gao Xianzhi. The intelligentsia at the time blamed him for the advancement of some of the more powerhungry officials, but also recognized that whenever officials associated with him were charged with crimes, he would not improperly intercede to save them. In 737, Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine Consort Wu, trying to have her son Li Mao (李瑁) the Prince of Shou made crown prince, made false accusations against Li Ying the Crown Prince, as well as two other princes, Li Yao (李瑤) the Prince of E and Li Ju (李琚) the Prince of Guang. Li Ying, Li Yao, and Li Ju were deposed and then forced to commit suicide. Consort Wu died later that year, but Li Linfu, who was then chancellor and who was allied with her, continued to lobby on Li Mao's behalf. Instead, Emperor Xuanzong was considering an older son, Li Yu the Prince of Zhong, but could not decide quickly, and was depressed over the matter as well as his killing of three of his own sons. He could not sleep well or eat well. Gao asked him the reason, and he responded, “You are my old servant. Can you not tell?" Gao responded, “Is it that the position of young master [(i.e., crown prince)] has not been decided?" He responded, “Yes.”Gao responded, “You do not need to trouble your heart. Just select the oldest one, and no one would dare to dispute it.”Emperor Xuanzong therefore made up his mind, and he selected Li Yu (whose name was later changed to Li Heng) as crown prince.

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS and therefore expended effort to build up food supplies within the Guanzhong region, centered around Chang'an. By 744, on one occasion, Emperor Xuanzong commented to Gao: It has been almost 10 years since I have left Chang'an. The realm is peaceful, and I want to rest and do nothing, giving governance to Li Linfu. What do you think? Gao, who did not trust Li Linfu, responded: Since ancient times, it was customary for the Son of Heaven to visit places throughout the realm. In addition, the powers of governance should not be easily given to others. If his authority is established, who would dare to oppose him? Emperor Xuanzong was displeased, and Gao bowed and stated, “I am insane. I did not know what I said, and I should be killed.”Emperor Xuanzong tried to make light of the situation by holding a feast for Gao, but Gao did not dare to discuss governmental matters with Emperor Xuanzong after this point. In 746, there was an occasion when Emperor Xuanzong's new favorite concubine, Consort Yang Yuhuan, angered Emperor Xuanzong by being jealous and rude to him, and he had her sent to the mansion of her cousin Yang Xian (楊銛). Later that day, however, his mood was such that he could not eat, and the servants were battered by him for minor offenses. Gao knew that he missed Consort Yang, and Gao requested that the treasures in Consort Yang's palace be sent to her. Emperor Xuanzong agreed, and further sent imperial meals to her as well. That night, Gao requested that Emperor Xuanzong welcome Consort Yang back to the palace, a request that Emperor Xuanzong easily agreed to. Thereafter, she was even more favored, and no other imperial consort drew the favor of Emperor Xuanzong.

Meanwhile, it was said that Li Linfu did not have a good relationship with Li Heng the Crown Prince. Gao often protected Li Heng from the machinations, however, and Li Heng's position was never actually endangered. As a result, Li Heng referred to Gao as an older brother. The other princes and dukes referred to him as“father,” and Emperor Xuanzong's sons-in-law referred to him as “master.”By 748, he was given the very high general rank of Piaoqi Da Jiangjun (驃騎大將軍) and was also carryMeanwhile, it was customary for Tang emperors to rotate ing the title of Duke of Bohai. their residences between Chang'an and the eastern capital Luoyang, depending on the amount of harvests for the In 750, there was another occasion at which Consort Yang year, as it was easier to transport food supplies to Luoyang offended Emperor Xuanzong with her words, and he sent than Chang'an. However, after Emperor Xuanzong last her back to her clan. The official Ji Wen (吉溫) told Emreturned to Chang'an from Luoyang in 736, he did not peror Xuanzong that he overreacted, and Emperor Xuanvisit Luoyang again. Li Linfu knew that he, in his more zong regretted his actions. He against sent imperial meals advanced age (he was 49 as of 736), tired of the rotation, to her, and she wept to the eunuchs delivering the meal, stating:

2.23. GAO LISHI My offense deserves death, and it is fortunate that His Imperial Majesty did not kill me, but instead returned me to my household. I will forever leave the palace. My gold, jade, and treasures were all given me by His Imperial Majesty, and it would be inappropriate for me to offer them back to him. Only what my parents gave me I would dare to offer.

53 in the conflict. Yang Guozhong, however, was hiding the truth from Emperor Xuanzong and declaring that there had been numerous victories. In response, Emperor Xuanzong told Gao: I am old now. I entrust the governmental matters to the chancellors, and the border matters to the generals. I do not worry about them.

She cut off some of her hair and had the hair taken back Gao responded, however, as he saw trouble brewing: to Emperor Xuanzong. Emperor Xuanzong had Gao escort her back to the palace, and thereafter loved her even I heard that we were suffering repeated more. losses in Yunnan, and the border generals are wielding too much power. How can Your ImIn 752, when associates of Wang Hong's brother Wang perial Majesty control the situation? If a rebelHan (王銲) plotted treason and rose in rebellion inside lion erupts, there is no way to stop it. How can Chang'an, the troops commanded by Yang Guozhong you have no worries? (Consort Yang's cousin) and Wang Hong were initially unable to crush Wang Han's associates, but Gao then arrived with reinforcements and crushed the rebellion de- Emperor Xuanzong began to be concerned, but took no cisively. In the aftermaths, when Wang Hong hesitated decisive action, instead stating, “Do not speak further. at asking for punishment for his brother, Yang Guozhong Let me think about these things.” accused Wang Hong of being complicit, and both Wang Hong and Wang Han were executed. Later that year, At the time, Yang Guozhong was also hiding a major when Emperor Xuanzong, seeing that Geshu Han, the flood from Emperor Xuanzong. Once, when Emperor commander of Longyou Circuit (隴右, headquartered in Xuanzong was alone with Gao, he stated, “The rains modern Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai), had poor relations would not stop. Speak what you will.”Gao responded, with An Lushan, then the commander of Fanyang Circuit “Since Your Imperial Majesty trusted all power to the (范陽, headquartered in modern Beijing) and An Sishun chancellors, the rewards and punishments are out of hand, (whose uncle was An Lushan's stepfather), then the com- and the yin and yang are out of alignment. How would I mander of Shuofang Circuit (朔 方, headquartered in dare to speak?" modern Yinchuan, Ningxia), and wanted to improve rela- Meanwhile, Yang Guozhong repeatedly tried to provoke tions between these three key border troop commanders, An into rebelling, including arresting and executing staff he summoned all three to the capital and had Gao host members at An's mansion in Chang'an. In 755, An fia feast for the three of them, trying to get them to re- nally did. In 756, after Geshu was defeated by An's solve their unpleasantries. However, instead, at the feast, forces, after being forced by Yang Guozhong to engage Geshu and An Lushan got into an argument, which only An, Tong Pass, the last major defense against An's forces, stopped after Gao gazed at Geshu, stopping him from re- fell to An. Yang Guozhong suggested fleeing to Chengdu, sponding to An Lushan's insults. the capital of Jiannan Circuit, of which Yang Guozhong * By 754, Yang Guozhong, who was then chancellor, was was commander. On July 14, [4] Emperor Xuanzong, beginning to repeatedly accuse An Lushan of plotting re- keeping the news secret from the people of Chang'an, bellion, claiming that if Emperor Xuanzong summoned took the imperial guards to escort him, Consort Yang, An to the capital, An would surely not come. Instead, her family, and his immediate clan members, and exited when Emperor Xuanzong summoned An to the capital Chang'an, heading toward Chengdu. Attending him were in early 754, An came. Emperor Xuanzong considered Yang Guozhong, his fellow chancellor Wei Jiansu, the ofmaking him chancellor as well—even having the official ficial Wei Fangjin (魏方進), the general Chen Xuanli (陳 Zhang Ji (張垍, Zhang Shuo's son) draft an edict to that 玄禮), and some eunuchs and ladies in waiting close to effect—but eventually did not do so. When An was set him, including Gao. to return to Fanyang, Emperor Xuanzong had Gao hold a feast for An to send him off. After the feast, Gao observed to Emperor Xuanzong that An was somewhat displeased, perhaps because he had found out that he was originally set to be made chancellor but was not. Emperor Xuanzong, believing Zhang Ji and his brothers Zhang Jun (張均) and Zhang Shu (張埱) to have leaked the news, demoted all of them. Meanwhile, there was a war in the southwest between Tang forces and Nanzhao, which was not going well for Tang, and 200,000 soldiers had died

On July 15,* [5] Emperor Xuanzong's train reached Mawei Station (馬嵬驛, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi). The imperial guards were not fed and were angry at Yang Guozhong. Chen also believed that Yang Guozhong provoked this disaster and planned to carry him—and reported his plans to Li Heng through Li Heng's eunuch Li Fuguo, but Li Heng was hesitated and gave no approval. Meanwhile, though, Tufan emissaries, who followed Emperor Xuanzong south, were meeting with Yang Guozhong and complaining that they were also not fed.

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

The imperial guard soldiers took this opportunity to proclaim that Yang Guozhong was planning treason along with the Tufan emissaries, and they killed him, along with his son Yang Xuan (楊暄), the Ladies of Han and Qin, and Wei Fangjin. Wei Jiansu was also nearly killed, but was spared at the last moment with severe injuries. The soldiers then surrounded Emperor Xuanzong's pavilion, and refused to scatter even after Emperor Xuanzong came out to comfort them and order them to scatter. Chen publicly urged him to put Consort Yang to death— which Emperor Xuanzong initially declined. After Wei Jiansu's son Wei E (韋諤) and Gao Lishi spoke further, Emperor Xuanzong finally resolved to do so. He therefore had Gao take Consort Yang to a Buddhist shrine and strangle her there.* [6] After he showed the body to Chen and the other imperial guard generals, the guard soldiers finally scattered and prepared for further movement. The imperial guards eventually escorted Emperor Xuanzong to Chengdu. Gao continued to attend to him there. For Gao's faithfulness, Emperor Xuanzong created him the Duke of Qi.

2.23.3

and Ru. In Gao's case, he was exiled to Wu Prefecture (巫州, roughly modern Huaihua, Hunan).

2.23.4 Death In spring 762, Emperor Suzong, then seriously ill, declared a general pardon. Gao Lishi was therefore allowed to return to Chang'an, and he began to undertake the journey. While he was on the way back to Chang'an, however, on May 5,* [7] Emperor Xuanzong died, followed by Emperor Suzong on May 16.* [8] When Gao reached Lang Prefecture (朗州, roughly modern Changde, Hunan), he heard of the two emperors' deaths, and he, mourning Emperor Xuanzong bitterly, spit up blood and died soon afterwards. Emperor Suzong's son Emperor Daizong, who became emperor after Emperor Suzong's death, recognizing Gao's faithfulness and prior protection of Emperor Suzong, posthumously restored his titles and further bestowed honors, and buried him near Emperor Xuanzong's tomb.

During Emperor Suzong's reign 2.23.5 See also

Li Heng, however, broke away from Emperor Xuanzong's party and fled to Shuofang instead, and was proclaimed • Li Bai emperor there (as Emperor Suzong) later in 756, a proclamation that Emperor Xuanzong recognized, as he assumed the title of Taishang Huang and had only relatively 2.23.6 Notes and references limited authority thereafter. In 757, after Emperor Suzong recaptured Chang'an, he welcomed Emperor Xuanzong back to Chang'an. Gao Lishi accompanied Emperor Xuanzong back to the capital, and was rewarded with the honorific title Kaifu Yitong Sansi (開府儀同三司). After Emperor Xuanzong's return to Chang'an, he took residence at Xingqing Palace (興慶宮), which was converted from his residence as an imperial prince. Gao and Chen Xuanli attended to him, as did Emperor Xuanzong's younger sister Li Chiying (李持盈) the Princess Yuzhen, the lady in waiting Ru Xianyuan (如仙媛), and the eunuchs Wang Cheng'en (王承恩) and Wei Yue (魏悅). Meanwhile, Li Fuguo had become very powerful, but these attendants of Emperor Xuanzong did not respect him. To retaliate, Li Fuguo began to try to convince Emperor Suzong that Emperor Xuanzong and his attendants were plotting to seize power back. In 760, with Emperor Suzong's tacit, although not explicit, approval, on one occasion when Emperor Xuanzong was out riding, Li Fuguo intercepted him and forced him to move back to the main palace. Even on that occasion, however, Gao would not submit to Li Fuguo, and even yelled at Li Fuguo to force him to get off his horse and to escort Emperor Xuanzong on foot, along with Gao. Soon after Emperor Xuanzong was forcibly moved, Li Fuguo forced Chen to retire, Li Chiying to return to her temple (she had become an ordained Taoist nun in 711), and exiled Gao, Wang, Wei,

[1] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 210. [2] 兩千年中西曆轉換 [3] While both Gao Yanfu and Gao Lishi were eunuchs, it was customary at the time for eunuchs to marry. [4] 兩千年中西曆轉換 [5] 兩千年中西曆轉換 [6] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 218. [7] 兩千年中西曆轉換 [8] 兩千年中西曆轉換

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 207. • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 210, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 221, 222.

2.24 Guo Sheng Guo Sheng (simplified Chinese: 郭胜; traditional Chinese: 郭勝, Pinyin Guō Shèng) was a eunuch of the late Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han; he was also one of the Ten regular attendants (Also known as the

2.26. HADÂN SULEIMAN PASHA Ten Eunuchs), a group of court eunuchs who held great influence in the Han imperial court. After Emperor Ling died and was succeeded by his son Liu Bian in 189, He Jin, Yuan Shao and Cao Cao invaded the capital for the purpose of defeating the Ten Attendants, leading to He Jin's beheading in the palace courtyard by the Ten Attendants.

55

[2] Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. pp. 91–92, 99–101. ISBN 978-0-7195-6112-2. [3] Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 pp. 225–226

2.26 Hadân Suleiman Pasha 2.25 Hadim Ali Pasha

For the 16th-century Ottoman grand vizier, see Hadım Suleiman Pasha.

This article is about the Ottoman grand vizier. For the Ottoman governor of Egypt, Bosnia, and Diyarbekir Hadım Suleiman Pasha (Turkish: Hadım Süleyman (died 1560), see Sofu Hadım Ali Pasha. Paşa, Romanian: Hadâm Suleiman Paşa; fl. 1474–1490) was an Ottoman statesman and general, who served as the Hadım Ali Pasha (died July 1511), also known as Atik governor (beylerbey) of the Rûm Eyalet (fl. 1474) and the Ali Pasha, was an Ottoman statesman (hadım means Anatolia Eyalet. He was later a governor of the Sanjak of "eunuch" in Turkish). He served as governor of Rumeli, Amasya (1482–90) and the Sanjak of Smederevo (1490– and led the Ottoman army in the Ottoman–Mamluk War ?). He served during the reign of Mehmed II. His epithet of 1485–1491, but was defeated at Adana in 1488. He hadım means "eunuch" in Turkish.* [1] was then named Grand Vizier from 1501 to 1503, and again from 1509 to 1511. During his latter tenure, he led the suppression of the Alevi-led Şahkulu Rebellion, 2.26.1 Life but died in battle near Sivas along with the rebel leader He was born in Bosnia Eyalet.* [2] Şahkulu himself.

2.25.1

Life

He was a devşirme from the Sanjak of Albania.* [1] He served as governor of Rumeli, and led the Ottoman army in the Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1485–1491, but was defeated at Adana in 1488. He was then appointed grand vizier in 1501–1503, and again in 1509–1511. During his latter tenure he led the suppression of the Alevi-led Şahkulu Rebellion, but fell in battle near Sivas along with the rebel leader Shahkulu himself in July 1511.* [2]* [3]

2.25.2

Legacy

In 1474, he besieged the Venetian-held Shkodër (see Siege of Shkodër).* [2] The fortress was defended by one Antonio Loredano. The Ottoman troops managed to damage parts of the fortress, but ultimatelly failed and Suleyman had to satisfy himself with his pillage.* [3]* [4]* [5] In December he began a march against Stephen the Great of Moldavia, who refused to pay homage to the Sultan. Suleyman was reluctant in marching against Moldavia, as his troops were exhausted from the failed siege and as winter was approaching, but he couldn't dare to question the Sultan's decision.* [6] The two met on January 10, 1475, at the Battle of Vaslui. The Ottoman forces suffered a major defeat with high casualties. However, this defeat was re-compensated during next summer when the Ottomans occupied Besserabia, took Akkerman, and defeated Stephen on July 17, 1476 at Valea Albă.* [7]

He had two eponymous mosques built in the Fatih district In 1482, he was the governor of the Sanjak of Amasya, in the Sanjak of Smederevo in 1490, where he of Istanbul, one being the Gazi Atik Ali Pasha Mosque and then * died. [2] (completed 1497) in the Çemberlitaş neighborhood and the other being the Vasat Atik Ali Pasha Mosque (completed 1512) in the Karagümrük neighborhood.

2.26.2 References

2.25.3

See also

• List of Ottoman Grand Viziers

2.25.4

References

[1] Türkçülük ve Türkçülük mücadeleleri tarihi. 1969. p. 53. 10 – Hadım Ali Paşa (Arnavut-devşirme, köle)

Footnotes [1] Angiolello, Giovanni Maria, Turkish History [2] Safvet-beg Bašagić (1986). Bošnjaci i Hercegovci u islamskoj književnosti: prilog kulturnoj historiji Bosne i Hercegovine. “Svjetlost,”OOUR Izdavačka djelatnost. pp. 17, 428. Sulejman-pasa, rodom iz Bosne. Prvi put ga sretamo u povijesti kao beglerbega od Rumelije, gdje osvaja Skadar 879 (1474). Kasnije je bio beglerbeg od Anatolije.

56

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS 887 (1482) namjesnik u Amasiji, a 896 (1490) u Smed- liked by the public, but which Galba often claimed were erevu, ... “for the economic good”.

[3] Hoca Sadeddin Efendi, Crown of Histories [4] Orudj bin Adil, The Chronicles of the House of Osman [5] Marinus Barletius, De obsidione Scodrensi, 1504 [6] Hoca Sadeddin Efendi, Crown of Histories [7] Shaw 1976, p. 68

Sources

Halotus died close to the end of the century, his public reputation somewhat restored after his rise in stature and wealth. His date of death is not mentioned by ancient historians of the time, such as Tacitus or Suetonius, who were also some of the main recorders of the events surrounding Claudius' death, and the political trauma that followed. Whether Halotus was truly involved in the murder of Claudius and to what extent remains an unresolved point, as do many other aspects related to Claudius' passing.

• Angiolello, Giovanni Maria. Historia Turchesca 2.27.1 (Turkish History) (Romanian)

Servant

• Orudj bin Adil, Tevarikh-i al-i Osman (The Chroni- Halotus worked as a servant for Claudius and also held the position of official taster, an occupation which entailed cles of the House of Osman) (Turkish) his tasting of a portion of every meal Claudius ate each • Hoca Sadeddin Efendi (ed. İsmet Parmaksızoğlu), day for poison. Tasters also worked to detect less sinister Tac al-tevarikh (Crown of Histories), vol. 3, problems with the Emperor's meal, such as whether the Kültür Bakanlığı, Ankara, 1974-1979 reprint:1999. food was fit to be consumed.* [4] (Turkish) As the Emperor's personal taster, Halotus would accom• Shaw, Stanford, (1976) History of the Ottoman Em- pany Claudius to every banquet or dinner, and as chief pire - Vol.1: Empire of Gazis”Cambridge University steward, he would have been with Claudius and his family for the majority of the time. Thus he could have Press, Cambridge p. 68 formed a relationship with Agrippina the Younger suggesting the possibility of their collaboration in poisoning Claudius.* [2] It also meant that he would have been 2.27 Halotus aware of details such as the Emperor's food preferences, his meal times and the specifics of his schedule, making Halotus (c. 20-30 AD – c. 70-80 AD) was a servant it easier for him to commit the murder. to the Roman Emperor Claudius, the fourth member of * the Julio-Claudian dynasty.* [1] He served Claudius as a Halotus was also known to have been a eunuch. [5] There taster and as a chief steward, and it was because of his are many possible reasons for this, but the most likely is occupation, which entailed close contact with Claudius at related to the possibility of sexual contact between serall times, that he is and was a suspect in the murder of the vant and master; a prohibition against sexual contact belatter by poison. Along with Agrippina the Younger, the tween royalty and servants, guards and slaves was not unwife of Claudius, Halotus was considered one of the most common in many parts of the world during Halotus' era, likely to have committed the murder, although specula- and it was thought that male castration would prevent this. to submit to castration in tion by ancient historians suggest that he may have been Halotus may have been required * order to hold his position. [6] * working under orders of Agrippina. [2] Following the death of Claudius, much public outrage ensued, and there was a clear desire in the general public that Halotus, and several other suspects (such as Tigellinus, another servant who served Claudius), be executed. However, Nero, who succeeded the throne, allowed Halotus to continue as chief steward and taster; Halotus served Nero until the latter's death in 68, and Galba's assumption of the throne. Shortly after Galba became Emperor, he bestowed upon Halotus an“important procuratorship".* [3] This new occupation of procurator resulted in Halotus' becoming a very wealthy man in Roman society. Galba's reason for allowing Halotus such a well-paying job when he was generally unpopular in the Roman society could not fairly be predicted; Galba often made decisions that were not well

2.27.2 Poisoning of Claudius Halotus is primarily remembered for his suspected involvement in the conspiracy and poisoning of Emperor Claudius on 13 October (times of death are in dispute; see below) 54 AD. It is possible that Claudius died of natural causes,* [7]* [I] and the actual manner of the poisoning, in regards to which poison may have been used, in which food it could have been hidden, etc., remains unclear.* [8] It is, however, considered most likely, considering the writings of various ancient historians, that the poison was concealed in mushrooms (as Claudius was known to have been particularly fond of them),* [9] and Agrippina the Younger, Claudius' wife, is thought to have

2.27. HALOTUS

57

been the most likely to have instigated the murder, or to have been the lead conspirator in the plot to overthrow Claudius.* [2] Halotus, as the Emperor's official taster, would probably have had a role in the plot, deceiving Claudius into believing the food was safe to consume.* [10] He is a prime suspect because he would have had direct access to everything eaten by the Emperor on the night of his death. It has been suggested that Halotus may have been the murderer, but was working under orders of Agrippina.* [11]* [12] While it is uncertain whether Halotus would have had anything to gain personally from the death of the Emperor, Agrippina's political and personal advantage gained by the death of her husband was evident; with Claudius dead, Nero, Agrippina's biological son, would be able to claim the throne. It was also known that the animosity between Agrippina and Claudius had grown during the months preceding the homicide.* [13] Other notable suspects included Locusta, a professional poisoner,* [14] and Xenophon, Claudius' royal physician, who, in line with the suggestion that the poison was not immediately fatal, is said to have carried an ailing Claudius out of the banquet, taken him to his room, and forced a poisoned feather into his mouth on the pretence of encouraging him to regurgitate.* [15] Others say Xenophon used poisoned gruel.* [16]

Galba, the first of the four emperors of the Year of the Four Emperors (68) seen on a coin.

another servant who had possibly been involved in the murder of Claudius and whose death was also being called for among the Romans, rebuking the public for their harshness and outrage.* [23]

Galba may have chosen to award Halotus the lucrative procuratorship for any number of reasons; during his reign, Galba was known for making often unpopular political and economical actions, supposedly for what was, at least in Galba's mind, the financial health of the city. Halotus' great rise in status, and his subsequent prosperity, may have been in some way beneficial in Galba's eyes. Less specifically, the move would certainly have had The time of death is also much discussed; one version some degree of benefit for Galba in some way, whether claims that the poison was so potent that he died instantly, indirectly, or directly, economically or financially.* [24] while another says that he endured extreme agony until The office was described by Suetonius as “an impordawn of the following day.* [19] However, it has been sug- tant procuratorship”, but few other details relating to the gested that Claudius may have died as late as noon on 13 actual occupation were specified. Mentions of Halotus' October.* [20] receiving of the procuratorship include: Other, more specific details about the poisoning have always been in dispute. While some argue that Claudius was in Rome,* [17] others claim he was in Sinuessa during the night he was poisoned.* [18] Whether one ingestion of poison was only enough to cause Claudius to fall ill, and whether a second dose was given to finally kill him is also debated.* [17]* [II]

2.27.3

Aftermath

Halotus Much public outrage resulted both from the mystery shrouding Claudius' death, and the death itself; there was a clear desire among the people of Rome that anyone suspected in Claudius' murder be executed, and this included Halotus. However, Halotus was not killed, and Nero allowed him to retain his position throughout his reign.* [21]* [III]

This person [Halotus] also survived Nero, and was promoted by Galba to a wealthy procuratorship —Tacitus* [25]

Why, when the Roman people called for the execution of Tigellinus and Halotus, he [Galba] saved these two alone out of all Nero's agents, even though they were perhaps the worst of the lot. What is more, he gave Halotus an important procuratorship... —Suetonius* [26]

In 68 AD,* [IV], Nero's successor Galba, despite public feeling, rewarded Halotus with a procuratorship.* [1]* [22] Why Halotus in particular was chosen for such a highIn addition, Galba ordered an edict relating to Tigellinus, paid position is unclear. Why Halotus was even spared is

58

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

also unclear, as almost all of Nero's former servants were all but Claudius' most rigid and unmoving supporters bekilled on Galba's assumption of the throne, as Suetonius came Nero's men after only a short period.* [30] This can notes above. be at least partially attributed to Nero's very well known opinions of Claudius, who was his adoptive father; Nero often politically and publicly criticised and even insulted the late Claudius, and many Claudian laws and policies were disregarded and abandoned under Nero's reasoning that Claudius was simply too stupid and senile to be given any consideration.* [31] In addition, Nero responded to allegations of poisoned mushrooms being used to kill Claudius by naming the fungus “the food of the gods”, lending further credence to the idea that mushrooms were in fact used.* [32]

2.27.4 Death Halotus died sometime late in the latter part of the 1st century. At the time of his death, he still held the procuratorship that he had been granted by Galba. He kept this position despite Galba's unseating very soon after it was bestowed, and the political uproars of The Year of the Four Emperors.* [33] At the time of his death, Halotus' public reputation had been at least partially restored, and he had accumulated some degree of wealth after he had been effectively cleared by Galba.* [34]

Marble bust of Nero (ruled from 54 to 68), located in the Antiquarium of the Palatine.

Details relating to his death are not recorded in any of the writings of ancient historians, and neither are any specific dates.

As noted in the first quote above, the procuratorship was 2.27.5 See also a “wealthy”one, leading to the possibility that the job • Julio-Claudian family tree - Claudius' family tree involved tax collection. • Assassination Public and political reaction

• Food poisoning

For a while, it was pretended that Claudius was still alive, with all of those involved in the plot (including Halotus) 2.27.6 Notes undertaking their normal duties. This was done so that arrangements for Nero's succession could be totally seI ^ Scramuzza (1940) pp. 92–93 says that cure. The news that Claudius was merely sick rather than tradition makes every Emperor the victim of dead spread widely and Agrippina making requests “on foul play, so it cannot be known certainly if Claudius' behalf”further fooled the people into believing Claudius was truly murdered. Levick (1990) the Emperor still lived. Finally, after all of the preparapp. 76–77. raises the possibility that Claudius tions for Nero's succession had been made, the death was was killed by the stress of fighting with Agriprevealed to the Roman people.* [27] pina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause. Claudius was cremated, and his ashes were interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus on 24 October, 54 AD, ten days after his death. Despite the great political tumult Claudius' passing caused, Nero and the Senate very quickly deified Claudius, and Nero took the throne, just as Agrippina had wanted,* [28] at the young age of sixteen.* [29] The usurpation was politically easy for Nero; Claudius' will had specified that either Nero or Britannicus should take the throne following his death. Nero swiftly took firm control over an unsettled public;

II ^ This has been suggested because there were historical accounts reporting that, in regards to Claudius actually accepting the food laced with the lethal poison, things did not go exactly to plan; this could imply a variety of things: Claudius might first have touched the poisoned food and licked his fingers, or might otherwise only have consumed a portion of the

2.27. HALOTUS

59

dose of poison needed to be lethal.* [11] Those who implicate that a second dose was required claim that he fell into a stupor, threw up, woke up, only to be administered another dose that was then lethal.* [19]

[10] Jacob Abbott Nero Harper & Bros., 1881

III ^ Nero's decision to allow Halotus to live and keep his job may have been influenced by a variety of factors. The most important of these factors was that the execution of Halotus, or indeed anyone else closely involved, for the murder of Claudius, may have put the plot to secure Nero's seat of power at risk, when Halotus was so close to Claudius, and could so easily have worked with Agrippina and others to poison the late Emperor. It would have made Halotus, as chief steward and taster, look like an accomplice or a witness to the or in the collaboration to poison Claudius, and all those involved would have preferred to keep the matter quiet than to arouse public suspicion in the new administration, and the way that the new administration had come into force.* [21]

[13] Suet. Claud. 43

IV ^ Noted as the year Nero died, and the year preceding the politically unstable year 69 AD, the Year of the Four Emperors: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian.

2.27.7

Sources

[1] Anthony A. Barrett Agrippina: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Early Empire, page 140. Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-20867-X

[11] Paul L. Maier The Flames of Rome, page 102. Kregel Publications, 1991. ISBN 0-8254-3297-9 [12] Cornelius Tacitus, George Otis Holbrooke The annals of Tacitus. Published 1882

[14] Accounts of his death: Suet. Claud. 43, 44. Tac. Ann. XII 64, 66–67. Josephus Ant. Iud. XX 148, 151. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 34. Pliny Natural History II 92, XI 189, XXII 92. [15] Robert Lynam, The History of the Roman Emperors: From Augustus to the Death of Marcus. Simpkin, Marshall & Co, 1850. [16] Suetonius Claudius [17] Suet. Claud. 44 [18] Tac. Ann. XII 66 [19] Cyrus Leo Sulzberger My Brother Death. Ayer Publishing, 1977. ISBN 0-405-09584-8 [20] Making of America Project, Jared Sparks, Edward Everett, James Russell Lowell, Henry Cabot Lodge The North American Review page 223 [21] Marmion, VJ; Wiedemann, TE (2002). “The death of Claudius”. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 95 (5): 260–261. doi:10.1258/jrsm.95.5.260. PMC 1279685. PMID 11983773. [22] M. Gwyn Morgan 69 A.D.: The Year of Four Emperors. Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-19-512468-5 [23] Suetonius, Suetonius Tranquillus The Lives of the Caesars. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-4191-7041-4

[2] Paul L. Maier The Flames of Rome, page 101. Kregel Publications, 1991. ISBN 0-8254-3297-9

[24] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[3] Vasily Rudich Political Dissidence Under Nero Routledge, 1993 ISBN 0-415-06951-3

[25] Tacitus The annals of Tacitus, page 145

[4] John Augustus Keats An Introduction to Quantitative Psychology. J. Wiley & Sons, 1971

[26] Cited in: 69 A.D.: The Year of Four Emperors, M. Gwyn Morgan; Oxford University Press, 2006; ISBN 019-512468-5; page 46

[5] Fik Meijer Emperors Don't Die in Bed. Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-31201-9 [6] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "* article name needed". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. [7] Tacitus, Annals XII.66; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.34; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 44; Josephus is less sure, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1 [8] Suetonius, Claudius, 44. [9] Suetonius, Charles Whibley, History of Twelve Caesars. Published 1899

[27] Suetonius, Robert Graves, Michael Grant The Twelve Caesars. Penguin Classics, 2003. ISBN 0-14-044921-3 [28] Suet. Nero 9 [29] John Emsley The Elements of Murder: A History of Poison. Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-19-2806009 [30] Suet. Nero 33 [31] Suet. Nero 34 [32] Richard Alexander Bauman Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. Routledge, 1992. ISBN 0-415-11522-1 [33] Peter Greenhalgh The year of the four emperors. 1975 [34] Tacitus, annals 12,66.

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

2.28 Heraclius Heraclius (died March 16, 455) was an influential eunuch of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III. Heraclius was a eunuch* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5] and the primicerius sacri cubiculi* [4] of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, on whom he had a great influence.* [1]* [4] Heraclius was an enemy of the powerful general Aetius, and allied himself with the senator Petronius Maximus, who also opposed Aetius.* [4] The two of them convinced Valentinian that Aetius wanted to kill him, and the Emperor killed Aetius in 454.* [1]* [5]* [6]* [7] However, his alliance with Petronius ended with the death of Aetius: when Petronius asked to be conferred the consulship and the patriciate, Heraclius advised Valentinian to refuse.* [4] One year later, in 455, Optila and Thraustila, two barbarian officers in Valentinian's service but loyal to Aetius, killed the Emperor by order of Petronius while Valentinian was on the Campus Martius to train with the bow; on the same occasion, Thraustila killed Heraclius.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]* [8]* [9]

2.28.1

Notes

[1] Prosper. [2] Marcellinus. [3] Jordanes. [4] John of Antioch, fragment 201.

Secondary sources • Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, “Heraclius 3”, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, volume 1, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-072336, p. 541.

2.29 Hermotimus of Pedasa Hermotimus of Pedasa was Xerxes the Great's favored royal eunuch during the Persian Wars against Greece (480 BC). As a eunuch, not much factually is known about Hermotimus, because he was not as important to contemporary historians. Anecdotes still survive regarding the castration of Panionius in the winter of 480-481 BC, the same man who castrated Hermotimus and sold him as a boy. Hermotimus forced Panionius to castrate his sons, and then for his sons to castrate him, proving his ruthlessness and lack of passion that he was to show in the Persian Wars the following autumn.* [1] After the loss at the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes made Hermotimus the secondary guardian of some of the king's many illegitimate children, a role generally reserved for kings. After the end of the campaign, all record of Hermotimus disappears.* [2] It is likely that he lived out his life in the service of Xerxes and possibly Artaxerxes as a faithful eunuch.

[5] Theophanes. [6] Hydatius. [7] John of Antioch. [8] Evagrius Scholasticus. [9] Ralph Mathisen, “Petronius Maximus (17 March 455 22 May 455)", De Imperatoribus Romanis, 1997

2.28.2

Bibliography

2.29.1 References [1] Strauss, Barry. The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece-and Western Civilization. Simon & Schuster. New York. 2004. 58 [2] Strauss, Barry. The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece-and Western Civilization. Simon & Schuster. New York. 2004. 251

Primary sources • Evagrius Scholasticus, ii.7

2.30 Hong Bao

• Hydatius, 160 • Jordanes, Romana, 334 • John of Antioch, fragments 200-201 • Marcellinus Comes, s.a. 455 • Prosper of Aquitaine, s.a. 454-455 • Theophanes the Confessor, AM 5946 • Victor of Tunnuna, s.a. 455

For the monetary gift known as hóngbāo in Mandarin, see Red envelope. Hong Bao (Chinese: 洪保; fl. ca. 1412–1433) was a Chinese eunuch sent on overseas diplomatic missions during the reigns of the Yongle Emperor and Xuande Emperor in the Ming dynasty. He is best known as the commander of one of the detached squadrons of Zheng He's fleet during the Seventh Voyage of this fleet to the Indian Ocean (1431–1433).

2.30. HONG BAO

61

Beijing Xi'an Nanjing Hormuz Medina Jedda

Sunargaon Pandua

Mecca

Kunming

Changle

Ayutthaya

Lasa

Qui Nhon

Calicut

Aden Quillon Mogadishu

Liujiagang

Quanzhou

While the main fleet left Calicut to Ormus (in Persian Gulf), Hong Bao's squadron went from Calicut to various destinations on the west side of the Arabian Sea in southern Arabia and Horn of Africa, including Aden and Mogadishu.* [1] Before leaving Calicut, Hong Bao sent seven of his sailors, including Ma Huan, to Mecca and Medina aboard a native (Indian?) ship going to Jeddah.* [6]

Beruwala Galle Semudera

2.30.3 Grave

Malacca

Malindi Palembang Semarang

Surabaya

The 7th voyage of Zheng He's fleet. A possible route of Hong Bao's squadron is shown as a dashed line, based on analysis by Edward L. Dreyer.* [1]

2.30.1

Early career

In June 2010, the Chief of Archaeology Department at Nanjing Museum Wang Zhigao announced that a Ming Dynasty grave recently found near Zutang Mountain (祖 堂山) in the Jiangning District of Nanjing was identified as that of Hong Bao (and not of Zheng He himself, as it was earlier surmised).* [3]* [7]* [8]

2.30.4 In literature

According to the History of Ming, in 1412 (i.e., some time between the third and fourth voyages of Zheng He's fleet), In his book 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, Hong Bao was sent by the Yongle Emperor as the envoy amateur historian Gavin Menzies claims Hong Bao made voyages to Antarctica and Australia. to Thailand.* [2]* [3] In 1421 Hong Bao participated in the sixth voyage of Zheng He, during which foreign envoys were transported 2.30.5 back to their countries, as far as Ormus.* [3]

Notes

[1] Dreyer 2006, p. 156-157.

2.30.2

Hong Bao on the Seventh Voyage of Zheng He

Hong Bao's name appears in the inscription made by Zheng He in Liujiagang in 1431, before his fleet left China on its 7th (and last) voyage to the“Western Ocean” (Indian Ocean). According to the inscription, the two Principal Envoys (正 使) sent by the Xuande Emperor to the countries of the Western Ocean were the eunuchs Zheng He and Wang Jinghong. Hong Bao was one of the five Assistant Envoys (副使) (along with Zhu Liang, Zhou Man, Yang Zhen, and Zhang Da). Hong Bao, as well as all other Principal and Assistant Envoys except for Zhang Da, had the eunuch rank of Grand Director (太監, Taijian).* [4]* [3]* [5]

[2] Tsai 2002, p. 198. [3] 南京发现郑和下西洋副手之墓 (The grave of Zheng He's deputy on his Voyage to the Western Ocean found in Nanjing), 2010-06-26 [4] Dreyer 2006, p. 146,191. [5] 娄东刘家港天妃宫石刻通番事迹碑 (Text of the Liujiagang inscription) [6] Dreyer 2006, p. 158-159. [7] 南 京 祖 堂 山 神 秘 大 墓 主 人 系 郑 和 副 手 洪 保 (The “owner”of the mysterious grave on Nanjing's Zutang Mountain is Zheng He's deputy Hong Bao), 2010-06-26 [8] “Zheng He's Tomb Found in Nanjing”, CRIENGLISH.com, 2010-06-25 (This is published before the inscription identifying the “owner”as Hong Bao was read)

Much of what we know about Hong Bao comes from the book written by the interpreter Ma Huan, who served in his squadron during the 7th voyage of Zheng He's fleet. According to Edward L. Dreyer's analysis of the 2.30.6 References preserved sources about the voyage, in particular Ma Huan's book, Hong Bao commanded a squadron which • Dreyer, Edward L. (2006), Zheng He: China and the most likely separated from the main fleet in Semudera in oceans in the early Ming dynasty, 1405-1433, The linorthern Sumatra (although other suggested it may have brary of world biography, Pearson Longman, ISBN happened earlier, in Qui Nhon in Champa), and visited 0-321-08443-8 Bengal. From Bengal, Hong Bao's squadron would then go to Calicut in southern India, to which the main fleet • Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002), Perpetual Happiness: came directly from Semudera across the Bay of BenThe Ming Emperor Yongle, University of Washinggal.* [1] ton Press, ISBN 0-295-98124-5

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

2.31 Hou Lan

was surrounded by a perfect natural barrier of mountains and valleys. Liu Shan then neglected Jiang Wei's deHou Lan (simplified Chinese: 侯览; traditional Chinese: fence plans which ultimately resulted in the capture of 侯覽, Pinyin Hóu Lǎn) was a eunuch of the late Han Dy- Chengdu by Deng Ai's forces. After Liu surrendered, nasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han. After Emperor Huang Hao was captured by Deng who intended to exLing died and was succeeded by his son Liu Bian in 189, ecute the treacherous man. However, Huang Hao manHe Jin, Yuan Shao and Cao Cao invaded the capital for aged to bribe those close to Deng Ai and extricate himthe purpose of defeating the Ten Attendants, leading to self. His fate henceforth is unknown. He Jin's beheading in the palace courtyard by the Ten Attendants.

2.32.1 In fiction

2.32 Huang Hao This is a Chinese name; the family name is Huang.

In Chapter 119 of the 14th century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Huang Hao was eventually executed publicly at the order of Sima Zhao when he followed Liu Shan into the capital Luoyang.

Huang Hao was a eunuch serving Liu Shan, second and 2.32.2 Appointments and titles held last emperor of the Kingdom of Shu during the Three Kingdoms era in ancient China. Highly favoured by Liu • Prefect of the Yellow Gate (黃門令) Shan, he was commonly blamed for misguiding the lat• Central Attendant (中常侍) ter into surrendering to the Kingdom of Wei and considered one of the most corrupt and worthless officials in the • Commandant of Equipage (奉車都尉) Three Kingdoms era along with Cen Hun. Huang Hao entered the service of Liu Shan as a eunuch some time in the 220s. According to the Chronicles of the 2.32.3 See also Three Kingdoms, Huang Hao was favoured by Liu Shan • List of people of the Three Kingdoms as he was shrewd and full of flattering words. While the chief attendant to the emperor Dong Yun was still alive, he often advised Liu Shan on the danger of flattery on 2.32.4 References one hand, and admonished Huang Hao for misguiding the young emperor on the other. • Chen Shou (2002). Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 39, Biography of Dong Yun. Yue Lu Shu After Dong Yun died in 246, he was replaced by Chen She. ISBN 7-80665-198-5. Qi (Shu Han), who collaborated with Huang Hao to influence court affairs. Henceforth Huang Hao became increasingly powerful. Even the senior ministers such as Zhuge Zhan and Dong Jue could do nothing to remove him. The General-in-Chief, Jiang Wei, once advised Liu Shan to execute Huang Hao since Huang easily fell for a ruse by Wei's Sima Yi to spread false rumours about Jiang wanting to rebel and told the emperor, which resulted in Jiang retreating back into the capital despite the initial victories against Sima Yi. However the emperor denied the request, saying that the eunuch was but a servant who ran errands. Fearing retaliation, Jiang Wei then left the capital of Chengdu to garrison troops at Tazhong (沓中, northwest of present-day Zhouqu County, Gansu). As he had not achieved any significant gain over the Kingdom of Wei for years, Jiang Wei was also almost replaced by the another general Yan Yu (閻宇), at the suggestion of Zhuge Zhan and Huang Hao, who was close friends with Huang. In 263, Jiang Wei wrote to Liu Shan, warning about the mustering of Wei troops under Zhong Hui near the border. However, Huang Hao, who believed in witchery, had a witch predict the future and told Liu Shan that the enemy would take ages to arrive as the capital Chengdu

• Luo Guanzhong (1986). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80520-0130. • Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3467-9.

2.33 Jian Shuo Jian Shuo (died 189) was the leader of the eunuch faction in the imperial court of the late Eastern Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. Along with Zhang Rang, Jian Shuo eventually became a leading member of the Ten Attendants, who became the most powerful eunuchs during the time. When Emperor Ling of Han died in 189, Jian Shuo wanted to enthrone Emperor Ling's younger son, Liu Xie, and kill Empress Dowager He's brother, He Jin (uncle of Emperor Ling's older son Liu Bian). However, the plot was discovered by He Jin and foiled. When Liu Bian ascended to the throne as Emperor Shao, He Jin had Jian Shuo arrested and executed.

2.34. JOHN THE EUNUCH

2.33.1

63

See also

protovestiarios in succession to Symeon, who resigned from his position in protest at John's behaviour and re• List of people of the Three Kingdoms tired to Mount Olympus. Anthony the Fat, a member of John's extended family, was named Bishop of Nicomedia. Although John himself ultimately remained only an orphanotrophos, he effectively ran the state as a 2.34 John the Eunuch sort of prime minister. In 1037, John attempted to have For the Mary Reed/Eric Mayer historical mystery novels, himself made Patriarch of Constantinople by trying unsuccessfully to have Alexius Studites dismissed from the see John, the Lord Chamberlain series. John the Orphanotrophos (Greek: Ἰωάννης patriarchate. John put Stephen in charge of the fleet bearing George Maniakes and his army to Sicily in 1038. After the disastrous desertions of the Normans, Salernitans, and Varangians from Maniakes' army, John recalled Maniakes and had him imprisoned. John appointed Michael Doukeianos catepan of Italy.

2.34.2 Eyes On Power Zoe asks Sgouritzes to poison John the Orphanotrophos

As the epilepsy afflicting Michael IV worsened, John's grip on power tightened. John convinced the empress to adopt Stephen's son Michael as her own, thus ensuring the continuation of the Paphlagonian line. Michael IV died on 10 December 1041, possibly in suspicious circumstances, and Michael V succeeded him. Having seen Michael elevated to the imperial throne, John made his nephew Constantine his protégé with the object, according to Psellos, of ensuring his succession. Michael V exiled John to the Monastery of Monobatae in 1041 and then, again according to Psellos, had all of John's male relatives castrated. John and his brother Constantine were blinded in 1042 on the orders of the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael I Cerularius. In the reign of Constantine IX, John was sent to Lesbos and blinded. He died at Lesbos on 13 May 1043.

ὁ Ὀρφανοτρόφος), was the chief court eunuch (parakoimomenos) during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos III (r. 1028–1034). John was born in the region of Paphlagonia and his family is said to have been engaged in some disreputable trade, perhaps money-changing or, according to George Kedrenos, forgery. John was the eldest of five brothers. Two, Constantine and George, were also eunuchs, while the other two, Niketas and Michael, were 'bearded' men; the latter became Michael IV the Paphlagonian after John introduced him to the reigning empress Zoë. According to Michael Psellos, the two became lovers and hatched a plot to assassinate Zoë's husband, then reigning. Romanos was killed in his bath on 11 April 1034. Certain contemporary sources implicate John in John's position at the head of the state, his ability to stay in this assassination. power notwithstanding the installation of new emperors, and his shrewd pursuit of his family's interests make him one of the most fascinating eunuchs in Byzantine history. 2.34.1 Background As Psellos' description of him in Book 4 of his ChronoJohn first comes to historical attention as protonotarios graphia shows, he was a very complex figure who could and trusted confidant of Basil II (r. 976–1025). He sup- elicit equal measures of esteem and loathing in the same ported Romanos' interests before the latter became em- chronicler. peror. After his elevation to the imperial throne, Romanos created John praepositus sacri cubiculi (head of the imperial household and the highest-ranking eunuch posi- 2.34.3 References tion; this title is probably identical with parakoimomenos) • Charles M. Brand, Alexander Kahzdan and Anthony and senator. Cutler, 'John the Orphanotrophos' in Oxford DictioWith the accession of Michael IV, John was able to purnary of Byzantium (New York: Oxford University sue his goal of furthering his family's interest with vigour. Press, 1991), Vol. 2, p. 1070. The chronicler John Skylitzes goes so far as to say that 'with John's help all of his brothers became members • Michael Psellus (trans. E.R.A. Sewter), Fourteen of the emperor's household'. John ensured that his sisByzantine Rulers (London: Penguin Books, 1953) ter Maria's husband, Stephen, was made admiral, his • Kathyrn M. Ringrose, The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs brother Niketas named Duke of Antioch (succeeded by his brother Constantine), and his brother George named and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium

64

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), pp. 2.35.2 References 191-193. • Davidson, Basil (1995), Africa in History: themes and outlines, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-02-042791-3.

2.35 Judar Pasha

Judar Pasha (Arabic: ‫ )جؤذر باشا‬was a Moroccan military leader and the conqueror of the Songhai Empire. Born in Cuevas del Almanzora* [1] (Crown of Castile), Judar* [2] had been captured by Muslim slave-raiders as a baby. As a young boy he joined the service of Moroccan Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi. Like many of Ahmad's officers, Judar was a eunuch, having been castrated as a boy by his owners.

• Hunwick, John O. (1999), Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-04-11207-3. • Fernández Manzano, Reynaldo; Ismaïl Diadie; Azucena Fernández Manzano (2012),“La música de los “arma”, andalusí, de la curva del Níger”, Música Oral del Sur (in Spanish) (Junta de Andalucía: Centro de Documentación Musical) (9): 321–337, ISSN 1138-8579

In 1590, Ahmad I made Judar a pasha and appointed him the head of an invasion force against the Songhai Empire of what is now Mali. In October of that year, Judar set out from Marrakesh with a force of 1,500 light cavalry 2.35.3 External links and 2,500 arquebusiers and light infantry. He also carried • The Invasion of Morocco in 1591 and the Saadian eight English cannon in his supply train, and assembled Dynasty eighty Christian bodyguards for his personal detail. After an arduous crossing of the Sahara desert, Judar razed the desert salt mines of Taghaza and advanced on the Songhai capital of Gao.

2.36 Lausus

Meanwhile, Songhai ruler Askia Ishaq II assembled a force of more than 40,000 men and moved north against the Moroccans; the two armies met at Tondibi in March 1591. Despite their inferior numbers, the Moroccan gunpowder weapons easily carried the day, resulting in a rout of the Songhai troops. Judar sacked Gao and then moved on to the trading centers of Djenné and Timbuktu.* [3]

Lausus or Lausos (c. 400 AD. - c. 450 AD) was a eunuch of the court of Theodosius II, famous for acquiring a palace and a large collection of art and sculptures.* [1] He also served as imperial chamberlain (praepositus sacri cubiculi) between 420 and 422 AD. One of the oldest historical accounts of the Christian Church, the Historia Lausiaca, was dedicated to him.

Despite Judar's gains, sporadic battles continued with the Songhai army, leading to his replacement several years after his victory. Judar was subsequently put to death in December 1606 on the orders of Mulay Abd Allah, son of Mullay al-Shaykh in the course of struggles over the Moroccan throne. This was mainly set up by the Battle of Tondibi.* [4]

The Palace of Lausus, destroyed in a fire in 475, was supplied by the now-preserved Binbirdirek Cistern in Istanbul.

2.36.1 References [1] Grout, James. Encyclopaedia Romana. 1997, University of Chicago. Retrieved 27 March 2008.

2.35.1

Notes

[1] Fernández Manzano 2012, p. 323 [2] While Judar is the common spelling, this is based on an assumed pronunciation by French translators of the Arabic texts Tarikh al-Sudan and Tarikh al-fattash which do not give the vowels. The name is pronounced Jawdar in the Tadhkirat an-Nisian and in the most recent English translation of the Tarikh al-Sudan by J. O. Hunwick (cited below).

2.37 Li Fuguo

Li Fuguo (李輔國; 704 – November 8, 762* [1]), né Li Jingzhong (李靜忠), known from 757 to 758 as Li Huguo (李護國), formally Prince Chou of Bolu (博陸 醜王), was a eunuch official during the reign of Emperor Suzong (Li Heng) of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty. He had served Li Heng while Li Heng was crown prince under Li Heng's father Emperor Xuanzong and later sup[3] John Coleman DeGraft-Johnson, African Glory: The Story of Vanished Negro Civilizations, Black Classic Press, ported Li Heng in ascending the throne during Anshi Rebellion, when Emperor Xuanzong's realm was thrown London, 1954, ISBN 0933121-03-2, pp. 113-116 into confusion. He later became exceedingly powerful, [4] Hunwick 1999, p. 234 in alliance with Emperor Suzong's wife Empress Zhang,

2.37. LI FUGUO but broke with her and killed her in 762 when Emperor Suzong died. He briefly became the paramount figure in the administration of Emperor Suzong's son and successor Emperor Daizong, but was removed and then killed by assassins sent by Emperor Daizong later that year.

2.37.1

Background

Li Jingzhong was born in 704, during the reign of Wu Zetian. He was castrated early in his childhood, and became a servant at the imperial stables. He was said to be ugly in appearance, but knew how to read and write, and eventually became a servant of the powerful eunuch Gao Lishi. When he was in his 40s, he became in charge of the imperial stables' financial accounts. During the Tianbao era (742–756) of Wu Zetian's grandson Emperor Xuanzong, the official Wang Hong (王鉷), who oversaw the imperial stables, was impressed with Li Jingzhong's management of the stables and recommended him to serve on the staff of Emperor Xuanzong's crown prince Li Heng. He soon became a trusted servant of Li Heng's. In 755, the general An Lushan rebelled against Emperor Xuanzong's rule, and by 756 was approaching the Tang Dynasty capital Chang'an, forcing Emperor Xuanzong and Li Heng to flee. During flight, the angry imperial guard soldiers escorting them killed the chancellor Yang Guozhong and his cousin (Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine) Consort Yang Yuhuan, whom they blamed for An's rebellion. After Yang Guozhong's and Consort Yang's deaths, Emperor Xuanzong was intent to continue to head to Jiannan Circuit (劍南, modern Sichuan and Chongqing), but Li Heng, at the suggestion of his son Li Tan the Prince of Jianning and Li Fuguo, decided to take some of the soldiers and head for the important border defense post Lingwu, and Li Jingzhong subsequently accompanied Li Heng to Lingwu, where Li Heng was declared emperor (as Emperor Suzong).

2.37.2

During Emperor Suzong's reign

After Emperor Suzong took the throne, while he did not at that point make his oldest son Li Chu the Prince of Guangping crown prince, he gave Li Chu the title of supreme commander of the armies, and he gave Li Jingzhong dual titles on Li Chu's staff—serving as the head of the crown prince's household (太子家令, Taizi Jialing) (although Li Chu was not yet crown prince) and acting assistant of military affairs to the supreme commander (元帥府行軍司馬, Yuanshuai Fu Xingjun Sima). Emperor Suzong entrusted Li Jingzhong with the important secrets, and Li Fuguo became in charge of receiving important reports, as well as distributing military command seals and signs. He also changed Li Jingzhong's name to Huguo (meaning, “one who protects the state” ). By this point, Li Huguo ate a vegetarian diet and often acted as Buddhist monks did; further, when he was tak-

65 ing a break, he would often hold prayer beads, and people believed at that point he was benevolent. Later, when Emperor Suzong, while still fighting Yan forces, moved his headquarters from Lingwu to Fengxiang (鳳 翔, in modern Baoji, Shaanxi) in spring 757, he gave Li Huguo a slightly greater title as the head of the crown prince's household (太子詹事, Taizi Zhanshi), and changed his name again to Fuguo (meaning, “one who assists the state”). During this time, Li Fuguo had been allied with Emperor Suzong's favorite concubine Consort Zhang, and they had a rivalry with Li Tan and Emperor Suzong's trusted advisor Li Mi. Li Tan often accused Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang of improprieties, and further, despite Li Mi's advice to the contrary, plotted to kill them. Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang, instead, acted first, accusing Li Tan of plotting to kill Li Chu. Emperor Suzong, in anger, ordered Li Tan to commit suicide. Li Chu, in fear, also plotted to kill Li Fuguo and Consort Zhang, although, at Li Mi's urging, stopped the plans. After joint Tang and Huige forces recaptured Chang'an later in 757 under Li Chu's command, Emperor Suzong returned to Chang'an. He bestowed on Li Fuguo a number of titles that gave him responsibility over a number of financial affairs of the state. He also gave Li Fuguo the honorific title of Kaifu Yitong Sansi (開府儀同三司) and created him the Duke of Cheng. The officials' reports continued to go through Li Fuguo, and Li Fuguo established a bureau with a number of agents with the responsibility of secretly finding out officials' faults. Even criminal cases were ruled on by Li Fuguo, and he was often making orders, in Emperor Suzong's name, reversing officials' decisions. No official dared to speak against him or even to refer to him by official title, instead addressing him as“Master Five,”using a form of address from a servant to a master. (This implied that Li Fuguo was probably a fifth-born son.) Even the chancellor Li Kui, who was from a highly honored household, paid him respect as a son or a nephew would, calling him, “Father Five.”Emperor Suzong also gave Li Fuguo, despite his eunuch status, the grandnephew of the deceased official Yuan Xisheng (元希聲) as his wife, and promoted Lady Yuan's uncle. In 759, after Li Xian became chancellor, he secretly and earnestly pointed out to Emperor Suzong the evils that Li Fuguo's secret agents were carrying out, and Emperor Suzong, in response, issued an edict that, while confirming Li Fuguo's past acts as authorized by imperial authority, ordered that in the future, criminal cases were to be decided and appealed through official channels, thus depriving Li Fuguo of a source of power and causing him to be resentful of Li Xian. Later in the year, after Li Xian and Li Fuguo had an open conflict over the criminal charges against an imperial stable official that led to that official's execution, Li Fuguo convinced Emperor Suzong that Li Xian was simply grabbing power, and Emperor Suzong exiled Li Xian.

66 After Emperor Xuanzong's return to Chang'an, he took residence at Xingqing Palace (興慶宮), which was converted from his residence as an imperial prince. Gao Lishi and the general Chen Xuanli (陳玄禮) attended to him, as did Emperor Xuanzong's younger sister Li Chiying (李持盈) the Princess Yuzhen, the lady in waiting Ru Xianyuan (如仙媛), and the eunuchs Wang Cheng'en (王承恩) and Wei Yue (魏悅). These attendants of Emperor Xuanzong did not respect Li Fuguo. To retaliate, Li Fuguo began to try to convince Emperor Suzong that Emperor Xuanzong and his attendants were plotting to seize power back. In 760, with Emperor Suzong's tacit, although not explicit, approval, on one occasion when Emperor Xuanzong was out riding, Li Fuguo intercepted him and forced him to move back to the main palace. Even on that occasion, however, Gao would not submit to Li Fuguo, and even yelled at Li Fuguo to force him to get off his horse and to escort Emperor Xuanzong on foot, along with Gao. Soon after Emperor Xuanzong was forcibly moved, Li Fuguo forced Chen to retire, Li Chiying to return to her temple (she had become an ordained Taoist nun in 711), and exiled Gao, Wang, Wei, and Ru. Emperor Suzong had his daughters Princesses Wan'an and Xianyi attend to Emperor Xuanzong, but Emperor Xuanzong, depressed over his forced movement and the exile of his attendants, began to be ill. Emperor Suzong regretted this and considered killing Li Fuguo, but feared the fact that Li Fuguo had command of the imperial guards, and therefore did not act. In 761, Li Fuguo was made the minister of defense (兵部 尚書, Bingbu Shangshu), but further wanted to be chancellor. Emperor Suzong, who by this point was fearful of Li Fuguo, refused on the basis that he did not have the support of the officials, Li Fuguo tried to persuade Pei Mian, a senior official who had previously been chancellor, to recommend him. Emperor Suzong told the chancellor Xiao Hua that if an important official (i.e., someone like Pei) recommended Li Fuguo, he would no longer have the excuse to refuse Li Fuguo's request. When Xiao subsequently discussed this with Pei, Pei adamantly stated that he would never allow Li Fuguo to be chancellor. Subsequently, Li Fuguo was not able to be chancellor while Emperor Suzong was alive, much to Li Fuguo's resentment. In 762, bearing a grudge against Xiao, he insisted to Emperor Suzong that Xiao be removed and replaced with Yuan Zai. Throughout the years, Empress Zhang and Li Fuguo's alliance held. However, as of spring 762, when both Emperors Xuanzong and Suzong were seriously ill, Empress Zhang and Li Fuguo had begun to be rivals. She summoned Li Chu (whose name had been changed to Li Yu and who had been created crown prince) and tried to persuade him to join her in killing Li Fuguo and his ally Cheng Yuanzhen. Li Yu declined, and she instead tried to persuade his younger brother Li Xi (李係) the Prince of Yue, to join her. Li Xi agreed. She and Li Xi thereafter had the eunuch Duan Hengjun (段恆俊)

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS selected some 200 strong eunuchs, ready to ambush Li Fuguo and Cheng. On May 14,* [2] Empress Zhang issued an order in Emperor Suzong's name, summoning Li Yu. Cheng found out and informed Li Fuguo, who intercepted Li Yu at the palace gate and then escorted him to the camp of the imperial guards under Li Fuguo's command. The guards under Li Fuguo's command then entered the palace and arrested Empress Zhang and Li Xi; the other eunuchs and ladies in waiting fled, leaving Emperor Suzong without care. On May 16,* [3] Emperor Suzong died, and Li Fuguo thereafter executed Empress Zhang and Li Xi, as well as Li Xian the Prince of Yan, and then declared Li Yu emperor (as Emperor Daizong).

2.37.3 During Emperor Daizong's reign After Emperor Daizong took the throne, Li Fuguo became even more arrogant, stating to him, You, Emperor, just remain in the palace. Let this old servant of yours handle what is outside. Emperor Daizong was secretly displeased, but in order to placate Li Fuguo, gave him the title of Shangfu (尚 父, meaning, “like father”) and ordered that he not be referred to by name. He also made Li Fuguo Sikong (司 空, one of the Three Excellencies) and Zhongshu Ling (中 書令) -- the head of the legislative bureau of government (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng) and a post considered one for a chancellor. Li Fuguo gave a major part of the command responsibilities to Cheng Yuanzhen. Carrying out further retaliation against Xiao Hua, Li Fuguo had Xiao further demoted. Meanwhile, though, Li Fuguo did not expect that both Emperor Daizong and Cheng, who wanted more power, would turn against him. In summer 762, at Cheng's secret suggestion, Emperor Daizong issued an edict that stripped Li Fuguo of the titles of minister of defense and assistant of military affairs to the supreme commander— thus stripping him of military command—giving the latter post to Cheng. He also ordered Li Fuguo to leave the palace and take residence up outside, although he created Li Fuguo the Prince of Bolu. Li Fuguo became apprehensive and offered to retire, and Emperor Daizong declined and sent him away with formal respect. Because Li Fuguo had killed Empress Zhang and had supported him for the throne, Emperor Daizong did not want to kill him openly. Instead, on November 8, 762,* [3] an assassin got into Li Fuguo's mansion and killed him, taking his head and an arm away as well. Emperor Daizong formally issued an order seeking the arrest of the assassin, and buried Li Fuguo in a grand ceremony, after having a wooden head and wooden arm carved to be buried with the rest of the body, although he gave Li Fuguo the unflattering posthumous name of Chou (醜, meaning “power abuser”).* [4]

2.39. LIU JIN

2.37.4

Notes and references

[1] 兩千年中西曆轉換 [2] 兩千年中西曆轉換 [3] 兩千年中西曆轉換 [4] New Book of Tang, vol. 208.

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 208. • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 218, 219, 220, 221, 222.

2.38 Li Lianying This is a Chinese name; the family name is Li. Li Lianying (simplified Chinese: 李 连 英; traditional Chinese: 李 連 英; pinyin: Lǐ Liányīng; 12 November 1848 - 4 March 1911) was a Chinese imperial eunuch who lived in the late Qing dynasty. He was highly influential during the regency of Empress Dowager Cixi, who was the de facto ruler of China from 1869–1908 throughout the reigns of the Tongzhi Emperor and Guangxu Emperor.

2.38.1

Names

Li's birth name was Li Yingtai (Chinese: 李 英 泰; pinyin: Lǐ Yīngtài). He was renamed Li Jinxi (simplified Chinese: 李进喜; traditional Chinese: 李進喜; pinyin: Lǐ Jìnxǐ ) after entering the Forbidden City as a palace eunuch in 1856. In 1869, Empress Dowager Cixi gave him a new name, Li Lianying (simplified Chinese: 李 连英; traditional Chinese: 李連英; pinyin: Lǐ Liányīng), which became the name he is best known by.

2.38.2

Life

67 earned her favour. As such, after An Dehai's death, the Empress Dowager chose Li to be her new personal attendant and subsequently promoted him to the position of Grand Supervisor. As Grand Supervisor and Empress Dowager Cixi's favourite attendant, Li held a highly influential position in the inner palace. He had control over things such as when officials could be granted an audience with the Empress Dowager and, as such, managed to acquire wealth from the bribes he collected from officials. When the imperial consorts infuriated Empress Dowager Cixi, Li helped them by speaking good about them in front of the Empress Dowager. Li was suspected of poisoning the Guangxu Emperor, who died in 1908 one day before Cixi's death.* [1] Li requested permission from Empress Dowager Longyu to retire after the death of Empress Dowager Cixi in 1908. Longyu approved his request and allowed him to return home after 100 days had passed since Cixi's death. Li lived the rest of his remaining years in retirement and died in 1911 before the Xinhai Revolution broke out. He was buried in Enjizhuang (恩濟莊) in present-day Haidian District, Beijing. Li was believed to have died from dysentery. However, when his grave was raided in 1966 during the Cultural Revolution, the raiders discovered that his grave contained only his skull, and hence there were rumours that he was murdered (possibly decapitated). Li's grave was heavily damaged during the Cultural Revolution and only a fragment of his tombstone is left.

2.38.3 Portrayals in media The 1991 Chinese film Li Lianying: The Imperial Eunuch, directed by Tian Zhuangzhuang, is based on Li's life and starred Jiang Wen as Li. The 2012 Hong Kong television series The Confidant, produced by TVB, is also based on Li's life and starred Wayne Lai as Li.

2.38.4 References [1] Mu, Eric. Reformist Emperor Guangxu was Poisoned,

Study Confirms”. Danwei. November 3, 2008. Retrieved Li was born in a poor family in Zhili Province (roughly November 2, 2011. present-day Hebei) in 1848 during the reign of the Daoguang Emperor. In 1853, when he was around six years old, he was castrated and sent to serve as a eunuch in the residence of Prince Zheng. In 1856, he was sent to 2.39 Liu Jin serve as a palace eunuch in the Forbidden City. He was promoted to the position of“Second Supervisor”(二總 Liú Jĭn (simplified Chinese: 刘瑾; traditional Chinese: 管) in 1867. 劉瑾) (1451–1510) was a well-known Chinese eunuch In 1869, An Dehai, the eunuch who served as Grand Su- during the reign of the Chinese Ming Dynasty Zhengde pervisor (大總管), was executed by Ding Baozhen, the Emperor (r. 1505–1521). Liu was famous for being one Provincial Governor of Shandong, for travelling out of the of the most corrupt officials in Chinese history and the Forbidden City without permission. Earlier in 1861, Li emperor in all but name for some time. He was the leader had helped Empress Dowager Cixi in seizing power from of the "Eight Tigers", a powerful group of eunuchs who a group of eight regents in the Xinyou Coup, and hence controlled the imperial court. Liu Chin is from the area of

68

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

Xingping, a county in Shaanxi province, approximately 30 miles west of Xian prefecture. A son of Tan (談) lineage, when he was made a eunuch under the aegis of a eunuch official named Liu, he appropriated that surname.

2.39.1

Plotting against the emperor

[4] (In Chinese) Discussion of the origins of Qing Dynasty ministerial corruption (谈谈中国清朝腐败的深层次原 因) [5] Asian Wall Street Journal article that mentions Liu Jin [6] (In Chinese) Wu Si (吴思) Blood Money Law: Survival Tricks in Chinese History (中国历史中的生存游戏, 第 一部分) ISBN 978-7-5008-3087-0.

The Zhengde Emperor's dissolute lifestyle placed a heavy burden on the people of the empire. He would refuse to receive all his ministers and ignored all their petitions 2.39.5 Further reading whilst sanctioning the growth of the eunuch community in the imperial palace. Liu made some reforms such • The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 7: The Ming as encouraging widows to remarry, a move which went Dynasty, 1368–1644 against the Neo-Confucianism views of the time.* [1] • Frederick W. Mote & Denis Twitchett The Prince Many officials and other eunuchs opposed Liu – the of Anhua Uprising. Prince of Anhua rebellion of Zhu Zhifan was a failed attempt to assassinate Liu and seize power. After officials suppressed the uprising an official called Yang Yiqing (楊 一清) persuaded another eunuch Zhang Yong (張永) to 2.40 Melito of Sardis report Liu's plotting of rebellion. The Zhengde Emperor did not believe this report at first but took it seriously “Melito”redirects here. For other uses, see Melito enough to consider expelling Liu to Fengyang County in (disambiguation). Anhui Province but Zhang's discovery of many weapons in Liu's houses sealed his fate. Melito of Sardis (Greek: Μελίτων Σάρδεων Melíton Sárdeon) (died c. 180) was the bishop of Sardis near Smyrna in western Anatolia, and a great authority 2.39.2 Death in early Christianity. Melito held a foremost place in The emperor ordered Liu executed in Beijing by death terms of Bishops in Asia due to his personal influence on by a thousand cuts over a period of three days, a process Christianity and his literary works, most of which have that resulted in Liu being cut 3,357 times. According to been lost but of what has been recovered has provided a witnesses, angry onlookers bought a piece of his flesh for great insight into Christianity during the second century. one qian (the smallest available currency at the time) and Jerome, speaking of the Old Testament canon established consumed it accompanied with rice wine. Liu died on the by Melito, quotes Tertullian to the effect that he was essecond day of his punishment after three to four hundred teemed as a prophet by many of the faithful. This work cuts.* [2]* [3] by Tertullian has been lost but pieces regarding Melito are quoted by Jerome as to the high regard that Melito was considered at the time. Melito is remembered for 2.39.3 Personal wealth his work on developing the first Old Testament Canon. Though it cannot be determined what date he was eleAccording to one report, shortly before Liu was executed, vated to episcopacy, it is probable that he was bishop dur12,057,800 taels (449,750 kg) of gold and 259,583,600 ing the arising controversy at Laodicea in regards to the taels (9,682,470 kg) of silver were taken from his resi- observance of Easter, which resulted in him writing his dence.* [4] In 2001, the Asian Wall Street Journal placed most famous work, an Apology for Christianity to MarLiu on its list of the fifty wealthiest persons in the past cus Aurelius. Little is known of his life outside of what 1,000 years* [5] although the actual amount may in fact works are quoted or read by Clement of Alexandria, Orihave been lower.* [6] gen, and Eusebius. His feast day is celebrated on April 1.

2.39.4

References

[1] (In Chinese) Remarriage of widows to alleviate the burden on the peasantry : a rarely known eunuch reform in ancient China (寡妇再嫁农民减负：中国古代鲜为人知的太 监变法) [2] Chen Zhang (陳璋) Bibu Zhaoyi (比部招議) [3] (In Chinese) The glorious Chen family (辉煌闽台温的陈 璋家族)

2.40.1 Melito's Jewish And Hellenistic Background Polycrates of Ephesus, a notable bishop of the time, was a contemporary of Melito, and in one of the letters preserved by Eusebius, Polycrates describes Melito as having fully lived in the Spirit. Jewish by birth, Melito lived in an atmosphere where the type of Christianity practiced was

2.40. MELITO OF SARDIS largely orientated toward the Jewish form of the Christian faith.* [1]Coming out of and representing the Johannine tradition, Melito's theological understanding of Christ often mirrored that of John.* [2]However, like most of his contemporaries, Melito was fully immersed in Greek culture. This Johannine tradition led to Melito to consider the Gospel of John as the chronological timeline of Jesus’ s life and death. This in turn led to Melito’s standpoint on the proper date of Easter discussed in Peri Pascha which he held as the 14th of Nisan. Formerly the capital of the Lydian Empire, Sardis underwent a process of Hellenization due to the influence of Alexander the Great, thus making Sardis a thoroughly Greek city long before Melito was born.* [3] Trained in the art of rhetorical argumentation, Melito is believed to have been greatly influenced by two Stoic philosophers in particular, namely, Cleanthes and Poseidonius. Also proficient in the allegorical interpretation of Homer due to being schooled by sophists, it is highly likely that his background in Stoicism fed into how he wrote and how he interpreted past events and figures of religious significance such as Moses and the Exodus.* [4] Both his Jewish background and background in Stoicism led to his beliefs that the Christian Passover, celebrated during Easter, should be celebrated at the same time as the Jewish Passover. His belief in the Old Covenant being fulfilled in Jesus Christ also led to his opinion of the date of Easter.

2.40.2

Peri Pascha - On The Passover

Written during the second century C.E., and only coming to light within the modern world due to the efforts of Campbell Bonner in 1940,* [5]some have argued that Peri Pascha is not a homily, but is based on a haggadah, which is a retelling of the works of God at Passover.* [6] The Quartodeciman celebration mainly being a commemoration of Christ's passion and death, Melito stood by the belief that Christ died on the evening of the 14th, when the Passover meal was being prepared. * [7] F.L. Cross states that Melito’s treatise on Peri Pascha is “the most important addition to Patristic literature in the present century”. The Peri Pascha provides an accurate description of Christian feelings towards Jews at the time and their opinion of Judaism. The text is not an all-out attack on the Jewish people however the Jewish people are blamed for the immortal Christ being killed by mortals. Melito does not blame Pontius Pilate for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Aside from the liturgical function of the Peri Pascha, this early Christian document has traditionally been perceived as a somewhat reliable indicator concerning how early Christians felt toward Judaism in general.* [8]This text blames the Jews for allowing King Herod and Caiaphas to execute Jesus. However, the goal was not to incite Anti-semitic thoughts in Christians but to bring light to what truly happened during the Passion of Jesus Christ. In part a response to the affluence and prestige of the Jew-

69 ish community of Sardis, Melito may have been fueled by a desire for Christians. Another consideration to take note of is that perhaps Melito was in a competition with the local Jewish community for pagan converts. Wanting to differentiate the Christian community from the Jewish one since the two were very similar, it was more a matter of strengthening the Christian sense of distinctiveness than an all out attack on the local Jews of Sardis.* [9] Thus, Melito is widely remembered for his supersessionism. This view basically assumes that the Old Covenant is fulfilled in the person of Jesus Christ. This view of supersessionism also assumes that the Jewish people fail to fulfill the Old Covenant due to their lack of belief in Jesus Christ.

2.40.3 Issues Raised By The Quartodeciman Controversy Attracting the attention of persons such as Epiphanius, Chrysostom, and Pseudo-Hippolytus, Quartodeciman practices have encouraged many to deeply ponder questions pertaining to the duration of the period of fasting, and when it should end within the celebration of any Christian Passover. Another question which bothered many individuals was whether everyone ought to uniformly observe Easter on the same day. Melito thought that the Christian Passover should be on the 14th of Nisan, but the Council of Nicaea determined that Jesus Christ's resurrection from the dead should always be celebrated on a Sunday. * [10] Uniformity in church practice was thus the primary drive behind this initiative. Known for following a Johannine chronology, and for believing in a paschal lamb typology, Quartodeciman thought is constituted as such.* [11] One of the issues raised is that Quartodeciman thought is the idea that Christian Passover would be celebrated at the same time as Jewish Passover. Ultimately the Council of Nicea decided otherwise and agreed that it would always be on a Sunday.

2.40.4 Apology To Marcus Aurelius During the controversy in Laodicea over the observance of Easter, Melito presented an Apology for Christianity to Marcus Aurelius, according to Eusebius, in his Chronicon, during the years A.D. 169-170. A Syriac translation of this apology was rediscovered and placed in a British museum where it was translated into English by Cureton. In this apology, Melito describes Christianity as a philosophy that had originated among the barbarians, but had attained to a flourishing status under the Roman Empire. Melito asks the emperor to rethink the accusations against the Christians and to renounce the edict against them. Melito argues that Christianity had in no way weakened the empire which continued grow despite the presence of Christianity. Complaining about how the godly are be-

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ing persecuted and harassed by new decrees, Christians are openly robbed and plundered by those who are taking advantage of the said ordinances. The suffering of Christian’s at the time in regards to these decrees was mostly of property and taxations while not as much physical suffering. Certainly Christians were persecuted physically as well but in terms of the decrees they were openly robbed and considered to be incestuous and take part in ritualistic acts such as eating children. Melito aimed to dispel the suffering of the Christian people and to change the Greek opinion of them. Demonstrating how Christian thought first flourished among the Gentiles, and how it has benefited the empire, Melito tried to convince the emperor to rethink his current policies since Christianity only brought greatness and success to Rome. Reminding the emperor of the virtuous conduct of Hadrian, Melito called for an end to all violence toward the growing Christian communities within the empire.* [12]

that broke the mold, in a series of Eklogai, six books of extracts from the Law and the Prophets presaging Christ and the Christian faith. His opinion of the Old Covenant was that it was fulfilled by Christians, whereas the Jewish people failed to fulfill it. The New Covenant is the truth found through Jesus Christ.

2.40.7 Death and legacy

Emphasizing, like John, the unity of Christ and the Father,* [13]Melito declared that Christ is at once God and a perfect man. Having two essences while being one and the same, his godhead was demonstrated by way of all of the signs and miracles he performed after being baptized.Successfully managing to hide his divinity from the world before that central event occurred with John the Baptist, Jesus felt the pangs of hunger just like everyone else. Writing against Marcion, Melito focused on Christ's divinity and humanity in order to counter the claim that Jesus was simply and uniquely divine;having no material counterpart.* [14] Melito does not anthropomorphize the divine nature of Christ and keeps the attributes of the divine nature and the human nature wholly separate. While he describes the attributes of each nature separately, he also speaks of the two natures of Christ combined. The form of speech used is that of two natures in one Christ. According to Melito, Jesus Christ was both entirely human and entirely divine.

In regards to the death of Melito, there is not much information preserved or recorded. Polycrates of Ephesus, in a letter addressed to Pope Victor (AD. 196) preserved in Eusebius’history, says, “What shall I say of Melito, whose actions' were all guided by the operations of the Holy Spirit? Who was interred at Sardis, where he waits the resurrection and the judgement?". From this it may be inferred that he had died some time previous to the date of this letter at Sardis, which is the place of his interment. Melito's reputation as a writer remained strong into the Middle Ages: numerous works were pseudepigraphically ascribed to him. Melito was especially skilled in the literature of the Old Testament, and was one of the most prolific authors of his time. Eusebius furnished a list of Melito's works. While many of these works are lost, the testimony of the fathers remains to inform us how highly they were viewed. Eusebius presents some fragments of Melito's works and some others are found in the works of different writers. Fragments' of his works found preserved in a Syriac translation are now stored in the library of the British Museum. Cureton has translated some and others have been published in Kitto's Journal of Sacred Literature, vol 15. Due to Melito’s reputation, many works are falsely attributed to him due the lack of recorded literature surrounding him. Melito was a Chiliast, and believed in a Millennial reign of Christ on Earth, and followed Irenaeus in his views. Jerome (Comm. on Ezek. 36 ) and Gennadius (De Dogm. Eccl., Ch. 52) both affirm that he was a decided millennarian and as such believed that Christ would reign for 1000 years before the coming of the final judgement.

2.40.6

2.40.8 Notes

2.40.5

Melito's High Christology

Old Testament Canon

Main article: Melito's canon Melito gave the first Christian list of the canon in the Old Testament. In his canon he excludes the Books of Esther, Nehemiah, and the Apocrypha. Around 170 after traveling to Palestine, and probably visiting the library at Caesarea Maritima, Melito compiled the earliest known Christian canon of the Old Testament, a term he coined. A passage cited by Eusebius contains Melito's famous canon of the Old Testament. Melito presented elaborate parallels between the Old Testament or Old Covenant, which he likened to the form or mold, and the New Testament or New Covenant, which he likened to the truth

[1] Stewart-Sykes, Alistair. The Lamb's High Feast:Melito, Peri Pascha And The Quartodeciman Paschal Liturgy At Sardis. Brill,1998,pp.1-4. [2] Stewart-Sykes, Alistair. The Lamb's High Feast:Melito, Peri Pascha And The Quartodeciman Paschal Liturgy At Sardis. Brill,1998,p.14. [3] Stewart-Sykes, Alistair. The Lamb's High Feast:Melito, Peri Pascha And The Quartodeciman Paschal Liturgy At Sardis. Brill,1998,p.8. [4] Stewart-Sykes, Alistair. The Lamb's High Feast:Melito, Peri Pascha And The Quartodeciman Paschal Liturgy At Sardis. Brill,1998,pp.84-86.

2.41. MOHAMMAD KHAN QAJAR

71

[5] Cohick H. Lynn. The Peri Pascha Attributed To Melito of Sardis: Setting, Purpose, And Sources. Brown Judaiac Studies,2000,pp.6-7.

• Melito, and Othmar Perler. 1966. Sur la Pâque et fragments. Sources Chrétiennes, 123. Paris: Éditions du Cerf.

[6] Steward-Sykes, Alistair. The Lamb's High Feast: Melito, Peri Pascha And The Quartodeciman Paschal Liturgy At Sardis. Brill,1998,p.72.

• Melito, and Richard C. White. 1976. Sermon“On the Passover.”. Lexington Theological Seminary Library. Occasional studies. Lexington, Ky: Lexington Theological Seminary Library.

[7] Steward-Sykes, Alistair. The Lamb's High Feast: Melito, Peri Pascha And The Quartodeciman Paschal Liturgy At Sardis. Brill,1998,pp.147,152. [8] Cohick H. Lynn. The Peri Pascha Attributed To Melito of Sardis: Setting, Purpose, And Sources. Brown Judaiac Studies,2000,p.52. [9] Cohick H. Lynn. The Peri Pascha Attributed To Melito of Sardis: Setting, Purpose, And Sources. Brown Judaiac Studies,2000,pp.65,70,76-77. [10] Cohick H., Lynn. The Peri Pascha Attributed To Melito Of Sardis: Setting, Purpose, And Sources. Brown Judaic Studies,2000,p.22. [11] Cohick H., Lynn. The Peri Pascha Attributed To Melito Of Sardis: Setting, Purpose, And Sources. Brown Judaic Studies,2000,p.30. [12] Hall, S.G. Melito Of Sardis: On Pascha And Fragments. Oxford University Press,1979,pp.63,65. [13] Steward-Sykes, Alistair. The Lamb's High Feast: Melito, Peri Pascha And The Quartodeciman Paschal Liturgy At Sardis. Brill,1998,p.16. [14] Hall, S.G. Melito Of Sardis: On Pascha And Fragments. Oxford University Press,1979,pp.69,71.

2.40.9

References

• Hansen, Adolf, and Melito. 1990. The “Sitz im Leben”of the paschal homily of Melito of Sardis with special reference to the paschal festival in early Christianity. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Northwestern University, 1968.

• Melito, and Stuart George Hall. 1979. On Pascha and fragments. Oxford early Christian texts. Oxford: Clarendon Press. • Waal, C. van der, and Melito. 1973. Het Pascha der verlossing: de schriftverklaring in de homilie van Melito als weerspiegeling van de confrontatie tussen kerk en synagoge. Thesis—Universiteit van SuidAfrika. • Waal, C. van der, and Melito. 1979. Het Pascha van onze verlossing: de Schriftverklaring in de paaspreek van Melito van Sardes als weerspiegeling van de confrontatie tussen kerk en synagoge in de tweede eeuw. Johannesburg: De Jong.

2.40.10 External links • Catholic Encyclopedia: Melito of Sardis • Melito, Homily on Passover (Peri Pascha) from Kerux: The Journal of Northwest Theological Seminary • A different assembly of Melito’s Peri Pascha fragments • Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with Analytical Indexes

2.41 Mohammad Khan Qajar

Āghā Moḥammad Khān Qājār (1742–1797; Persian: • Melito, and Bernhard Lohse. 1958. Die Passa- ‫ )آﻏﺎ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺧﺎن ﻗﺎﺟﺎر‬was the founder of the Qajar dynasty of Homilie des Bischofs Meliton von Sardes. Textus Iran, ruling from 1789 to 1797 as king (shah). He was originally chieftain of the Qoyunlu branch of the Qajar minores, 24. Leiden: E.J. Brill. tribe. In 1789, Agha Mohammad Khan was enthroned as • Melito, J. B. Pitra, and Pier Giorgio Di Domenico. the king of Iran, but was not officially crowned as its king 2001. Clavis Scripturae. Visibile parlare, 4. Città until March 1796. On June 17, 1797 Agha Mohammad del Vaticano: Libreria editrice vaticana. Khan was assassinated, and was succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. • Melito, J. B. Pitra, and Jean Pierre Laurant. 1988. Symbolisme et Ecriture: le cardinal Pitra et la Agha Mohammad Khan's reign is noted for the reemer“Clef”de Méliton de Sardes. Paris: Editions du gence of a centrally led and united Iran. Following the death of Nader Shah, many of the Iranian territories in the Cerf. Caucasus that had been ruled by the various subsequent • Melito, and Josef Blank. 1963. Vom Passa: die Iranian dynasties since 1501, today comprising Georgia, älteste christliche Osterpredigt. Sophia, Quellen Dagestan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia had broken apart into östlicher Theologie, Bd. 3. Freiburg im Breisgau: various Caucasian khanates or had declared de facto independance as in Georgia's case. After 48 years, they Lambertus-Verlag.

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Qoyunlu instead.* [5] Astarabad thereafter shortly fell under the control of Karim Khan, who appointed a Develu as its governor. Meanwhile, Agha Mohammad Khan and his brother Hosayn Qoli Khan fled to the steppe. One year later, Agha Mohammad made an incursion against Astarabad, but was later forced to flee while he was chased * Agha Mohammad Khan is also noted for moving the cap- by the city's governor. [1] Agha Mohammad Khan managed to reach Ashraf, but was at last seized and was sent as ital to Tehran, where it still stands as of today. a hostage to Tehran, where Karim Khan was at. Hosayn Qoli Khan was also shortly captured and sent to Karim Khan. 2.41.1 Early life were all reconquered by Agha Mohammad Khan. Some of his reconquest's were even for that time, exceptionally cruel, such as his resubjugation of Georgia, where he sacked the capital Tblisi and massacred many of its inhabitants, and moving away some 15,000 Georgian captives back to mainland Iran.

Family and youth

Life at Karim Khan's court

Agha Mohammad Khan was born in around 1742 in Astarabad, he belonged to the Qoyunlu branch of the Qajar tribe. The tribe had several other branches, one of the most prominent ones being the Develu, which often fought against the Qoyunlu.* [1] Agha Mohammad Khan was the eldest son of the chieftain of the Qoyunlu clan, Mohammad Hasan Khan Qajar, and was the grandson of Fath Ali Khan, a prominent aristocrat, who was executed by the orders of shah Tahmasp II (possibly at the urging of Nader Qoli Beg, who would later become known as Nader Shah after usurping the throne of Iran in 1736 and thus marking the foundation of the Afsharid dynasty).* [1] Agha Mohammad Khan had several half-brothers and full-brothers. They were: Hosayn Qoli Khan, Morteza Qoli Khan, Mostafa Qoli Khan, Reza Qoli Khan, Jafar Qoli Khan, Mahdi Qoli Khan, Abbas Qoli Khan and Ali Qoli Khan.* [2]

Picture of the Arg of Karim Khan, the royal residence of the Zand dynasty, where Agha Mohammad Khan spent most of his time during his “captivity”.

When Nader Shah died in 1747, Afsharid rule of Iran fell apart, which gave Mohammad Hasan the opportunity to try to seize Astarabad for himself, which made Nader Shah's nephew Adil Shah march from Mashhad to the city in order to capture him. Although he failed to capture the latter, he managed to capture Agha Mohammad Khan, whom at first he planned to kill, but later chose to spare his life and instead had him castrated and thereafter freed, which is therefor he is known by the title of“Agha”, a common title among eunuchs who served at the court.* [1]* [3]* [4] The death of Mohammad Hasan During the following 10 years, Afsharid rule in Khorasan suffered heavily from war among rival chieftains and from invasions by Durrani ruler of Qandahar, Ahmad Shah Durrani. During this period, Mohammad Hasan fought against the Pashtun military leader Azad Khan Afghan and the Zand ruler Karim Khan for the suzerainty over the western part of Nader Shah's former empire. He was, however, defeated in 1759 by a Zand army, and thereafter betrayed by his own followers and killed by his old rival, Mohammad Khan of Savadkuh.* [1]* [2] Due to Agha Mohammad Khan's castration, his brother Hosayn Qoli Khan was appointed as the new chieftain of the

Agha Mohammad Khan, during his stay, was treated kindly and honorably by Karim Khan, who made him convince his kinsmen to lay down their arms, which they did. Karim Khan then settled them in Damghan. In 1763, Agha Mohammad Khan and Hosayn Qoli Khan were sent to the Zand capital, Shiraz, where their paternal aunt Khadija Begum, who was part of Karim Khan's harem, lived.* [1]* [2] Agha Mohammad Khan's two halfbrothers Morteza Qoli Khan and Mostafa Qoli Khan, were granted permission to live in Astarabad, due to their mother being the sister of the governor of the city. Agha Mohammad Khan's remaining brothers were sent to Qazvin, where they were treated honorably.* [2] Agha Mohammad, during his stay at Karim Khan's court, was looked upon more as an respected guest than a captive. Furthermore, Karim Khan also acknowledged Agha Mohammad Khan's political knowledge and used to ask for his advice on interests of the state and used to call him his“Pīrān-e Vēas”, which the intelligent counselor of the legendary Iranian king Afrasiab was said to have been called.* [1] Two of Agha Mohammad Khan's brothers who were at Qazvin, were also sent to Shiraz during this period.* [2] In February 1769, Karim Khan appointed Hosayn Qoli Khan as the governor of Damghan. When Hosayn Qoli Khan reached Damghan, he immediately came in a fierce conflict with the Develu and other tribes, in order to gain revenge for his father's death. He was, however, at last killed in ca. 1777 near Findarisk, by some Turks from the Yamut tribe, whom he had clashed with.* [5] In 1 March 1779, while Agha Mohammad Khan was hunting, he got informed by Khadija Begum, that Karim Khan, after 6 months of being ill, had died.* [1]* [6]* [5]

2.41. MOHAMMAD KHAN QAJAR

2.41.2

73

Rise to power

Morteza Qoli was allowed as the de facto ruler of Astarabad and several districts in Mazandaran.* [8]

Conquest of Mazandaran and Gilan

However, peace did not last for long: Ali Murad Khan shortly invaded Mazandaran, which made Agha Mohammad Khan march from Babol with an army of Mazandaranis and Qajars and attack the latter, whom he managed to repel from the province. Agha Mohammad Khan then seized Qumis, Semnan, Damghan, Shahrud and Bastam.* [8] Furthermore, he also made HidayatAllah Khan, the ruler of Gilan, his vassal. He thereafter granted land in Semnan to his brother Ali Qoli, due to the help he gave him in his conquest of the mentioned cities. First conflict with the Russians, dispute with Gilan, and the invasion of northern Persian Iraq

Map of northern Iran.

Agha Mohammad Khan then took with him a group of loyal followers and left for Tehran. Meanwhile, in Shiraz, people were fighting among themselves. In Tehran, Agha Mohammad Khan met the main chieftains of the Develu clan, whom he made peace with. He then went to the shrine of Shah Abd al-Azim, where his father's skull was kept. He then went to the Mazandaran Province, where his first task was to set up his suzerainty among his Qoyunlu brothers. This resulted in a clash with his two brothers Reza Qoli and Morteza Qoli, whom he defeated on 2 April and conquered Mazandaran.* [7] Meanwhile, Morteza Qoli fled to Astarabad, where he fortified himself. Agha Mohammad Khan could not simply force himself in, since starting a war with Morteza Qoli, would mean that his frail alliance with the Develu could get canceled, since Morteza Qoli's mother was a Develu.* [7] At the same time, the Zand prince Ali Murad Khan sent an army consisting of Zand and Afghan troops under Azad Khan Afghan's son Mahmud Khan to Mazandaran, which Agha Mohammad Khan's brother Jafar Qoli Khan managed to repel. Agha Mohammad Khan, together with Hosayn Qoli Khan's sons Fath-Ali Qoli and Hosayn Qoli, was now in a firm position in Babol, the capital of Mazandaran.* [7] Some time later, Reza Qoli invaded Babol with an army of men from Lahijan, where he captured Agha Mohammad Khan. When Morteza Qoli found of out of his capture, marched towards the place with an army of Turkmens and released Agha Mohammad Khan. The three brother then tried to settle their problems, which Agha Mohammad Khan and Reza Qoli managed to do, while Morteza Qoli was discontented and fled to Ali Murad Khan in Isfahan, and then later to Sadiq Khan Zand in Shiraz. He died at last in Khorasan.* [8] His former supporters then went to Agha Mohammad Khan and began serving him. At that time, Agha Mohammad Khan had once again become involved in a conflict with his brother Reza Qoli, whom he defeated in several battles, and thereafter established peace with him once more:

19th-century Russian map of the Ashurada Island

In 1781, the regime of Russia, which was interested in building a trade route with Iran in order to be able to trade with regions deep into Asia, sent a emissary under Marko Ivanovich Voinovich to the coast of Gorgan, where the latter requested for approval to build a tradingpost at Ashraf, which Agha Mohammad Khan refused. However, Voinovich ignored his refusal and went on to establish a interim settlement on the Ashurada island. Agha Mohammad Khan was unable to do anything, since he did not possess any ship - he instead tricked Voinovich and some of his men to meet him at Astarabad, where they were held as captives, until Voinovich was forced to order his men to leave Ashurada.* [9] One year later, Agha Mohammad Khan invaded Gilan, due to its ruler Hidayat-Allah had changed his allegiance to the Zand dynasty. Hidayat-Allah then sent two diplomats, Mirza Sadiq and Agha Sadiq, to Agha Mohammad, to make peace. He thereafter out of precaution went to Shirvan. The diplomats were unable to reach to favorable terms with Agha Mohammad Khan, who raided Gilan's capital Rasht, where he gained massive loads of riches. Extremely happy by his victory, he sent his brother Jafar Qoli Khan to conquer the northern part of Persian Iraq. The latter defeated a Zand army in Ray (or Karaj), and thereafter seized Qazvin. He then marched to Zanjan, which he also seized.* [10] In 1783, Agha Mohammad Khan besieged Tehran, a town under Zand control which had proved much trouble to him. During the siege, plague started spreading in the town, and thereafter to Agha

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Mohammad Khan's army camp outside the city, which forced him to lift the siege.* [11] Mazandaran's brief submission to the Zand dynasty The next year, Ali Murad Khan, in vengeance for Agha Mohammad Khan's attack on Tehran the previous year, sent a massive army under his son Shaykh Vais Khan to Mazandaran, which made its people quickly surrender, while Agha Mohammad Khan and a few of his supporters fled to Astarabad, where he tried to strengthen the city as much he could. Meanwhile, Morteza Qoli quickly changed his allegiance and began serving the Zand dynasty. Ali Murad Khan then sent an army under his relative Mohammad Zahir Khan to Astarabad, which he laid siege to.* [11] Fortunately for Agha Mohammad Khan, he had already obtained many provisions in case of a siege. Every day, Agha Mohammad Khan's men would try to lay waste to the countryside to limit the besiegers provisions. This in the end made the besiegers situation difficult, which made Agha Mohammad Khan leave the city and attack them. Mohammad Zahir Khan then fled towards the Karakum Desert, but was captured by Agha Mohammad Khan's Yamut allies. Only a few of his men managed to survive. Meanwhile, Agha Mohammad Khan defeated a Zand garrison near Ashraf and afterwards marched towards Sari.* [11] By the start of November 1784, Agha Mohammad had repelled all the Zand troops from Mazandaran. Portrait of Jafar Khan Zand First war with Jafar Khan Zand Meanwhile, Ali Murad Khan had raised another group of Zand troops, which he sent to Mazandaran under the command of his cousin Rostam Khan Zand, but was defeated by Agha Mohammad Khan. Ali Murad Khan later died on 11 February 1785. When Agha Mohammad Khan heard about his death, he went to Tehran to try to capture it.* [11] When he reached the city, the city's inhabitants quickly closed, and told him that they would only open the gate for the king of Iran, which according to them, was Jafar Khan Zand, who had succeeded Ali Murad Khan.* [12] Thus Agha Mohammad Khan had to defeat Jafar Khan, in order to get recognized as the king of Iran. He thereafter quickly marched towards Isfahan. Jafar Khan then sent his men to stop his advance towards the city, but they withdrew at Qum without even putting any resistance. Jafar Khan then sent a even larger Zand army towards Agha Mohammad Khan, who defeated the army near Kashan. Jafar Khan then fled to Shiraz. Agha Mohammad then arrived to Isfahan, where he discovered what was left of the Zand treasure and Jafar Khan's harem.* [12] The Qajar troops then looted the city. During summertime in 1785, Agha Mohammad Khan made the city his headquarter during his expeditions in Persian Iraq, where he managed to bring the Bakhtiari chieftains under his suzerainty. He then left for Tehran,

appointing a former Zand commander as its governor. When he arrived to Tehran, the town finally submitted to him. At the same time, his men captured Hamadan and forced many Kurdish and Turkic chieftains to submit to Qajar rule. On 12 March 1786, Agha Mohammad Khan made Tehran his capital,* [12] which by then had a population of 15,000-30,000 people.* [13] It appears that during this period, Agha Mohammad Khan saw himself as the king of Iran, although he avoided using the title "shah". Some time later, while Agha Mohammad Khan was in northern Iran, Jafar Khan quickly marched towards Isfahan and re-captured it. He then sent troops towards Kashan and Qum, while he marched towards Hamadan. He was, however, defeated by local tribal chieftains, such as a certain Khosrow Khan and Mohammad Hosayn Khan Qaragozlu.* [14] Jafar Khan then withdrew to Isfahan. When Agha Mohammad Khan heard about the Zand invasion of Isfahan and its surroundings, he quickly marched towards the city, which made Jafar Khan retreat back to Shiraz once again. Agha Mohammad Khan then appointed Jafar Qoli Khan as the city's governor. However, the governor of Zanjan shortly revolted afterwards, which forced Agha Mohammad Khan to go back north, where he suppressed the latter's revolt and pardoned him.

2.41. MOHAMMAD KHAN QAJAR Second invasion of Gilan However, Agha Mohammad Khan now had to focus on Gilan, because Hidayat-Allah Khan had returned to the province (allegedly with Russian help) since the Qajar invasion of the province in 1782.* [14] In Agha Mohammad Khan's eyes, the whole Caspian coast was under threat by Hidayat-Allah and the Russians. Agha Mohammad Khan and his men easily managed to enter Gilan. While he was marching towards Rasht, he was joined by a local ruler named Mahdi Beg Khalatbari and other people. Furthermore, the Russian consul in Gilan betrayed Hidayat-Allah by providing Agha Mohammad Khan weaponry.* [15] Hidayat-Allah then tried to flee to Shirvan once again, but was captured by men sent by a local ruler named Agha Ali of Shaft (or another local ruler according to some others sources), who killed him to vengeance the slaughter of his family a few years ago. Gilan was now completely under Qajar rule. Besides the conquest of Gilan, the second most valuable thing for Agha Mohammad Khan was the gaining of Hidayat-Allah's treasure.* [15] Second war with Jafar Khan Zand and enthronement

75 south to Isfahan, named Qumishah. However, Jafar Khan managed to easily defeat them. Ali Qoli thereafter retreated to Kashan. Agha Mohammad Khan, learning of this, rapidly marched towards Isfahan, which made Jafar Khan withdraw to Shiraz once again. Agha Mohammad Khan, who was too unconfident to try and capture Shiraz, then went back to Tehran. Fortunately for him, Jafar Khan was murdered on 23 January 1789, which started a four-month civil war between several Zand princes who fought for succession to the throne. Jafar Khan's son Lotf Ali Khan emerged being the victor in this civil war in May.* [16] It was also during this period that Agha Mohammad Khan was enthroned (however still not crowned), and named his nephew Baba Khan (who would later be known as FathAli Shah Qajar) as his heir.* [1] Thus it makes it suitable to name 1789 as the start of his reign.* [1]* [17]

2.41.3 Reign War with Lotf Ali Khan, family disputes, and the first invasion of Azerbaijan

Painting of Agha Mohammad with his men

Some time later, a local ruler named Amir Mohammad Khan, who had recently with another local ruler named Taqi Khan (the ruler of Yazd) defeated Jafar Khan and seized many riches, invaded Qajar territory, and marched towards Isfahan. Jafar Qoli Khan then left the city before he could reach it and defeated the latter. Agha Mohammad Khan then went southwards once again. He met Jafar Qoli Khan at Isfahan in 1788, and after some time, made Taqi Khan accept Qajar suzerainty, and thereafter punished some Qashqai tribes, who fled into the mountains.* [16] Agha Mohammad then advanced closely to Shiraz, where he hoped to bait Jafar Khan out of Shiraz, which was strongly fortified, making it very hard to besiege. Unfortunately for Agha Mohammad Khan, Jafar Khan stayed in the city, which made Agha Mohammad Khan return to Isfahan, where appointed his brother Ali Qoli as its new governor, thus succeeding Jafar Qoli Painting of Agha Mohammad Khan (right) and his grand vizier Khan. He then left for Tehran. Ebrahim Khan Kalantar (left)

With Agha Mohammad once again in the north, Jafar Khan began raising an army to prepare another attack Now that the Zand dynasty was no longer under the rule against Isfahan and its surroundings. When Ali Qoli of Jafar Khan Zand, Agha Mohammad Khan saw it as a found out about it, he sent a group of tribesmen to a city good opportunity to capture Shiraz once and for all. He

76 marched towards the city, and when he was close to it, he was attacked by Lotf Ali Khan: a battle was fought on 25 June 1789, which ended in Lotf Ali Khan withdrawing back to Shiraz, while Agha Mohammad Khan followed him and besieged the city. The siege lasted until 7 September. He then set an encampment and went back to Tehran, where he stayed until the end of the ensuing Nowruz.* [16] On 17 May 1790, he once again marched towards Shiraz. When he reached Fars, the governor of Bihbahan acknowledged his authority. Lotf Ali Khan once again went out of Shiraz in order to stop Agha Mohammad's advance, but the Qajar ruler withdrew to Qazvin and its surroundings, where he had to resolve some problems. Agha Mohammad Khan later quarreled with Jafar Qoli Khan, who saw himself as the best heir of the Qajar dynasty. Agha Mohammad thereafter had him executed, which he considered essential, since he known how a dynasty could quickly decline due to family claims over the throne, which he had learned from the Zand family disputes.* [18]

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS At the meantime, Lotf Ali Khan had defeated the men sent by Ebrahim Khan Kalantar and had captured the stronghold of Kazerun. He then marched to the countryside of Shiraz, where he getting prepared to deprive the city from food. Some time later, the Qajar army from the nearby garrison attacked Lotf Ali Khan's men and defeated them at first, but when Lotf Ali Khan himself decided to participate in the battle, the Qajar army got defeated. When Agha Mohammad Khan found out about this, he sent 7,000 horsemen to reinforce Ebrahim Khan Kalantar's forces, and also ordered the surviving Qajar forces from the nearby garrison to also do the same.* [21] Two years later, after having brought eastern Georgia and the other principal territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus back within the Iranian domains, he proclaimed himself Shahanshah (King of Kings) on the Mughan plain, just like Nader Shah had done some sixty years earlier.* [22]

Final conquest of Azerbaijan While Lotf Ali Khan was having problems with Kerman, Agha Mohammad Khan could thus freely focus on Reconquest of Georgia and the rest of the Caucasus Azerbaijan. He appointed Baba Khan as the governor of Persian Iraq, and marched into Azerbaijan in 1791 Main article: Battle of Krtsanisi during springtime. He stopped at Tarum, and sent his In 1795 he attacked eastern Georgia, which had been in his relative Suleiman Khan Qoyunlu to make the Talysh Khanate acknowledge Qajar authority. Agha Mohammad Khan thereafter went to Sarab, where he forced the Sarab Khanate into submission.* [18] He then went to Ardabil, where he forced the Ardabil Khanate into submission and where he visited the city's shrine. He thereafter went to Qarajadagh, where brought an end to all resistance against him. He then appointed the Donboli noble Hosayn Qoli Donboli as the governor of Khoy and Tabriz.* [18] While Agha Mohammad Khan was conquering Azerbaijan, Lotf Ali Khan used the opportunity to attack Isfahan. However, Ebrahim Khan Kalantar, who was the governor of Shiraz and was loved by its inhabitants,* [19] used Lotf Ali Khan's absence from the city to stage a coup, while his brother Mohammad-Hosayn Shirazi, who was the commander of the Zand ruler, mutinied along with many other troops. Lotf Ali Khan then rushed to Shiraz, but when he arrived to the city, the inhabitants refused to open the gates.* [18] He then went into the mountains and raised an army big enough to be able to capture Shiraz. Ebrahim Khan Kalantar then sent an emissary to Agha Mohammad Khan, asking him to become the ruler of Fars, and willing to give him 3,000 mares if he accepted, which he immediately did. When Agha Mohammad Khan arrived to Fars, he appointed Ebrahim Khan Kalantar as the governor of the whole province, and sent one of his men to take Lotf Ali Khan's family to Tehran, and take the possessions of the Zand family. Furthermore, he also ordered Baba Khan to establish a garri- The capture of Tbilisi by Agha Muhammad Khan. A Qajar-era son nearby Shiraz to be prepared to help Ebrahim Khan Persian miniature from the British Library. Kalantar if needed.* [20] the early modern era under Iranian vassalage for the first

2.41. MOHAMMAD KHAN QAJAR time in 1502,* [23] and under intermittent Iranian rule and suzerainty since 1555, but had been de facto independent after the disintegrating of the Iranian Afsharid Dynasty. His successful campaign brought eastern Georgia, recently unified by Erekle II and consisting of the Kingdom of Kartli and Kakheti, effectively back into the Iranian domains.* [24]* [25] Erekle II, who was appointed as king of Kakheti decades earlier by Nader Shah himself,* [26] had put up a fierce resistance at the battle of Tbilisi, but was eventually soundly defeated.

77 Assassination

Agha Mohammad's successful reign however was shortlived, as he was assassinated in 1797 in his tent in the city of Shusha, the capital of the Karabakh khanate, three days after he had taken the city,* [27] and less than 3 years in power. According to Hasan-e Fasa'i's' Farsnama-ye Naseri, during Agha Mohammad's stay in Shusha, one night“a quarrel arose between a Georgian servant named Sadeq and the valet Khodadad-e Esfahani. They raised their voices to such a pitch that the shah became angry and ordered both to be executed. Sadeq Khan-e Shaghaghi, a prominent emir, interceded on their behalf, but was not listened to. The shah, however, ordered their execution to be postponed until Saturday, as this happened Coronation to be the evening of Friday (the Islamic holy day), and ordered them back to their duties in the royal pavilion, unfettered and unchained, awaiting their execution the next Conquest of Khorasan day. From experience, however, they knew that the King would keep to what he had ordered, and, having no hope, they turned to boldness. When the shah was sleeping, Rest of reign they were joined by the valet Abbas-e Mazandarani, who was in the plot with them, and the three invaded the royal Agha Mohammad restored Persia to a unity it had not had pavilion and with dagger and knife murdered the shah.” since Karim Khan. He reunited the territory of contemcrowned as Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, succeeded porary Iran and the Caucasus region, the latter which had His nephew, * him. [29] * made part of the concept of Iran for three centuries. [27] He was, however, a man of extreme violence who killed almost all who could threaten his hold on power, a trait he 2.41.4 Government showed in several of his campaigns. A year after Mohammad Khan re-subjugated the Caucasus, he also captured Provincial administration Khorasan. Shah Rukh, ruler of Khorasan and grandson of Nadir Shah, was tortured to death because Agha MohamDuring Agha Mohammad Khan's reign, provincial admad thought that he knew of Nadir's legendary treasures. ministration followed the same model of the Safavid one; In 1778, Agha Mohammad moved his capital from Sari beglerbegis were appointed to govern provinces. A city in his home province of Mazandaran to Tehran. He was was under the rule of a kalantar and darugha, while its the first Persian ruler to make Tehran —the successor to quarters was under the rule of the kadkhuda.* [31] the great city of Rayy —his capital, although both the Safavids and the Zands had expanded the town and built palaces there. One of the main reasons noted for mov- Constructions ing the capital much more northwards was to remain in close reach of Azarbaijan and Iran's integral Caucasian Agha Mohammad Khan did not construct or repair much territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus, at during his reign, due to amount of campaigns he was busy that time not yet ceded to Imperial Russia,* [28] a fate with. In Tehran, he ordered the creation of a mosque to be followed in the course of the 19th century. He named the Masjid-e Shah (meaning“the Shah's mosque” was formally crowned in 1796 and founded the Qajar dy- ), while in Mashhad he ordered the reparation of the Imam Reza shrine. In Astarabad, he repaired (or fortinasty.* [29]* [30] fied) the walls, emptied the ditch, built several buildings, Although the Russians briefly took and occupied Derbent one of them being a palace for the governor. Furtherand Baku during the expedition of 1796 under the com- more, he also improved the luxury of the city.* [32] He did mand of count Zubov, Agha Mohammad Khan success- something very much alike in Babol, Ashraf and Sari. Of fully expanded Iranian influence into the Caucasus, re- all these constructions and reparations, his best and most asserting Iranian sovereignty over its former dependen- lasting achievement is debatably Tehran, the current capcies in the region. He was, however, a notoriously cruel ital of Iran and its biggest city.* [32] ruler, who reduced Tbilisi to ashes, while massacring and carrying away its Christian population, to a degree similar as he had done with his Muslim subjects. He based 2.41.5 References his strength on tribal manpower of Genghis Khan, Timur and Nader Shah.* [29] [1] Perry 1984, pp. 602–605.

78

[2] Hambly 1991, p. 112. [3] Ghani 2001, p. 1. [4] Hambly 1991, pp. 110–111. [5] Hambly 1991, pp. 112-113. [6] Perry 2011, pp. 561–564. [7] Hambly 1991, p. 114. [8] Hambly 1991, p. 115. [9] Hambly 1991, pp. 115-116. [10] Hambly 1991, p. 116. [11] Hambly 1991, p. 117. [12] Hambly 1991, p. 118. [13] Daryaee 2012, p. 320.

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

2.41.6 Sources • Perry, J. R. (1984). "ĀḠĀ MOḤAMMAD KHAN QĀJĀR ". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 6. pp. 602–605. • Amanat, Abbas (1997). "EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR ŠĪRĀZĪ ". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1. pp. 66–71. • Ghani, Cyrus (2001). Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–434. ISBN 9781860646294. • Daryaee, Touraj (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. pp. 1– 432. ISBN 0199875758.

[14] Hambly 1991, p. 119. [15] Hambly 1991, p. 120. [16] Hambly 1991, p. 121. [17] Daryaee 2012, p. 397. [18] Hambly 1991, p. 122. [19] Amanat 1997, pp. 66-71. [20] Hambly 1991, p. 123. [21] Hambly 1991, p. 124. [22] Michael Axworthy. Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day Penguin UK, 6 Nov. 2008 ISBN 0141903414 [23] “Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia”. Retrieved 15 May 2015. [24] Fisher, William Bayne (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran 7. Cambridge University Press. pp. 128–129. Agha Mohammad Khan remained nine days in the vicinity of Tiflis. His victory proclaimed the restoration of Iranian military power in the region formerly under Safavid domination. [25] Michael Axworthy. Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day Penguin UK, 6 nov. 2008 ISBN 0141903414 [26] Suny 1994, p. 55.

• Hambly, Gavin R.G (1991). “Agha Muhammad Khan and the establishment of the Qajar dynasty” . The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 104–144. ISBN 9780521200950. • Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. pp. 1–615. ISBN 9789004153882. • Amanat, Abbas (1997). Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 18311896. University of California Press. pp. 1–536. ISBN 9780520083219. • Perry, John R. (2011).“KARIM KHAN ZAND”. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Fasc. 6. pp. 561– 564. • Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. p. 55. ISBN 0253209153.

2.42 Narses

[27] Fisher et al. 1991, p. 329. [28] Amanat 1997, p. 12. [29] Cyrus Ghani (6 January 2001). Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I.B.Tauris. pp. 9–. ISBN 978-1-86064-629-4. Retrieved 4 November 2012.

For other people named Narses, see Narses (disambiguation).

Narses (also sometimes written Nerses; Armenian: Նարսես; Greek: Ναρσής; 478–573) was, with [30] Michael Axworthy. Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History Belisarius, one of the great generals in the service of from Zoroaster to the Present Day Penguin UK, 6 Nov. the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I during the Roman reconquest that took place during Justinian's reign. A Ro2008 ISBN 0141903414 manized Armenian,* [1] Narses spent most of his life as [31] Hambly 1991, p. 140. an important eunuch in the palace of the emperors in [32] Hambly 1991, p. 142. Constantinople.

2.42. NARSES

2.42.1

Origins

79 to declare emperor, was a Green, unlike Justinian, who supported the Blues. Either the money or his words were convincing, so that soon the Blues began to acclaim Justinian and turned against Hypatius and the Greens.* [9] Narses himself may or may not have been with the men that dragged Hypatius from the throne on the Imperial Stand.

Narses was of Armenian descent and a member of the Kamsarakan Armenian noble family.* [2] His first mention in a primary source is by Procopius in AD 530.* [3] The year of Narses' birth is unknown; historians have given dates including 478, 479 and 480. The year of his death is also unknown, with dates given between 566 and 574, making him eighty-six to ninety-six years old at his death. His family and lineage is also completely un2.42.5 Military career known, with many different stories told about his origins and how he became a eunuch. Narses' involvement and help in suppressing the Nika RiAgathias Scholasticus of Myrina described him thus:“He ots suddenly found him in charge of a fairly large army was a man of sound mind, and clever at adapting himself that would go to Italy to help Belisarius. The army arto the times. He was not versed in literature nor practiced rived in June of 538 probably in Ancona and consisted in oratory, [but] made for it by the fertility of his wits,” of roughly 7,000 soldiers.* [10] (Every army that Narses and as “small and of a lean habit, but stronger and more commanded was made up of very diverse peoples, drawhigh-spirited than would have been believed.”* [4] ing from many of the surrounding tribes.) Procopius referred to Narses as the eunuch and keeper of the royal treasuries, and described him as “keen and more ener2.42.2 Religion getic than would be expected of a eunuch”.* [11] Narses met with Belisarius at Firmum where a council of war Narses was reported to be a very pious man with a spe- was held. The council discussed what should happen at cial devotion to the Virgin Mary. Evagrius Scholasticus in Rimini and with the commander of troops, John. Narses Ecclesiastica Historia reported that she would tell him the commented that he had already been punished for his“inproper time to attack, and Narses would never engage in solence”and that if the Goths took Rimini then it could battle without her consent.* [5] Narses also was reported turn the tide of the war.* [12] Belisarius and Narses led a to be very generous to the poor and very zealous when it column of troops through inland mountainous routes to came to restoring churches. He was so devoted to prayers descend upon Rimini from the northwest. and vigils that “he obtained victory more by the supplications he poured forth to God, than by arms of war.* [6] John owed his thanks to Narses for convincing Belisarius, Before accepting supreme command of the army, Narses and according to Procopius, commented on the relationbuilt a church and monastery in Cappadocia, intent upon ship between the two men. “And from that time both these men [Belisarius and Narses] began to regard each going there upon his retirement.* [7] other with great suspicion.”* [13] During the autumn and winter months of 538–39, the Army in Italy was divided into two parties, between Belisarius and Narses.* [14] Jus2.42.3 Early career tinian himself dispatched a letter to Belisarius, stating that “We have not sent our steward Narses to Italy in order How or when Narses arrived in Constantinople, or how to command the army; for we wish Belisarius alone to he found a footing in the officium of the Grand Chamcommand the whole army in whatever manner seems to berlain, remains unknown. The first time he was menhim best, and it is the duty of all of you to follow him tioned by Procopius in 530 AD, Narses was the Emperor in the interest of the state.”* [15] The division however Justinian’s steward. He was a high treasurer, who dealt with the emperor’s finances and payments from the im- remained and the city of Milan was to fall victim to the perial treasury. Narses rose through the ranks and even divided command. Narses was recalled to Constantinobecame the commander of the eunuch bodyguard for Em- ple, but not in disgrace, as he* was allowed to retain some peror and eventually became the Grand Chamberlain and of his barbarian guardsmen. [16] the Master of Soldiery, a rank equivalent to a Praetorian After being recalled, Narses seemed to have lost“none of Prefect.* [8] his favour at court, [and] remained the most trusted servant and minister of the Emperor and his consort.”* [17] For the next twelve years, 539-51, there is little historical 2.42.4 The Nika Riots reference to Narses and he seemed to work more behind the scenes. In 541, Narses was believed to have helped Narses had a limited involvement in the Nika riots in 532, the Empress Theodora and Antonina (wife of Belisarius) in that he was instructed by Justinian or Theodora to take, with the overthrow of John the Cappadocian. In 545, from the treasury, funds sufficient to bribe the Blue Fac- Justinian sent Narses to the rulers of the Heruli, to retion's leaders. Narses appealed to their party loyalty. He cruit troops since he was popular among that barbarian reminded them that Hypatius, the man they were about nation.* [18]

80

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

Narses was also very active in Justinian's persecution campaigns against Paganism. Around 535, the emperor sent him to Philae in Egypt, where a temple of Isis was still active, to eradicate the cult. Narses imprisoned the priests and looted the temple. Shortly after, the local bishop Theodore converted the temple into a church.* [19]

whence all the previous invasions had come.* [28]

Narses' greatest asset in his newfound position was to have access to the Emperor’s financial resources. With the treasury, Narses was able to amass anywhere between 20,000 and 30,000 troops.* [21] Narses also seemed to be well liked by many of the soldiers of fortune, as he had treated them“especially well”.* [22] Procopius reported that Narses had built an army that in the requirement of men and arms was“worthy of the Roman Empire”.* [23] The army reflected many of Narses' previous commands, in that most of the troops were barbarians.

itary talents as not inferior to those of Belisarius.

2.42.7 Battle of Taginae

On his way to seek Totila’s main army, Narses encountered a small Gothic garrison at the town of Rimini. John, who had previously been in command at Rimini when it was besieged by Gothic forces, again gave advice to Narses on how to proceed. The exact route taken was not 2.42.6 Return to Italy precisely indicated by Procopius and has led to confusion Finally in 551, Narses was sent back to Italy where he on the reconstruction of the coming battles. Procopius re* would achieve his greatest victories. Germanus, a cousin ferred to the next battle as “Busta Gallorum”, [29] but of the Emperor, was appointed by Justinian to finish what many historians now refer to it as the Battle of Taginae. Belisarius had started in the mid-sixth century. However, Narses sent word to Totila and gave him a chance to eion his way to Italy in 550, Germanus fell ill and“abruptly ther surrender, or give the day in which the battle would reached the term of life.”* [20] Narses was appointed the take place. Procopius quoted Totila’s response,“At the new commander of the army, given supreme command end of eight days let us match our strength.”* [30] Narses and returned to Italy where twelve years previously he had was not fooled by this and preferred the tactical defensive been recalled. Many historians believe that Narses was upon meeting Totila, as his army would have been larger put in command because of his old age, so that he would than that of Totila. The following battle would be Narses' never be able to rebel successfully against Justinian. ultimate victory, and would set the estimation of his mil-

Narses was to take more than a year to reach Italy after his appointment, as his entire army made a long march along the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Totila the Ostrogothic king controlled the sea of eastern Italy and hampered supply ships that set sail for Narses’army. John from Salona led 38 ships and Valerian sailed with 12 to meet Totila’ s force and bring relief to Ancona.* [24] Procopius described the subsequent Battle of Sena Gallica as a naval battle that resembled a battle on land. “There were arrows discharged and fighting at close quarters with sword and spear, just as on a battle field.”* [25] The Byzantine victory at Sena Gallica was overwhelming, as 36 of the 47 Gothic ships were destroyed, and Gibal, a Gothic admiral, was captured. Historian Archibald R. Lewis pointed out that victory could only come to Narses after Totila’s sea dominance was brought to an end.* [26]

2.42.8 Tactics Narses' great success at the Battle of Taginae was to come from the disposition of his forces before the battle began. Narses arrayed his troops in a “crescent shaped”* [31] formation with mostly infantry in the middle, flanked by archers. The infantry were in fact dismounted barbarian cavalry, since many of the Goths thought that typical infantry was frail and would flee in the face of a charge. Some historians feel there may have been a political motivation by placing the Heruli and Lombards in the centre dismounted, Narses possibly suspecting them of having sympathy or admiration for Totila.* [32] On the sides of the “crescent”, foot-archers were emplaced, and this enabled them to destroy the Gothic cavalry through enfilading fire. (This disposition of the archers and their effect upon the battle is strikingly parallel to the later Battle of Agincourt.) Next, Narses placed much of his cavalry on the immediate sides of the dismounted infantry. Normally the cavalry would have been behind the centre, but they were not meant to aid any of the struggling line. Instead they were used to deliver a surprise attack on the Goths when they became fully enveloped. Narses knew that Totila would take the advantage of attacking the“weak”centre, and therefore allowed Narses to completely destroy the Ostrogothic army. Procopius said that Totila had been “out-generalled by his own folly”,* [33] because Totila had instructed his troops to only engage with spears, as he thought a quick strike would win the battle.

There were a number of reasons that Narses' march was very slow. Totila had dispatched various troops to employ delaying tactics and the Franks were enemies of Narses' allies the Lombards, and did not allow free passage. Procopius stated that Narses was “completely bewildered”, but John was familiar with that part of Italy and advised him how to continue.* [27] Using this advice, Narses was able to reach Ravenna unopposed. Totila may Totila sent wave after wave of troops, who became so dishave believed that Narses was going to come from the sea, organized by the raining arrow storm that by the time they

2.42. NARSES met the dismounted infantrymen they were completely broken. The Gothic infantry never even engaged in actual combat as they hesitated to advance far enough to actually become effective. They were kept in the rear of the advance, fearing that Narses' horsemen would outflank them from the hill. Finally, Totila’s cavalry was pressed backwards onto their own line of infantry, Narses then charged with his own cavalry, which had been held in reserve.* [34] The retreat quickly turned into a rout, as the Gothic cavalry rushed right over the infantry, who joined them in the withdrawal.* [35] Totila himself was killed at this battle and Procopius gave two versions as to the fate of the Ostrogothic king. The first has Totila initially surviving the battle and fleeing the field of battle with only five of his followers. Asbad, leader of the Gepids, overtook him and drove his spear into Totila. The body was immediately taken to the village of Caprae where it was hurriedly buried.* [36] In the second version, Totila was mortally wounded in the first wave, struck by a bowman who did not even recognize his target.* [37] The first is more widely accepted by historians, as later a Gothic woman revealed where Totila was buried and the body was exhumed and positively identified.

81 scribed the bravery of King Teias. He first introduced the battle as “a battle of great note,”and the heroism displayed by King Teias was not “inferior to any of the heroes of legend.”* [42] It may be noted that Procopius did not witness any of the battle, and only retold it from the account of others who were taken by the following actions. Teias led the charge towards Narses. Procopius recounts that every time his shield was filled with arrows, he received another from his man-at-arms. Finally when a spear struck his shield, he received another but was struck with a mortal blow. The soldier cut off his head to display to the Goths their king had died, but instead of disheartening the Goths, it reinvigorated them to fight for another day.* [43] The second day was much like the first, as the Goths charged and fought on foot, involving little to no tactics. Finally, the Goths sent some of their officers to Narses who said they would surrender if they were allowed to leave the country safely. Narses, who received more advice from John, accepted those terms of surrender.* [44] This was the end of the Ostrogothic kingdom, and what happened to the remnants remains a mystery.

2.42.11 Final battles 2.42.9

Rome

Narses marched to Rome after the Battle of Taginae and had to conduct a short siege of the city. Narses attacked on one side with a large contingent of archers, while John assaulted another part of the walls.* [38] From Rome, Narses would work to remove all of the remaining Ostrogothic forces from Italy. The next major move that Narses undertook was to capture the treasury of Totila that was held in Cumae. Both Procopius and Agathias wrote of the strength of the fortress at Cumae. Procopius called it, “an exceedingly strong fortress,”* [39] and Agathias declared it “very well fortified.”* [40] As parts of the army were sent throughout the country to deal with Teias, (the son of Totila, and new Gothic king) a considerable detachment was sent to Campania to take Cumae. Teias followed the example set by Narses on his march into Italy and marched around the Imperial Army. After engaging Narses in small skirmishes for nearly two months, Teias retreated into the mountains. They maneuvered onto Mons Lactarius, where they soon faced death from starvation.

After the final defeat of the Goths, the Franks, led by the brothers Leutharis and Buccillinus, attempted to invade the recently reconquered lands. From the Liber Pontificalis: “They (The Franks) in like manner wasted Italy. But with the help of the Lord they too were destroyed by Narses. And all Italy rejoiced.”* [45] For the next year or two, Narses crossed the countryside, reinstituting Byzantine rule and laying siege to towns that resisted. But as more and more Franks poured over the Alps, Narses regrouped in Rome, and once spring came, marched his army against them.* [46] The Franks, led by the two brothers, were pursuing separate routes, but plundering the whole time.

At the Battle of Casilinum (Battle of the Volturnus (554)), Narses put true heavy infantry in the centre, instead of dismounted cavalry. These were hand picked troops, “Ante-signani”, who wore long clad coats of mail that went down to their feet.* [47] Highly trained cavalry were on the flanks, armed with everything that the army carried. On the opposing side, Agathias describes the Franks as, “Very rude and without cavalry. Their swords were worn on the left leg, and their main weapons were the throwing ax and hooked javelins.”* [48] The Franks attacked Narses' centre, which was initially pushed back 2.42.10 Battle of Mons Lactarius but was reinforced by the Herulis, who slowed the attack* The Goths suddenly came down the mountain in a com- ers. [49] pact phalanx, catching the army off guard who were also At this point Narses had the cavalry wheel in from the on foot.* [41] The reasons why the Goths attacked horse- flanks, but without directly engaging the Franks. Instead, less is unknown, but the suddenness of the attack seemed he had them unleash an enormous number of arrows into to be the reason that Narses fought horseless as well. The the half-naked barbarians.* [50] Finally the Franks beensuing battle was fought for two days and Procopius de- came disorganized and their tightly held formations broke

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

down. Narses sounded a general charge that blasted their ranks, and mowed them down.* [51] The Franks were massacred and Agathias claimed that only five of them escaped from Narses that day.* [52] All three of Narses' major victories can be credited to his skillful use of combined tactics involving cavalry and archers to create and exploit disorder in his enemies.

[5] Scholasticus, Evagrius. Ecclesiastical History. Trans. E. Walford (London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1846) Book iv. 214-15. [6] Paul the Deacon. History of the Langobards. Trans. William D. Foulke. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1907) 56. [7] W.G. Holmes, The Age of Justinian and Theodora. (London: Gorgias Press, 1905) Vol II 648.

2.42.12

Final years

For the next twelve years, it is thought that Narses stayed in and “set about to reorganize”Italy.* [53] Justinian sent Narses a series of new decrees known as“pragmatic sanctions”. Many historians refer to Narses in this part of his career as an Exarch.* [54] Narses completed some restoration projects in Italy but was unable to return Rome to its former splendor, though he did repair many of the bridges into the city and rebuilt the city walls.* [55] The last years of Narses' life are enveloped in mystery. Dealing with subsequent events, some historians believe Narses died in 567. Others assert that he died in 574. If the latter is true, and he was born in 478, then he would have been 95 at the time of death. Legend has it that Narses was recalled to Constantinople for turning the Romans under his rule into virtual slaves, thereby upsetting the new Emperor Justin II. Narses then retired to Naples, and while there, supposedly sent word to the Lombards inviting them to invade northern Italy.* [56] Historian Dunlap questions whether there was hostility between the empress and Narses. Paul the Deacon wrote that his body was returned to Constantinople; and John of Ephesus wrote that Narses was buried in the presence of the Emperor and Empress in a monastery founded by him.* [57]

2.42.13

References

[1]“The new Byzantine commander there [Italy], the Armenian eunuch Narses, proved a match for the daring Totila...”The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 14: Late Antiquity, p. 534 (2007) [2] John H. Rosser. Historical Dictionary of Byzantium. — Scarecrow Press, 2011. —P. 199.”Armenians were a significant minority within the empire. In the sixth century, Justinian I's General Narses was Armenian. The emperor Maurice (582—602) may have been Armenian. In the ninth and 10th centuries there were several Armenian emperors, including Leo V, Basil I, Romanos I Lekapenos, and John I Tzimiskes. Theodora, the wife of Theophilios, was Armenian." [3] Procopius, History Of The Wars I. xv.31. The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. H.B. Dewing. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954) Vol. I 139. [4] Agathias Scholasticus cited by Fauber, L.H. Narses Hammer of the Goths. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990) 15.

[8] Fauber. Narses. 17–18. [9] Fauber. Narses. 39–40. [10] Teall, John. “The Barbarians in Justinian’s Armies”. Speculum Vol. 40 No. 2 Apr. 1965. 302. [11] Procopius. History. xxv. 26 Vol. I 247. [12] Procopius. History. xxx. 54 Vol. I 555, 557. [13] Procopius, History. xviii. 3 Vol. IV 19. [14] Browning, Robert. Justinian and Theodora. (London: Thames & Hudson, rev. ed. 1987) 111. [15] Procopius. History. xviii. 28 Vol. IV 27. [16] Procopius. History. xxii. 4–5 Vol. IV 57. [17] Dunlap, James E. The Office of the Grand Chamberlain in the Later Roman and Byzantine Empires. (London: Macmillan Press, 1924) 287. [18] Procopius. History. xxv. 26 Vol. IV 261. [19] Metzger, B.M. (1960). New Testament Tools and Studies. E.J. Brill. p. 114. Retrieved 2014-12-07. [20] Procopius. History. xl. 9 Vol. V 41. [21] Teall. The Barbarians. 304. [22] Procopius. History. xxvi. 17 Vol. V 333. [23] Procopius. History. xxvi.30–31. Vol. V 329. [24] Fauber. Narses. 73–74. [25] Procopius. History. xxiii.32 Vol. V 297. [26] Lewis, Archibald R. Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951) 25. [27] Procopius. History. xxvi. 24 Vol. V 337. [28] Liddell Hart, B.H. Strategy. (New York: Frederick A Praeger, 1957) 70. [29] Procopius. History. xxix.5 Vol. V 353. [30] Procopius. History. xxix. 8 Vol. V 355. [31] Rance, Philip. “Narses and the Battle of Taginae (Busta Gallorum)". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte Vol. 54, No. 4 (2005), 424. [32] Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Ch. XLIII. 266.

2.42. NARSES

[33] Procopius. History. xxxii. 7 Vol. V 377. [34] Liddell. Strategy. 71. [35] Bury. History of the Later Roman Empire. From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Vol. II (London: Macmillan Press, 1958) 267. [36] Procopius. History. xxxii. 22–28 Vol. V 383-85. [37] Procopius. History. xxxii. 33–35 Vol. V 387-89. [38] Procopius. History. xxxiii.18–19 Vol. V 395. [39] Procopius. History. xxxiv. 19 Vol. V 405. [40] Fauber, Narses. 101. [41] Rance. Battle of Taginae. 437. [42] Procopius. History. xxxv.22–26 Vol. V 413. [43] Procopius. History. xxxv.26–31 Vol. V 415-17. [44] Procopius. History. xxxv.33–35 Vol. V 417-19. [45] The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis). Trans. L.R. Loomis. (Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing, 2006) 164. [46] Fauber. Narses. 119. [47] Fauber. Narses. 125. [48] Agathias, The Histories, Book II. Translated by Joseph D. Frendo. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1975) 36–38. [49] Oman, C. W. C. The Art of War In the Middle Ages. (New York: Cornell University Press, 1953), p. 18. [50] Bury. History of the Later Roman Empire. 280. [51] Liddell Hart. Strategy. 71. [52] Fauber. Narses. 128. [53] Browning. Justinian and Theodora. 234. [54] Fauber. Narses. 139. [55] Richmond, Ian A. The City Walls of Imperial Rome. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930) 90. [56] Fauber. Narses. 176–183. [57] Dunlap. Office of the Grand Chamberlain. 295–299.

Bibliography • Agathias. The Histories. Book II. Trans. Joseph D. Frendo. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1975) • Ashby, T; R. A. L. Fell “The Via Flaminia.”The Journal of Roman Studies. (Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1921) Vol. 11. 125–190. • Browning, Robert. Justinian and Theodora. (London: Thames & Hudson, rev. ed. 1987)

83 • Bury. J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire. From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Vol. II (London: Macmillan Press, 1958) • Cameron, Averil. Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity: AD 395–600. (London: Routledge, 1993.) 114. • Croke, Brian. “Jordanes and the Immediate Past.” Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, (Franz Steiner Verlag, 2005) Vol. 54, No. 4. 473–494. • Croke, Brian. “Cassiodorus and the Getica of Jordanes.”Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. (Franz Steiner Verlag: 2005) Vol. 54, No. 4. 473– 494. • Dunlap, James E. The Office of the Grand Chamberlain in the Later Roman and Byzantine Empires. (London: Macmillan Press, 1924) • Fauber, Lawrence. Narses: Hammer of the Goths. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990). • Greatrex, Geoffrey. “The Nika Riot: A Reappraisal.”The Journal of Hellenic Studies, (The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 1997) Vol. 117. 60–86. • Holmes, W.G. The Age of Justinian and Theodora. (London: Gorgias Press, 1905) Vol II • Hornblower, Simon, Anthony Spawforth.“Narses.” Oxford Classical Dictionary. (New York: Oxford, 2003.) 1027. • Kaegi, Walter Emil Jr. “The Contribution of Archery to the Turkish Conquest of Anatolia.” Speculum. (Medieval Academy of America, Jan. 1964) Vol. 39, No. 1. 96–108. • Kazhdan, Alexander P. “Narses.”Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.) 1024. • Lewis, Archibald R. Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951) • Liddell Hart, B.H. Strategy. (New York: Frederick A Praeger, 1957) • Oman, C.W.C. The Art of War In the Middle Ages. (New York: Cornell University Press, 1953) • Paul the Deacon. History of the Langobards. Trans. William D. Foulke. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1907) • Procopius, History Of The Wars I. xv.31. The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. H.B. Dewing. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954)

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• Rance, Philip. “Narses and the Battle of Tagi- 2.43.1 See also nae (Busta Gallorum) 552: Procopius and SixthCentury Warfare.”Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte • History of the Forbidden City Geschichte, (Franz Steiner Verlag, 2005.) Vol. 54, No. 4. 424–472. • Richmond, Ian A. The City Walls of Imperial Rome. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930) • Scholasticus, Evagrius. Ecclesiastical History. Trans. E. Walford (London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1846) Book iv. • Teall, John L. “The Barbarians in Justinian's Armies.”Speculum. (Medieval Academy of America, Apr. 1965). Vol. 40, No. 2. 294–322. • The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis). Trans. L.R. Loomis. (Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing, 2006)

2.42.14

Further reading

• L. H. Fauber, Narses, Hammer of the Goths: The Life and Times of Narses the Eunuch, St Martins Pr (January 1991) ISBN 0-312-04126-8 • Philip Rance, 'Narses and the Battle of Taginae (Busta Gallorum) 552: Procopius and sixth century warfare', Historia 54 (2005), 424–472.

2.43.2 References [1] Womack, Brantly (2006). China and Vietnam: The Politics of Asymmetry. Cambridge University Press. p. 182. ISBN 0-521-85320-6. [2] Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, John K. Fairbank (1998). The Cambridge History of China. volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644 (part 1). Cambridge University Press. pp. 240–241. ISBN 0-521-24332-7. [3] Zhu, Jianfei (2004). Chinese Spatial Strategies: Imperial Beijing, 1420-1911. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 0-41531883-1. [4] “Vatican City and the Forbidden City; St. Peter's Square and Tiananmen Square: A Comparative Analysis. Page 5” (PDF). Asia-Pacific: Perspectives and the University of San Francisco. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-20. [5] Zhu, Jianfei (2004). Chinese Spatial Strategies: Imperial Beijing, 1420-1911. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 0-41531883-1. [6] Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. SUNY Press. p. 202. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4.

• Weir, William. 50 Battles That Changed the World: The Conflicts That Most Influenced the Course of 2.44 Nikephoritzes History. Savage, Md: Barnes and Noble Books. Nikephoritzes (Greek: Νικηφορίτζης) was an influenISBN 0-7607-6609-6. tial Byzantine eunuch official, who served as chief minister and virtual ruler of the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Emperor Michael VII Doukas (r. 1071–1078). 2.43 Nguyen An His actual name was Nikephoros; he received the nickname “Nikephoritzes”(“little Nikephoros”) as a reNguyễn An (Sino-Vietnamese 阮 安; died 1453), also sult of his relative youth when he first entered service in known in Chinese as Ruan An (in pinyin)* [1] or Juan the court.* [1]* [2] He became widely unpopular due to his An* [2] (depending on the transliteration system), was a harsh taxation and meddling with Constantinople's grain Ming Dynasty eunuch, architect, and hydraulic specialist supply, as well as for his neglect of Asia Minor in the between the first and fifth decades of the 15th century. face of Turkish encroachment. This resentment led to Born in Vietnam, he was taken as tribute from Vietnam the outbreak of two major rebellions in 1077, and the to China and later became a eunuch and architect in ser- eventual abdication of Michael VII. Nikephoritzes himvice to the Chinese emperors. He, along with numerous self was captured and tortured to death. architects, such as master designers and planners Cai Xin (蔡信), Chen Gui (陳珪), and Wu Zhong (吳中), master carpenter Kuai Xiang (蒯祥), and master mason Lu Xi- 2.44.1 Biography ang (陸祥), was an important* [1] principal designer and a chief builder* [3] of the Forbidden City in Beijing.* [4] Nikephoritzes was born in the Bucellarian Theme and Under the reign of Zhengtong Emperor, Nguyen An had a role in the reconstruction of the wall of Beijing.* [2]* [5] He was also a hydraulic specialist, who was involved in at least three hydraulic projects and had a flawless record.* [6] He died in 1453.* [2]

entered service in the imperial secretariat under Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (r. 1042–1055). Under Constantine X Doukas (r. 1059–1067), he was sent away from the court to assume the governorship of Antioch, because he allegedly slandered the Empress

2.44. NIKEPHORITZES

85 manded only one thing, the dismissal of Nikephoritzes, and when they took Rhaidestos, they burned down the corn warehouse. Michael VII prevaricated in his reply, whereupon Nestor with his Pecheneg allies withdrew north into the Paristrion, which hence and for the next two decades effectively passed out of imperial control.* [5]

Nikephoritzes also tried to reform the army, and revived the regiment of the Immortals. The military situation during his administration was particularly grave, with Serb attacks and the Bulgarian uprising of Constantine Bodin, while in Asia Minor the imperial government had to face the rebellion of Roussel de Bailleul, as well as the ever-increasing Turkish infiltration of Asia Minor in the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert, to which it failed to respond adequately.* [1]* [2]* [6] Although undeniably a capable administrator, his financial measures and centralizing tendencies were generally resented. With the exception of Kekaumenos, who praises him as“an excellent Gold histamenon of Emperor Michael VII Doukas (r. 1071– man in everything, most reasonable, experienced in both military and administrative matters although a eunuch, 1078). generous, very clever, and capable of understanding and speaking properly”, the other sources all relate stories Eudokia Makrembolitissa, accusing her of adultery. Fol- of his greed and corruption. In this, they focus especially lowing the emperor's death and her assumption of the re- on the monastery at Hebdomon, which he administrated, gency, he was imprisoned.* [1]* [2]* [3] He was released and where he gathered his personal fortune.* [1]* [2]* [7] by the new emperor, Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1068– 1071), and appointed as praetor (civil governor) of the Opposition coalesced around the Patriarch of Antioch combined themes of Hellas (Central Greece) and the Aemilian, an old enemy of Nikephoritzes from his time Peloponnese.* [1]* [2] On the assumption of power by in Antioch, with support from several bishops and the Michael VII in 1071, Nikephoritzes was recalled to serve capital's guilds. In addition, in the summer of 1077, in the imperial government by the new emperor's un- Nikephoros Bryennios in the Balkans and Nikephoros cle, the Caesar John Doukas, who valued his admin- Botaneiates in Asia Minor rebelled against Michael VII. istrative skills. Back in Constantinople, Nikephoritzes Bryennios marched against Constantinople, hoping it was appointed logothetes tou dromou, and his power grew would surrender, but the pillaging of its suburbs by his rapidly. Not only did he soon sideline the other minis- troops deterred the capital's inhabitants, and he had to reters, including the hereto powerful Michael Psellos, but treat. In turn, a group of bishops opposing Nikephoritzes in autumn 1073, Nikephoritzes forced the Caesar him- gathered in Hagia Sophia on January 7, 1078, and proself to withdraw from active participation in the gov- claimed Botaneiates emperor. Nikephoritzes responded ernance of the Byzantine Empire and retire to his es- by forcibly removing them from the cathedral, for which he was excommunicated by the Patriarch of Constantinotates.* [1]* [2]* [3] ple. Alexios Komnenos, who had risen to high command As the de facto ruler of the Byzantine Empire, under Nikephoritzes, suggested the forcible suppression Nikephoritzes set about reorganizing the state, trying to of the opposition, but Michael VII eventually decided to restore its strength and re-establish central control. His abdicate in favour of Botaneiates, on March 31, 1078.* [8] first priority was to replenish the treasury. For this he resorted to brutal taxation, which caused major hardship Nikephoritzes fled the capital and sought refuge in both in the provinces and in Constantinople. He also es- Heraclea Pontica, where Roussel de Bailleul was entablished a central warehouse (phoundax) at Rhaidestos camped. Roussel, however, had him arrested and delivin an effort to centralize, regulate, and better tax the ered to the new emperor. Nikephoritzes was then exiled corn supply of Constantinople, forming a state monopoly. to the island of Prote and then Oxeia, where he was bruRomanos StraAccording to Michael Attaleiates, admittedly a hostile tally tortured by the megas hetaireiarches * * boromanos and died as a result. [2] [9] source, his policies resulted in shortages in grain and inflation of its price. By the winter of 1076/1077, Constantinople was experiencing famine.* [1]* [2]* [4] At the 2.44.2 References same time, a rebellion broke out in the Danubian province of Paristrion, because Nikephoritzes stopped payment of [1] Kazhdan 1991, p. 1475. the annual subsidies to the local mixobarbaroi and the Pechenegs. The vestarches Nestor, who was sent to set- [2] Prosopography of the Byzantine World 2011: tle things, joined the rebellion. Notably, the rebels de"Nikephoros 63".

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

[3] Angold 1997, p. 121.

2.45.1 Etymology

[4] Angold 1997, p. 122; Stephenson 2000, pp. 99–100.

Origen's Greek name Ōrigénēs (Ὠριγένης) probably means“child of Horus" (from Ὧρος,“Horus”, and γένος,“born”).* [3] His nickname or cognomen Adamantios (Ἀδαμάντιος) derives from Greek adámas (ἀδάμας), which means "adamant", “unalterable”, “unbreakable”, “unconquerable”, “diamond”.* [4]* [5] He acquired it because of his severe ascetical practices.

[5] Angold 1997, pp. 121–122; Stephenson 2000, pp. 98, 100. [6] Angold 1997, pp. 117–121, 123. [7] Angold 1997, pp. 121–123. [8] Angold 1997, pp. 123–124.

2.45.2 Life

[9] Kazhdan 1991, pp. 1475, 1815; Angold 1997, p. 124.

Early years

2.44.3

Sources

• Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History. London, United Kingdom: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-29468-4. • Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. • Prosopography of the Byzantine World (2011). “Nikephoros 63”. Retrieved 26 November 2011. • Stephenson, Paul (2000). Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900– 1204. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77017-3.

2.45 Origen Origen reportedly studied under Clement of Alexandria and was

This article is about the 3rd century theologian. For influenced by his thought. other uses, see Origen (disambiguation). Origen was born in Alexandria to Christian parents. He Origen (/ˈɒrɪdʒən/; Greek: Ὠριγένης, Ōrigénēs), or was educated by his father, Leonides of Alexandria, who gave him a standard Hellenistic education, but also had Origen Adamantius (Ὠριγένης Ἀδαμάντιος, Ōrigénēs * Adamántios; 184/185 – 253/254), [1] was a scholar and him study the Christian scriptures. The name of his early Christian theologian who was born and spent the mother is unknown. first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a prolific writer in multiple branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, philosophical theology, preaching, and spirituality written in Greek.

In 202, Origen's father was martyred in the outbreak of the persecution during the reign of Septimius Severus. A story reported by Eusebius has it that Origen wished to follow him in martyrdom, but was prevented only by his mother hiding his clothes. The death of Leonides left the family of nine impoverished when their property was confiscated. Origen, however, was taken under the protection of a woman of wealth and standing; but as her household already included a heretic named Paul, the strictly orthodox Origen seems to have remained with her only a short time.

Unlike many church fathers, he was never canonized as a saint because some of his teachings directly contradicted the teachings attributed to the apostles, notably the Apostles Paul and John. His teachings on the pre-existence of souls, the final reconciliation of all creatures, including perhaps even the devil (the apokatastasis),* [2] and the subordination of the Son of God to God the Father, were extremely controversial. Eusebius, our chief witness to Origen's life, says that in

2.45. ORIGEN 203 Origen revived the Catechetical School of Alexandria where Clement of Alexandria had once taught but had apparently been driven out during the persecution under Severus.* [6] Many modern scholars,* [7] however, doubt that Clement's school had been an official ecclesiastical institution as Origen's was and thus deny continuity between the two. But the persecution still raged, and the young teacher visited imprisoned Christians, attended the courts, and comforted the condemned, himself preserved from persecution because the persecution was probably limited only to converts to Christianity. His fame and the number of his pupils increased rapidly, so that Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, made him restrict himself to instruction in Christian doctrine alone. Asceticism and castration Origen, to be entirely independent, sold his library for a sum which netted him a daily income of 4 obols, on which he lived by exercising the utmost frugality.* [8] Teaching throughout the day, he devoted the greater part of the night to the study of the Bible and lived a life of rigid asceticism.* [8] Eusebius reported that Origen, following Matthew 19:12 literally, castrated himself.* [9] This story was accepted during the Middle Ages and was cited by Peter Abelard in his letters to Heloise.* [10] Edward Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, also accepts this story as true.* [11] During the past century, scholars have often questioned this, surmising that this may have been a rumor circulated by his detractors.* [12]* [13] Henry Chadwick points out that, while the story may be true, it seems unlikely, given that Origen's exposition of Matthew 19:12“strongly deplored any literal interpretation of the words”.* [14] However, many noted historians, such as Peter Brown and William Placher, continue to find no reason to deny the truth of Eusebius' claims.* [15] Travels During the reign of emperor Caracalla, about 211–212, Origen paid a brief visit to Rome, but the relative laxity during the pontificate of Zephyrinus seems to have disillusioned him, and on his return to Alexandria he resumed his teaching with zeal increased by the contrast. But the school had far outgrown the strength of a single man; the catechumens pressed eagerly for elementary instruction, and the baptized sought for interpretation of the Bible. Under these circumstances, Origen entrusted the teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas, the brother of the martyr Plutarch, his first pupil. His own interests became more and more centered in exegesis, and he accordingly studied Hebrew, though there is no certain knowledge concerning his instructor in that language. From about this period (212–213) dates Origen's acquaintance with Ambrose of Alexan-

87 dria, whom he was instrumental in converting from Valentinianism to orthodoxy. Later (about 218) Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all the subsequent works of Origen (except his sermons, which were not expressly prepared for publication) were dedicated to Ambrose. In 213 or 214, Origen visited Arabia at the request of the prefect, who wished to have an interview with him; and Origen accordingly spent a brief time in Petra, after which he returned to Alexandria. In the following year, a popular uprising at Alexandria caused Caracalla to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the schools, and expel all foreigners. The latter measure caused Ambrose to take refuge in Caesarea, where he seems to have made his permanent home; and Origen left Egypt, apparently going with Ambrose to Caesarea, where he spent some time. Here, in conformity with local usage based on Jewish custom, Origen, though not ordained, preached and interpreted the scriptures at the request of the bishops Alexander of Jerusalem and Theoctistus of Caesarea. When, however, the confusion in Alexandria subsided, Demetrius recalled Origen, probably in 216. Of Origen's activity during the next decade little is known, but it was probably devoted to teaching and writing. The latter was rendered the more easy for him by Ambrose, who provided him with more than seven stenographers to take dictation in relays, as many scribes to prepare long-hand copies, and a number of girls to multiply the copies. At the request of Ambrose, he now began a huge commentary on the Bible, beginning with John, and continuing with Genesis, Psalms 1–25, and Lamentations, besides brief exegeses of selected texts (forming the ten books of his Stromateis), two books on the resurrection, and the work On First Principles. Conflict with Demetrius and removal to Caesarea Demetrius, the bishop of Alexandria, at first supported Origen but later opposed him, disputing his ordination in another diocese (Caesarea Maritima in Palestine).* [16] This ecclesiastical turmoil eventually caused Origen to move to Caesarea, a move which he characterized as divine deliverance from Egypt akin to that the ancient Hebrews received. About 230, Origen entered on the fateful journey which was to compel him to give up his work at Alexandria and embittered the next years of his life. Sent to Greece on some ecclesiastical mission, he paid a visit to Caesarea, where he was heartily welcomed and was ordained a priest, that no further cause for criticism might be given Demetrius, who had strongly disapproved his preaching before ordination while at Caesarea. But Demetrius, taking this well-meant act as an infringement of his rights, was furious, for not only was Origen under his jurisdiction as bishop of Alexandria, but, if Eastern sources may be believed, Demetrius had been the first to introduce episcopal ordination in Egypt. The metropoli-

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tan accordingly convened a synod of bishops and pres- trine. byters which banished Origen from Alexandria, while a There was second outbreak of the Antonine Plague, second synod declared his ordination invalid. which at its height in 251 to 266 took the lives of 5,000 Origen accordingly fled from Alexandria in 231–2, and a day in Rome. This time it was called the Plague made his permanent home in Caesarea in Palestine, of Cyprian. Emperor Decius, believing the plague to where his friend Theoctistus was bishop.* [17] A series be a product of magic, caused by the failure of Chrisof attacks on him seems to have emanated from Alexan- tians to recognize him as Divine, began Christian persedria, whether for his self-castration (a capital crime in cutions.* [20] This time Origen did not escape* [21] the Roman law) or for alleged heterodoxy is unknown; but at Decian persecution. Eusebius recounted* [22] how Oriall events these fulminations were heeded only at Rome, gen suffered“bodily tortures and torments under the iron while Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, and Achaia paid no collar and in the dungeon; and how for many days with his attention to them. At Alexandria, Heraclas became head feet stretched four spaces in the stocks”* [23] Though he of Origen's school, and shortly afterward, on the death of did not die while being tortured, he died three years later Demetrius, was consecrated bishop. due to injuries sustained at the age of 69.* [24] A later During this time at Caesarea in Palestine (232–5), he re- legend, recounted by Jerome and numerous itineraries, sumed work on the Commentary on John, composing at places his death *and burial at Tyre, but to this little value least books 6-10, wrote the treatise On Prayer, and, some can be attached. [25] time in the first half of the year 235, composed his Exhortation to Martyrdom.* [18] Eusebius reports that he was 2.45.3 summoned from there to Antioch at the behest of the empress mother Julia Avita Mamaea “to discuss Christian philosophy and doctrine with her.”* [19] Approximately three years after his arrival in Caesarea in Palestine, Origen's life as a scholar was again interrupted by the persecution of Maximinus Thrax (235-8). He took refuge at Caesarea in Cappadocia. At Caesarea, Origen was joyfully received and was the guest of Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia.

Works

After the death of Maximinus, Origen resumed his life in Caesarea of Palestine. Little is known of the last twenty years of Origen's life. He founded a school where Gregory Thaumaturgus, later bishop of Pontus, was one of the pupils. He preached regularly on Wednesdays and Fridays, and later daily. He taught dialectics, physics, ethics, and metaphysics. He evidently, however, developed an extraordinary literary productivity, broken by occasional journeys; one of which, to Athens during some unknown year, was of sufficient length to allow him time for research. After his return from Athens, he succeeded in converting Beryllus, bishop of Bostra, from his adoptionistic (i.e., belief that Jesus was born human and only became divine after his baptism) views to the orthodox faith; yet in these very years (about 240) probably occurred the attacks on Origen's own orthodoxy which compelled him to defend himself in writing to Pope Fabian and many bishops. Neither the source nor the object of these attacks is known, though the latter may have been connected with Novatianism (a strict refusal to accept Christians who had denied their faith under persecution). After his conversion of Beryllus, however, his aid was frequently invoked against heresies. Thus, when the doctrine was promulgated in Arabia that the soul died and decayed with the body, being restored to life only at the resurrection (see soul sleep), appeal was made to Origen, who journeyed to Arabia, and successfully battled this doc-

Origen, Illustration from “Les Vrais Portraits Et Vies Des Hommes Illustres”by André Thévet

Origen excelled in multiple branches of theological scholarship. For instance, he was the greatest textual critic of the early Church, directing the production of the massive Hexapla (“Sixfold”), an Old Testament in six columns: Hebrew, Hebrew in Greek characters, the Septuagint, and the Greek versions of Theodotion, Aquila of Sinope, and Symmachus. This was an immense and complex wordfor-word comparison of the Greek Septuagint with the original Hebrew Scriptures and with those other Greek translations.* [26] He was one of the greatest biblical scholars of the early Church, having written commentaries on most of the books of the Bible, though few

2.45. ORIGEN are extant. He interpreted scripture both literally and allegorically. Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts which became the New Testament. The information used to create the late-fourth-century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History [HE] of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen’ s list at HE 6:25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were accepted by the third-century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.* [27] In fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of“inspired writings”other texts which were kept out by the likes of Eusebius, including the Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and 1 Clement. “Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary-interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion.”* [28] As a theologian, in De principiis* [29] (On First Principles), he articulated one of the first philosophical expositions of Christian doctrine. Having been educated in classical and philosophical studies, some of his teachings were influenced by and engaged with aspects of Neo-Pythagorean, NeoPlatonist, and other strains of contemporary philosophical thought. An ordained priest in Palestine, he has left posterity numerous homilies on various books of the Bible. Finally, he has also been regarded as a spiritual master for such works as An Exhortation to Martyrdom and On Prayer.* [30]

89 Theodotion, and the Septuagint) in parallels. He was likewise keenly conscious of the textual difficulties in the manuscripts of the New Testament, although he never wrote definitely on this subject. In his exegetical writings he frequently alludes to the variant readings, but his habit of making rough citations in his dictation, the verification being left to the scribes, renders it impossible to deduce his text from his commentaries. The exegetical writings of Origen fall into three classes: • scholia, or brief summaries of the meaning of difficult passages • homilies •“books”, or commentaries in the strict sense of the term. Jerome states that there were scholia on Leviticus, Psalms i.-xv., Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, and part of John. The Stromateis were of a similar character, and the margin of Codex Athous Laura, 184, contains citations from this work on Rom. 9:23; I Cor. 6:14, 7:31, 34, 9:20-21, 10:9, besides a few other fragments.

Homilies on almost the entire Bible were prepared by Origen. There are 205, and possibly 279, homilies of Origen that are extant either in Greek or in Latin translations.* [36] The homilies preserved are on Genesis (16), Exodus (13), Leviticus (16), Numbers (28), Joshua (26), Judges (9), I Sam. (2), Psalms 36-38 (9),* [37] Canticles (2), Isaiah (9), Jeremiah (7 Greek, 2 Latin, 12 Greek and Latin), Ezekiel (14), and Luke (39). The homilies were In 2012, 29 unpublished homilies by Origen were discov- preached in the church at Caesarea, with the exception of ered in the Bavarian State Library.* [31] This text can be the two on 1 Samuel which were delivered in Jerusalem. found online.* [32] Nautin has argued that they were all preached in a threeyear liturgical cycle some time between 238 and 244, preceding the Commentary on the Song of Songs, where OriExegetical writings gen refers to homilies on Judges, Exodus, Numbers, and a work on Leviticus.* [38] According to Epiphanius,* [33] Origen wrote about 6,000 works (i.e., rolls or chapters). A list was given by It is not improbable that Origen gave no attention to suEusebius in his lost Life of Pamphilus,* [34] which was pervising the publication of his homilies, for only by such apparently known to Jerome.* [35] These fall into four a hypothesis can the numerous evidences of carelessness classes: textual criticism; exegesis; systematic, practical, in diction be explained. The exegesis of the homilies was and apologetic theology; and letters; besides certain spu- simpler than that of the scientific commentaries, but nevertheless demanded no mean degree of intelligence from rious works. the auditor. Origen's chief aim was the practical exposiBy far the most important work of Origen on textual crit- tion of the text, verse by verse; and while in such books icism was the Hexapla, a comparative study of various as Leviticus and Numbers he sought to allegorize, the translations of the Old Testament. wealth of material in the prophets seldom rendered it necThe full text of the Hexapla is no longer extant. Some essary for him to seek meanings deeper than the surface portions were discovered in Milan indicating that at least afforded. some individual parts existed much longer than was pre- On June 11, 2012, the Bavarian National Library anviously thought. The Hexapla has been referred to by later nounced the discovery by philologist Marina Molin manuscripts and authors, and represented the precursor Pradel of unknown original texts of homilies by Origenes to the parallel bible. in a twelfth-century Greek manuscript.* [39] The attribuThe Tetrapla was an abbreviation of the Hexapla in which tion to Origen has been confirmed by experts like Prof. Origen placed only the translations (Aquila, Symmachus, Lorenzo Perrone of the Bologna University.* [40]

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Extant commentaries of Origen

faith.

The object of Origen's commentaries was to give an exegesis that discriminated strictly against historical significance, in favour of a“hidden”spiritual truth. At the same time, he neglected neither philological nor geographical, historical nor antiquarian material, to all of which he devoted numerous excursus.

Between 232-235, while in Caesarea in Palestine, Origen wrote On Prayer. This is preserved entire in Greek. After an introduction on the object, necessity, and advantage of prayer, ends with an exegesis of the Lord's Prayer, concluding with remarks on the position, place, and attitude to be assumed during prayer, as well as on the classes of prayer.

In his commentary on John he constantly considered the exegesis of the Valentinian Heracleon (probably at the insistence of Ambrose), and in many other places he implied or expressly cited Gnostic views and refuted them.* [41]

On Martyrdom, or the Exhortation to Martyrdom, also preserved entire in Greek, was written some time after the beginning of the persecution of Maximinus in the first half of 235. In it, Origen warns against any trifling with idolatry and emphasizes the duty of suffering martyrdom Unfortunately, only meagre fragments of the commen- manfully; while in the second part he explains the meantaries have survived. Three commentaries on New Testa- ing of martyrdom. ment books survive in large measure. Of the 32 books Against Celsus (Greek: Κατὰ Κέλσου; Latin: Contra Celin the Commentary on John, only nine have been pre- sum), preserved entire in Greek, was Origen's last treaserved.* [42] The Commentary on Romans is extant only tise, written about 248. Ambrose had requested that Oriin the abbreviated Latin translation of Rufinus, though gen provide an answer to a book entitled The True Docsome Greek fragments also exist.* [43] The eight books trine which attacked Christianity, and had been written preserved of the Commentary on Matthew (Books 10-17) some time in the second century by an unknown Middle cover Matthew 13.36-22.33. There also exists a Latin Platonic philosopher named Celsus.* [49] In Against Celtranslation of the commentary by an unknown translator sus, Origen drew freely on the Greek philosophers and which covers Matthew 16.13-27.66.* [44] One commen- poets as well as the Bible to provide a rational basis for tary on a book of the Old Testament, the Commentary on holding the Christian faith.* [50] the Song of Songs, has also been preserved in part, in a The papyri discovered at Tura in 1941 contained the Latin translation of Rufinus.* [45] Greek text of two previously unknown works of Origen. Fragments of some other commentaries survive. Cita- Neither work can be dated precisely, though both were tions in Origen's Philocalia include fragments of the third probably written after the persecution of Maximinus in book of the commentary on Genesis. There is also Ps. i, 235. One is On the Pascha. The other is Dialogue of Oriiv.1, the small commentary on Canticles, and the second gen with Heraclides and the Bishops with him concerning book of the large commentary on the same, the twen- the Father and the Son and the soul.* [50]* [51] tieth book of the commentary on Ezekiel,* [46] and the commentary on Hosea. Of the non-extant commentaries, Lost works include two books on the resurrection, written before On First Principles, and also two dialogues on the there is limited evidence of their arrangement.* [47] same theme dedicated to Ambrose. Dogmatic, practical, and apologetic writings Study of On First Principles has occupied centre stage in studies of Origen since the fourth century. It is perhaps written for his more advanced pupils at Alexandria and probably composed between 212 and 215. It is extant only in the free translation of Rufinus of 397,* [48] except for fragments (books 3.1 and 4.1-3) preserved in Origen's Philocalia, and smaller citations in Justinian's letter to Mennas. In the first book the author considers God, the Logos, the Holy Ghost, reason, and the angels; in the second the world and man (including the incarnation of the Logos, the soul, free will, and eschatology); in the third, the doctrine of sin and redemption; and in the fourth, the scriptures; the whole being concluded with a résumé of the entire system. The work is noteworthy as the first endeavor to present Christianity as a complete theory of the universe, and was designed to remove the difficulties felt by many Christians concerning the essential basis of their

Eusebius had a collection of more than one hundred letters of Origen,* [52] and the list of Jerome speaks of several books of his epistles. Except for a few fragments, only three letters have been preserved. The first, partly preserved in the Latin translation of Rufinus, is addressed to friends in Alexandria.* [53] The second is a short letter to Gregory Thaumaturgus, preserved in the Philocalia. The third is an epistle to Sextus Julius Africanus, extant in Greek, replying to a letter from Africanus (also extant), and defending the authenticity of the Greek additions to the book of Daniel. Forgeries of the writings of Origen made in his lifetime are discussed by Rufinus in De adulteratione librorum Origenis. The Dialogus de recta in Deum fide, the Philosophumena attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, and the Commentary on Job by Julian the Arian have also been ascribed to him.

2.45. ORIGEN

2.45.4

Views

Philosophical and religious Origen, reportedly trained in the school of Clement and by his father, has long been considered essentially a Platonist with occasional traces of Stoic philosophy. Patristic scholar Mark J Edwards has argued that many of Origen's positions are more properly Aristotelian than strictly Platonic (for instance, his philosophical anthropology). Nonetheless, he was thus a pronounced idealist, as one regarding all things temporal and material as insignificant and indifferent, the only real and eternal things being comprised in the idea. He therefore regards as the purely ideal center of this spiritual and eternal world, God, the pure reason, whose creative powers call into being the world with matter as the necessary substratum. Origen's cosmology is complicated and controverted, but he seems to have held to a hypothesis of the preexistence of souls. Before the known world was created by God, he created a great number of spiritual intelligences. At first devoted to the contemplation and love of their creator, almost all of these intelligences eventually grew bored of contemplating God, and their love for him cooled off. Those whose love for God diminished the most became demons. Those whose love diminished moderately became human souls, eventually to be incarnated in fleshly bodies. Those whose love diminished the least became angels. One, however, who remained perfectly devoted to God became, through love, one with the Word (Logos) of God. The Logos eventually took flesh and was born of the Virgin Mary, becoming the God-man Jesus Christ. The diverse conditions in which human beings are born is actually dependent upon what their souls did in this preexistent state. Thus what seems unfair, some being born poor and others wealthy, some sick and others healthy, and so forth, is, Origen insists, actually in a by-product of the free-will of souls. Thus, material creation is at least implicitly of a lesser ontological category than the immaterial, or spiritual, and the heavy material bodies that man assumes after the fall will eventually be cast off. Origen, however, still insisted on a bodily resurrection, but in contrast to Athenagoras, who believed that earthly bodies would be precisely reconstituted in the hereafter, Origen argued that Paul's notion of a flourishing spiritual body is more appropriate.

91 him, like Philo, to find a deep meaning even in every event of history (see hermeneutics), but at the same time he insisted on an exact grammatical interpretation of the text as the basis of all exegesis. A strict adherent of the Church, Origen yet distinguished sharply between the ideal and the empirical Church, representing“a double church of men and angels”,* [54] or, in Platonic phraseology, the lower church and its celestial ideal. The ideal Church alone was the Church of Christ, scattered over all the earth; the other provided also a shelter for sinners. Holding that the Church, as being in possession of the mysteries, affords the only means of salvation, he was indifferent to her external organization,* [54] although he spoke sometimes of the office-bearers as the pillars of the Church, and of their heavy duties and responsibilities. More important to him was the idea borrowed from Plato of the grand division between the great human multitude, capable of sensual vision only, and those who know how to comprehend the hidden meaning of scripture and the diverse mysteries, church organization being for the former only.* [54] It is doubtful whether Origen possessed an obligatory creed; at any rate, such a confession of faith was not a norm like the inspired word of scripture. The reason, illumined by the divine Logos, which is able to search the secret depths of the divine nature, remains as the only source of knowledge.* [54]

Theological and dogmatic Origen's conception of God the Father is apophatic—a perfect unity, invisible and incorporeal, transcending all things material, and therefore inconceivable and incomprehensible. He is likewise unchangeable, and transcends space and time. But his power is limited by his goodness, justice, and wisdom; and, though entirely free from necessity, his goodness and omnipotence constrained him to reveal himself.

This revelation, the external self-emanation of God, is expressed by Origen in various ways, the Logos being only one of many. Revelation was the first creation of God (cf. Prov. viii. 22), in order to afford creative mediation between God and the world, such mediation being necesHe was a rigid adherent of scripture, making no state- sary, because God, as changeless unity, could not be the ment without adducing some scriptural basis. To him the source of a multitudinous creation. scriptures were divinely inspired, as was proved both by The Logos is the rational creative principle that permethe fulfillment of prophecy and by the immediate impres- ates the universe. Since God eternally manifests himself, sion which the scriptures made on those who read them. the Logos is likewise eternal. He forms a bridge between Since the divine Logos spoke in the scriptures, they were the created and uncreated, and only through him, as the an organic whole and on every occasion he combatted the visible representative of divine wisdom, can the inconGnostic tenet of the inferiority of the Old Testament. ceivable and incorporeal God be known. Creation came In his exegesis, Origen sought to discover the deeper into existence only through the Logos, and God's nearest meaning implied in the scriptures. One of his chief meth- approach to the world is the command to create. While ods was the translation of proper names, which enabled the Logos is substantially a unity, he comprehends a mul-

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tiplicity of concepts, so that Origen terms him, in Platonic in good works to become like God, if he first recognizes fashion, “essence of essences”and “idea of ideas”. his own weakness and trusts all to the divine goodness. The defense of the unity of God against the Gnostics He is aided by guardian angels, but more especially by led Origen to maintain the subordination of the Lo- the Logos who operates through saints and prophets in gos to God, and the doctrine of the eternal generation proportion to the constitution of these and man's capacis later.* [55] Origen distinctly emphasized the indepen- ity. dence of the Logos as well as the distinction from the being and substance of God. The term “of the same substance with the Father”was not employed. The Logos (and the Holy Spirit also) however, does share in the divinity of God. He is an image, a reflex of God, in which God communicates his divinity, as light radiating from the sun. Origen taught that, though the Son was subordinate and less than the Father in power, substance, and rank, the relation of the Son to the Father had no beginning, and that the Son was “eternally generated”.* [56]

The Logos doctrine and cosmology The activity of the Logos was conceived by Origen in Platonic fashion, as the world soul, wherein God manifested his omnipotence. His first creative act was the divine spirit, as an independent existence; and partial reflexes of the Logos were the created rational beings, who, as they had to revert to the perfect God as their background, must likewise be perfect; yet their perfection, unlike in kind with that of God, the Logos, and the divine spirit, had to be attained. The freedom of the will is an essential fact of the reason, notwithstanding the foreknowledge of God. The Logos, eternally creative, forms an endless series of finite, comprehensible worlds, which are mutually alternative. Combining the Stoic doctrine of a universe without beginning with the biblical doctrine of the beginning and the end of the world, he conceived of the visible world as the stages of an eternal cosmic process, affording also an explanation of the diversity of human fortunes, rewards, and punishments. The material world, which at first had no place in this eternal spiritual progression, was due to the fall of the spirits from God, the first being the serpent, who was imprisoned in matter and body. The ultimate aim of God in the creation of matter out of nothing was not punishment, but the upraising of the fallen spirits. Man's accidental being is rooted in transitory matter, but his higher nature is formed in the image of the Creator. The soul is divided into the rational and the irrational, the latter being material and transitory, while the former, incorporeal and immaterial, possesses freedom of the will and the power to reascend to purer life. The strong ethical import of this cosmic process can not remain unnoticed. The return to original being through divine reason is the object of the entire cosmic process. Through the worlds which follow each other in eternal succession, the spirits are able to return to Paradise. God so ordered the universe that all individual acts work together toward one cosmic end which culminates in himself. Likewise as to Origen's anthropology, man conceived in the image of God is able by imitating God

Christology The culmination of this gradual revelation is the universal revelation of Christ. In Christ, God, hitherto manifest only as the Lord, appeared as the Father. The incarnation of the Logos, moreover, was necessary since otherwise he would not be intelligible to sensual man; but the indwelling of the Logos remained a mystery, which could be represented only by the analogy of his indwelling in the saints; nor could Origen fully explain it. He speaks of a“remarkable body”, and in his opinion that the mortal body of Jesus was transformed by God into an ethereal and divine body, Origen approximated the Docetism that he otherwise abhorred. His concept of the soul of Jesus is likewise uncertain and wavering. He proposes the question whether it was not originally perfect with God but, emanating from him, at his command assumed a material body. As he conceived matter as merely the universal limit of created spirits, so would it be impossible to state in what form the two were combined. He dismissed the solution by referring it to the mystery of the divine governance of the universe. More logically did he declare the material nature of the world to be merely an episode in the spiritual process of development, whose end should be the annihilation of all matter and return to God, who should again be all in all. The doctrine of the resurrection of the body he upholds by the explanation that the Logos maintains the unity of man's existence by ever changing his body into new forms, thus preserving the unity and identity of personality in harmony with the tenet of an endless cosmic process. Origen's concept of the Logos allowed him to make no definite statement on the redemptive work of Jesus. Since sin was ultimately only negative as a lack of pure knowledge, the activity of Jesus was essentially example and instruction, and his human life was only incidental as contrasted with the immanent cosmic activity of the Logos. Origen regarded the death of Jesus as a sacrifice, paralleling it with other cases of self-sacrifice for the general good. On this, Origen's accord with the teachings of the Church was merely superficial. Eschatology His idealizing tendency to consider the spiritual alone as real, fundamental to his entire system, led him to combat the “rude”* [57] or “crude”* [58] Chiliasm (see Christian eschatology) of a sensual beyond. His position on the literal resurrection of physical bodies is difficult, but in both the Contra Celsum and On First Principles,

2.45. ORIGEN

93

Origen affirms some form of bodily resurrection, but eschews the notion that earthly bodies will be raised, on account of their gross materiality. Origen believes that all spirits will be finally rescued and glorified, each in the form of its individual life, in order to serve a new epoch of the world when sensuous matter disappears of itself.* [59] Yet he constrained himself from breaking entirely with the distinct celestial hopes and representations of Paradise prevalent in the Church. He represents a progressive purification of souls, until, cleansed of all clouds of evil, they should know the truth and God as the Son knew him, see God face to face, and attain a full possession of the Holy Spirit and union with God. The means of attainment of this end were described by Origen in different ways, the most important of which was his concept of a purifying fire which should cleanse the world of evil and thus lead to cosmic renovation. By a further spiritualization Origen could call God himself this consuming fire. In proportion as the souls were freed from sin and ignorance, the material world was to pass away, until, after endless eons, at the final end, God should be all in all, and the worlds and spirits should return to a knowledge of God; in Greek this is called Apokatastasis.

which we possess, only the question of the Three Chapters is treated.”* [13] Many heteroclite views became associated with Origen, and the 15 anathemas attributed to the council condemn a form of apocatastasis along with the pre-existence of the soul, animism (a heterodox Christology), and a denial of real and lasting resurrection of the body.* [62] Some authorities believe these anathemas belong to an earlier local synod.* [63] The anathema against Origen in his person, declaring him (among others) a heretic, reads as follows:

2.45.5

As a result of this condemnation, the writings of Origen supporting his teachings in these areas were destroyed. They were either destroyed outright, or translated with the appropriate adjustments to eliminate conflict with orthodox Christian doctrine. Therefore, little direct evidence remains to fully confirm or disprove Origen's support of the nine points of anathema against him.

Character

In Origen the Christian Church had its first theologian.* [60] His teaching was not merely theoretical, but was also imbued with an intense ethical power. To the multitude to whom his instruction was beyond grasp, he left mediating images and symbols, as well as the final goal of attainment. In Origen Christianity blended with the pagan philosophy in which lived the desire for truth and the longing after God. Origen had many admirers and followers, one in particular, Dionysius of Alexandria, who caused controversy throughout Libya in 259 due to his theology in regards to the unity of the trinity.* [61] Three centuries later his very name was stricken from the books of the Church; yet in the monasteries of the Greeks his influence still lived on, as the spiritual father of Greek monasticism.

If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods and [if anyone does not equally anathematize] all those who have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding to the end the same opinion as those heretics just mentioned: let him be anathema.* [64]

The Fifth Ecumenical Council addressed what was called "The Three Chapters"* [65] and opposed a form of Origenism which truly had nothing to do with Origen and Origenist views. In fact, Popes Vigilius (537–555), Pelagius I (556–61), Pelagius II (579–90), and Gregory the Great (590–604) were only aware that the Fifth Council specifically dealt with the Three Chapters and make no mention of Origenism or Universalism, nor spoke as if they knew of its condemnation - even though Gregory the Great opposed the belief of universalism.* [13]

The Emperor Justinian denied apocatastasis, making it the ninth of the ten doctrines in his edict against Origen 2.45.6 Origen's influence on the later in 545, and later that year, the doctrine was the fourteenth of the fifteen at the council in Constantinople that conchurch demned Origen.* [66]* [67] Anathemas (544, 553) While Patriarch Mennas of Constantinople condemned Origen and a form of apocatastasis at the Synod of Constantinople (543); experts are divided whether the Second Council of Constantinople (the Fifth Ecumenical Council) in 553 ratified the condemnation authentically as “It is [only] certain that the council opened on 5 May, 553, in spite of the protestations of Pope Vigilius, who though at Constantinople refused to attend it, and that in the eight conciliary sessions (from 5 May to 2 June), the Acts of

Origen in the 1970s In Reincarnation in Christianity (1978), theosophist Geddes MacGregor asserts that Origen believed in reincarnation and taught about it, but that his texts written about the subject have been destroyed.* [68] Origen wrote about the Greeks' transmigration of the soul, with which he may or may not have agreed. Many theologians share the notion that Origen's extant works

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from Latin translations (not from the original Greek) confirm he did not believe in reincarnation.* [69] He was cognizant of the concept of transmigration (metensomatosis transformation, and loses what it once was, the human soul will not be what it was)* [70] from Greek philosophy, but it is repeatedly stated that this concept is not a part of the Christian teaching or scripture. A translation of his Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, which stems from a 6th-century Latin translation, reads:“In this place [when Jesus said Elijah was come and referred to John the Baptist] it does not appear to me that by Elijah the soul is spoken of, lest I fall into the doctrine of transmigration, which is foreign to the Church of God, and not handed down by the apostles, nor anywhere set forth in the scriptures”(ibid., 13:1:46–53).* [71] Conversely in Origen's Against Celsus, he argues that the teaching of the resurrection does not come from the doctrine of reincarnation, yet contradictorily claims to know that the soul transmigrates from body to body: Our teaching on the subject of the resurrection is not, as Celsus imagines, derived from anything that we have heard on the doctrine of metempsychosis; but we know that the soul, which is immaterial and invisible in its nature, exists in no material place, without having a body suited to the nature of that place. Accordingly, it at one time puts off one body which was necessary before, but which is no longer adequate in its changed state, and it exchanges it for a second; and at another time it assumes another in addition to the former, which is needed as a better covering, suited to the purer ethereal regions of heaven. When it comes into the world at birth, it casts off the integuments which it needed in the womb; and before doing this, it puts on another body suited for its life upon earth.* [72] There is evidence* [73] that Origen's writing was mistranslated from Greek into Latin due to religious bias, and that he taught reincarnation in his lifetime. One of the epistles written by St. Jerome, “To Avitus”(Letter 124; Ad Avitum, Epistula CXXIV),* [74] asserts that Origen's On First Principles (Greek: Περὶ Ἀρχῶν; Latin: De Principiis)* [75] was mistranscribed from Greek into Latin:

lest being circulated it might wound the souls of many.* [73] St. Jerome writes about Origen in“To Avitus”, conveying the impression that Origen was a heretic like Arius. Concerning Origen's On First Principles, St. Jerome warns Avitus“that there are countless things in the book to be abhorred, and that, as the Lord says, you will have to walk among scorpions and serpents”.* [73] Further, in “To Avitus”(Letter 124), St. Jerome writes about “convincing proof”that Origen teaches reincarnation in the original version of the book: The following passage is a convincing proof that he [Origen] holds the transmigration of the souls and annihilation of bodies. “If it can be shown that an incorporeal and reasonable being has life in itself independently of the body and that it is worse off in the body than out of it; then beyond a doubt bodies are only of secondary importance and arise from time to time to meet the varying conditions of reasonable creatures. Those who require bodies are clothed with them, and contrariwise, when fallen souls have lifted themselves up to better things, their bodies are once more annihilated. They are thus ever vanishing and ever reappearing.”* [73] St. Jerome further elaborates Origen's ideas in“To Avitus": Moreover, [Origen writes that] to avoid the agony of punishment and the burning flame the more sensitive may choose to become low organisms, to dwell in water, to assume the shape of this or that animal; so that we have reason to fear a metamorphosis not only into fourfooted things but even into fishes. Then, lest he [Origen] should be held guilty of maintaining with Pythagoras the transmigration of souls, he winds up the wicked reasoning with which he has wounded his reader by saying:“I must not be taken to make dogmas of these things; they are only thrown out as conjectures to show that they are not altogether overlooked.”* [73] St. Jerome adds to this:

About ten years ago that saintly man Pammachius sent me a copy of a certain person's [ Rufinus's* [74] ] rendering, or rather misrendering, of Origen's First Principles; with a request that in a Latin version I should give the true sense of the Greek and should set down the writer's words for good or for evil without bias in either direction. When I did as he wished and sent him the book, he was shocked to read it and locked it up in his desk

Hellfire, moreover, and the torments with which holy scripture threatens sinners he [Origen] explains not as external punishments but as the pangs of guilty consciences when by God's power the memory of our transgressions is set before our eyes. “The whole crop of our sins grows up afresh from seeds which remain in the soul, and all our dishonourable and undutiful acts are again pictured before our gaze.

2.45. ORIGEN Thus it is the fire of conscience and the stings of remorse which torture the mind as it looks back on former self-indulgence.”And again: “but perhaps this coarse and earthly body ought to be described as mist and darkness; for at the end of this world and when it becomes necessary to pass into another, the like darkness will lead to the like physical birth.”In speaking thus he [Origen] clearly pleads for the transmigration of souls as taught by Pythagoras and Plato.* [73]

95

[5] “adamant”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2014-08-20. [6] Eusebius, Church History, VI.6. See Eusebius - Church History (Book VI). [7] Trigg, Joseph (1998). Origen. Routledge. [8] Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica, VI.3.9 [9] Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica VI.8 [10] “The Love Letters of Abelard and Heloise: Letter III. Abelard to Heloise”. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 201404-24.

The original text of Origen's On First Principles (Greek: Περὶ Ἀρχῶν)* [75] has almost completely disappeared. [11] Gibbon asserts that, at least initially, rather than generating censure, Origen's self-castration was the focus of adIt remains extant as De Principiis in fragments translated miration, and dryly observes that “As it was his general into Latin by St. Jerome reportedly in good faith, and practice to allegorise scripture, it seems unfortunate that, in the more complete, though “not very reliable Latin in this instance only, he should have adopted the literal translation of Rufinus".* [75] sense.”Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter XV, footnote 97

Today Origen is regarded by the Roman Catholic Church as a Church Father, but not a Saint.* [76]

[12] Keough, Shawn W. J. (2008). “Christoph Markschies, Origenes und sein Erbe: Gesammelte Studien. Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur 160". Bryn Mawr Classical Review 03 (30). Retrieved 2009-01-25.

His thought on the Old Testament was an important link in the development of the medieval system of typology. [13] Prat, Ferdinand (1911). “Origen and Origenism”.

2.45.7

See also

• Adamantius (Pseudo-Origen) • Atonement (ransom view) • Christian mysticism • Church fathers • Simlai

2.45.8

References

[1] The New Catholic Encyclopedia (Detroit: Gale, 2003). ISBN 978-0-7876-4004-0 [2] Patrides, C. A. (October–December 1967). “The salvation of Satan”. Journal of the History of Ideas 28 (4): 467–478. doi:10.2307/2708524. JSTOR 2708524. reprinted in Patrides, C. A. (1982) [1967]. "'A principle of infinite love': The salvation of Satan”. Premises and motifs in Renaissance literature. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. JSTOR 2708524. [3] Prestige, G. L. (1940). “Origen: or, The Claims of Religious Intelligence” (PDF). Fathers and Heretics (PDF). Bampton Lectures. London: SPCK. p. 43. Retrieved 4 September 2009. [4] ἀδάμας. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek– English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.

Catholic Encyclopedia. New York City: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-10-03.. The 1903 Catholic Encyclopedia does not report this.

[14] Henry Chadwick, The Penguin History of the Church: The Early Church, (New York: Penguin Books, 1993) 108109. “Perhaps Eusebius was uncritically reporting malicious gossip retailed by Origen's enemies, of whom there were many.” [15] William Placher, A History of Christian Theology: An Introduction, (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983), p62. Placher theorises that if it is true, it may have followed an episode in which Origen received some raised eyebrows while privately tutoring a woman. [16] Eusebius, Church History, VI.14. See Eusebius - Church History (Book VI). [17] Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica VI.26 [18] Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p. 122 [19] From The Emergence of Christianity, Cynthia White, Greenwood Press, 2007, p. 14. [20] MacMullen, Ramsay (1992) [1966]. Enemies of the Roman order: treason, unrest, and alienation in the empire. New York City: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08621-3. [21] Shelley, Bruce L. (1995). Church History in Plain Language, 2nd ed. Dallas: Word Publishing. p. 86. [22] Timothy David Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, page 351, footnote 96 (Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Press, 1981) ISBN 0-674-16530-6

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[23] “Eusebius, ''Ecclesiastical History'', Book 6, chapter 39” [41] Joel C. Elowsky (editor), John 1-10. Ancient Christian . Christianbookshelf.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24. Commentary on Scripture: New Testament, Voliume 4a., page xix, (InterVarsity Press Academic, 2007). ISBN [24] Shelley, p. 86. 978-0-8308-1489-3 [25] Jerome. "Chapter 54 (Origen, surnamed Adamantius)". De viris illustribus (On Illustrious Men).

[42] Books I, II, X, XIII, XX, XXVIII, XXXII, and a fragment of XIX

[26] Trigg, Joseoph W. - Origen - The Early Church Fathers 1998, Routledge, London and New York, page 16. Retrieved 2 September 2015.

[43] When Rufinus translated the commentary in the early fifth century he noted in his preface that some of the books were lost, and doubted his ability to 'supply' what was missing and to 'restore' the work's continuity. He also noted his intention to 'abbreviate' the work. Rufinus' abbreviated Latin version in ten books is extant. The Greek fragments were found in papyri at Tura in 1941, and contain Greek excerpts from books 5-6 of the commentary. Comparison of these fragments with Rufinus' translation led to a generally positive evaluation of Rufinus' work. Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p124

[27] C.G. Bateman, Origen’s Role in the Formation of the New Testament Canon, 2010. archive [28] McGuckin, John A. “Origen as Literary Critic in the Alexandrian Tradition.”121-37 in vol. 1 of 'Origeniana octava: Origen and the Alexandrian Tradition.' Papers of the 8th International Origen Congress (Pisa, 27– 31 August 2001). Edited by L. Perrone. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium 164. 2 vols. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2003. [29] “CHURCH FATHERS: De Principiis (Origen)". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24.

[44] Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p124

[30] “Origen on Prayer - Christian Classics Ethereal Library” [45] Books 1-3, and the beginning of the Book 4, survive, . Ccel.org. 2005-06-01. Retrieved 2014-04-24. covering Song of Songs 1.1-2.15. Besides not including the later books of the commentary, Rufinus also omit[31] “Vatican reports discovery of ancient documents”. Asted all of Origen's more technical discussions of the text. sociated Press. June 12, 2012. Retrieved April 28, 2014. Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Litera[32] Digitalisat Archived August 17, 2012 at the Wayback Mature, (2010), p123 chine [33] Haer., lxiv.63 [34] Ecclesiastical History, VI., xxxii. 3; Eng. transl., NPNF, 2 ser., i. 277 [35] Epist. ad Paulam, NPNF, vi. 46 [36] The discrepancy concerns the 74 homilies on the Psalms attributed to Jerome, but which V Peri has argued Jerome translated from Origen with only minor changes. (Both 205 and 279 exclude the 2012 discoveries) Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p124. [37] And possibly the extra 74 homilies on the Psalms. Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p124. [38] Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p125 [39] “Greek text found of Origen’s homilies on the Psalms! at Roger Pearse”. Roger-pearse.com. 2012-06-11. Retrieved 2014-04-24. [40] “Lorenzo Perrone About Origen’s Newly Discovered Homilies on the Psalms”. Alin Suciu. 2012-06-12. Retrieved 2014-04-24.

[46] Codex Vaticanus 1215 gives the division of the twentyfive books of the commentary on Ezekiel, and part of the arrangement of the commentary on Isaiah (beginnings of books VI, VIII, XVI; book X extends from Isa. viii.1 to ix.7; XI from ix.8, to x.11; XII, from x.12 to x.23; XIII from x.24 to xi.9; XIV from xi.10 to xii.6; XV from xiii.1 to xiii.16; XXI from xix.1 to xix.17; XXII from xix.18 to xx.6; XXIII from xxi.1 to xxi.17; XXIV from xxii.1 to xxii.25; XXV from xxiii.1 to xxiii.18; XXVI from xxiv.1 to xxv.12; XXVII from xxvi.1 to xxvi.15; XXVIII from xxvi.16 to xxvii.11a; XXIX from xxvii.11b to xxviii.29; and XXX treats of xxix.1 sqq.). [47] Codex Athous Laura 184 gives the division of the fifteen books of the commentary on Romans (except XI and XII) and of the five books on Galatians, as well as the extent of the commentaries on Philippians and Corinthians (Romans I from 1:1 to 1:7; II from 1:8 to 1:25; III from 1:26 to 2:11; IV from 2:12 to 3:15; V from 3:16 to 3:31; VI from 4:1 to 5:7; VII from 5:8 to 5:16; VIII from 5:17 to 6:15; IX from 6:16 to 8:8; X from 8:9 to 8:39; XIII from 11:13 to 12:15; XIV from 12:16 to 14:10; XV from 14:11 to the end; Galatians I from 1:1 to 2:2; II from 2:3 to 3:4; III from 3:5 to 4:5; IV from 4:6 to 5:5; and V from 5:6 to 6:18; the commentary on Philippians extended to 4:1; and on Ephesians to 4:13). [48] Rufinus was convinced, as he states in his preface, that the work had been interpolated by heretics. He, therefore, either omitted objectionable passages concerning the Trinity, or corrected them on the basis of what he found in

2.45. ORIGEN

Origen's other writings. Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p125 [49] Celsus charged that Jesus was a deceptive magician who did miracles by a magic occult power not by a relationship with the divine. In the ancient world few doubted strange powers existed and were used. So-called magic and the miraculous was common place. See: E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational. [50] Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p127 [51] An English translation of the Dialogue is in Oulton and Chadwick, eds, Alexandrian Christianity,pp430-455 [52] Historia ecclesiastica, VI, xxxvi.3; Eng. transl. NPNF, 2 ser. i.278-279. [53] PG 17, 624-6; Ronald E Heine, 'The Alexandrians', in Frances Young et al, eds, The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, (2010), p126 [54] Schaff, Philip (1910). The new Schaff-Herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge: embracing biblical, historical, doctrinal, and practical theology and biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical biography from the earliest times to the present day. Funk and Wagnalls Company. p. 272. Retrieved 2014-07-30. [55] T. E. Pollard, Johannine Christology and the Early Church, page 95 (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 13, Cambridge University Press, 1970). ISBN 9780-521-07767-5 [56] Origen. “On Christ”. De Principiis. Retrieved 2 May 2012. Wherefore we have always held that God is the Father of His only-begotten Son, who was born indeed of Him, and derives from Him what He is, but without any beginning [57] The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol.8, p. 273 [58] The Anchor Bible Dictionary (1997) article“Chiliasm”, The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the Heart (Johann Amos Comenius, ed. 1998) p. 42 and Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135 (James D. G. Dunn, 1999) p. 52. [59] “History of Dogma - Volume II - Christian Classics Ethereal Library”. Ccel.org. 2005-06-01. Retrieved 201404-24. [60] Moore, Edward.“Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy”. IEP. ISSN 2161-0002. Retrieved 2014-04-27. |chapter= ignored (help) [61] Chadwick, Henry (1967). The Early Church (reprint ed.). Dorset Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0880290777. [62] Philip Schaff, ed. (1994) [1885]. “The Anathemas Against Origen”. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II, Volume XIV (The Seven Ecumenical Councils). Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 1-56563-116-1.

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[63] Greer, Rowan A. (1979). Origen. New York City: Paulist Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-8091-2198-0. [64] Medieval Sourcebook: Fifth Ecumenical Council: Constantinople II, 553. Fordham University, 1996. [65] Three Chapters in Catholic Encyclopedia [66] Apocatastasis – §2. Opponents in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol_ I, Aachen – Basilians at Christian Classics Ethereal Library [67] Sträuli, Robert (1987). Origenes der Diamantene. Zurich: ABZ Verlag. pp. 71, 355–357. ISBN 3-85516-005-8. [68] Geddes MacGregor (1978). Reincarnation in Christianity: a new vision of the role of rebirth in Christian thought. Quest Books. pp. 48–. ISBN 978-0-8356-0501-4. Retrieved 22 May 2013. [69] For example, compare On Mathew, Ch.1 [70] Cf. Tertullian, A Treatise on the Soul, Ch.XXXII [71] See Commentary on Matthew, Book XIII [72] “Origen, Contra Celsum (248 CE). Book VII, Ch. XXXII. Frederick Crombie's translation into English is available online”. Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2014-0424. [73] St. Jerome.“To Avitus”(Letter 124). Translated by W.H. Fremantle, G. Lewis and W.G. Martley. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 6. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. [74] “Hieronymus_Stridonensis_cps2, Epistolae, 124, p0”. Mlat.uzh.ch. Retrieved 2014-04-24. [75] Cross, F. L., and Elizabeth A. Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Second Edition). New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. p. 1009. [76] Anthony Grafton, Worlds Made by Words: Scholarship and Community In The Modern West, page 222, quoting Mark Pattison (Harvard University Press, 2009). ISBN 978-0-674-03257-6

2.45.9 Sources • Bostock, Gerald (2003).“Origen: the Alternative to Augustine?". The Expository Times 114 (10): 327. doi:10.1177/001452460311401001. • Heine, Ronald E. (2010). Origen: Scholarship in the Service of the Church. Oxford: OUP. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-19-920908-8. • Trigg, Joseph Wilson (1985). Origen: the Bible and Philosophy in the Third-Century Church. London: SCM Press. ISBN 0-334-02234-7. • Trigg, Joseph Wilson (1998). Origen. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11836-0.

98 • Crouzel, Henri (1989). Origen. San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-061632-6.

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS • 'On Prayer' in Tertullian, Cyprian and Origen,‘’On the Lord’s Prayer’’, trans and annotated by Alistair Stewart-Sykes, (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’ s Seminary Press, 2004), pp111–214

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed. (1914). “Origen”. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (third ed.). London Translations available online and New York: Funk and Wagnalls. • Translations of some of Origen's writings can be found in Ante-Nicene Fathers or in The Fathers of 2.45.10 Translations the Church. (“Church Fathers: Home”. Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24.) Material not in • The Commentary of Origen On S. John's Gospel, the those collections includes: text revised and with a critical introduction and in• Dialogue with Heracleides (“Origen - Diadices, A. E. Brooke (2 volumes, Cambridge Univerlog with Heracleides - Christian History”. sity Press, 1896): Volume 1, Volume 2 Sites.google.com. Retrieved 2014-04-24.) • Contra Celsum, trans Henry Chadwick, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965)

• On Prayer (William A Curtis. “Origen, On Prayer (Unknown date). Translation”. Tertullian.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24.)

• On First Principles, trans GW Butterworth, (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1973)

• Philocalia (Origen. “The Philocalia of Origen (1911) pp. 1-237. English translation”. Tertullian.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24.)

• Origen: An Exhortation to Martyrdom; Prayer; First Principles, book IV; Prologue to the Commentary on the Song of Songs; Homily XXVII on Numbers, trans 2.45.11 Further reading R Greer, Classics of Western Spirituality, (1979) • Bigg, Charles. The Christian Platonists of Alexandria. 1886, revised 1913. • Origen: Homilies on Genesis and Exodus, trans RE Heine, FC 71, (1982) • Martens, Peter. Origen and Scripture: The Contours of the Exegetical Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. • Origen: Commentary on the Gospel according to John, Books 1-10, trans RE Heine, FC 80, (1989) • Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition: 100–600. Chicago: University of • Treatise on the Passover and Dialogue of Origen with Chicago Press, 1977. Heraclides and his Fellow Bishops On the Father, the Son and the Soul, trans Robert Daly, ACW 54 (New • Thomas P. Scheck. Origen and the History of JustiYork: Paulist Press, 1992) fication: The Legacy of Origen's Commentary on Romans. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008. • Origen: Commentary on the Gospel according to John, Books 13-32, trans RE Heine, FC 89, (1993) • von Balthasar, Hans Urs. Origen, Spirit and Fire: A Thematic Anthology of His Writings. Washington, • The Commentaries on Origen and Jerome on St Paul's DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1984. Epistle to the Ephesians, RE Heine, OECS, (Oxford: • Westcott, B. F. "Origenes", Dictionary of Christian OUP, 2002) Biography. • Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans Books 1• Williams, Rowan. “Origen: Between Orthodoxy 5, 2001, Thomas P. Scheck, trans., The Fathers of and Heresy”, in W. A. Bienert and U. Kuhneweg, the Church series, Volume 103, Catholic Univereds., Origeniana Septima, 1999, pp. 3–14. sity of America Press, ISBN 0-8132-0103-9 ISBN 9780813201030 • Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans Books 6-10 (Fathers of the Church), 2002, The Fathers of the Church, Thomas P. Scheck, trans., Volume 104, Catholic University of America Press, ISBN 0-8132-0104-7 ISBN 9780813201047

2.45.12 External links • Analysis and criticism • Modern • Coptic Church on Origen

2.46. PATRIARCH GERMANUS I OF CONSTANTINOPLE

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• The two-part Roman Catholic meditation the persecutions,* [3] but was made a eunuch by the vicon Origen by Pope Benedict XVI: April tors.* [4] 25, 2007 and May 2, 2007. Germanus was sent to a monastery. He resurfaces as • Ancient Bishop of Cyzicus.* [2] He took part in the 712 Council of Constantinople where decisions favored Monothelitism, • The Anathemas Against Origen • Evagrius Ponticus and the Condemnation abolishing the canons of the Third Council of Constantinople (680-681). The Council followed the reliof Origen gious preferences of Philippikos Bardanes.* [5] • Derivative summaries

In 713, Philippikos Bardanes was deposed by Anastasios II. Anastasios soon reversed all religious decisions of his • Origen entry by Mark J. Edwards in the predecessor. Patriarch John VI, strongly associated with Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Monothelitism, was eventually dismissed. On 11 Au• Origen Entry in Internet Encyclopedia of Phi- gust 714/715, Germanus was elected Patriarch of Constantinople. Germanus later helped negotiate Anastasius' losophy surrender terms to Theodosios III.* [6] • Origen in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica In 715, Germanus organized a new council propagating • Jewish Encyclopedia: Origen Dyothelitism and anathematizing various leaders of the • Origen from New Schaff-Herzog Encyclope- opposing faction. He attempted to improve relations with dia of Religious Knowledge the Armenian Apostolic Church with a view towards reconciliation. The major issue of his term would, however, • Bibliography be the emerging Byzantine Iconoclasm, propagated by Leo III the Isaurian. Germanus was an iconodule,* [5] and • EarlyChurch.org.uk Extensive bibliography played an important role in defending the use of sacred and on-line articles. images during the iconoclastic crisis of his day, suffering exile for his opposition to the emperor, who considered • Original texts reverence for these images a form of idolatry.* [7] • Greek and Latin Opera Omnia by Migne Pa- After an apparently successful attempt to enforce the trologia Graeca, with Analytical Indexes and baptism of all Jews and Montanists in the empire (722), Concordances (Lexicon Proprium) Leo issued a series of edicts against the worship of images (726–729).* [8] A letter by the patriarch Germanus written before 726 to two Iconoclast bishops says that “now • Other resources whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable • Table of Origen's Works with Links to Texts agitation over this matter”but we have very little evidence and Translations as to the growth of the debate.* [9]

2.46 Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople For other people of the same name, see Germanus (disambiguation). Saint Germanus I (c. 634 – 733 or 740) was Patriarch of Constantinople from 715 to 730. He is regarded as a saint, by both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, with a feast day of 12 May.* [1]

Germanus either resigned or was deposed following the ban. Surviving letters Germanus wrote at the time say little of theology. According to Patricia Karlin-Hayter, what worried Germanus was that the ban of icons would prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and therefore play into the hands of Jews and Muslims.* [10] Tradition depicts Germanos as much more determined in his position. Even winning a debate on the matter with Constantine, Bishop of Nacoleia, a leading Iconoclast. Pope Gregory II (term 715-731), a fellow iconodule, praised Germanus' “zeal and steadfastness” .* [5]

Germanus was replaced by Anastasios, more willing to obey the emperor. Germanus retired to the residence of his family. He died a few years at an advanced age 2.46.1 Life in 740.* [11] He was buried at the Chora Church. The According to Theophanes the Confessor, Germanus was Second Council of Nicaea (787) included Germanus in a son of patrician Justinian, who was executed in 668.* [2] the diptychs of the saints. He has since been regarded Justinian was reportedly involved in the murder of a saint by both the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Constans II and usurpation of the throne by Mezezius. Church. Constantine IV, son of Constans II, defeated his rival and Several of his writings have been preserved.* [5] His Hispunished the supporters of Mezezius. Germanus survived

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toria Ecclesiastica was a popular work in Greek and Latin [13] The English Hymnal. London: Oxford University Press, 1907; no. 19, p. 30 translations for many centuries, and remains often quoted by scholars. Parts of it were published in English in 1985 [14] “A great and mighty wonder”. Cyberhymnal. Retrieved as On the Divine Liturgy, described by its publishers as 20 August 2011. “for centuries the quasi-official explanation of the Divine Liturgy for the Byzantine Christian world”.* [12] How- [15] A Great and Mighty Wonder. “Carols.co”. Retrieved 9 December 2011. ever the Catholic Encyclopedia is dubious that the work * is actually by Germanus. [5]

2.46.4 Sources 2.46.2

Influence

Pope Pius XII included one of his texts in the apostolic constitution proclaiming Mary’s assumption into heaven a dogma of the Church.* [7] Among his writings was the hymn "Μέγα καί παράδοξον θαῦμα" translated by John Mason Neale as “A Great and Mighty Wonder”,* [13]* [14] although Neale misattributed this to Saint Anatolius.* [15]

2.46.3

References

[1] (Greek) Ὁ Ἅγιος Κωνσταντινουπόλεως. ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ.

Γερμανὸς Πατριάρχης 12 Μαΐου. ΜΕΓΑΣ

[2] Orthodox Church in America: Biography of St Germanus the Patriarch of Constantinople [3] Byzantinische Zeitschrift. Volume 17, Issue 2, Pages 455–459, ISSN (Online) 1864-449X, ISSN (Print) 00077704 [4] Mango, 1 [5] Kirsch, Johann Peter. “St. Germanus I.”The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 24 Jun. 2013 [6] Bronwen Neil, “Anastasius II (A.D. 713-715)" [7] “St. Germanus of Constantinople, Defender of the Veneration of Holy Images”, National Catholic Register, 8 May 2009 [8] Treadgold. History of the Byzantine State, pp. 350, 352353. [9] Mango, C.“Historical Introduction,”in Bryer & Herrin, eds., Iconoclasm, pp. 2-3, Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, 1977 ISBN 0-7044-0226-2 [10] Karlin-Hayter, Patricia (2002) The Oxford History of Byzantium: Iconoclasm. Oxford: Oxford University Press [11] “St Germanus, Patriarch of Constantinople”, Serbian Orthodox Church [12] The full Latin title is Historia mystica ecclesiae catholicae; manuscripts include cod. Vat. graec. 790 and cod. Neapolit. graec. 63. In English and Greek, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1985, ISBN 0-88141-038-1, ISBN 9780-88141-038-9; see external links for a partly different online version.

• Cameron, Averil; Ward-Perkins, Bryan.; Whitby, Michael (2000). The Cambridge ancient history 14. Late Antiquity: empire and successors, A.D. 425 600. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52132591-9 • Gross, Ernie. This Day in Religion. New York: Neil-Schuman Publishers, 1990. ISBN 1-55570045-4. • Mango, Cyril,“Historical Introduction,”in Bryer & Herrin, eds., Iconoclasm, pp. 2-3., 1977, Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, ISBN 0704402262 • Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: University of Stanford Press. p. 346. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2.

2.46.5 External links • On the Divine Liturgy, Online text (English and Greek) • Pope Benedict XVI. “On St. Germanus of Constantinople”, General Audience, 29 April 2009

2.47 Patriarch Nicetas I of Constantinople Nicetas I (died 7 February 780) was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 766 to 780. He was of Slavic ancestry.* [1]

2.47.1 References [1] Dvorník, František (1970). Byzantské misie u Slovanů (in Czech). Praha: Vyšehrad. p. 61. Retrieved 2010-04-18.

2.48 Peter Phokas Peter (Greek: Πέτρος, died 977) was a Byzantine eunuch general. Originally a servant of the powerful Cappadocian Phokas family, he was raised to high military office (stratopedarches of the East) under Emperor

2.48. PETER PHOKAS

101

Nikephoros II Phokas, leading the capture of Antioch and the subjugation of Aleppo in 969. Under John I Tzimiskes, he fought as a senior commander against the Rus' in 970–971, while after Tzimiskes' death he led the loyalist forces against the revolt of the general Bardas Skleros in Asia Minor, falling in battle in autumn 977.

and his lieutenant Bakjur capitulated. Aleppo and the former Hamdanid domains of northern Syria became an imperial vassal, hostages were given, an annual tribute was to be paid to the emperor, and a Byzantine tax official was to be established in the city. The Byzantines on the other hand recognized Qarguyah as the ruler of Aleppo, and Bakjur as his successor.* [2]

2.48.1

After Nikephoros's assassination by John Tzimiskes in December 969, Peter, despite his close association with the murdered Byzantine emperor, continued in active service during Tzimiskes's reign (r. 969–976), when he participated in the war against the Rus' in Bulgaria as leader of the tagmata of Macedonia and Thrace.* [1]* [7] He is mentioned as guarding the western wall of Dorostolon during its siege by the Byzantines, while Bardas Skleros guarded the eastern one.* [2] It is possibly during this campaign that Leo the Deacon's incident with his single combat against the “Scythian”leader took place.* [2]

Biography

According to several Byzantine sources, Peter was originally a servant or member of the personal retinue of Nikephoros II Phokas. The exact relationship is unclear; although he is termed a slave, it is more likely that he was simply a manservant.* [1]* [2] Due to a mistranslation of a passage by Zonaras, he has been sometimes erroneously identified as a member of the Phokas clan and is known in some modern works as“Peter Phokas”.* [2] Although a eunuch, Peter proved himself a strong warrior, and his abilities as a general are uniformly praised in contemporary accounts. The historian Leo the Deacon writes that he “abounded in bodily strength”and records that he once defeated in single combat the leader of a“Scythian” (Rus' or Magyar) warband in Thrace.* [2]* [3] Nothing is known of his early life and career, but he may have held the post of epi tes trapezes (master of the table) as Arab sources call him al-Aṭrābāzī and aṭ-Ṭrabāzī.* [2] In spring 967, following the dismissal of John Tzimiskes from the high command of the Byzantine Empire's eastern forces, Nikephoros appointed Peter to the new post of stratopedarches, and gave him overall command of the eastern army. This new post is most likely explained by the fact that, being a eunuch, Peter could not occupy the traditional office of Domestic of the Schools which designated the Byzantine commanders-in-chief.* [4]* [5] His first task was to counter an expedition by Khurasani troops under Muhammad ibn Isa, who had arrived at Antioch. Peter defeated them near Alexandretta and took Muhammad captive, until the Antiochenes ransomed him.* [2]

In 976, Tzimiskes died, and the throne reverted to the legitimate emperors of the Macedonian dynasty, the young brothers Basil II and Constantine VIII, under the tutelage of the parakoimomenos Basil Lekapenos. The throne was coveted, however, by Bardas Skleros, who as commander-in-chief of the eastern armies and a relative of Tzimiskes had been his effective second in command. In a move designed to lessen Skleros' power, Lekapenos replaced him with Peter and sent him to the post of doux of Antioch instead.* [2]* [8] It is at this point that Peter probably received the rank of patrikios; he is mentioned by Leo the Deacon and Arab sources as a patrikios already in 969, but this is more likely a generic use in the sense of“commander”.* [2] Undeterred, Skleros shortly after rose in revolt, being proclaimed emperor by his supporters. Peter was sent out, together with the patrikios Eustathios Maleinos, against the rebel's stronghold, the region around Melitene. During the siege of the rebel fortress of Lapara, however, sometime in the summer of 976, Skleros's army attacked unexpectedly, routing the loyalist army.* [2]* [9]* [10] Withdrawing to Kotyaion in western Anatolia, the remains of this army were joined by new forces. Under the command of the eunuch Leo, the loyalist army marched east again in autumn 977. The imperial army managed to score a success against Skleros' subordinates, Michael Bourtzes and Romanos Taronites, but in a pitched battle at Rhageai near Iconium, they were decisively defeated by Skleros himself. Among many other loyalist commanders, Peter too fell on the battlefield.* [2]* [11]

In 968 Nikephoros II himself came east to take up the reins of his army. Peter participated in the emperor's invasion of Hamdanid-ruled northern Syria and the subsequent prolonged siege of Antioch, which culminated in the fall of the city.* [1]* [2] In this operation, the strategos Michael Bourtzes had the initiative, seizing one of the city's main towers in a coup de main. At this time, Peter was marching with his forces towards Aleppo on the request of Qarghuyah, who had usurped power there, to relieve its siege by loyalist Hamdanid troops under Sa'd al-Dawla. Learning of Bourtzes' feat, Peter turned back 2.48.2 References and reached Antioch three days later.* [2]* [6] After the capture of Antioch, which took place on October 28, the [1] Ringrose 2003, p. 137. two Byzantine generals resumed their advance on Aleppo, forcing Sa'd al-Dawla to flee. The Byzantines proceeded [2] PmbZ, Petros (#26496). to attack Aleppo themselves, with the populace with- [3] Ringrose 2003, pp. 137–138. drawing to the citadel and abandoning the lower city to the imperial troops. After a siege of 27 days, Qarguyah [4] Kazhdan 1991, p. 1967.

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[5] Whittow 1996, p. 353. [6] Bréhier 1946, pp. 196–197. [7] Holmes 2005, p. 332. [8] Whittow 1996, p. 361. [9] Whittow 1996, pp. 361–362. [10] Kazhdan 1991, p. 1178. [11] Whittow 1996, pp. 362–363.

2.48.3

Sources

• Bréhier, Louis (1946). Le monde byzantin: Vie et mort de Byzance (PDF) (in French). Paris: Éditions Albin Michel. • Holmes, Catherine (2005). Basil II and the Governance of Empire (976–1025). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927968-5. • Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19504652-6. • Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; Ludwig, Claudia; Zielke, Beate; Pratsch, Thomas, eds. (2013). Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Marble bust of Philetaerus. Roman copy from 1st century AD of Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns the Greek original. Naples National Archaeological Museum. erstellt (in German). De Gruyter. • Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2003). The Perfect Servant: to the east. His father Attalus (Greek: Attalos) was Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Greek* [1] (perhaps from Macedon) and his mother Boa Byzantium. Chicago, Illinois: The University of was Paphlagonian.* [3] Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72015-9. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Phile• Whittow, Mark (1996). The Making of Byzantium, taerus became embroiled in the struggle for supremacy, 600–1025. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: called the Wars of the Diadochi (diadochi means “sucUniversity of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20496- cessors”in Greek) between Alexander's regional gover4. nors, Antigonus in Phrygia, Lysimachus in Thrace and Seleucus in Babylonia (among others). Philetaerus served first under Antigonus. He then shifted his allegiance to Lysimachus (ruler of Pergamon from 323 BC to 281 2.49 Philetaerus BC), who, after Antigonus was killed at the Battle of IpPhiletaerus (/ˌfɪlɨˈtɪərəs/; Ancient Greek: Φιλέταιρος, sus in 301 BC, made Philetaerus commander of Pergakept a treasury of nine thousand Philetairos, ca. 343 BC–263 BC) was the founder of the mon, where Lysimachus * talents of silver. [4] * Attalid dynasty of Pergamon in Anatolia. [1]

2.49.1

Early life and career under Lysi- 2.49.2 Ruler of Pergamon machus

He was born in Tieium (Greek: Tieion),* [2] a small town which is situated in the geographical region of Pontus Euxinus on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia* [1] between Bithynia to the west and Paphlagonia

Philetaerus served Lysimachus until 282 BC, when perhaps because of conflicts involving the court intrigues of Arsinoë, Lysimachus' third wife, Philetaerus deserted Lysimachus, offering himself and the important fortress of Pergamon, along with its treasury to Seleucus,* [5]

2.49. PHILETAERUS

103 fortifications.* [9] Philetaerus was a eunuch, though scholars differ on the reason for his castration. Attalus I, the first Attalid king of Pergamon, explained that when Philetaerus was a baby, he was brought into a crowd where he was pressed upon and his testicles were crushed. “Philetaerus of Tieium, was a eunuch from boyhood; for it came to pass at a certain burial, when a spectacle was being given at which many people were present, that the nurse who was carrying Philetaerus, still an infant, was caught in the crowd and pressed so hard that the child was incapacitated. He was a eunuch, therefore, but he was well trained and proved worthy of this trust.”* [4] Philetaerus never married and, since he was a eunuch, had no children.* [10] He adopted his nephew Eumenes I (the son of Philetaerus' brother also named Eumenes), who succeeded him as ruler of Pergamon, upon his death in 263 BC.* [11] With the exception of Eumenes II, all future Attalid rulers depicted the bust of Philetaerus on their coins, paying tribute to the founder of their dynasty.

2.49.3 Notes

Coin, depicting the head of Philetaerus on the obverse and seated Athena, Greek goddess of war and wisdom, on the reverse, struck during the reign of Eumenes I (263 BC–241 BC)

who subsequently defeated and killed Lysimachus* [6] at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. Seleucus himself was killed by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a brother of Arsinoë at Lysimachia a few months later.* [7] Though nominally under Seleucid control, Philetaerus, especially after the death of Seleucus, had considerable autonomy and was able with the help of his considerable wealth to increase his power and influence beyond Pergamon. There are numerous records of Philetaerus as benefactor to neighboring cities and temples, including the temples at Delphi and Delos. He also contributed troops, money and food to the city of Cyzicus for defense against the invading Gauls. As a result Philetaerus gained prestige and goodwill for himself and his family.* [8]

[1] Renée Dreyfus, Ellen Schraudolph (1996). Pergamon: The Telephos Frieze from the Great Altar. University of Texas Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-88401-091-0. Philetairos of Tios on the Black Sea, son of a Greek father and a Paphlagonian mother, a high-ranking officer in the army of King Lysimachos and also his confidant, was the actual founder of Pergamon. [2] Strabo, 12.3.8. [3] Hansen, p. 15. [4] Strabo, 13.4.1. [5] Pausanias, 1.10.3, 4; Strabo, 13.4.1. [6] Pausanias, 1.10.5. [7] Junianus Justinus, 17.2; Strabo, 13.4.1. [8] For a more detailed account of the benefactions of Philetaerus, including sources, see Hansen, pp. 18–19; see also Strabo, 13.4.1. [9] Hansen, pp. 17, 18. [10] Both Strabo, 13.4.1 and Pausanias, 1.8.1 state that he was

During his nearly forty year rule, he constructed on the a eunuch, according to Strabo, as the result of a childhood acropolis of Pergamon, the temple of Demeter, and the accident. temple of Athena (Pergamon's patron deity), and Pergamon's first palace and he added considerably to the city's [11] Strabo, 13.4.2.

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2.49.4

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

References

Hugo Falcandus) or incapacitated by poor health and so his ministers had Philip executed, probably for apostasy.

• Hansen, Esther V. (1971). The Attalids of Perga- Philip was succeeded by the great Maio of Bari. mon. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press; London: Cornell University Press Ltd. ISBN 08014-0615-3. 2.50.1 Sources • Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003) “The Attalids of Pergamon,”in Andrew Erskine, ed., A Companion to the Hellenistic World. Oxford: Blackwell: pp. 159–174. ISBN 1-4051-3278-7. text

• Norwich, John Julius. The Kingdom in the Sun 11301194. Longman: London, 1970.

• Junianus Justinus, Epitome of the Philippic History 2.51 Pothinus of Pompeius Trogus, translated, with Footnotes, by the Rev. John Selby Watson; London: Henry G. For the bishop of Lyon, see Saint Pothinus. Bohn, York Street, Convent Garden (1853). Pothinus or Potheinos (early 1st century BC to 48 or 47 BC), a eunuch, was regent for Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He is most remembered for turning Ptolemy against his sister and coruler Cleopatra VII, thus starting a civil war, and for having Pompey decapitated and presenting the severed head • Strabo, Geography, (Loeb Classical Library) trans- to Julius Caesar. lated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Mas- When Ptolemy XII died in 51 BC his will stated that sachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII were to become co-rulers William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924) Books 10-12, of Egypt, with the Roman Republic as their guardians. ISBN 0-674-99233-4; Books 13-14, ISBN 0-674- Ptolemy XIII was underage and Pothinus was appointed 99246-6. as his regent. The general Achillas and the rhetorician • Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I-II, (Loeb Classical Library) translated by W. H. S. Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918) ISBN 0-674-99104-4.

2.50 Philip of Mahdia Philip of Mahdia, of Greek origin, was the emir of Palermo, and successor of the great George of Antioch. He was a eunuch who rose through the ranks of the royal curia in Palermo until he was eventually one of King Roger II's most trusted men. On George's death in year 546 of the Hegira (AD 1151 or 1152), Roger appointed him to the highest post in the kingdom. In summer 1153, he was sent on an expedition to conquer Tunisia. The governor of Bône (ancient Hippo Regius, modern Annaba) had appealed to Roger for aid against the Almohads. Philip captured the city, treated the populace well, and then returned whence he had come. He was welcomed in Palermo as a hero cum triumpho et gloria (with triumph and glory) according to Romuald, Archbishop of Salerno. Following Romuald's account, he was then charged with converting to Islam and promptly imprisoned and eventually admitted guilt and he was executed by orders of the king, who would have forgiven such an offence against his person, but not against God. This account is probably a later interpolation and its authenticity is debated. Arab chroniclers, like Ibn al-Athir, suggest that it was because Philip had allowed several prosperous and learned families to leave Bône after capture. Norwich finds that incredible and suggests that Roger, just months away from death, was either prematurely senile (echoing

Theodotus of Chios were also guardians of the Egyptian king. When Ptolemy and Cleopatra were elevated to the status of senior rulers, Pothinus was maintained as the former's regent. Most Egyptologists believed that Pothinus used his influence to turn Ptolemy against Cleopatra. In the spring of 48 BC Ptolemy, under Pothinus's guidance, attempted to depose Cleopatra in order to become sole ruler, while Pothinus planned to act as the power behind the throne. They gained control of Alexandria, then the capital of Egypt, and forced Cleopatra out of the city. She soon organized her own army and a civil war began in Egypt, while Arsinoe IV also started to claim the throne for herself. Rome was also enveloped in civil war, and after his defeat in the Battle of Pharsalus Pompey sought asylum in Egypt. Initially Pothinus pretended to have accepted his request but on September 29, 48 BC, Pothinus had the general beheaded—hoping to win favor with Julius Caesar, who had defeated Pompey. When Caesar arrived he was presented with the head of Pompey, but he responded with grief and disgust and ordered that Pompey's body be located and given a proper Roman funeral. Pothinus had neglected to note that Caesar had been granting clemency to his enemies, including Cassius, Cicero, and Brutus. Cleopatra used Pothinus's mistake to gain favor with Caesar and eventually became his lover. Caesar then arranged for the execution of Pothinus and the marriage of Cleopatra to Ptolemy. In the very last chapter of Commentarii de Bello Civili, however, it is

2.52. QIU SHILIANG

105

described that Pothinus arranged for Achillas to attack • In The Judgment of Caesar (part of the Roma Sub Alexandria and upon sending a message not to hesitate Rosa series by Steven Saylor) he is forced to drink but to fulfill the plan, the messengers were exposed, poisoned wine by Caesar. whereupon Caesar had Pothinus imprisoned and killed, likely with a knife. His death was shortly followed by the 2.51.2 Notes ten-month siege of Alexandria.

2.51.1

Depictions

[1] Konrat Ziegler: Potheinos 1). In: Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE), vol. XXII, 1 (1953), col. 1177

Unfortunately, only Roman and Greek sources have stemmed his legacy. He is thence criticized for his mur2.51.3 References der of Pompey and his insidious behavior with regard to Caesar, while both measures are generally believed to • Julian Morgan, Cleopatra: Ruling in the Shadow of have served to keep Egypt out of the ongoing Roman Rome, The Rosen Publishing Group 2003, ISBN 0civil war. As it happened, however, Caesar came to 8239-3591-4, pp. 26–32 emerge as sole credible contender for his position of power, with Pompey dead and a Roman protectorate in• Prudence J. Jones, Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh, stalled in Egypt.* [1] Haus Publishing 2006, ISBN 1-904950-25-6 Pothinus's brief role and death has been depicted more fancifully in dramatic literature.

• Lucanus, The Pharsalia of Lucan, Translated by Henry Thomas Riley, H. G. Bohn 1853

• Julius Caesar, The Civil War, Translated by Jane F. • In George Bernard Shaw's play Caesar and CleopaGardner, Penguin Classics 1976, pp. 161ff. tra, Cleopatra arranges to have him secretly murdered by her female servant Ftatateeta after he embarrasses her (Cleopatra) in front of Caesar by telling him that she longs for his departure from 2.52 Qiu Shiliang Egypt so that she can rule alone. He is killed offstage. In the film based on this play, Caesar and Qiu Shiliang (仇士良) (died 843* [1]), courtesy name Cleopatra (1945) he was portrayed by Francis L. Kuangmei (匡美), formally the Duke of Chu (楚公), Sullivan, and in a 1976 television version of the play, was an eunuch official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dyhe was portrayed by Noel Willman. nasty, becoming particularly powerful after the Ganlu Incident —an event in which Emperor Wenzong tried, but • In Cecil B. DeMille's 1934 film Cleopatra where he failed, to seize power back from powerful eunuchs by was portrayed by Leonard Mudie, Cleopatra kills slaughtering them. him herself, after realizing that he is hiding behind a curtain, ready to murder Caesar. • In the 1963 Cleopatra, starring Elizabeth Taylor, he was portrayed by Grégoire Aslan. Pothinus tries to poison Cleopatra, but the plot is discovered in time, whereupon he is put on trial (with no witnesses testifying), pronounced guilty, and sentenced to death by Caesar. Cleopatra's faithful male servant Apollodorus follows Pothinus and the small procession of guards as they exit the room, and within a few seconds an off-screen death scream is heard. One of the returning guards approaches Caesar and gives him a dagger. Caesar then summons his servant Flavius and hands him the dagger with the words, “Please return this to Apollodorus. You might clean it first; it has Pothinus all over it.” • In "Caesarion", an episode of the television series Rome (2005–07), Pothinus is portrayed by actor Tony Guilfoyle; he is beheaded by the Romans and his head is placed on a spike on the outer wall of the palace

2.52.1 Background and early career It is not known when Qiu Shiliang was born, but it was known that he was from Xun Prefecture (循州, in modern Huizhou, Guangdong). During the brief reign of Emperor Shunzong (805), Qiu became a servant to Emperor Shunzong's crown prince Li Chun, and after Li Chun became emperor later that year (as Emperor Xianzong), he became an imperial attendant, and later served as the eunuch monitor of the army to such circuits as Pinglu (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang, Shandong) and Fengxiang (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi).* [2] On an occasion, when both he and the imperial censor Yuan Zhen happened to be at the imperial messenger outpost Fushui (敷水, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), he and Yuan got into a dispute over who had the right to use the main bedroom at the outpost, and he battered and injured Yuan.* [2]* [3] After the incident, Yuan's superior, the deputy chief imperial censor Wang Bo proposed that the matter be handled per the previous formal policy that whenever an imperial censor and

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an imperial messenger arrived at the same location, the one who arrived first should have precedence. Emperor Xianzong, favoring Qiu, demoted Yuan, rather than to look further into the matter. Through the rest of Emperor Xianzong's reign and the reigns of his son Emperor Muzong and grandson Emperor Jingzong, Qiu often served as the director of the imperial servants (五坊使, Wufangshi), and it was said that he was harsh to the people, often allowing his subordinates to pillage them.* [2] Around new year 827, Emperor Jingzong was assassinated by a group of eunuchs and officers resentful of his harsh temperament. The conspirators initially tried to make Emperor Muzong's brother Li Wu the Prince of Jiàng emperor, but another group of eunuchs —led by the directors of palace communications Wang Shoucheng and Yang Chenghe (楊 承 和) and the commanders of the Shence Armies Wei Congjian (魏從簡) and Liang Shouqian (梁 守 謙), and Qiu, who was then a general of the Shence Army as well, was a part of this group —attacked the conspirators, killing them and Li Wu. This group of eunuchs made Emperor Jingzong's younger brother Li Han the Prince of Jiāng (note different tone) emperor (as Emperor Wenzong).* [4] Despite Qiu's participation in the counterattack, however, because Wang suppressed Qiu, Qiu was not rewarded, and from this point on he resented Wang.* [5]

2.52.2

During Emperor Wenzong's reign

Before the Ganlu Incident As of 835, Emperor Wenzong was conspiring with the officials Zheng Zhu and Li Xun to slaughter the powerful eunuchs. They first wanted to target Wang Shoucheng, and as they knew that Wang and Qiu Shiliang were enemies, in summer 835 Emperor Wenzong made Qiu the commander of the Left Shence Army so that he would divert Wang's authority. Subsequently, after Wang retired, Emperor Wenzong had the eunuch Li Haogu (李好 古) send poisoned wine to Wang, and Wang died shortly thereafter.* [5]

約), and Li Xiaoben (李孝本) to carry out the slaughter; he planned to, after the slaughter, kill Zheng as well.)* [5] On December 14, 835,* [6] six days before the scheduled funeral for Wang, Han reported to Emperor Wenzong, at the imperial meeting hall Zichen Hall (紫宸殿), that there had been sweet dew (甘露, ganlu in Chinese) that appeared on a pomegranate tree outside the headquarters of Zuo Jinwu (左金吾), one of the Wei Army (衛軍) headquarters —viewed as a sign of divine favor. Emperor Wenzong then went to nearby Hanyuan Hall (含元 殿) and ordered the imperial officials, including Li Xun, to examine the purported sweet dew. Li Xun soon returned and stated that it appeared that there was no sweet dew; at Li Xun's suggestion, Emperor Wenzong ordered Qiu and his fellow Shence Army commander Yu Hongzhi (魚弘志) to lead the eunuchs in examining the sweet dew. When Qiu and Yu arrived at the Zuo Jinwu headquarters, however, Han had lost his composure, and Qiu realized that something was wrong when he saw soldiers converging and the noise of weapons clanging. He and the other eunuchs immediately ran back to Hanyuan Hall and seized Emperor Wenzong. The soldiers under Luo and Li Xiaoben battled the eunuchs, killing a number of them, but the eunuchs were able to escort Emperor Wenzong back to the imperial palace. Knowing that he had lost this gambit, Li Xun fled.* [5] Once the eunuchs took Emperor Wenzong back to the palace, they realized that Emperor Wenzong was complicit in this plot to slaughter them, and they cursed him and held him. Qiu then ordered the Shence Army officers Liu Tailun (劉泰倫) and Wei Zhongqing (魏仲卿) to search and arrest Li Xun. The Shence Army soldiers took this chance to slaughter many imperial officials and Wei Army soldiers,. Eventually, Li Xun and his conspirators were found and executed, along with the chancellors Wang Ya, Jia Su, and Shu Yuanyu, who were not involved in the plot but whom Qiu and the other eunuchs held responsible as well. At Qiu's order, Zheng was killed by the eunuch monitor of Fengxiang, Zhang Zhongqing (張 仲卿). From this point on, Qiu was the leading figure at the imperial court, with even Emperor Wenzong under the eunuchs' control.* [5] Qiu was given an honorary general title as well as the honorific title of Tejin (特進).* [2]

The Ganlu Incident Main article: Ganlu Incident Wang Shoucheng's death, however, was only a small part of Emperor Wenzong's planning with Zheng Zhu and Li Xun —they planned to use the occasion of Wang's funeral to gather the eunuchs, and then have Zheng's troops (as Zheng was then the military governor (Jiedushi) of Fengxiang Circuit) slaughter them. (Unknown to Zheng and Emperor Wenzong, Li Xun had, by this point, grown jealous of Zheng as well, and so was instead gathering troops commanded by his associates Guo Xingyu (郭行 餘), Wang Fan (王璠), Luo Liyan (羅立言), Han Yue (韓

After the Ganlu Incident From thereon, few officials dared to stand up to Qiu Shiliang, although late in 835, there was an incident in which Xue Yuanshang (薛元賞) the mayor of Jingzhao Municipality (京兆, i.e., the region of the capital Chang'an) executed a Shence Army officer who was being disrespectful to the chancellor Li Shi, and then met Qiu to apologize. Qiu, knowing that the officer could not be brought back to life, feasted with Xue. In 836, Qiu suggested that Shence Army soldiers guard the palace, instead of the Jinwu Corps (i.e., Zuo Jinwu and You Jinwu), but at the opposition of the advisory official Feng Ding (馮定), Qiu's

2.52. QIU SHILIANG suggestion was not carried out.* [5] At one point, Qiu and Yu Hongzhi were so resentful of Emperor Wenzong that they considered deposing him. They summoned the imperial scholar Cui Shenyou (崔慎由) and asked him to draft an edict in the name of Emperor Wenzong's grandmother Grand Empress Dowager Guo deposing Emperor Wenzong on excuses of his being too ill to govern. Cui resisted, pointing out that it would be inappropriate and that he was willing to risk his own life, but not those of his household of 300 people (i.e., if he committed treason, his household would be slaughtered). Qiu and Yu then led Cui to Emperor Wenzong and, in Cui's presence, made various accusations against Emperor Wenzong, and Emperor Wenzong did not dare to respond. Qiu then stated, “If it were not for the imperial scholar, you would not be allowed to remain on this throne.”At Qiu's order, Cui kept this matter secret, but wrote secret records of this incident and left them for his son Cui Yin. (It was said that it was because of this incident that Cui Yin, who would later become chancellor under Emperor Zhaozong, was determined to exterminate eunuchs.)* [2] In spring 836, at the suggestion of the senior official Linghu Chu, Emperor Wenzong ordered that Wang Ya and the other executed officials, whose bodies had been exposed to the elements, be properly buried. Qiu, however, secretly sent soldiers to dig up their bodies and throw the bodies into the Wei River.* [5] Meanwhile, Qiu continued to be largely the power controlling the policies at this point. However, after Liu Congjian the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi, Shanxi) submitted several petitions that, in harsh language, defended Wang and accused Qiu and other eunuchs of crimes, Qiu and the other eunuchs began to be apprehensive, and allowed Emperor Wenzong and the chancellors Li Shi and Zheng Tan more room to govern. Soon thereafter, however, there was an incident when there were rumors that Emperor Wenzong was prepared to give the chancellors commands of the armies to again act against the eunuchs, and tensions rose again. It was only after Li Shi proposed that Emperor Wenzong convene a meeting between the chancellors and the eunuchs, allowing Li Shi and Zheng to explain what was happening to the eunuchs, that Qiu and the others were less suspicious of the chancellors.* [5]

107 As Li Shi had been willing to stand up to the eunuchs on policy issues, Qiu began to resent him deeply. In 838, Qiu sent assassins to try to kill Li Shi, but the assassination failed. Despite the failure, Li Shi became fearful and offered to resign his chancellor position. Emperor Wenzong reluctantly agreed, making Li Shi the military governor of Jingnan Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern Jingzhou, Hubei) instead.* [7] Meanwhile, as Emperor Wenzong's son and crown prince Li Yong died in 838, a question arose as to who would succeed Emperor Wenzong. Emperor Wenzong's favorite concubine Consort Yang supported Emperor Wenzong's younger brother Li Rong the Prince of An, but after opposition by the chancellor Li Jue, Emperor Wenzong created Emperor Jingzong's son Li Chengmei the Prince of Chen crown prince. When Emperor Wenzong became deathly ill in spring 840, he had his trusted eunuchs Liu Hongyi (劉弘逸) and Xue Jileng (薛季稜) summon the chancellors Li Jue and Yang Sifu to the palace, preparing to entrust Li Chengmei to them. Qiu and Yu, however, opposed Li Chengmei, as Emperor Wenzong did not consult them before making Li Chengmei crown prince. They discussed with Li Jue and Yang the possibility of changing the crown prince and, despite Li Jue's opposition, issued an edict in Emperor Wenzong's name deposing Li Chengmei and creating Emperor Wenzong's younger brother Li Chan the Prince of Ying crown prince instead. Soon thereafter, Emperor Wenzong died. At Qiu's urging, Li Chan, even before he would officially take the throne, ordered Consort Yang, Li Rong, and Li Chengmei to commit suicide. It was said that this point, Qiu and the other powerful eunuchs resented Emperor Wenzong so much that any eunuchs and musicians whom Emperor Wenzong favored were being executed and exiled en masse. Soon, Li Chan formally took the throne (as Emperor Wuzong).* [7]

2.52.3 During Emperor Wuzong's reign Qiu Shiliang continued to be powerful, initially, in Emperor Wuzong's administration. Emperor Wuzong created him the Duke of Chu.* [2] In 840, there was an incident in which Qiu requested that, per Tang regulations that high-level officials be allowed to recommend their sons for official service, his adopted son become an officer for the imperial guards. The imperial attendant Li Zhongmin (李中敏) opposed the request, stating, in provocative language, “Of course, Kaifu [(one of the honorific titles that Qiu held)] qualified one to recommend one's son, but how can an eunuch have a son?" Qiu was insulted and angered, and the new chancellor Li Deyu, who resented Yang Sifu (whom Emperor Wuzong had exiled by this point), believed that Li Zhongmin was an associate of Yang's, and therefore had Li Zhongmin exiled.* [7]

Meanwhile, Qiu had been resentful of the military governor of Fufang Circuit (鄜坊, headquartered in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi), Xiao Hong (蕭洪) —who was not a real brother of Emperor Wenzong's mother Empress Dowager Xiao but pretended to be and therefore received official commissions —because Xiao had ingratiated Li Xun and, under Li Xun's protection, had refused to pay bribes that his predecessor had promised to pay the officers of the Shence Armies. Qiu found out that Xiao was not really Empress Dowager Xiao's brother and exposed his deceit; Xiao was exiled and, on the way, ordered to commit suicide.* [5] Meanwhile, Qiu resented Liu Hongyi and Xue Jileng for their close association with Emperor Wenzong. Qiu

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therefore repeatedly made accusations against them, as something to do. Keep him occupied with a well as Yang and Li Jue. In 841 Emperor Wuzong life of luxury and pleasures, with enjoyment ordered Liu and Xue to commit suicide and, initially, for his eyes and ears. We further need to find was set to send eunuchs to Tan Prefecture (in modern new methods to keep him freshened, so that he Changsha, Hunan, where Yang was then serving as govwould not have time to do other things. This ernor of Hunan Circuit (湖南)) and Gui Prefecture (桂 would be the only way for our will to be done. 州, in modern Guilin, Guangxi, where Li Jue was then No matter what, do not let him study or be close serving as the governor of Gui District (桂管)), to order to the scholars. If he studied histories of past Yang and Li Jue to commit suicide as well. At the interdynasties, he will be concerned, and he will not cession of Li Deyu and his fellow chancellors Cui Gong, be close to us. Cui Dan, and Chen Yixing, Yang and Li Jue were spared their lives, but were further demoted and exiled.* [7]* [8] The other eunuchs thanked him and bowed to him before * In fall 841, Qiu was given the additional title of the mon- leaving. [9] itor of the Shence Armies (觀軍容使, Guanjunrongshi). However, he began to resent Li Deyu for Li Deyu's hold on power as well. In 842, when Emperor Wuzong was planning to issue a general pardon, rumors got to Qiu that, as part of the edict, the chancellors and the director of finances were planning to reduce Shence Army's clothing and food stipends, Qiu publicly declared,“If this occurred, when the pardon is declared, the soldiers will gather in front of Danfeng Tower [(丹鳳樓, the tower from which emperors declared pardons)] and demonstrate!" Emperor Wuzong, angered by the remarks, sent eunuchs to rebuke Qiu and the other Shence Army officers for spreading rumors, and Qiu apologized.* [7]

Qiu died later that year.* [2] In 844, however, other eunuchs reported to Emperor Wuzong of Qiu's crimes. Emperor Wuzong had Qiu's mansion searched, and several thousand sets of armors were found. Emperor Wuzong had Qiu posthumously stripped of his titles, and his assets were confiscated.* [9]

2.52.4 Notes and references [1] Old Book of Tang, vol. 18, part 1. [2] New Book of Tang, vol. 207. [3] That Qiu was the eunuch who disputed with and injured

Throughout the years, Qiu and Liu Congjian continued Yuan was recorded in both the New Book of Tang biograto have an adversarial relationship, as Liu repeatedly acphies of Qiu and Yuan. See New Book of Tang, vol. 174. cused Qiu of crimes, and Qiu repeatedly accused Liu of However, according to Yuan's biography in the Old Book plotting to rebel against the imperial government. On one of Tang, Liu Shiyuan (劉士元) was the eunuch involved. See Old Book of Tang, vol. 166. occasion, Liu offered Emperor Wuzong a large horse as a tribute, but Emperor Wuzong did not accept it and re[4] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 243. turned it to Liu. Liu believed that Emperor Wuzong rejected the horse at Qiu's suggestion and, in anger, killed [5] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 245. the horse. Thereafter, Liu acted effectively indepen[6] Academia Sinica Chinese-Western Calendar Converter. dently from the imperial government. In 843, when Liu fell ill, he wanted to have his adopted son Liu Zhen (the [7] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 246. biological son of his brother Liu Congsu (劉從素) and therefore his biological nephew) inherit Zhaoyi Circuit. [8] However, the chronicles of Emperor Wuzong's reign in the New Book of Tang stated that Liu and Xue were executed When Emperor Wuzong subsequently refused the request because they plotted to kill Qiu. See New Book of Tang, after Liu Congjian's death and instead ordered Liu Zhen vol. 8. to escort Liu Congjian's casket to the eastern capital Luoyang, Liu Zhen resisted, citing the adversarial rela- [9] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 247. tionship between Liu Congjian and Qiu as the reason why [10] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 248. he did not dare to leave Zhaoyi Circuit. Emperor Wuzong thus declared a campaign against Liu Zhen.* [9] (Eventu• New Book of Tang, vol. 207. ally, the imperial government would prevail in 845, after * Qiu himself had died.) [10] • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 245, 246, 247. Meanwhile, although Emperor Wuzong outwardly honored Qiu, he actually was suspicious of and despised Qiu. Realizing this, Qiu claimed to be ill and requested to be 2.53 Samonas given less important offices. Emperor Wuzong agreed. Qiu then retired in summer 843. It was said that when he Samonas (Greek: Σαμῶνας, c. 875 – after 908) was an was retiring, the other eunuchs escorted him back to his Arab-born eunuch, who was captured by the Byzantines mansion, and he advised them:* [9] and became one of the most influential officials of the Do not let the Son of Heaven be without

Byzantine Empire during the first decade of the 10th century.

2.53. SAMONAS

2.53.1

Biography

Samonas was born in circa 875 in Melitene, apparently the son of a distinguished family (his father served as ambassador to Byzantium in 908).* [1]* [2] Captured by the Byzantines, he was made a eunuch and entered service in the household of Stylianos Zaoutzes, the powerful chief minister and father-in-law of Emperor Leo VI the Wise (r. 886–912).* [1]* [3] After the death of both Stylianos and his daughter, the Empress Zoe Zaoutzaina, in 899, his relatives plotted to overthrow Leo in a bid to preserve their power and influence. Their conspiracy, however, was betrayed by Samonas to Leo: the members of the Zaoutzes clan were deprived of their titles and wealth and exiled, but Samonas was rewarded by receiving one third of their fortune and being taken into imperial service as koubikoularios.* [4]

Miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes, showing Samonas inciting Emperor Leo against Andronikos Doukas

Promoted rapidly after his entry into Leo's personal service, he was made a protospatharios in 900. By 903, he had apparently become, in the words of Shaun Tougher, “Leo's trusted right-hand man”. He seems to have been particularly involved in security and intelligence issues, a role stressed by several scholars who have dealt with his life.* [3] In 904, however, Samonas was involved in a bizarre episode: on the pretext of visiting a monastery, he escaped Constantinople and made for the East, hoping apparently to reach his native lands. He was, however, prevented from crossing the Halys River, and sought refuge in a holy site.* [5] There, he was in the end captured by Constantine Doukas, and brought to trial before the Byzantine Senate. Although he was not acquitted, the emperor's continued favour meant that he was only mildly punished by four months of house arrest.* [1]* [6] As soon as he was released, Samonas's career resumed its upward path: named patrikios, the highest court rank open to a eunuch, he was made protovestiarios. Another unusual mark of imperial favour occurred in 906, when Samonas was made godfather to Leo's son and heir, Constantine.* [7] In 906–907, he played an important but shadowy role in the disgrace, defection, and eventual deaths of the generals Andronikos Doukas (the father of Constantine Doukas who had arrested Samonas in 904) and Eustathios Argyros.* [8] At the same time, throughout the prolonged confrontation of Leo with the Patriarch of Constantinople Nicholas Mystikos over the

109 emperor's tetragamy, Samonas was the chief supporter of Leo. As a token of gratitude, probably after the deposition of Mystikos in early 907, he was promoted to the supreme eunuch post of parakoimomenos, which had lain vacant since the end of the reign of Michael III (r. 842–867).* [1]* [9]

Constantine the Paphlagonian is tonsured at the orders of Samonas, miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes

Samonas's own downfall, however, would come soon after. In 907, in a bid to ingratiate himself with Leo's fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, he presented her with a gift in the person of his own eunuch servant, Constantine the Paphlagonian. As the imperial couple took an increased liking to Constantine, however, Samonas began to fear for his own influence and position.* [10] He first claimed that Constantine and the empress were having an affair. Leo initially believed the accusations, and had Constantine banished to a monastery. Soon, however, Leo began to miss his new favourite, and had him restored to his service in the palace.* [11] Samonas then resorted to another scheme: with his secretary, he produced a pamphlet, supposedly written by Constantine, which insulted the emperor, and arranged for Leo to read it. His machinations, however, were betrayed by one of his fellow conspirators, and Samonas was dismissed, tonsured, and banished to the monastery of Martinakios in summer of 908. Constantine succeeded him as imperial parakoimomenos. Nothing further is known of him.* [1]* [12]

2.53.2 Assessment If Stylianos Zaoutzes has traditionally been seen by historians as having dominated the first half of Leo's reign, Samonas is often marked as the dominant figure in the second half, namely the period from circa 900 until his own downfall in 908.* [13] According to the Byzantinist Shaun Tougher, however, in both cases the extent of the power and influence wielded by these officials over Leo appears to have been exaggerated. This is in part due to the hostility towards them in later sources, and of the desire of some of them to pin the blame for the reign's failures on Leo's supposedly all-powerful subordinates.* [14] Tougher argued that the gradual rise and abrupt fall of Samonas illustrate that, far from conforming to his traditional image of a weak and easily dominated emperor, Leo remained in control: it was the emperor's conscious

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patronage and support that gave such men their great power, and when it was withdrawn, their authority vanished.* [15] Samona's role as Leo's “security chief”, a view adopted by a number of scholars (most prominently Romilly Jenkins) has also been questioned by Tougher, since it relies chiefly on circumstantial literary evidence from a later and distinctly hostile hagiography.* [1]* [16]

2.53.3

• Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2003). The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium. Chicago, Illinois and London, United Kingdom: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780-226-72015-9. • Rydén, Lennart (1984). “The Portrait of the Arab Samonas in Byzantine Literature”. Graeco-Arabica (Athens, Greece) (3): 101–108.

References

Citations [1] Kazhdan 1991, p. 1835. [2] Tougher 1997, p. 215.

2.54 Sima Qian This is a Chinese name; the family name is Sima (Ssu-ma).

[3] Tougher 1997, p. 197. [4] Kazhdan 1991, p. 2220; Tougher 1997, pp. 149, 197. [5] Tougher 1997, pp. 208–209, 214–215. [6] Tougher 1997, pp. 198, 209. [7] Tougher 1997, p. 198. [8] Tougher 1997, pp. 209–210, 213. [9] Tougher 1997, pp. 160, 198. [10] Tougher 1997, p. 200. [11] Tougher 1997, pp. 200–201. [12] Tougher 1997, pp. 198, 201. [13] Tougher 1997, pp. 89, 198. [14] Tougher 1997, pp. 97, 234.

Sima Qian (pronounced [sɨ́mà tɕʰjǽn]; c. 145 or 135 – 86 BC), formerly romanized Ssu-ma Chien, was a Chinese historian of the Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his work, the Records of the Grand Historian, a Jizhuanti-style (history presented in a series of biographies) general history of China, covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to his time, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. Although he worked as the Court Astrologer (Chinese: 太史令; Tàishǐ Lìng), later generations refer to him as the Grand Historian (Chinese: 太史公; Tàishǐ Gōng or tai-shih-kung) for his monumental work; a work which in later generations would often only be somewhat tacitly or glancingly acknowledged as an achievement only made possible by his acceptance and endurance of punitive actions against him, including imprisonment, castration, and subjection to servility.

[15] Tougher 1997, pp. 234–235. [16] Tougher 1997, pp. 197, 214.

2.54.1 Early life and education Further information: History of the Han Dynasty

Sources Sima Qian was born at Xiayang in Zuopingyi (near mod• Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dicern Hancheng, Shaanxi Province) around 145 BC, though tionary of Byzantium. New York and Oxford: Oxsome sources give his birth year as around 135 BC.* [1] ford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. His father, Sima Tan, around 136 BC received an ap• Tougher, Shaun (1997). The Reign of Leo VI (886– pointment to the relatively low-ranking position of“grand 912): Politics and People. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978- historian”(tàishǐ 太史, alt. “grand scribe”or “grand astrologer”).* [2]* [3] The grand historian's primary duty 9-00-410811-0. was to formulate the yearly calendar, identifying which days were ritually auspicious or inauspicious, and present 2.53.4 Further reading it to the emperor prior to New Year's Day.* [3] • Janin, Raymond (1935). “Un ministre arabe à In 126 BC, around the age of twenty, Sima Qian began Byzance: Samonas”. Echos d'Orient (in French) an extensive tour around China as it existed in the Han dynasty, and became probably one of the most widely 34 (36): 307–318. doi:10.3406/rebyz.1935.2837. traveled men of his generation.* [3] He started his journey • Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (April 1948). from the imperial capital, Chang'an (modern Xi'an), then “The 'Flight' of Samonas”. Speculum (Me- went south across the Yangtze River to Changsha (moddieval Academy of America) 23 (2): 217–235. ern Hunan Province), where he visited the Miluo River doi:10.2307/2852953. JSTOR 2852953. site where the ancient poet Qu Yuan was traditionally said

2.54. SIMA QIAN to have drowned himself.* [3] He then went to seek the burial place of the legendary Xia dynasty rulers Yu on Mount Kuaiji and Shun in the Jiuyi Mountains (modern Ningyuan County, Hunan).* [3]* [4] He then went north to Huaiyin (modern Huai'an, Jiangsu Province) to see the grave of Han dynasty general Han Xin, then continued north to Qufu, the hometown of Confucius, where he studied ritual and other traditional subjects.* [3]

2.54.2

As Han court official

After his travels, Sima was chosen to be a Palace Attendant in the government, whose duties were to inspect different parts of the country with Emperor Wu. In 110 BC, at the age of thirty-five, Sima Qian was sent westward on a military expedition against some “barbarian”tribes. That year, his father fell ill and could not attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting his time was running out, he summoned his son back home to complete the historical work he had begun. Sima Tan wanted to follow the Annals of Spring and Autumn - the first chronicle in the history of Chinese literature. Fueled by his father's inspiration, Sima Qian started to compile Shiji, which became known in English as the Records of the Grand Historian, in 109 BC. Three years after the death of his father, Sima Qian assumed his father's previous position as Court Astrologer. In 105 BC, Sima was among the scholars chosen to reform the calendar. As a senior imperial official, Sima was also in the position to offer counsel to the emperor on general affairs of state.

111 affair, where Li Ling and Li Guangli (李广利), two military officers who led a campaign against the Xiongnu in the north, were defeated and taken captive. Emperor Wu attributed the defeat to Li Ling, with all government officials subsequently condemning him for it. Sima was the only person to defend Li Ling, who had never been his friend but whom he respected. Emperor Wu interpreted Sima's defence of Li Ling as an attack on his brotherin-law, who had also fought against the Xiongnu without much success, and sentenced Sima to death. At that time, execution could be commuted either by money or castration. Since Sima did not have enough money to atone his “crime”, he chose the latter and was then thrown into prison, where he endured three years. He described his pain thus:“When you see the jailer you abjectly touch the ground with your forehead. At the mere sight of his underlings you are seized with terror... Such ignominy can never be wiped away.” In 96 BC, on his release from prison, Sima chose to live on as a palace eunuch to complete his histories, rather than commit suicide as was expected of a gentleman-scholar. As Sima Qian himself explained in his Letter to Ren An:

2.54.3 Historian

The Li Ling affair

The first page of Shiji.

Although the style and form of Chinese historical writings varied through the ages, Shiji has defined the quality In 99 BC, Sima Qian became embroiled in the Li Ling and style from then onwards. Before Sima, histories were Portrait of Sima Qian

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written as certain events or certain periods of history of states; his idea of a general history affected later historiographers like Zheng Qiao (郑樵) in writing Tongshi (通史) and Sima Guang in writing Zizhi Tongjian. The Chinese historical form of dynasty history, or jizhuanti history of dynasties, was codified in the second dynastic history by Ban Gu's Book of Han, but historians regard Sima's work as their model, which stands as the“official format”of the history of China. In writing Shiji, Sima initiated a new writing style by presenting history in a series of biographies. His work extends over 130 chapters —not in historical sequence, but divided into particular subjects, including annals, chronicles, and treatises —on music, ceremonies, calendars, religion, economics, and extended biographies. Sima's work influenced the writing style of other histories outside of China as well, such as the Goryeo (Korean) history the Samguk Sagi (三国史记). Sima adopted a new method in sorting out the historical data and a new approach to writing historical records. He analyzed the records and sorted out those that could serve the purpose of Shiji. He intended to discover the patterns and principles of the development of human history. Sima also emphasized, for the first time in Chinese history, the role of individual men in affecting the historical development of China and his historical perception that a country cannot escape from the fate of growth and decay.

and conciseness of his style. Other literary works Sima's famous letter to his friend Ren An about his sufferings during the Li Ling Affair and his perseverance in writing Shiji is today regarded as a highly admired example of literary prose style, studied widely in China even today. Sima Qian wrote eight rhapsodies (fu 赋), which are listed in the bibliographic treatise of the Book of Han. All but one, the “Rhapsody in Lament for Gentleman who do not Meet their Time”(士不遇赋) have been lost, and even the surviving example is probably not complete.

2.54.5 Astrologer Sima and his father were both court astrologers (taishi) 太史 in the Former Han Dynasty. At that time, the astrologer had an important role, responsible for interpreting and predicting the course of government according to the influence of the Sun, Moon, and stars, as well as other phenomena such as solar eclipses and earthquakes.

Before compiling Shiji, in 104 BC, Sima Qian created Taichuli (太初历) which can be translated as 'The first calendar' on the basis of the Qin calendar. Taichuli was one of the most advanced calendars of the time. The creUnlike the Book of Han, which was written under the su- ation of Taichuli was regarded as a revolution in the Chipervision of the imperial dynasty, Shiji was a privately nese calendar tradition, as it stated that there were 365.25 written history since he refused to write Shiji as an offi- days in a year and 29.53 days in a month. cial history covering only those of high rank. The work The minor planet 12620 Simaqian is named in his honour. also covers people of the lower classes and is therefore considered a“veritable record”of the darker side of the dynasty. 2.54.6 References

2.54.4

Literary figure

Footnotes [1] Knechtges (2014), p. 959.

Sima's Shiji is respected as a model of biographical literature with high literary value and still stands as a textbook [2] de Crespigny (2007), p. 1222. for the study of classical Chinese. Sima's works were in- [3] Knechtges (2014), p. 960. fluential to Chinese writing, serving as ideal models for various types of prose within the neo-classical (“renais- [4] Watson (1958), p. 47. sance”复古) movement of the Tang-Song period. The [5] Watson (1958), pp. 57-67. great use of characterisation and plotting also influenced fiction writing, including the classical short stories of the middle and late medieval period (Tang-Ming) as well as Works cited the vernacular novel of the late imperial period. • de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical DictioHis influence was derived primarily from the following nary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 elements of his writing: his skillful depiction of historAD). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. ical characters using details of their speech, conversations, and actions; his innovative use of informal, humor• Knechtges, David R. (2014). “Sima Qian 司馬 ous, and varied language (even Lu Xun regarded Shiji as 遷". In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Tai-ping. An“the historians' most perfect song, a "Li Sao" without the cient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Refrhyme”(史家之绝唱，无韵之离骚) in his“Hanwenxerence Guide, Part Two. Leiden: Brill. pp. 959– ueshi Gangyao”(《汉文学史纲要》); and the simplicity 965. ISBN 978-90-04-19240-9.

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• Watson, Burton (1958). Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian of China. New York: Columbia University Press.

2.54.7

External links

• Works by Sima Qian at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Sima Qian at Internet Archive • Works by Sima Qian at Open Library • Significance of Shiji on literature • Sima Qian: China's 'grand historian', article by Carrie Gracie in BBC News Magazine, 7 October 2012

2.55 Staurakios 15th-century fresco showing Empress Irene and Emperor Con-

Not to be confused with the Byzantine emperor stantine VI presiding over the final session of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (Second Council of Nicaea), which first overStaurakios, son of Nikephoros I. turned Iconoclasm.

Staurakios (or Stauracius) (Greek: Σταυράκιος; died on 3 June 800) was a Byzantine eunuch official, who rose to be one of the most important and influential associates of Byzantine empress Irene of Athens (r. 797–802). He effectively acted as chief minister during her regency for her young son, Emperor Constantine VI (r. 780–797) in 780–790, until overthrown and exiled by a military revolt in favour of the young emperor in 790. Restored to power by Constantine along with Irene in 792, Staurakios aided her in the eventual removal, blinding, and possible murder of her son in 797. His own position thereafter was threatened by the rise of another powerful eunuch, Aetios. Their increasing rivalry, and Staurakios's own imperial ambitions, were only resolved by Staurakios's death.

and his father Constantine V (r. 741–775). The generals, intensely loyal to the Isaurian dynasty and its vehemently iconoclastic policies, could threaten her own position: already a few weeks after Leo IV's death, Irene had foiled a palace plot to put his surviving brother, the Caesar Nikephoros, on the throne.* [3]

This reliance on eunuchs caused some hostility in the military; resentment at Staurakios's appointment to this powerful post is given by the Byzantine chroniclers as the reason for the (initially secret) defection of the prominent Armenian strategos of the Bucellarian Theme, Tatzates, to the Arabs in 782. This was a critical blow to the Byzantines, who at that time had almost succeeded in encircling the invading army of the future Caliph Harun alRashid (r. 786–809). On Tatzates's suggestion, Harun asked for negotiations, but when the imperial envoys, in2.55.1 Biography cluding Staurakios, arrived, they were seized and held as hostages. At this point, Tatzates and his men publicly First minister under Irene's regency went over to the Caliph. Staurakios and the other enStaurakios emerged into prominence in 781, when Irene, voys were released only when Empress Irene accepted as regent for her infant son Constantine VI, appointed him the Caliph's harsh terms for a three-year truce, includto the post of logothetes tou dromou, the Byzantine Em- ing the annual payment of an enormous tribute of 70,000 and the handing over of 10,000 silk pire's foreign minister. Already holding the high court or 90,000 *gold* dinars * [1] [4] [5] garments. rank of patrikios, through this appointment Staurakios became, in the words of the chronicler Theophanes the Con- In the next year, Staurakios led an imperial expefessor, “the foremost man of his day and in charge of dition against the Slavic communities (Sclaviniae) of everything”for most of Irene's subsequent reign.* [1]* [2] Greece. Setting out from Constantinople, the impeThis appointment was part of Irene's consistent policy rial army followed the Thracian coast into Macedonia, to rely on eunuch officials as ministers and generals, in and then south into Thessaly, Central Greece and the large part the result of her distrust towards the estab- Peloponnese. This expedition restored a measure of lished generals of her late husband, Leo IV (r. 775–780) Byzantine imperial authority over these areas, and col-

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in the imperial acclamations.* [12] Staurakios too seems to have been recalled and, along with Irene, again took an active role in the governance of the state. This turn of events drove the Armeniacs once again to mutiny, but Buoyed by this success, which was followed by a restora- their commander, Alexios Mosele, was in Constantinotion of imperial control in much of Thrace as far as ple. Despite guarantees of safety, Mosele was imprisPhilippopolis, Irene moved towards the restoration of the oned and later blinded at the instigation of Irene and Staurevenge for his role in their veneration of icons, which had been prohibited by Em- rakios, both eager* to take overthrow in 790. [13]* [14] peror Constantine V. A new ecumenical council was convened. Initially, in 786, it was held in the Church of the This alienated the army, especially the Armeniacs, who Holy Apostles in Constantinople, but the soldiers of the had provided a firm support base for Constantine VI tagmata, founded by Constantine V and loyal to his icon- against his mother. In 795, Constantine also strained relaoclastic policies, gathered outside in protest and forced tions with the Church in the so-called“Moechian Controthe assembly to be broken up.* [7] In order to neutralize versy”, when he divorced Maria and married his mistress their reaction, Irene sent the tagmata to the army base Theodote.* [14]* [15] As a result, Empress Irene's own poof Malagina in Bithynia, allegedly in preparation for a sition with the capital's bureaucracy became stronger and campaign against the Arabs. There, some 1,500 of the she began plotting against her son. While Irene bribed soldiers were dismissed while Staurakios brought loyal the tagmata, Staurakios and other agents of Irene foiled thematic troops from Thrace to guard the capital. Irene an expedition headed by Constantine against the Arabs, then reconvened the council at Nicaea, after dismiss- afraid that a victory would boost the emperor's standing ing the most recalcitrant iconoclast bishops. Predictably, with the people and the army. As he returned to the iconoclasm was overturned as a heresy, and the venera- capital, Constantine was seized and blinded. Although tion of images was restored.* [8] it was officially stated that he survived and remained imprisoned, he likely died of his wounds sometime after.* [1]* [14]* [16] Clash with Constantine VI lected booty and tribute from the locals. Empress Irene rewarded her loyal minister by allowing him to celebrate a triumph in the Hippodrome of Constantinople in January 784.* [1]* [5]* [6]

In 788, Staurakios is recorded as attending as a judge in the bride show for the 17-year-old Constantine VI, along with Irene and the young Byzantine emperor himself. Maria of Amnia was chosen, although Constantine was unhappy about the breaking up of his earlier betrothal with Rotrude, Charlemagne's daughter. From this point on, he began to resent his mother's control over state affairs and the power of her eunuch officials.* [9]* [10] Along with a few trusted conspirators, Constantine planned to arrest Staurakios and exile him to Sicily, while he would assume his position as effective co-ruler of the Byzantine Empire. Their plans were preempted by Staurakios, however: he persuaded Irene to arrest, torture, exile or imprison Constantine's associates, while Constantine himself was placed under house arrest. Next, Irene demanded of the army an oath of loyalty, whose wording placed her before her son in precedence. This demand provoked a mutiny by the soldiers of the Armeniac Theme, which then spread throughout the Anatolian armies, which assembled in Bithynia and demanded Emperor Constantine's release. Bowing to their pressure, Irene capitulated and Constantine was installed as sole ruler in December 790. Among Constantine's first acts was to have Staurakios flogged, tonsured, and exiled to the Armeniac Theme, while all other eunuch officials were likewise exiled.* [1]* [10]* [11] Irene remained confined in a palace at the Harbour of Eleutherios in the capital and retained her formal title as empress. Then, on 15 January 792, for reasons not clear, she was recalled to the imperial palace with her title as empress and co-ruler confirmed and her name restored

Irene's sole rule and Staurakios's rivalry with Aetios

Gold solidus of Empress Irene during her sole rule (r. 797–802).

With the removal of Constantine VI, Irene henceforth reigned alone, the first Byzantine empress to do so. Staurakios, however, found his own position increasingly challenged by another powerful eunuch and trusted servant of the empress, Aetios. Both were engaged in an intense rivalry to place their relatives in positions of power so as to secure control of the Empire after Irene's death.* [17] This rivalry intensified when Irene fell seriously ill in May 799. With the backing of the Domestic of the Schools, Niketas Triphyllios, Aetios accused Staurakios to Irene of planning to usurp the throne. Irene held a council at the Palace of Hieria, where her powerful minister was rebuked but got off with an apology. Staurakios now began preparing his own counter stroke, bribing members of the tagmata, although he seems to have lacked sup-

2.56. SUN CHENG

115

porters among the higher command echelons. Although 2.55.3 Sources a eunuch was legally barred from the imperial throne, • Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Staurakios nevertheless seems to have aspired to seize it Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. for himself.* [18]* [19]* [20] Warned by Aetios, Empress New York, New York and London, United KingIrene issued orders in February 800 that no one from the dom: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14688-3. military should have any contact with Staurakios. This measure curbed the latter's designs, and introduced a pre• Kaegi, Walter Emil (1981). Byzantine Military carious balance between Staurakios and Aetios, the latter Unrest, 471–843: An Interpretation. Amsterdam: still supported by Niketas Triphyllios. Soon after, StauAdolf M. Hakkert. ISBN 90-256-0902-3. rakios fell fatally ill, reportedly coughing up blood. Nevertheless, persuaded by doctors, monks and soothsayers • Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich, ed. (1991). Oxford that he would live and become Byzantine emperor, he inDictionary of Byzantium. New York, New York and stigated a revolt in Cappadocia against his adversary AeOxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. tios, who had by then secured the post of strategos of the ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Anatolic Theme (the highest-ranked military position in • Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzanthe Byzantine Empire). However, even before news of tine State and Society. Stanford, California: Stanford the revolt, which was swiftly suppressed, reached the cap* * * * University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2. ital, Staurakios died on 3 June 800. [1] [18] [19] [21]

2.55.2

References

[1] Kazhdan 1991, p. 1945. [2] Garland 1999, p. 76. [3] Garland 1999, pp. 75–77; Treadgold 1997, pp. 417–418. [4] Garland 1999, pp. 76–77. [5] Treadgold 1997, p. 418.

2.56 Sun Cheng For the Southern Tang chancellor, see Sun Sheng (Southern Tang). Sun Cheng (孫程) (died 132) was a eunuch at the Imperial Chinese court during the Han Dynasty. Contrary to the stereotype of Han eunuchs being corrupt and powerhungry, he was loyal to the imperial family and tried (unsuccessfully) to counter the culture of corruption.

[6] Garland 1999, p. 77. [7] Garland 1999, p. 79; Treadgold 1997, p. 419. [8] Kazhdan 1991, pp. 1465, 1945; Garland 1999, pp. 79– 80; Treadgold 1997, pp. 419–420. [9] Garland 1999, p. 81. [10] Treadgold 1997, p. 421. [11] Garland 1999, p. 82. [12] Garland 1999, pp. 82–83. [13] Garland 1999, p. 83. [14] Treadgold 1997, p. 422. [15] Garland 1999, pp. 83–85. [16] Garland 1999, pp. 85–87. [17] Kazhdan 1991, pp. 30, 1945; Garland 1999, pp. 87–88. [18] Garland 1999, p. 88. [19] Treadgold 1997, p. 423. [20] Kaegi 1981, p. 218. [21] Kaegi 1981, pp. 218–219.

2.56.1 Contribution to Emperor Shun's restoration During Emperor An's reign, those close to him, including the eunuchs Jiang Jing (江京) and Li Run (李閏) and his wet nurse Wang Sheng (王聖), as well as his wife Empress Yan Ji, effectively ran the imperial administration, and used the opportunity to seize power and wealth for themselves. In 124, Jiang and Empress Yan accused the nine-year-old Crown Prince Liu Bao (劉保) of crimes and persuaded Emperor An to demote him to Prince of Jiyin. In 125, Emperor An died suddenly, and even though Prince Bao was Emperor An's only son, Empress Yan, evidently wanting someone younger she could control, made Liu Yi (劉懿), the Marquess of Beixiang, emperor. When the young emperor became gravely ill later in the year, Sun, who was then a mid-level eunuch, became concerned that Empress Dowager Yan would again bypass Prince Bao, the rightful heir, and so he entered into a conspiracy with a number of other eunuchs. They swore an oath to restore Prince Bao, and several days after the former Marquess of Beixiang died, they made a sudden assault on the palace and proclaimed Bao as Emperor Shun. After several days of battling with the empress dowager's

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

faction, the eunuchs led by Sun prevailed, and the Yan clan was slaughtered.

torical Review.”. de Historia Urologie Europace 15: 39– 47. Retrieved 1 January 2015.

For their contributions to his restoration, Emperor Shun created Sun and 18 of his fellow eunuchs marquesses.

[2]“Castration secrets of China's last eunuch revealed”. ABC Online (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). 2009-0316. Retrieved 2009-03-16.

2.56.2

Failed attempt to guide Emperor Shun onto the right path

[3] Faison, Seth (1996-12-20). “The Death of the Last Emperor's Last Eunuch”. The New York Times (The New York Times Company). Retrieved 2009-03-16.

Emperor Shun, whose temperament was weak, quickly fell under the control of the officials around him. In 126, when the eunuch Zhang Fang (張防) was accused of corruption by the governor of the capital district, Yu Xu (虞 詡), he instead convinced the emperor that the accusations were false and that Yu should be sentenced to death. Sun and Zhang Xian (張賢), another eunuch who had helped put the emperor on the throne, interceded at great personal risk. Yu was spared, while Zhang was exiled. However, officials who were close to Zhang then accused Sun and his fellow eunuch-marquesses of being overly arrogant. Emperor Shun therefore sent them out of the capital Luoyang, to their estates. Sun, angered by this, had his marquess seal and emblems returned to the emperor and secretly stayed in the capital, looking to find another chance to try to guide the emperor onto the right path. He was soon captured, but Emperor Shun, remembering his accomplishments, simply sent him back to his estate without further punishment, but also without listening to his advice on stamping out corruption.

[4] Yinghua, Jia. The Last Eunuch of China-The Life of Sun Yaoting by Jia Yinghua. Sun Haichen (translator). China Intercontinental Press. p. 314. ISBN 978-7-5085-14079.

2.56.3

Later in life

In 128, Emperor Shun, remembering what Sun and the others had done for him, summoned them back to the capital, but largely again ignored their advice. In 132, Sun died and was buried with great honors, including the posthumous name Gang (剛, literally “unbending”).

2.57 Sun Yaoting Sun Yaoting (Traditional Chinese: 孫耀庭, Simplified Chinese: 孙耀庭, Hanyu Pinyin: Sūn Yàotíng, WadeGiles: Sun Yao-t'ing; September 29, 1902 – December 17, 1996) was the last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history. He was castrated at the age of eight by his father* [1] with a single swoop of a razor, mere months before the final emperor was deposed. * [2]* [3]* [4]

2.58 Ten Attendants The Ten Attendants (also known as the Ten Eunuchs) (Traditional Chinese: 十常侍, pinyin: shí chángshì) were a group of eunuchs from the Eunuch Faction of the Han Imperial Court in China. They wielded strong power at the court.

2.58.1 Achievements In 189, the Ten Attendants used widowed Empresses and support from Emperors to rise to a position of power. When the Emperor Han Ling Di died, the eunuchs, without a military power base of their own, relied on the support of Empress Dowager He and He Miao. Yuan Shao sent Zhang Jin to advise He Jin, who was Empress He's brother. Zhang Jin argued that the Yellow Gates (palace guard) and Ten Attendants had usurped power and that the Empress Dowager He was corrupt and interloped with them. He urged He Jin to destroy this source of trouble. He Jin agreed and began conspiring with Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao further advised He Jin to summon the frontier general Dong Zhuo and various warlords to the capital to threaten the Empress Dowager, which he did. Sensing an impending threat to their lives, the Ten Attendants and Yellow Gates both came to apologize to He Jin for their “misdeeds.”

Yuan Shao advised He Jin to take this opportunity to dispose of the eunuchs but He Jin rejected this advice. Subsequently, He Jin appointed Yuan Shao to govern the martial and civil officials of Luoyang and investigate the dealings of the eunuchs in the capital. Yuan Shu was ordered to select two hundred good-natured ‘Rapid as Tigers’(Hu Ben) officers to replace the arms-bearing The 1988 dramatic film Lai Shi, China's Last Eunuch is ‘Yellow Gates’eunuch guards in the Forbidden Palace. based on Sun Yaoting's life. Finally, in the ninth month of that year He Jin requested the Empress Dowager to execute the eunuchs. The conversation was overheard and relayed to Zhang Rang, the 2.57.1 References head eunuch following the death of Jian Shuo. Not long [1] Chatterton, Jocelyn; Bultitude, Matthew. “Castration; after, Duan Gui (the eunuch holding the appointment of The eunuchs of Qing dynasty China; A Medical and His- Zhong Chang Shi), influential members Zhang Rang and

2.58. TEN ATTENDANTS

117

Zhao Zhong, and some other eunuchs used a forged de- 2.58.3 In fiction cree from the Empress Dowager to lure He Jin to meet them. They beheaded He Jin in the palace garden. As a The ten attendants are listed in the historical novel result, the palace was thrown into disorder. Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Dou Wu, who in the past had planned to put them to * death, was assassinated himself. This was due to word [2] having leaked out from officers of the five regiments of the Northern Army, the professional standing army norAlthough historically Hou Lan already died in 172 and mally stationed at the capital. Cao Jie died in 181, these two attendants appeared in the In a bid to force Duan Gui and his group out of their hid- Revolt of the Ten Attendants of 189 year. ing place, Yuan Shu ordered his tiger troops to burn the Green Lock Gate (Qing Suo Men) of the Southern Jia • Feng Xu (封諝): who was a conspiror of De Palace in the Southern Palace. Instead of surrenderYellow Turban Rebellion, was executed ing, Duan Gui kidnapped the Han Emperor Shao of Han in 184, and King of Chen Liu (Liu Xie) and fled in the direction of Xiao Ping Jin. Yuan Shao beheaded Xu Xiang. At the • Jian Shuo (蹇 碩): tried to assassinate same time, Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu, followers of He Jin, He Jin and failed. Later executed by He both with significant control of military forces within the Jin. (in the novel, he was killed by Guo capital, stormed the palace and massacred the rest of the Sheng) eunuchs in the capital. The soldiers were directed to apprehend all eunuchs and to kill them all without regard Four attendants who were killed by Yuan Shu and Wu of age. Benevolent eunuchs who had refused to be conKuang (吳匡) taminated by evil influences were likewise slaughtered. Some two-thousand eunuchs were killed, not counting those people killed by mistake. • Zhao Zhong (趙忠) Yuan Shao sent troops in pursuit of Duan Gui. Seeing • Guo Sheng (郭勝) that he was about to be captured, Duan Gui ended his • Xia Yun (夏惲) life by throwing himself into the river. The remaining of the Ten Attendants initially took the young emperor and • Cheng Kuang (程廣) Prince Xie hostage, but eventually were forced to commit suicide when the enemy closed in on them. The Emperor Four attendants who kidnapped the Emperor and fled was then able to return to the palace.

2.58.2

Members

Despite the collective number of“ten,”the official history of the Eastern Han Dynasty, at Book 78 of the Book of the Later Han listed 12 attendants.* [1]

• Zhang Rang (張讓): drowned • Duan Gui (段 圭): Gong(閔貢)

killed by Min

• Hou Lan (侯覽) • Cao Jie (曹節)

• Zhang Rang (張讓) • Zhao Zhong (趙忠)

2.58.4 Modern references

• Xia Yun (夏惲) • Guo Sheng (郭勝) • Sun Zhang (孫璋) • Bi Lan (畢嵐) • Li Song (栗嵩) • Duan Gui (段圭) • Gao Wang (高望) • Zhang Gong (張恭) • Han Li (韓悝) • Song Dian (宋典)

In Dynasty Warriors 5: Xtreme Legends there is a stage dedicated to this event. Also in Dynasty Warriors 4: Xtreme Legends Dong Zhuo's stage features the Ten Attendants' Revolt In Dynasty Warriors 8: Xtreme Legends, the Ten Attendants Revolt is the first stage in the“Lu Bu”Story Mode. The game renames the event to “The Ten Eunuchs' Rebellion.”

2.58.5 See also • List of people of the Three Kingdoms

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2.58.6

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

References

[1] 後漢書/卷 78: " 是時讓, 忠及夏惲, 郭勝, 孫璋, 畢嵐, 栗嵩, 段珪, 高望, 張恭, 韓悝, 宋典十二人皆為中常 侍，封侯貴寵，父兄子弟布列州郡，所在貪殘，為 人蠹害。". [2] Luo Guanzhong, Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume I, translated by Moss Roberts. chapter 1, page 3. Foreign Languages Press. Tenth Printing 2007. First Edition 1995. Beijing, China 1995. ISBN 978-7-11900590-4

2.59 Tian Lingzi Tian Lingzi (田 令 孜) (died 893), courtesy name Zhongze (仲則), formally the Duke of Jin (晉公), was a powerful eunuch during the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang. During most of Emperor Xizong's reign, he had a stranglehold on power due to his close personal relationship with Emperor Xizong as well as his control over the eunuch-commanded Shence Armies, even throughout Emperor Xizong's flight to Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern Chengdu, Sichuan) in the face of Huang Chao's agrarian rebellion. Late in Emperor Xizong's reign, he was forced to give up his powerful position after his dispute with the warlord Wang Chongrong led to multiple rebellions that rendered the Tang court virtually powerless over the warlords, and he was given refuge by his brother Chen Jingxuan, the military governor of Xichuan. In 891, however, Chen was defeated by Wang Jian and forced to surrender Xichuan to Wang. In 893, Wang put Chen and Tian to death.

2.59.1

Background

It is not known when Tian Lingzi was born. He was originally surnamed Chen and had at least two brothers, Chen Jingxuan and Chen Jingxun (陳敬珣). The historical accounts were inconsistent as to whether he was from the Shu (蜀, i.e., modern Sichuan) region (as per his biography in the New Book of Tang)* [1] or from Xu Prefecture (許州, in modern Xuchang, Henan) (as per the Zizhi Tongjian when describing Chen Jingxuan's origins)* [2] It was said that he entered the palace as an eunuch under his adoptive father, presumably a eunuch named Tian, during the middle of Emperor Yizong's Xiantong era (860-874). It was said that he was literate, read much, and was capable of strategies.* [3] During Emperor Yizong's reign, he served as a eunuch who oversaw the imperial stables, and he became close to Emperor Yizong's son Li Yan the Prince of Pu.* [4]

2.59.2

During Emperor Xizong's reign

Before Huang Chao's attack on Chang'an

Emperor Yizong died in 873, and Li Yan, with the support of the eunuchs Liu Xingshen (劉 行 深) and Han Wenyue (韓文約), who were then the commanders of the Shence Armies, was made emperor (as Emperor Xizong). Soon after Emperor Xizong became emperor, he made Tian Lingzi one of the directors of palace communications (Shumishi), and in 875 further made Tian the commander of the Right Shence Army. It was said that because Emperor Xizong, who was then 13, liked to spend his time in games, he entrusted the matters of state to Tian, and went as far as referring to Tian as“Father.” Whenever Tian met with Emperor Xizong, he would prepare two plates of snacks, and they would drink and snack together. At Tian's suggestion, much of the wealth of the Chang'an merchants were seized and placed in the palace storage. Anyone who dared to complain was battered to death, and the imperial officials did not dare to intercede.* [4] As of 880, the Tang realm was being overrun by agrarian rebels, the strongest of which was Huang Chao. As the imperial armies were having difficulty containing the rebellions, Tian began considering the contingency plan, in case Chang'an were attacked, of taking the emperor to the Shu region. He thus recommended his brother Chen Jingxuan, who was then a general of the imperial guards, as well as several generals he trusted, Yang Shili, Niu Xu (牛勗), and Luo Yuangao (羅元杲), as potential military governors for the region, also known as the Sanchuan (三川) —i.e., the three circuits of Xichuan, Dongchuan (東川, headquartered in modern Mianyang, Sichuan), and Shannan West (山南西道, headquartered in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi). Emperor Xizong had the four of them play a ballgame to determine the order they would be commissioned. Chen won the game, and was made the military governor of Xichuan, while Yang was given Dongchuan and Niu Shannan West. During this period, Tian governed in association with the chancellor Lu Xi.* [2] By winter 880, Huang was approaching Tong Pass. Tian and the chancellor Cui Hang suggested that Emperor Xizong carry out the contingency plan to flee to the Sanchuan region. Emperor Xizong initially refused and ordered Tian to have the imperial guards try to defend Tong Pass. The soldiers that Tian was able to gather, however, were new and inexperienced, and they were unable to aid the imperial forces already gathered at Tong Pass in time. Tian blamed Lu for the defeats, and Lu committed suicide. He then took Emperor Xizong, along with four imperial princes and a few imperial consorts, and fled Chang'an, heading toward Xichuan's capital Chengdu. Huang took Chang'an and, after initially living at Tian's mansion and then moving into the palace, declared himself the emperor of a new state of Qi.* [5]

2.59. TIAN LINGZI

119

During Emperor Xizong's first flight from Chang'an military governor of Dongchuan. Tian tried to preempt any actions Yang might take by summoning Yang to Chengdu in spring 884. Yang reacted by openly declarEmperor Xizong's train first fled to Fengxiang Circuit ing a campaign against Tian and Chen. Gao subsequently (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), where waged a campaign against Yang, putting Dongchuan's the former chancellor Zheng Tian was military governor. capital Zi Prefecture (梓州) under siege.* [7] Yang's subAfter authorizing Zheng to oversee the resistance opera- ordinate Zheng Junxiong (鄭君雄) then killed Yang and tion against Huang Chao, Emperor Xizong further fled to surrendered.* [8] Shannan West, and then, at Chen Jingxuan's invitation, to Xichuan.* [5] (It was on this flight from Chang'an that By this point, one of the former subordinates of Yang Tian Lingzi would offend Emperor Xizong's brother Li Fuguang's, Lu Yanhong, had seized Shannan West CirJie the Prince of Shou —the future Emperor Zhaozong, cuit. Tian enticed Lu's subordinates Wang Jian, Han Jian, as during the flight, there was a time when Li Jie, then 13, Zhang Zao (張造), Jin Hui (晉暉), and Li Shitai (李師 became exhausted as the imperial train was going through 泰) to abandon Lu and flee to him. Tian then adopted the rugged terrain on foot. He requested that Tian give him a five of them as sons, and put them directly under his comhorse, and Tian responded, “We are in high mountains. mand without incorporating them into the imperial guard Where can we find horses?" Tian then hit the prince with command structure. He then attacked Lu, and Lu abana whip and ordered him to continue, causing Li Jie to bear doned Shannan West and fled. Subsequently, in spring 885, with Tian escorting him, Emperor Xizong finally rea deep grudge against him.)* [6] turned to Chang'an, yet Tian continued to be in control Once the imperial train arrived at Xichuan's capital of the governance.* [8] Chengdu, however, Tian quickly alienated the Xichuan troops by giving great rewards to the imperial guard soldiers that followed Emperor Xizong to Chengdu, while During and after Emperor Xizong's second flight not sharing those rewards with Xichuan troops. After the from Chang'an officer Guo Qi (郭琪) complained, Tian tried to poison Guo to death, but failed. Guo responded by starting a Once the imperial train returned to Chang'an, however, mutiny, but his mutiny was quickly defeated. When the the imperial government was caught in a major finanadvisory official Meng Zhaotu (孟昭圖) submitted a pe- cial crunch —as, in the aftermaths of Huang Chao's retition that urged Emperor Xizong to not just consult with bellion, the circuits became far more independent from Tian and Chen on the affairs of state but to listen to advice the imperial government than ever, and were not subfrom the chancellors, Tian suppressed Meng's petition, mitting their tax revenues to the imperial government, exiled Meng, and had Meng killed in exile, to stifle critwhich was only receiving such remittance from Chang'an icism.* [5] Subsequently, when the lead chancellor Wang and the surrounding regions. As Tian Lingzi greatly exDuo was put in charge of the overall operations against panded the Shence Armies during the time Emperor XiHuang but was initially unsuccessful until Wang adopted zong was in Xichuan, the imperial government was unthe suggestion by the eunuch monitor Yang Fuguang to able to pay for all of the soldiers' and officials' salaries. enlist the aid of the Shatuo chieftain Li Keyong, Tian used Tian tried to remedy the situation by ordering the conthis as excuse, in spring 883, after the imperial forces de- trol of the salt pools in Hezhong Circuit (河 中, headfeated Huang and caused Huang to abandon Chang'an, to quartered in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi) be returned to remove Wang as the commander of the operations against the imperial government so that the revenues could be reHuang. Further, he persuaded the chancellors and the re- stored. The military governor of Hezhong, Wang Chongional governors to submit petitions to Emperor Xizong grong, did not want to give up the salt pools, and subpraising Tian himself of his contributions, and therefore mitted repeated petitions opposing the order. The situaEmperor Xizong made Tian the commander of all impe- tion was further exacerbated when Tian sent his adoptive rial guards. Later in the year, after Yang Fuguang died, son Tian Kuangyou (田匡祐) to Hezhong as an emisTian used the opportunity to remove Yang Fuguang's sary, as, while Wang initially received Tian Kuangyou cousin Yang Fugong from his post as director of palace with respect, Tian Kuangyou's arrogance offended the communications. Meanwhile, Zheng Tian, who by this Hezhong soldiers. Wang thereafter publicly denounced point was at Chengdu and serving as chancellor, was not Tian Kuangyou and Tian Lingzi, and it was only at the willing to simply agree with Tian's and Chen's requests, intercession of the Hezhong eunuch monitor that Wang and Tian reacted by encouraging Li Changyan (a subordi- allowed Tian Kuangyou to leave Hezhong. When Tian nate of Zheng's who had expelled Zheng from Fengxiang Kuangyou returned to Chang'an, he urged Tian Lingzi in 881) to threaten not to allow Zheng through Fengxiang to take action against Wang. In summer 885, Tian had when Emperor Xizong would be returning to Chang'an. Emperor Xizong issue an edict transferring Wang to Zheng was forced to resign and retire to Peng Prefecture Taining Circuit (泰寧, headquartered in modern Jining, (彭州, in modern Chengdu).* [7] Shandong), Taining's military governor Qi Kerang to Meanwhile, Tian and Chen had also alienated Yang Shili Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding, by promising to make another general, Gao Renhou, the Hebei), and Yiwu's military governor Wang Chucun to

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Hezhong. Wang Chongrong, incensed, refused to report to Taining and aligned himself with Li Keyong, who had then become the military governor of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi). He also submitted a petition denouncing Tian Lingzi for 10 crimes. (Wang Chucun also tried to intercede on Wang Chongrong's behalf, but Tian did not relent.) Tian, in turn, aligned himself with Li Changyan's brother Li Changfu (who had succeeded Li Changyan as the military governor of Fengxiang after Li Changyan's death in 884) and Zhu Mei the military governor of Jingnan Circuit (靜 難, headquartered in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi).* [8]

all the way to Chengdu. When Tian went onto the city walls to try to resolve the situation, Wang bowed to him but stated that since the situation left him with nowhere to go, he would be truly a rebel from this point on. Wang put Chengdu under siege, but was unable to immediately capture it. Emperor Xizong sent emissaries to try to mediate the situation, but neither Chen nor Wang accepted the mediation.* [6]

The Shence Army soldiers rendezvoused with the Jingnan and Fengxiang soldiers, and they attacked Hezhong. Wang Chongrong and Li Keyong then joined forces and engaged the Shence/Jingnan/Fengxiang armies at Shayuan (沙苑, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi) in winter 885. The Hezhong/Hedong forces prevailed, and after the defeat, Zhu and Li Changfu fled back to their own circuits. Li Keyong headed toward Chang'an. Tian escorted Emperor Xizong and fled to Fengxiang. Tian then, against Emperor Xizong's wishes, forced Emperor Xizong to further flee to Shannan West's capital Xingyuan (興元). It was said that, by this point, the people of the realm were thoroughly disgusted with Tian, and Zhu and Li Changfu, ashamed of aligning with him, also turned against him, and sent soldiers to chase after Emperor Xizong. They were not successful, however, and the imperial guards subsequently took control of Xingyuan, forcing Zhu's ally Shi Junshe (石君涉) to flee. Meanwhile, Zhu captured Emperor Xizong's distant relative Li Yun the Prince of Xiang and had Li Yun declared emperor at Chang'an. Facing universal condemnation, Tian recommended Yang Fugong to succeed him and commissioned himself as the eunuch monitor of the Xichuan army, and subsequently left for Xichuan.* [8]

Emperor Xizong died in spring 888, and Li Jie, with Yang Fugong's support, became emperor (as Emperor Zhaozong). Meanwhile, Wang Jian submitted a petition to the new emperor condemning Chen Jingxuan and offering to serve as an assistant to any general that the imperial government might commission to replace Chen. Gu Yanlang also submitted a petition requesting that Chen be transferred. Emperor Zhaozong, who still bore a grudge against Tian, decided to accept Wang and Gu's proposal. He commissioned the chancellor Wei Zhaodu as the military governor of Xichuan to replace Chen and summoned Chen back to Chang'an to serve as a general of the imperial guards. When Chen refused, he declared Chen a renegade and ordered Wei, Wang, and Gu to attack.* [6]

2.59.3 During Emperor Zhaozong's reign

The imperial campaign against Chen, however, stalled, despite the joint forces' putting Chengdu under siege. By 891 Emperor Zhaozong's officials had become convinced that it would not succeed. Emperor Zhaozong therefore issued an edict restoring Chen's titles and ordering Gu and Wang (whom Emperor Zhaozong had given the title of military governor of a newly carved out Yongping Circuit (永平, headquartered in modern Chengdu at nearby Qiong Prefecture (邛州)) to return to their own posts. Wang, believing that success was imminent, instead intimidated Wei into surrendering his army to Wang and returning to Chang'an. Wang took control of the army and continued the intense attacks on Chengdu, while sending parts of the army to capture the other cities of Xichuan. Wang also cut off supplies that Yang Sheng (楊 晟) was sending from Peng Prefecture (彭州, in modern Chengdu) to Chengdu.* [9]

By 887, Zhu had been killed by his own subordinate Wang Xingyu, and Wang Chongrong killed Li Yun. Emperor Xizong was thus able to return to Chang'an. He issued an edict stripping Tian of all of his titles and exiling Tian to Duan Prefecture (端州, in modern Zhaoqing, Guangdong). However, as Tian was then under Chen Jingxuan's protection, the exile order was never carried out.* [8] In fall 888, desperate, Tian conversed with Wang from Meanwhile, Tian's former subordinate and adoptive son the top of the city walls. Wang promised that he would Wang Jian had taken his soldiers and made them into a continue to treat Tian as a father if Chen surrendered. band of roving raiders, loosely aligned with Gu Yanlang That night, Tian went to Wang's camp and formally surthe military governor of Dongchuan. Chen feared that rendered Chen's seals. Wang accepted, and apologized to Wang and Gu would join their forces and attack Xichuan. Tian, asking that the father-son relationship be restored. Tian suggested that he try to summon Wang to join the Wang took control of Xichuan. He commissioned Chen's Xichuan army, and Chen agreed. Tian did so in winter son Chen Tao (陳陶) as the prefect of Ya Prefecture (雅 887, but subsequently, as Wang was marching toward Xi- 州, in modern Ya'an, Sichuan) and had Chen Jingxuan * chuan in response to Tian's summons, Chen's subordinate accompany his son to Ya Prefecture. [9] Meanwhile, he * Li Ai (李乂) persuaded him that Wang would be danger- kept Tian under house arrest in Chengdu. [1] ous to have in his realm. Chen thereafter tried to stop Despite Wang's declaration that he would honor Tian Wang from further advancing. Wang, in anger, defeated again as father, he was repeatedly submitting petitions to soldiers that Chen sent to try to stop him, and marched the imperial government to order the executions of Chen

2.60. TONG GUAN Jingxuan and Tian. The imperial government never did so, however, and in summer 893 Wang decided to take things into his own hands. Accusing Chen of plotting a rebellion, he put Chen to death. He also accused Tian of communicating with Fengxiang's then-military governor Li Maozhen* [10] (whom Tian had treated well before while Li Maozhen served at the Shence Armies and who had tried to intercede on Tian's behalf)* [1] and put Tian to death.* [10] As he was facing death, Tian tore apart linen strips and stated to the executioner, “I had previously overseen the 10 armies [(i.e., the imperial guards)]. You need to kill me properly.”He then showed the executioner how he could be strangled with the linen, and the executioner did so. Later, during the middle of Emperor Zhaozong's Qianning era (894-898), for reasons unclear, Tian's titles were posthumously restored.* [1]

121 and Council of State to Emperor Huizong in the Song Dynasty. In the Water Margin, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, Tong Guan is featured as an antagonist and enemy of the 108 Liangshan outlaws. He appears mainly in the later chapters.

2.60.1 Life and career

Tong Guan began his military career under the mentorship of a leading eunuch general of the 1080s, becoming one of many eunuch generals found during the Song period.* [1] Despite being a eunuch, it was written by many that Tong Guan had strong personal character and was in peak physical condition, with a long beard that was considered unusual for eunuchs.* [1] Tong Guan gained his first military victory in battle during the year of 1104, Emperor Huizong granted him a valuable document of 2.59.4 Modern references his own calligraphy, written in his unique“slender gold” style.* [1] After Tong Guan gained reputation by comHong Kong actor Kent Tong portrayed Tian Lingzi in the manding a series of victorious battles in the northwest 2014 Chinese television series The Great Southern Migra- against the Tanguts, he became the favourite general and tion. advisor of Emperor Huizong.* [1] In 1111, he went on a diplomatic mission to the Liao Dynasty to the northeast, and after this his career steadily advanced. The following 2.59.5 Notes and references year, he was promoted to the top of the military command structure and by 1116 he was the first eunuch in the Song [1] New Book of Tang, vol. 208. Dynasty era to gain entry into the top echelons of cen[2] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 253. tral administration as one of the chief policy-makers.* [1] Tong Guan was involved in all of the elite social gather[3] Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. ings of the time, as his name appeared as a guest on nu[4] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 252. merous lists for organised parties and banquets hosted by Emperor Huizong.* [1] He was also one of only ten palace [5] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 254. eunuchs who had their biographies as painters compiled [6] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 257. and written for the court.* [1] [7] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 255. [8] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 256. [9] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 258. [10] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 259.

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 208. • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259.

2.60 Tong Guan For the strategic pass in historical China around modern Xi'an, see Tongguan County. This is a Chinese name; the family name is Tong. Tong Guan (1054–1126), courtesy name Daofu (道夫), was a court eunuch, military general, political adviser,

In the year 1118, Tong Guan suggested to Emperor Huizong that a military alliance with the Jurchens would be favourable in crushing the Liao Dynasty once and for all.* [2] Emperor Huizong agreed, despite some protest by other ministers at court. In a secret alliance and mission of envoys across the borders, Tong Guan played a leading role in the agreement that was reached between the Jurchens and the Song government to divide Liao's territory (while the Song would ultimately obtain their coveted prize: the Sixteen Prefectures). In 1120, at the age of 66, Tong Guan was put in command of an army to begin the assault on the Liao state's southern capital, Yanjing. However, the campaign was halted for a time when word came to Tong Guan's camp that a revolt had broken out within the Song Empire, Fang La's rebellion in Zhejiang province. His army was forced to march several hundred miles south to Zhejiang in order to suppress this rebellion. After successfully quelling this rebellion, his army marched back north but was routed in battle.* [1] Shortly after this, the Jurchens defeated the Liao Dynasty at Yanjing and occupied the city. The city of Yanjing was turned over to Song forces only after a substantial payment was made to the Jurchens.* [1] Due to his losses

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and inability to take Yanjing, when Tong Guan returned 2.61.1 Background to Kaifeng, he was forced to retire from his post as comIt is not known when Tutu Chengcui was born —or mander. whether he was originally surnamed Tutu, although, as it Although he was earlier forced to retire, in 1124, Tong is known that he was from the Min region (閩, roughly Guan was called back into military service by Emperor modern Fujian),* [1] it would appear doubtful, as Tutu Huizong, who trusted no other general more than Tong was largely a Xianbei surname.* [2] Early in his career Guan to head the mission across the northern border.* [1] as an eunuch, he served at the eastern palace (i.e., the However, in the last month of 1125, Tong Guan fled Crown Prince's palace) and later served as a supervising across the border back to Kaifeng to deliver the ill-fated eunuch at the textile agency (掖庭局, Yiting Ju) within news that the Jurchens had begun an invasion of the Song the eunuch bureau (內侍省, Neishi Sheng). It was said Dynasty. Tong Guan was made the leader of Emperor that he was dextrous, intelligent, and capable.* [1] While Huizong's personal bodyguard after Huizong abdicated he was serving at the Crown Prince's palace, he served the throne and fled from Kaifeng. Tong Guan was later under Li Chun the Prince of Guangling, a son of thenblamed for much of the disaster that befell Song when the crown prince Li Song (who was a son of then-reigning Jurchens conquered northern China. Emperor Huizong's Emperor Dezong).* [3] successor, Emperor Qinzong, had Tong Guan executed.

2.60.2

References

2.61.2 During Emperor Xianzong's reign

In 805, Emperor Dezong died, and Li Song became emperor (as Emperor Shunzong), but as Emperor Shunzong was himself severely ill at that point, he yielded the throne Ebrey, 165. to Li Chun later in the year (as Emperor Xianzong).* [4] Emperor Xianzong made Tutu Chengcui Neichangshi (內 Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A 常侍) —the secretary general of the eunuch bureau, servCultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: ing as the acting head of the eunuch bureau.* [5] In 806, Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-13384-4. Tutu was also made the commander (中尉, Zhongwei) of the Left Shence Army (左神策軍), as well as the director (Chinese) Li, Mengxia. 108 Heroes from the Water of religious affairs (功德使, Gongdeshi).* [3]* [5] Margin, page 217. EPB Publishers Pte Ltd, 1992. In 809, one of the key military governors (Jiedushi) ISBN 9971-0-0252-3. who had been ruling their circuits in a de facto independent manner —Wang Shizhen the military goverBuck, Pearl. All Men are Brothers. Moyer Bell Ltd, nor of Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern 2006. ISBN 9781559213035. Shijiazhuang, Hebei) —died. Wang Shizhen's son Wang Zhang, Lin Ching. Biographies of Characters in Wa- Chengzong declared himself acting military governor. In ter Margin. Writers Publishing House, 2009. ISBN the past, these successions were routinely approved by the imperial government, but Emperor Xianzong, wanting to 978-7506344784. reassert imperial authority, hesitated in doing so and conKeffer, David. Outlaws of the Marsh. sidered taking the control of Chengde back by force. The chancellor Pei Ji opposed military action, but Tutu volunMiyamotois, Yoko. Water Margin: Chinese Robin teered to command an army against Wang Chengzong. Hood and His Bandits. Meanwhile, Lu Congshi (盧 從 史) the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern (Japanese) Ichisada, Miyazaki. Suikoden: Kyoko no Changzhi, Shanxi) wanted imperial favor, and offered, naka no Shijitsu. Chuo Koronsha, 1993. ISBN 978- through Tutu, to attack Wang as well, causing Emperor 4122020559. Xianzong to consider military action further.* [3]

[1] Ebrey, 166 [2]

•

•

• •

• • •

• Shibusawa, Kou. Bandit Kings of Ancient China. Meanwhile, around the same time, there was an incident where Tutu, in his role as director of religious affairs, KOEI, 1989. remodeled Anguo Temple (安國寺) and, in the process, built a magnificent stele and asked for Emperor Xianzong to designate an official to author the text of the stele, to 2.61 Tutu Chengcui praise Emperor Xianzong. Emperor Xianzong asked the imperial scholar Li Jiang to do so, but Li Jiang pointed out Tutu Chengcui (吐突承璀) (died 820), courtesy name that of the great rulers of antiquity, none erected monuRenzhen (仁貞), was a powerful eunuch of the Chinese ments to praise himself, and the poorly-regarded Qin Shi dynasty Tang Dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xi- Huang did. Emperor Xianzong thus ordered Tutu to deanzong. stroy the stele.* [3]

2.61. TUTU CHENGCUI To resolve the standoff, Wang Chengzong offered to surrender two of Chengde's six prefectures —De (德 州, in modern Dezhou, Shandong) and Di (棣州, in modern Binzhou, Shandong) —to imperial control as a new Baoxin Circuit. Emperor Xianzong was set to accept the offer and make Wang military governor, but Wang soon retracted the offer and arrested Xue Changchao (薛昌 朝), whom Emperor Xianzong was set to commission as the military governor of Baoxin. In winter 809, Emperor Xianzong stripped Wang of his titles and commissioned Tutu as the commander of the forces against Chengde. Many officials, including Bai Juyi, Li Yuansu (李元素), Li Yong, Xu Mengrong (許孟容), Li Yijian, Meng Jian (孟 簡), Lü Yuanying (呂 元 膺), Mu Zhi (穆 質), and Dugu Yu (獨 孤 郁), opposed the commission, arguing that generals would feel ashamed serving under a eunuch. Emperor Xianzong reduced Tutu's title slightly but kept him in command.* [6] In spring 810, Tutu arrived at the northern front against Chengde, but it was said that he lacked the respect of the generals, and the military actions were therefore less than successful. In particular, after one key imperial general, Li Dingjin (酈定進) was killed in battle, the morale took a major blow. Meanwhile, Tutu and Emperor Xianzong became aware that while Lu Congshi had initially encouraged military action against Chengde, he was actually secretly in communications with Chengde and interfering with the military action. Tutu thus befriended Lu by giving Lu various treasures as gifts. Once Lu's guard was down, on one occasion when Lu was at Tutu's headquarters, Tutu had him arrested and had Lu's subordinate Wu Chongyin take control of the Zhaoyi army. Tutu subsequently recommended Wu to succeed Lu, but at the suggestion of Li Jiang, Emperor Xianzong made Wu the military governor of Heyang Circuit (河陽, headquartered in modern Jiaozuo, Henan) and made Meng Yuanyang (孟 元陽) the military governor of Heyang Circuit the new military governor of Zhaoyi. After Lu's arrest, Wang submitted a petition offering to submit and accusing Lu of having alienated him from the imperial government. As imperial forces were having no success against Wang by that point, Emperor Xianzong recalled Tutu's army and exonerated Wang and his soldiers, making Wang the military governor of Chengde.* [6] After Tutu returned to the capital Chang'an, Emperor Xianzong initially had him resume the command of the Left Shence Army. However, Pei, Duan Pingzhong (段平仲), Lü, and Li Jiang all advocated that, because Tutu was unable to defeat Wang as he promised, he should be punished. Emperor Xianzong, in response, demoted Tutu to be the director of armory supplies (軍器使, Junqishi). It was said that people celebrated Tutu's demotion.* [6] In 811, Tutu's subordinate Liu Xiguang (劉希光) was found to have received bribes from the general Sun Rui (孫瑞) to help make Sun a military governor. Liu was forced to commit suicide, and during the investigation, Tutu was implicated. Emperor Xianzong thus demoted

123 Tutu out of the capital to serve as the monitoring eunuch at Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu).* [6] While Tutu was at Huainan, Li Yong served as military governor. It was said that while Li Yong was strict and stern, he and Tutu respected each other and did not interfere with each other.* [7] Meanwhile, in 814, with Li Jiang, who was then chancellor, repeatedly offering to resign due to a foot illness, Emperor Xianzong removed Li Jiang from his chancellor position and made him the minister of rites, with an eye toward recalling Tutu after that. He soon did so, and Tutu was again made the director of armory supplies as well as the commander of the Left Shence Army.* [8] Appreciative of the mutual respect that he had with Li Yong, in 817, he recommended Li Yong to be chancellor, and Emperor Xianzong thus recalled Li Yong to be chancellor. However, Li Yong found it shameful to be recommended by a eunuch, and upon arrival in Chang'an, he offered to resign and refused to meet his subordinates as chancellor or to carry out the duties of chancellor. Emperor Xianzong made Li Yijian chancellor instead. Meanwhile, in 818, also at Tutu's recommendation, Emperor Xianzong made Huangfu Bo a chancellor as well.* [7]

2.61.3 Death Meanwhile, Tutu Chengcui also injected himself into Emperor Xianzong's succession plans. Emperor Xianzong had initially, in 809, created his oldest son Li Ning, who was not born of his wife Consort Guo, crown prince,* [3] but Li Ning died in 811. After Li Ning's death, Tutu suggested that Emperor Xianzong's next oldest son, Li Kuan (李寬) the Prince of Li (whose name was later changed to Li Yun (李惲)), be created crown prince. Emperor Xianzong disagreed and created Consort Guo's son Li You the Prince of Sui (whose name was soon changed to Li Heng) crown prince instead.* [5] Despite this, Tutu continued to advocate for Li Yun's ascension, particularly after his recall. In 820, when Emperor Xianzong grew ill, it was said that Tutu was plotting to have Li Yun become emperor, such that Li Heng feared for his own safety.* [9] In spring 820, Emperor Xianzong died suddenly —and historians generally believed that it was the eunuch Chen Hongzhi (陳 弘 志) who murdered him. The eunuchs Liang Shouqian (梁 守 謙), Ma Jintan (馬 進 潭), Liu Chengjie (劉承偕), Wei Yuansu (韋元素), and Wang Shoucheng, had Tutu and Li Yun killed, and they supported Li Heng to succeed to the throne (as Emperor Muzong).* [10] During the reign of Emperor Muzong's son Emperor Jingzong, the eunuch Ma Cunliang (馬存 亮) submitted a petition listing the accomplishments of Tutu, and Emperor Jingzong allowed Tutu's adopted son Tutu Shiye (吐突士曄) to have Tutu Chengcui reburied properly. During the subsequent reign of another of son of Emperor Xianzong's, Emperor Xuānzong, Tutu Shiye

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was further promoted to be commander of the Right Shence Army (右神策軍).* [1]

2.61.4

[3] Suryadinata, Leo Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (15 Mar 2006) ISBN 978-981-230-329-5 p.108

Notes and references

[1] New Book of Tang, vol. 207

2.63 Wang Shoucheng

[2] Online Xinhua Dictionary. [3] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 237. [4] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 236. [5] Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. [6] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 238. [7] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 240. [8] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 239. [9] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 241. [10] This version of Tutu's death was per the Zizhi Tongjian. However, Tutu's biography in the Old Book of Tang and the New Book of Tang both stated that it was Emperor Muzong, who was resentful that Tutu did not support him, who ordered Tutu killed. Compare Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 241, with Old Book of Tang, vol. 184 and New Book of Tang, vol. 207.

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 207. • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 237, 238, 239, 240, 241.

2.62 Wang Jinghong This is a Chinese name; the family name is Wang. Wang Jinghong (Chinese: 王 景 弘; pinyin: Wáng Jǐnghóng; Wade–Giles: Wang Ching-hung; died c. 1434) was a Ming dynasty Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who was deputy to Zheng He on his treasure voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Africa, from 1405 to 1433. He led an eighth voyage to Sumatra but is said to have died in a shipwreck on the way.* [1]* [2] He was buried at Semarang in Java aged 78.* [3]

Wang Shoucheng (王守澄) (died November 3, 835* [1]) was a powerful eunuch of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, wielding substantial powers during the reigns of Emperor Xianzong, Emperor Muzong, Emperor Jingzong, and Emperor Wenzong. By 835, however, two noneunuchs that he had recommended to Emperor Wenzong —Li Xun and Zheng Zhu —were plotting with Emperor Wenzong to exterminate the eunuchs, and as part of the plan, Emperor Wenzong sent poison to Wang and ordered him to commit suicide.

2.63.1 During Emperor Xianzong's reign Both Wang Shoucheng's birthdate and geographic origins have been lost to history.* [2] The earliest historical records of his activities indicated that during the reign of Emperor Xianzong, when the general Li Su served as the military governor (Jiedushi) of Wuning Circuit (武寧, headquartered in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu), Wang served as the eunuch monitor of the Wuning army.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5] While both Wang and Li were at Wuning, one of Li's subordinates introduced Li to the physician Zheng Zhu, as Li was frequently ill. Li was helped by Zheng's medicines, and subsequently, Zheng took substantial power at the Wuning headquarters. At the other officers' requests, Wang requested that Li remove Zheng. Li admitted that Zheng was frivolous, but indicated that Zheng was witty and engaging in talk. At Li's insistence, Wang met Zheng, and soon was also impressed by Zheng's wit; he was also helped by Zheng's medicines as well. Zheng thereafter became a close associate of Wang's.* [3]* [4]

By 820, Wang was back in the capital Chang'an and serving in the palace. That spring, Emperor Xianzong died suddenly —traditionally believed to be in an assassination by the eunuch Chen Hongzhi (陳弘志),* [6] although Wang's biography in the New Book of Tang indicated that Wang was also involved in the assassination.* [2] In the aftermaths of Emperor Xianzong's death, the powerful 2.62.1 Notes eunuch Tutu Chengcui tried to support Emperor Xian[1] Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty zong's oldest surviving son Li Yun (李惲) the Prince of (SUNY Series in Chinese Local Studies) State University of Li as emperor, but other eunuchs, including Wang, Liang New York Press (13 Nov 1995) ISBN 978-0-7914-2687- Shouqian (梁守謙), Ma Jintan (馬進潭), Liu Chengjie 6 p.151 (劉承偕), and Wei Yuansu (韋元素) supported another [2] Fan, Dainian; Robert Sonne Cohen Chinese studies in the son of Emperor Xianzong's, the Crown Prince Li Heng, history and philosophy of science and technology Springer and they killed Tutu and Li Yun. Li Heng subsequently (30 Sep 1996)ISBN 978-0792334637 p.313 took the throne (as Emperor Muzong).* [6]

2.63. WANG SHOUCHENG

2.63.2

During Emperor Muzong's reign

During Emperor Muzong's reign, Wang Shoucheng became one of the two palace secretaries general (Shumishi).* [3] He was said to be very powerful and involved in affairs of state, such that in 823, the official Zheng Quan (鄭權) was able to beg Wang through Zheng Zhu and be made the military governor of Lingnan Circuit (嶺南, headquartered in modern Guangzhou, Guangdong). Wang was also in an alliance with the chancellor Li Fengji.* [4]

2.63.3

During Emperor Jingzong's reign

In 824, Emperor Muzong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Jingzong. Li Fengji subsequently had Wang Shoucheng report to Emperor Jingzong that their political enemy, the imperial scholar Li Shen (李紳), had wanted to support Emperor Muzong's younger brother Li Cong (李悰) the Prince of Shen instead of Emperor Jingzong. As a result, Li Shen was exiled.* [4] During Emperor Jingzong's reign, Wang remained highly influential in policy decisions. For example, in 825, it was said that it was at the decision of Li Fengji and Wang that, after the death of Liu Wu the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi, Shanxi) that Liu Wu's son Liu Congjian was allowed to inherit Zhaoyi Circuit.* [4] In 826, Emperor Jingzong was assassinated by his polo player Su Zuoming (蘇佐明). The eunuch Liu Keming (劉克明) supported Emperor Muzong's younger brother Li Wu the Prince of Jiàng, and at one point, Li Wu was meeting with the officials and acting as if he would be the next emperor. However, Wang and other powerful eunuchs, including Yang Chenghe (楊承和), Wei Congjian (魏 從 簡), and Liang Shouqian, soon mobilized their troops and attacked Liu's party. Liu committed suicide, while Li Wu was killed. They supported Emperor Jingzong's younger brother Li Han the Prince of Jiāng (note different tone), who changed his name to Li Ang, as emperor (as Emperor Wenzong). It was Wang who consulted with the imperial scholar Wei Chuhou to deal with the ceremony of Emperor Wenzong's enthronement after the coup.* [4]

2.63.4

During Emperor Wenzong's reign

After Emperor Wenzong's enthronement, Wang Shoucheng was given the honorific title of Piaoqi Dajiangjun (驃 騎 大 將 軍) and made the commander of the Right Shence Army (右神策軍).* [3] As time went by, Emperor Wenzong came to be apprehensive that those he believed to be involved in Emperors Xianzong's and Jingzong's death were still in the palace, and, in particular, he became displeased at Wang's hold on politics and open receptions of bribery. He began to

125 discuss a way to counteract Wang with the imperial scholar Song Shenxi, and in 830 made Song chancellor. After Song involved Wang Fan (王 繙) the mayor of Jingzhao Municipality (京兆, i.e., the Chang'an region) in 831, however, Wang Fan leaked the plan, and Wang Shoucheng and Zheng Zhu came to know about the plan. Zheng reacted by ordering the Shence Army officer Doulu Zhu (豆盧著) to falsely accuse Song of plotting treason to put Emperor Wenzong's younger brother Li Cou the Prince of Zhang on the throne. When Wang Shoucheng relayed the accusation to Emperor Wenzong, Emperor Wenzong believed it and was angry. Wang Shoucheng initially wanted to take this opportunity to massacre Song's household, but was stopped by another powerful eunuch, Ma Cunliang (馬 存 亮). However, during the subsequent investigations by Shence Army officers, after an attendant official to the imperial princes, Yan Jingze (晏 敬 則), and Song's associate Wang Shiwen (王 師 文) were tortured and confessed to serving as conduits for messages between Song and Li Cou, Song was found to be guilty and was set to be executed. The advisorial officials Cui Xuanliang (崔玄 亮), Li Guyan, Wang Zhi (王質), Lu Jun (盧均), Shu Yuanbao (舒 元 褒), Jiang Xi (蔣 係), Pei Xiu (裴 休), and Wei Wen (韋溫) urged caution, however, believed there were substantial questions in the matter and urged a reinvestigation by imperial government officials. The chancellor Niu Sengru also took the same view. Zheng, fearing that a reinvestigation would lead to discovery of the truth, suggested to Wang Shoucheng that he recommend to Emperor Wenzong that neither Song nor Li Cou be executed. Li Cou was thus demoted to the title of Duke of Chao County (巢 縣, in modern Chaohu, Anhui) while Song was demoted to be the military advisor to the prefect of Kai Prefecture (開州, in modern Chongqing).* [7] Emperor Wenzong was, by this point, finding Wang Shoucheng's and Zheng's relationship to be distasteful, but after Emperor Wenzong suffered a stroke in 833, Wang recommended Zheng for his medical abilities, and after Emperor Wenzong was helped by Zheng's medicines, he began to favor Zheng as well.* [7] Around the same time, Zheng also introduced Li Zhongyan to Wang and Emperor Wenzong. Both became close associates of Emperor Wenzong's, and Li Zhongyan was made an imperial scholar over the objection of the chancellor Li Deyu, who was subsequently demoted out of the capital.* [7] In 835, Emperor Wenzong was again discussing the matter of killing powerful eunuchs, this time with Zheng and Li Zhongyan —as he believed that, since Zheng and Li Zhongyan were recommended by Wang, they would not draw the suspicions from the eunuchs. At their suggestion, Emperor Wenzong first diverted some of Wang's authority by giving the command of the Left Shence Army (左神策軍) to Wang's rival among the eunuchs, Qiu Shiliang, displacing Wang's ally Wei Yuansu, in 835. Sub-

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sequently, Zheng and Li Zhongyan (whose name had been changed to Li Xun by this point) had Wei, Yang Chenghe, and another eunuch, Wang Jianyan (王踐言), sent out of Chang'an to serve as army monitors, and also had two other chancellors, Lu Sui and Li Zongmin, demoted. Later that year, Wang Shoucheng was given the high title of the supreme monitor of the Left and Right Shence Armies and supreme commander of the 12 imperial guard corps —in order for Emperor Wenzong to strip him of the command of the Right Shence Army. Soon thereafter, at Zheng's and Li Xun's suggestion, Emperor Wenzong sent the eunuch Li Haogu (李 好古) to Wang's mansion with poison, ordering Wang to commit suicide. However, publicly, Emperor Wenzong did not allow the details be known, and posthumously honored Wang. Zheng and Li Xun thereafter planned to use Wang's funeral as the occasion to trap the eunuchs and massacre them, but Li Xun, wanting all the credit by himself, preempted the plan, but failed, in what later became known as the Ganlu Incident, leading to the eunuchs' massacre of four chancellors (in addition to Li Xun, who was chancellor by this point, Wang Ya, Jia Su, and Shu Yuanyu) and governmental officials.* [8]

2.63.5

Notes and references

[1] http://dbo.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/kiwi1/luso.sh?lstype= 2&dyna=%AD%F0&king=%A4%E5%A9v&reign= %A4%D3%A9M&yy=9&ycanzi=&mm=10&dd= &dcanzi=%A8%AF%A4x [2] New Book of Tang, vol. 208. [3] Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. [4] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 243. [5] As Li Su served as the military governor of Wuning from 818 to 820, Wang's term as the eunuch monitor at Wuning must have at least overlapped with that period. See Old Book of Tang, vol. 133. [6] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 241. [7] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 244. [8] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 245.

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 208.

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Wang. Wáng Zhèn (王振) was the first Ming Dynasty eunuch with power in the court. The Zhihua Si Temple in Beijing was built in 1443 at his order. He was killed (possibly by Ming officers) during the Tumu Crisis (also known as the Battle of Tumu Fortress), a disastrous campaign against the Oirat Mongols for which he was responsible.

2.64.1 External links • http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ 635328/Wang-Zhen

2.65 Wei Zhongxian This is a Chinese name; the family name is Wei. Wei Zhongxian (1568 – December 12, 1627) was a Chinese court eunuch who lived in the late Ming dynasty. He is considered by most historians as the most powerful and notorious eunuch in Chinese history.* [1] He is best known for his service in the court of the Tianqi Emperor (r. 1620–27), when his power eventually rivaled that of the emperor.

2.65.1 Early life (1568-1585) Little is known of Wei's pre-court life. Wei was illiterate throughout his life, which may be an indication that he was born into a peasant or merchant class family. He is presumed to have been born in 1568 in Suning County (100 miles southeast of Beijing), to have married a girl with the surname of Fang, and to have castrated himself at age 21 (Ming dynastic records claim that he did in order to escape his gambling debts.).* [2] Due to his infamy in Chinese culture over the past 400 years, other stories of his early life have appeared, many showing him as a ruffian and a compulsive gambler.

2.65.2 Early court life (1585-1619)

Through a relative of his mother, Wei was able to enter into service in the Forbidden City.* [3] As a eunuch in • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 241, 243, 244, 245. the Ming court, Wei slowly gained the favor of various palace officials while working in various unofficial positions. In 1605, he was given the job of serving meals to 2.64 Wang Zhen Lady Wang and her infant son Zhu Youxiao, who would eventually become the Tianqi Emperor.* [2] While servThis article is about the Ming Dynasty Chinese eunuch. ing in this position, he grew close to Zhu Youxiao's wet For other historical figures with this name, see Wang nurse, Madame Ke. As Zhu Youxiao grew older, he beZhen (disambiguation). came extremely attached to both Madame Ke and Wei

2.65. WEI ZHONGXIAN

127

Zhongxian, treating them as his de facto parents once his and convict dissidents was technically confined to peasmother died in 1619. ants and merchants. Arrests and interrogations of officials had to be done through the Embroidered-Uniform Guard, who were under command of prison director Xu 2.65.3 Political rise (1620-1624) Xianchun. However, Wei's true power came through his commission to deliver the emperor's edicts, as well as When the Wanli Emperor and his heir, the Taichang his close relationship with the emperor.* [12] Xu was the Emperor, both died in 1620, the palace bureaucracy one who rounded up six of the Donglin party's leaders was thrown into a succession crisis. The death of the in 1625 (including Wei's detractor Yang Lian), whom he Taichang Emperor brought Madame Ke, Wei Zhongxian, had accused of squandering public money through their and Zhu Youxiao under the supervision of Lady Li, the bureaucracy positions. After lengthy interrogations and Taichang Emperor's favorite consort, whom Zhu Youxiao torture, all six died, apparently without imperial edict. hated.* [2] Not wanting China to fall under the temporary Seven other Donglin scholars, Zhou Zongjian among rule of a regent (Zhu Youxiao was still 15, and underage) them, were rounded up and killed in 1626. Over the Donglin activist Yang Lian invaded the Forbidden City, two-year period of 1625-26, hundreds of other presumed captured Zhu Youxiao, and had him proclaimed emperor Donglin sympathizers were demoted or purged from the in his own right.* [4] With Lady Li essentially deposed, it government.* [13] Although Wei's exact involvement in became much easier for Wei and Madame Ke to influence these arrests and killings is not known, his overall control the imperial court's decisions. of the palace and the emperor's powers of edict ensure * Soon after Zhu Youxiao was enthroned as the Tianqi Em- his involvement in some degree. [12] peror, it became clear that he was much more interested in carpentry and building projects than in court matters; he often left such matters to Wei and the Grand Secretaries.* [5] Wei's loyalty to the Tianqi Emperor paid quick dividends —by 1625, he had become the minister of the Eastern Depot, a force of over one thousand uniformed policemen headquartered in the Forbidden City. As the Tianqi Emperor's de facto father and protector, Wei eventually became responsible for delivering imperial edicts,* [6] and any order from the palace was issued in the name of the emperor as well as Wei, the “Depot Minister.”* [7] Fourteen of Wei's relatives were either ennobled or received hereditary military positions; some were even appointed to high official positions.* [8] As fear of Wei's power became more and more prevalent in China, many local officials commissioned the building of temples to his honor, much to the chagrin of Confucian scholars.* [1]

2.65.4

Donglin Incidents (1624-1627)

After the Wanli Emperor's (1563-1620) long and underwhelming reign, the Donglin faction of activist scholars had hoped that the Taichang and Tianqi emperors would prove to be “Confucian gentlemen”. When the Tianqi Emperor proved just as indifferent to his imperial responsibilities as his grandfather was and an illiterate eunuch seemed to be the most powerful figure in the Forbidden City, the Donglin scholars decided that their intervention was sorely needed.* [9] Donglin sympathizer and Ming censor Zhou Zongjian impeached Wei Zhongxian in July of 1622, imploring the emperor to remove him from the palace.* [10] In 1624, Yang Lian wrote a memorial to Tianqi condemning Wei of“24 crimes”, some of them fabricated.* [11] Both attempts were unsuccessful, and turned Wei against the Donglin party.

2.65.5 Fall from power and suicide (late 1627) The Tianqi Emperor died in 1627, and although many expected Wei to attempt to seize the throne, no such coup happened. According to Li Sunzhi (a Donglin sympathizer), Wei had previously attempted to convince Empress Zhang to adopt his nephew, Wei Liangqing, in order to continue his manipulation of the throne. However, the empress refused.* [14] Because none of the Tianqi Emperor's three sons lived to adulthood, the emperor conferred the right to rule to his younger brother, Zhu Youjian, who became the Chongzhen Emperor on 2 October 1627. Although the Chongzhen Emperor was intent on ruling without any decision-making surrogates, he did not immediately dismiss Wei. When Wei offered to resign just six days after the Chongzhen Emperor's reign began, the emperor refused. A month later, Wei decreed that no more temples should be built in his honor.* [15] In the months afterwards, multiple complaints about and calls for Wei's impeachment came before the emperor. After ignoring the first few, the Chongzhen Emperor finally called for evidence of Wei's faults from officials. In response to this, “more than one hundred”officials sent memorials denouncing Wei. On December 8, the Chongzhen Emperor issued an edict listing Wei's crimes, and exiled him south to Fengyang (in present-day Anhui).* [16]

As Wei traveled to Fengyang, one of the Chongzhen Emperor's commissioners warned the emperor that Wei might work with other demoted officials of the deceased Tianqi Emperor to stage a rebellion. Acting on the warning, the Chongzhen Emperor ordered the EmbroideredAs head of the Eastern Depot, Wei's power to arrest Uniform Guard to arrest Wei and bring him back to Bei-

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jing. On December 13, informants found Wei and told him of the edict. That night, he and his entourage stopped at an inn 150 miles south of Beijing. Wei and his secretary proceeded to hang themselves from the rafters with their own belts. After discovering Wei's death, the rest of his entourage managed to escape the area before the guards came.* [17]

[7] Dardess, John W. (2012). Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of the Resilient Empire. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Publishers, Inc. p. 57. [8] Dardess 2002, p. 141 [9] Fairbank, John King (2006). China: A New History. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 141.

The Chongzhen Emperor's retribution to Wei and his political allies was swift and severe. In early 1628, Wei's [10] Dardess 2002, p. 49 corpse was dismembered and displayed in his native village as a warning to the public.* [18] By 1629, 161 of [11] Miller, Harry (2009). State Versus Gentry in Late Ming Dynasty China, 1572-1644. New York: Palgrave Wei's associates had been punished by the Chongzhen MacMillan. p. 121. Emperor; of those, 24 were sentenced to execution.* [19] Madam Ke was beaten to death by an interrogator just 11 [12] Dardess 2002, p. 101 days after Wei's death.* [19] [13] Dardess 2002, p. 123

2.65.6

Legacy and dramatizations

[14] Dardess 2002, p. 148

Since his death, Wei has been seen by Chinese people and scholars as the instigator of the Tianqi era's collective atrocities. According to historical Chinese scholars, Wei's faults lay not necessarily in his persecution of the Donglin party, but in wielding power that was only supposed to be used by emperors themselves.* [20] Stories and dramatizations of this persecution were written just months after his death, and gained a large public audience.* [21] In 2009, a 42-hour primetime television series dramatizing Wei Zhongxian and Madam Ke's power during the reign of the Tianqi Emperor was shown on Chinese television. The series also portrayed the Wei Zhongxian and the Tianqi Emperor in a negative light.* [22]

[15] Dardess 2002, p. 150 [16] Dardess 2002, p. 154 [17] Dardess 2002, p. 154-155 [18] Tsai 1996, p. 6 [19] Dardess 2002, p. 156 [20] Wu 2009, p. 52 [21] Wu 2009, p. 44 [22] Sogou. 电视剧: 天下

Works cited

2.65.7

See also

• Temple of Azure Clouds in modern Beijing: largely expanded by Wei, who intended to use it as his burial grounds. • Mao Wenlong, a general promoted by Wei

2.65.8

References

[1] “Wei Zhongxian,” ‘’Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Academic Edition’ ’. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc, 2014. [2] Dardess 2002, p. 35

• Dardess, John W. (2002), Blood and History in China: The Donglin Faction and its Repression, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press • Wu, H Laura (May 2009). “Corpses on Display: Representations of Torture and Pain in the Wei Zhongxian Novels”. Ming Studies 59 (1): 42–55. doi:10.1179/175975909X466435. • Tsai, Shi-shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

2.66 Wimund

[3] Tsai 1996, p. 4 [4] Artwell, William. “The T’aichang, T’ienchi, and Ch’ ung-chen Reigns”. In Mote, Frederick; Twitchett, Denis. Cambridge History of China. 7 part 1. pp. 585–640. ISBN 9780521243322. [5] Dardess 2002, p. 37 [6] Dardess 2002, p. 112

Wimund was a bishop who became a seafaring warlord adventurer in the years after 1147. His story is passed down to us by 12th-century English historian William of Newburgh in his Historia rerum anglicarum, Book I, Chapter 24 entitled “Of bishop Wimund, his life unbecoming a bishop, and how he was deprived of his sight” .* [1]

2.67. XIA YUN

2.66.1

Wimund's origins

William tells us that Wimund was “born in the most obscure spot in England.”He was educated at Furness Abbey, founded 1123–1127 by the future Stephen I of England. Wimund may have been a member of the party sent from Furness to found a house at Rushen on the Isle of Man by request of Amlaíb son of Gofraid Cróbh bhan, the King of Mann and the Isles, in 1134.* [2]

129 ning, Gille Aldan was consecrated Bishop of Whithorn, probably by the agreement of Fergus of Galloway and Archbishop Thurstan, and with the approval of Pope Honorius III. The lands of the recreated Bishopric of Whithorn had probably been subject to the Bishops of the Isles, and for rival bishops to employ armed force to drive off their rivals was hardly unknown. Thus, rather than to gain his inheritance, Wimund's struggle with Gille Aldan was apparently an attempt to prevent his bishopric being partitioned in favour of a rival.* [5] After being captured, he was blinded, and castrated and spent the rest of his life at the monastery at Byland Abbey.

King Amlaíb granted the monks of Furness the right to elect the Bishop of the Isles, and it appears that Wimund was elected to the see during the time of Thurstan (II), Archbishop of York. Thurstan died in early 1140, so that Wimund became Bishop of the Isles in the period 1134– 2.66.3 Notes 1140.* [3] This was a very rapid rise for a young man of apparently obscure origins. [1] Historia rerum anglicarum, Book 1 Ch.24, Retrieved Jan.

2005 However, as William of Newburgh tells us later, Wimund in time claimed to be the son of the Mormaer of Moray. [2] Oram, pp.182–183. William, and some later writers, doubted Wimund's claims. Modern historians have been more inclined to [3] Oram, p. 183. take this claim seriously. Some have proposed that [4] McDonald, pp.101–102; Oram, pp. 183–186. Wimund Wimund was a son of Óengus of Moray (died 1130), has also been conflated with Malcolm MacHeth. grandson of King Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin. However, his link with Cumbria has led to the supposition [5] Richard Oram, The Lordship of Galloway, pp. 164-76. that Wimund was a son (possibly illegitimate) of William fitz Duncan, son of King Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim. William held extensive lands in Cumbria through his 2.66.4 References mother, Octreda, daughter of Cospatrick of Northum• John of Fordun, Chronicle of the Scottish Nation. bria, and is believed to have been Mormaer or Earl of Edited by William Forbes Skene, translated by Felix Moray between Óengus's death in 1130 and his own death J.H. Skene. Reprinted, Llanerch Press, Lampeter, * in 1147. [4] 1993. ISBN 1-897853-05-X

2.66.2

Bishop Wimund

The following is a summary of William of Newburgh's account of the life of Bishop Wimund. Wimund's bishopric of the Isles had its seat on the Isle of Skye. The ruins of Snizort Cathedral, dedicated to Columba, are still visible near Skeabost. William of Newburgh writes that Wimund, "[n]ot content with the dignity of his episcopal office, he next anticipated in his mind how he might accomplish great and wonderful things; for he possessed a haughty speaking mouth with the proudest heart.” However, Wimund's father, if he was indeed the son of William fitz Duncan, was alive for the first seven years at least of his time as a Bishop of the Isles. So long as his father was alive, Wimund need hardly "[feign] himself to be the son of the earl of Moray and that he was deprived of the inheritance of his fathers by the king of Scotland” as William says. But William may be anticipating himself; Wimund's first conflict was not with his uncle King David, but with a fellow bishop, and there is no reason to suppose that these two conflicts were linked.

• R. Andrew McDonald, Outlaws of Medieval Scotland: Challenges to the Canmore Kings, 1058–1266. Tuckwell Press, East Linton, 2003. ISBN 1-86232236-8 • William of Newburgh, Historia rerum anglicarum, Book 1 Ch.24, “Of bishop Wimund, his life unbecoming a bishop, and how he was deprived of his sight”, Full-text online. • Richard Oram, David I: The King who made Scotland. Tempus, Stroud, 2004. ISBN 0-7524-2825-X • “Heard at Byland: Wimund’s Woes”from Byland Abbey website, Retrieved Jan. 2005.

2.67 Xia Yun

Xia Yun (simplified Chinese: 夏恽; traditional Chinese: 夏惲, Pinyin Xià Yùn) was a eunuch of the late Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han; he was also one of the Ten regular attendants (Also known as the Ten Eunuchs), a group of court eunuchs who held great influence in the Han imperial court. After Emperor Ling died and During Wimund's episcopate, or shortly before its begin- was succeeded by his son Liu Bian in 189, He Jin, Yuan

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Shao and Cao Cao invaded the capital for the purpose of by eunuchs.* [2] Subsequently, under Tian's advice, Emdefeating the Ten Attendants, leading to He Jin's behead- peror Xizong abandoned Chang'an and fled to Chengdu, ing in the palace courtyard by the Ten Attendants. where Tian's brother Chen Jingxuan served as the military governor (Jiedushi) of Xichuan Circuit (西川). It was said that due to Tian's control of the government, few dared to argue with him on policies, but Yang Fu2.68 Yang Fugong gong dared to, apparently partly because Yang Fugong's cousin Yang Fuguang then was in charge of one of the This is a Chinese name; the family name is Yang. major Tang armies fighting against Huang (who had declared himself the emperor of a new state of Qi). AfYang Fugong (楊復恭) (died 894), courtesy name Zike ter Yang Fuguang died in 883, however, Tian immedi(子恪), formally the Duke of Wei (魏公), was an eunuch ately had Yang Fugong demoted to be the director of the official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, playing imperial stable (飛龍使, Feilongshi). Yang Fugong thus key roles in the imperial administrations of Emperor claimed to be ill and retired to his own mansion in Lantian Xizong and Emperor Xizong's brother Emperor Zhao- (藍田, in modern Xi'an, Shaanxi).* [3] zong. He was later suspected by Emperor Zhaozong In 885, by which time Huang's rebellion had been supof power-grabbing and removed, and afterwards encourpressed and Emperor Xizong had returned to Chang'an, aged his adopted sons/nephews Yang Shouliang, Yang Tian provoked the warlord Wang Chongrong (the miliShouxin (楊守信), Yang Shouzhen (楊守貞), and Yang tary governor of Hezhong Circuit (河中, headquartered Shouzhong (楊守忠) into resisting the imperial governin modern Yuncheng, Shanxi)) by ordering Wang's transment together. They were, however, defeated by the genfer. Wang reacted by aligning himself with Li Keyong eral Li Maozhen and captured while in flight; they were the military governor of Hedong Circuit (河 東, headthen delivered to the capital Chang'an and executed. quartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), and Wang and Li Keyong's troops defeated those of Tian and Tian's allies Li Changfu the military governor of Fengxiang Cir2.68.1 Background cuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi) and It is not known when Yang Fugong was born. He was Zhu Mei the military governor of Jingnan Circuit (靜難, originally surnamed Lin (林) until he, who apparently be- headquartered in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi). Tian again came an eunuch in his youth, became an adopted son of took Emperor Xizong and fled Chang'an, to Xingyuan the eunuch Yang Xuanyi (楊玄翼), who was a director of (興元, in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi). It was during this the palace communications (Shumishi) during the middle flight that Emperor Xizong made Yang Fugong the direcof Emperor Yizong's Xiantong era (860-874). (He was tor of palace communications again, and soon thereafter, thus adoptive cousin of another later-prominent eunuch, when Tian realized that he was open to condemnation Yang Fuguang, who was the adopted son of Yang Xu- from all sides (with his allies Li Changfu and Zhu havanyi's adoptive brother Yang Xuanjie (楊玄价).) Yang ing abandoned him, and Zhu going as far as supporting Fugong was literate and well-learned, and subsequently Emperor Xizong's distant relative Li Yun the Prince of successively served as a eunuch monitor for several impe- Xiang as an alternative claimant to the imperial throne), rial armies. During the Pang Xun rebellion of 868-869, Tian recommended Yang Fugong to succeed him, while Yang Fugong served as the eunuch monitor of the Heyang making himself the eunuch monitor of Xichuan so that he Circuit (河陽, headquartered in modern JIaozuo, Henan), could join his brother Chen. Subsequently, because of the and after Pang's rebellion was suppressed, Yang was cred- friendship that Wang had with Yang Fuguang when both ited and recalled to the capital Chang'an to serve as the were fighting Huang, Yang Fugong was able to persuade * palace-government liaison (宣徽使, Xuanhuishi). After Wang and Li Keyong to resubmit to Emperor Xizong. [4] Yang Xuanyi died in 870, Yang Fugong left governmental service for some time to observe a mourning period for him, but soon was recalled to serve as a director of palace communications.* [1]

2.68.2

During Emperor Xizong's reign

As of 880, when Emperor Yizong's son Emperor Xizong was emperor, Yang Fugong's colleague Tian Lingzi was extremely powerful due to his personal relationship with Emperor Xizong. When the agrarian rebel Huang Chao was approaching Chang'an, Yang Fugong served as Tian's deputy when Tian was commanding the imperial Shence Armies (神策軍), traditionally commanded

Meanwhile, with Zhu's campaign against Emperor Xizong stalled, Yang issued a declaration to the Guanzhong region (i.e., the greater Chang'an region) that anyone who killed Zhu would be made the military governor of Jingnan. After hearing the declaration, Zhu's officer Wang Xingyu turned against him, launched a surprise attack on Chang'an (where Zhu and Li Yun were), and killed Zhu. Li Yun fled to Hezhong and was killed by Wang Chongrong, and his competing claim was extinguished.* [4] Subsequently, on the imperial train's return to Chang'an, Emperor Xizong stopped at Fengxiang, when a ceremonial dispute erupted between Li Changfu and Yang's adopted son Yang Shouli (楊 守 立). This erupted into open battle between the Fengxiang army and

2.68. YANG FUGONG imperial guards. The imperial guard general Li Maozhen was able to defeat Li Changfu and force him to flee; Li Changfu was subsequently killed by his own subordinate Xue Zhichou (薛知籌), and Li Maozhen took Fengxiang.* [5] Upon Emperor Xizong's return to Chang'an, for Yang Fugong's contributions, he was created the Duke of Wei.* [6] In spring 888, Emperor Xizong grew seriously ill. It was said that most imperial officials hoped that his brother Li Bao (李保) the Prince of Ji, who was considered capable, would succeed him, but that under Yang Fugong's support, another brother of Emperor Xizong's, Li Jie the Prince of Shou, was created the Crown Prince. When Emperor Xizong died soon thereafter, Li Jie (whose name was then changed to Li Min) took the throne (as Emperor Zhaozong).* [5]

2.68.3

During Emperor Zhaozong's reign

Because of Yang Fugong's contributions to Emperor Zhaozong's taking the throne, he tried to exert his influence in policy decisions, gradually drawing Emperor Zhaozong's displeasure. He further offended the emperor by being arrogant, including riding a litter all the way into the palace, and adopting many strong military officers to be his sons. This caused both the chancellor Kong Wei and Emperor Zhaozong to openly accuse him of impropriety, and Yang, while initially responding that he adopted many officers in order to help defend the emperor, was unable to respond when Emperor Zhaozong pointed out that those officers, then, should be adopted into the imperial clan of Li rather than Yang's own clan. (Indeed, Emperor Zhaozong subsequently demanded to have Yang Shouli attend to him, and Yang Fugong had to accede to the emperor's wishes; Emperor Zhaozong then bestowed a new name, Li Shunjie (李 順 節), on Yang Shouli, and made him a commander of his personal guards.)* [7]

131 The two were exiled.* [7] Yang continued to exert influence over the imperial governance, and many of his adopted sons and nephews became powerful generals, including his adopted sons Yang Shouzhen the military governor of Longjian Circuit (龍 劍, headquartered in Mianyang, Sichuan) and Yang Shouzhong the military governor of Wuding Circuit (武定, headquartered in modern Hanzhong), as well as Yang Fuguang's adopted son Yang Shouliang the military governor of Shannan West Circuit (山南西道, headquartered in modern Hanzhong as well (at Xingyuan)). Yang Fugong also developed another enmity, with Emperor Zhaozong's maternal uncle Wang Gui (王瓌). In fall 891, Yang thus recommended Wang to be the military governor of Qiannan Circuit (黔南).* [7] (Where Qiannan was is unclear; the modern historian Bo Yang believed that it was a fictional circuit that Yang created for the sole purpose of murdering Wang.)* [8] As Wang was heading to his post through Shannan West, Yang had Yang Shouliang send soldiers disguised as bandits to ambush Wang and kill his entire train. Emperor Zhaozong, believing Yang Fugong to be behind the killings, became hateful of Yang. Further, Li Shunjie, now with a direct relationship with the emperor, was informing the emperor of Yang's misdeeds. Emperor Zhaozong thus ordered Yang to be the eunuch monitor to Fengxiang, but Yang refused on account of illness. He thereafter ordered Yang's retirement, and Yang retired to his mansion at Lantian.* [7]

As Yang's mansion was close to the Yushan Camp (玉 山營), Yang Fuguang's adopted son Yang Shouxin, who commanded the Yushan Camp, visited him frequently, and thus rumors developed that Yang Fugong and Yang Shouxin were plotting treason. Emperor Zhaozong preemptively ordered Li Shunjie and another imperial guard officer, Li Shoujie (李 守 節), to attack Yang Fugong's mansion. Yang Fugong and Yang Shouxin took their families and fled to Xingyuan. There, he, Yang Shouliang, Yang Shouzhong, Yang Shouzhen, and another adopted son, Yang Shouhou (楊守厚) the prefect of Mian PreMeanwhile, Yang Fugong had a deep enmity with the fecture (綿州, in modern Mianyang), jointly announced chancellor Zhang Jun —because he had initially rec- a campaign, ostensibly against Li Shunjie.* [7] ommended Zhang for imperial service, but Zhang, after Yang Fugong's initial retirement, immediately became a The imperial government did not immediately engage the follower of Yang's rival Tian Lingzi. Emperor Zhaozong, Yangs. However, in spring 892, five nearby military govbecause of this enmity between Zhang and Yang Fugong, ernors —Li Maozhen of Fengxiang, Wang Xingyu of further trusted Zhang in order to counteract Yang. As of Jingnan, Han Jian of Zhenguo Circuit (鎮國, headquar890, Zhang, who had also been displeased with Li Key- tered in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), Wang Xingyue (王 ong because Li Keyong had criticized him, persuaded 行約, Wang Xingyu's brother) of Kuangguo Circuit (匡 Emperor Zhaozong to declare a general campaign against 國, headquartered in modern Weinan as well), and Li Li Keyong, supported by Li Keyong's rival warlords Zhu Maozhuang (李茂莊, Li Maozhen's brother) of TianxQuanzhong the military governor of Xuanwu Circuit (宣 iong (天雄, headquartered in modern Tianshui, Gansu) 武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan) and Li —apparently seeing this as an excellent opportunity to Kuangwei the military governor of Lulong Circuit (盧龍, annex the Yangs' territory, submitted a joint petition reheadquartered in modern Beijing) but opposed by Yang. questing permission to attack the Yangs and requesting Zhang's campaign, however, was unsuccessful, purport- that Li Maozhen be put in command of the operations. edly partly due to Yang's sabotage. After Li Keyong de- Emperor Zhaozong, believing that if Li Maozhen took feated the imperial forces, he demanded that Zhang and over the Yangs' territory, he would be even harder to conKong (who agreed with Zhang's proposal) be demoted. trol, ordered mediation, but no one accepted imperial

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mediation. Subsequently, Emperor Zhaozong felt com- general of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, who was pelled to agree with Li Maozhen's wishes, and so formally considered a major contributor to the Tang cause in finally declared Li Maozhen the commander of the operations defeating Huang Chao's rebellion. against the Yangs.* [9] Li Maozhen quickly captured much of the Yangs' territory, and in fall 892, he captured Xingyuan, and put his adopted son Li Jimi (李 繼 密) in acting command of Shannan West. Yang Fugong, along with Yang Shouliang, Yang Shouxin, Yang Shouzhen, Yang Shouzhong, and another follower, Man Cun (滿 存), fled to Lang Prefecture (閬 州, in modern Nanchong, Sichuan). In fall 894, Li Maozhen further attacked Lang Prefecture and captured it. Yang Fuguang, Yang Shouliang, and Yang Shouxin fought out of the encirclement and tried to flee toward Hedong. When they went through Zhenguo, however, Han's soldiers captured them.* [9] Han executed Yang Fugong and Yang Shouxin, and delivered their heads and Yang Shouliang to Chang'an, where Yang Shouliang was executed as well. Another adopted son, Yang Yanbo (楊 彥 伯), did make it to Hedong. Apparently due to Yang Yanbo's request, Li Keyong submitted a petition in Yang Fugong's defense, and Yang Yanbo was permitted to bury Yang Fugong properly, and Yang Fugong's titles were subsequently restored posthumously.* [6]

2.68.4

Notes and references

[1] Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. [2] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 254. [3] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 255. [4] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 256. [5] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 257. [6] New Book of Tang, vol. 208. [7] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 258. [8] Bo Yang Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 63 [891]. [9] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 259.

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 208.

2.69.1 Background Yang Fuguang was born in 842, during the reign of Emperor Wuzong.* [1] He was originally surnamed Qiao (喬) and was from the Min (閩) region —i.e., modern Fujian. At some point, he became an eunuch official and an adopted son of the powerful eunuch Yang Xuanjie (楊 玄价), and therefore took the surname of Yang. It was said that Yang Fuguang was strong and self-motivated, impressing Yang Xuanjie. Because Yang Fuguang was considered to have military capabilities, he served several successive terms as eunuch monitor of armies.* [2] (Yang Fuguang was thus the adoptive cousin of another later-prominent eunuch, Yang Fugong, as Yang Fugong was the adopted son of Yang Xuanjie's adoptive brother Yang Xuanyi (楊玄翼).)* [1]

2.69.2 During Emperor Xizong's reign Before Huang Chao captured Chang'an As of 876, Yang Fuguang was serving as the eunuch monitor of the army under the general Zeng Yuanyu (曾 元 裕), who was then serving as the deputy commander for Tang forces in the campaign against the agrarian rebel Wang Xianzhi.* [3] In 877, Yang sent messengers to Wang and persuaded him to surrender to Tang imperial forces. Wang agreed, and he sent his general Shang Junzhang (尚君長) to further discuss the matter with Yang. Zeng's superior Song Wei (宋 威), however, ambushed and captured Shang on his way to Yang's camp. Song then submitted a report claiming that he had captured Shang in battle. Despite Yang's report that Shang was participating in Wang's negotiations to surrender, thenreigning Emperor Xizong believed Song's report and had Shang executed.* [4] In anger, Wang broke off negotiations and continued his rebellion. Subsequently, when the chancellor Wang Duo was put in overall command of the operations, Yang served as the eunuch monitor of his army.* [2]

By 880, when Wang Xianzhi had already been killed in • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 252, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, battle but Huang Chao had in turn become the most powerful agrarian rebel figure, Yang Fuguang was serving as 259. the eunuch monitor of Jingnan Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern Jingzhou, Hubei), when, in the absence of a military governor (Jiedushi), he commissioned the 2.69 Yang Fuguang officer Song Hao (宋浩) to oversee the circuit's affairs. Subsequently, though, when Song had a dispute with the This is a Chinese name; the family name is Yang. officer Duan Yanmo over Song's punishment of some of Duan's soldiers, Duan killed Song. Yang subsequently Yang Fuguang (楊復光) (842-883* [1]), formally Duke submitted a report that indicated that Song's punishment Zhongsu of Hongnong (弘農忠肅公), was an eunuch was overly harsh, and Duan was not punished.* [4] (Ac-

2.70. YISHIHA

133

cording to Yang's biography in the New Book of Tang, Yang encouraged Duan's actions because Song was disrespectful to Yang as well.) Subsequently, Yang was made the eunuch monitor at Zhongwu Circuit (忠武, headquartered in modern Xuchang, Henan).* [2]

Yang died later in 883, at Hezhong. It was said that because he had led the troops well, the troops greatly mourned his death.* [6] Yang had a large number of adopted sons (who were not eunuchs), and many of them would become key military officers.* [2]

After Huang Chao captured Chang'an

2.69.3 Notes and references

Late in 880, Huang Chao captured the imperial capital Chang'an, forcing Emperor Xizong to flee to Chengdu. A number of Tang generals submitted to Huang, who declared himself the emperor of a new state of Qi. Among those was the military governor of Zhongwu, Zhou Ji. One night, when Zhou invited Yang Fuguang to a feast, Yang's attendants, pointing out that Zhou had already submitted to Qi, Yang should fear whether Zhou would kill him. Yang pointed out that he needed to do what he could to persuade Zhou back to the Tang imperial cause and should do so despite dangers to himself, and so attended the feast. At the feast, Yang persuaded Zhou to rejoin the Tang cause, and he further sent his adopted son Yang Shouliang to assassinate Huang's emissary to Zhongwu. Subsequently, Yang organized the Zhongwu troops into eight corps, commanded by eight officers, including Lu Yanhong, Jin Hui (晉暉), Wang Jian, Han Jian, Zhang Zao (張造), Li Shitai (李師泰), and Pang Cong (龐從). The Zhongwu forces were able to repel the Qi forces under Zhu Wen, preserving Zhongwu's ability to resist Qi. In winter 881, Yang further advanced his troops to Wugong (武功, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), close to Chang'an, preparing to participate in the operations to recapture Chang'an from Huang. Tang forces subsequently briefly recaptured Chang'an, but Huang subsequently defeated them and took Chang'an again.* [5] Yang subsequently joined forces with Wang Chongrong the military governor of Hezhong Circuit (河中, headquartered in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), and they persuaded Zhu, who then was at Tong Prefecture (同 州, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), to join the Tang cause as well.* [2] However, Huang's army remained powerful, and Wang was apprehensive to directly act against Huang. Yang suggested that they enlist the aid of the Shatuo chieftain Li Keyong —who had previously rebelled against Tang and been branded a renegade. Yang submitted the proposal to Wang Duo (who was then again overseeing the operations against Huang), and Wang issued an edict in Emperor Xizong's name summoning Li Keyong. Li Keyong agreed, and he joined forces with Yang and Wang Chongrong, preparing to again attack Chang'an. In summer 883, with Li Keyong leading the operation, the imperial forces defeated Huang's, forcing Huang to abandon Chang'an and flee east. Subsequently, it was Yang who submitted the public report to Emperor Xizong proclaiming the victory at Chang'an.* [6] For his contributions, he was given the honorific title of Kaifu Yitong Sansi (開府儀同三司) and created the Duke of Hongnong.* [2]

[1] Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. [2] New Book of Tang, vol. 207. [3] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 252. [4] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 253. [5] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 254. [6] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 255.

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 207. • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 252, 253, 254, 255.

2.70 Yishiha Yishiha (Chinese: 亦失哈; Wade–Giles: Ishiha/I-shihha; also Išiqa or Isiha* [1] Jurchen: i ʃï xa* [2]) (fl. 1409–1451) was a Chinese eunuch in the service of the Ming dynasty emperors who carried out several expeditions down the Songhua and Amur Rivers during the period of Ming rule of Manchuria,* [1]* [3] and is credited with the construction of the only two Ming dynasty Buddhist temples ever built on the territory of present-day Russia.* [4]

2.70.1 Early life It is believed that Yishiha was a Haixi Jurchen by origin,* [1]* [5] and was captured by the Ming forces in the late 14th century.* [1] He worked under two important eunuchs, Wang Zhen and Cao Jixiang. It is speculated by modern historians that he rose to prominence by participating in imperial court politics and serving the Yongle Emperor's concubines of Manchu (Jurchen) origin.* [6]* [7]

2.70.2 Amur expeditions Yishiha's Amur expeditions belong to the same period of the Yongle Emperor's reign (1402–1424) which saw another eunuch admiral, Zheng He, sail across the Indian Ocean, and Chinese ambassadors reach the Timurid Empire's capital Herat (in today's Afghanistan) overland.* [8]

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Tyr

Jilin Turpan Sayram Hami Beijing Samarkand Tashkent Yanqi Suzhou Bukhara Termez Xi'an Andkhoy Herat Nanjing Liujiagang Hormuz Medina Jedda

Sunargaon Pandua

Mecca

Quanzhou

Changle

Ayutthaya

Lasa

Qui Nhon

Calicut

Aden Quillon Mogadishu

Kunming

Beruwala Galle Semudera

Malacca

Malindi Palembang Semarang

Surabaya

Yishiha's voyages in the context of military and diplomatic activities in the Yongle era of the Ming dynasty. Yishiha's route is in blue, along with those of Zheng He (in black) and Chen Cheng (in green).

By 1409, the Yongle Emperor's government, which had already established relations with the Haixi and Jianzhou Jurchens in southern Manchuria, ordered Yishiha to start preparations for an expedition to the lower Amur River region, to demonstrate the power of the Ming Empire to the Nurgan Jurchen populating the area and induce them to enter into relations with the empire, and to ensure that they would not create trouble for the Ming state when the A pillar on top of the Tyr Cliff, remaining from, apparently, latter went to war with the Eastern Mongols.* [1] Yishiha's second temple, as seen ca. 1860

In 1411, after two years of preparations, Yishiha's fleet of 25 ships with 1000 men aboard* [1] sailed from Jilin City* [1] down the Sungari and into the Amur. The“Nurgan Jurchens”offered little oppositions to Yishiha's expedition. He gave generous gifts to their tribal leaders, and established a Nurgan Regional Military Commission,* [1] at the place the Chinese called Telin (特 林), near the present-day village of Tyr in Russia's Khabarovsk Krai. This was the same place where in 1260–1320 the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty had the headquarters of their Marshal of the Eastern Campaigns.* [4] The commission's authority covered much of the Amur basin, including the shores of the Sungari, Ussuri, Urmi, Muling, and Nen Rivers.* [5] Yishiha then returned to the Ming Empire, taking with him a tribute-bearing mission of 178 “Nurgan Jurchens”.* [1] In 1413–1414, during his second expeditions to the lower Amur, Yishiha stayed almost a year at Tyr.* [6] He built a Buddhist temple (sometimes described as a“monastery” ) named Yongning Si (永宁寺, the Temple of Eternal Peace) dedicated to Guanyin on the Tyr Cliff, and erected a stele describing his expedition, with the text in Chinese, Mongol, and Jurchen languages.* [1]* [9] The stele, presently kept in the Arseniev Museum in Vladivostok, described the locals as good archers and fishermen, and their clothes as made of fishskin.* [10] According to some evidence (a seal issued by the empire's Ministry of Rites, found in Yilan County, Heilongjiang), in 1413 Yishiha also visited the nearby coast of the Sakhalin Island, and

granted Ming titles to a local chieftain.* [5] While no detailed ethnographic data about the “Nurgan Jurchens”has been found in Chinese records, it was, apparently, a collective name for the Tungusic peoples and possibly other groups (e.g. Nivkh* [11]) populating the area. As of the mid-19th century, Tyr was a Gilyak (Nivkh) settlement, as attested by a contemporary encyclopedia* [12] and the book by E.G. Ravenstein, based on the accounts of the Russian explorers of the 1850s.* [13] Another ethnic group native to the Ulchsky District (where Tyr is located) are the Ulch people, a Tungusic people, but their home villages are all located upstream from Tyr.* [14] During the rest of the Yongle Emperor's reign, Yishiha carried out three more expeditions to Nurgan, while the Nurgan natives sent some more tribute and trade missions to the Ming court.* [1] The Yongle Emperor's successor (the short-lived Hongxi Emperor (r. 1424–25), or, more likely, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1425–35)) continued the Yongle era's policy toward the “Wild Jurchens”. In 1425, the Liaodong regional commissioner, Liu Qing, was ordered to build ships for another expedition down the river, and in 1426 Yishiha sailed again.* [1]* [15] Yishiha's last mission was connected to the retirement of the Nurgan chief and the “inauguration”of his son as

2.70. YISHIHA his successor. Yishiha attended at that event in 1432, presenting the new chief a seal of authority and giving gifts to subordinate chieftains.* [1]* [16] This time Yishiha's fleet included 50 big ships with 2,000 soldiers, and they actually brought the new chief (who had been living in Beijing) to Tyr.* [6] As Yishiha's first (1413) Yongning Si temple had been destroyed by that time, Yishiha had a second temple of the same name built. According to the modern archaeologists, his second temple was not built at the site of his first temple (as it had been commonly believed), but rather at the site of its ancient predecessor – the Yuan Dynasty Yongning Si temple. As the archaeological research has revealed, the 1413 temple was located some 90 meters to the west of the top of the Tyr Cliff, where Yishiha's 1430s temple (and its Yuan predecessor) were located.* [4]* [17] A second stele was put next to the second temple. The stele has also survived, and has been moved south by the Russians for keeping at the Arsenyev Primorye Museum in Vladivostok.* [18]* [19] According to modern historians, Yishiha made the total of nine* [5] expeditions to the Lower Amur.

2.70.3

Later career

In the 1430s, the Xuande government stopped sending sea and river expeditions, and the naval (or, rather, riverine) career of Yishiha came to an end, as did that of his more famous colleague Zheng He. In 1435 Yishiha was put in charge of the defense of the Liaodong region; he remained at this post for over 15 years.* [1]* [15] Apparently, his performance during the raids of the Oirad Mongol chief Esen Tayisi was considered unsatisfactory, and some time between 1449 and 1451 his was relieved of his duties. No later traces of him have been found by modern historians.* [1]

2.70.4

See also

• Manchuria under Ming rule • Nurgan Regional Military Commission

2.70.5

References

[1] Rossabi, Morris (1976). “Isiha”. In Goodrich, L. Carrington; Fang, Chaoying. Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644. Volume I (A-L). Columbia University Press. pp. 685–686. ISBN 0-231-03801-1 [2] Jin Qicong (金啓孮), Jurchen script Dictionary (女真文 辞典), Relics Press (文物出版社), China, 1984, pp.94 [3] Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 07914-2687-4. Retrieved March 2, 2012. While Hai Tong and Hou Xian were busy courting the Mongols and Tibetans, a Ming eunuch of Manchurian stock, Yishiha, also

135

quietly carried the guidon in the exploration of Northern Manchuria and Eastern Siberia. In 1375, the Ming dynasty established the Liaodong Regional Military Commission at Liaoyang, using twenty-five guards (each guard consisted of roughly 5,600 soldiers) to control Southern Manchuria. In 1409, six years after Yongle ascended the throne, he launched three campaigns to shore up Ming influence in the lower Amur River valley. The upshot was the establishment of the Nuerkan Regional Military Commission with several battalions (1,120 soldiers theoretically made up a battalion) deployed along the Songari, Ussuri, Khor, Urmi, Muling and Nen Rivers. The Nuerkan Commission, which parallelled that of the Liaodong Commission, was a special frontier administrations; therefore the Ming government permitted its commanding officers to transmit their offices to their sons and grandsons without any dimunition in rank. In the meantime, The Ming court periodically sent special envoys and inspectors to the region, making sure that the chiefs of various tribes remained loyal to the Ming emperor. But the one enboy who was most active and played the most significant role in the region was the eunuch Yishiha. [4] Важнейшие результаты исследований Лаборатории позднесредневековой археологии Дальнего Востока (Principal research results of the Laboratory of the Late Mediaeval Archaeology of the [Russian] Far East) (Russian) [5] Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002). Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. University of Washington Press. pp. 158–159. ISBN 0-295-98124-5 [6] Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. SUNY Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 0-79142687-4 [7] Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Yishiha belonged to the Haixi tribe of the Jurchen race. The Ming shi provides no background information on this Manchurian castrato except that Yishiha worked under two powerful early Ming eunuchs, Wang Zhen and Cao Jixiang.16 It is also likely that Yishiha gained prominence by enrduring the hard knocks of court politics and serving imperial concubines of Manchurian origin, as Emperor Yongle kept Jurchen women in his harem. At any rate, in the spring of 1411, Yongle commissioned Yishiha to vie for the heart and soul of the peoples in Northern Manchuria and Eastern Siberia. Yishiha led a party of more than 1,000 officers and soldiers who boarded twenty-five ships and sailed along the Amur River for several days before reaching the Nuerkan Command post. Nuerkan was located on the east bank of the Amur River, approximately 300 li from the river's entrance and 250 li form the present-day Russian town of Nikolayevka. Yishiha's immediate assignment was to confer titles on tribal chiefs, giving them seals and uniforms. He also actively sought new recruits to fill out the official ranks for the Regional Commission.17 [8] Tsai (2002), p. 161 [9] Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 130. ISBN

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

0-7914-2687-4. Retrieved March 2, 2012. year, during which time he artfully maneuvered his trusted Jurchen friends to leadership positions. And by constructing a Buddhist temple called Yunning, or Forever Tranquil, Yishiha also attempted to convert the Oroqens and other ethnic groups of the region into Buddhism. In 1414, he ordered the erection of a stone monument near the Yunning Temple on which he scribed his major activities in four different languages —Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen, and Tibetan. During this mission, Yishiha also visited Sakhalin Island and was said to have conferred a Ming title of a tribal chieftain there. And according to a stone monument found in an old shipyard of Jilin City, Yishiha probably undertok another mission around 1420, as he used many of the Jilin ships to transport grain and utensils to the Nuerkan region. [10] Telin Stele (from: "Политика Минской империи в отношении чжурчженей (1402–1413 гг.)" (The Jurchen policy of the Ming Empire), in "Китай и его соседи в древности и средневековье" (China and its neighbors in antiquity and the Middle Ages), Moscow, 1970. (Russian) [11] Головачев В.Ц. (V.Ts. Golovachev), "Тырские стелы и храм «Юн Нин» в свете китайско-чжурчжэньских отношений XIV-XV вв.”(The Tyr stelae and the Yongning Temple viewed in as an aspect of Sino-Jurchen relations), Etno-zhurnal, 2008-11-14 [12] Тыр (Tyr in Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary) (Russian) [13] E.G.Ravenstein “The Russians on the Amur”. Full text can be found on Google Books. [14] Ульчи (Ulchi data, at the site of the Associations of the Indigenous Peoples of Siberia; most of the villages can be found on Wikimapia.org) [15] Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4. Retrieved March 2, 2012. By 1420, Yishiha's experience, character, record, and judgement had certainly made him not only an expert on the frontier defense of the region, but also might well have provided him a coat of armor that protected him against jealous and wily court rivals. His next mission to the Nuerkan Command post ended in 1425 as he and his party were awarded by Yongle's successor, the Emperor Hongxi. During the reign of the fifth Ming sovereign, Emperor Xuande, Yishiha was dispatched at least three more times to the lower Amur River, inspecting, spreading imperial will and Ming policies, and reporting on the frontier defense and general conditions of the region. In 1432, when the commissioner in chief Kang Wang retired, Yishiha escorted Kang's son Kang Fu, who resided in Beijing at the time, to assume his inherited position. A part of 2,000 soldiers and an armada of fifty big ships arrived at the Siberian frontier fortress during the summer season. Almost immediately, Yishiha ordered the refurbishing of the Yunning Temple and the erection of yet another stone stele to commemorate the occasion. All told, Yishiha had made a total of nine missions to this desolate but strategically important region, pacifying the minority groups and serving as Ming's expansionist agent.18 Yishiha was later

promoted to grand defender, or zhenshou, of Liaodong and received an annual salary of forty piculs of rice in 1444. Three years later, he was awarded an annual increment of thirty-six piculs of rice as a consequence of a memorable military campaign.19 [16] Tsai (1996) describes the person being retired as “the commissioner in chief Kang Wang"; one has to assume that it was a Chinese title, and Chinese name, bestowed to a local (probably, Nivkh) chief. [17] Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 07914-2687-4. Retrieved March 2, 2012. Two years later, in 1413, Yishiha undertook a second mission to the area, bringing with him large quantities of foods, clothes, and agricultural tools. That mission did a great deal to mollify some of the tribes who continued to make contact with the Mongols. Yishiha stayed there for nearly a [18] A. R. Artemyev. Archaeological sites of Yuan and Ming epochs in Transbaikalia and the Amur basin [19] Объекты туризма —Археологические. Тырские храмы (Regional government site explaining the location of the Tyr (Telin) temples: just south of the Tyr village) (Russian)

2.70.6 Further reading • Yuen, Chee-ying (袁持英) (2007). “Eunuchs and the consolidation of the North-eastern frontier during the period of Yongle (1403–1424) = 明永樂年 間的東北經營與宦官" (Full text of a M.A. Thesis (Chinese); abstract (English)) • Rossabi, Morris (1976). “Two Ming Envoys to Inner Asia”. T'oung Pao, Second Series 62 (Livr. 1/3): 1–34. doi:10.1163/156853276X00016. JSTOR 4528048

2.71 Yu Chao'en Yu Chao'en (魚朝恩) (722 – April 10, 770* [1]), formally the Duke of Han (韓公), was a eunuch official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty. He was powerful early during the reign of Emperor Daizong and was feared by others, including chancellors. At the urging of the chancellor Yuan Zai, Emperor Daizong secretly executed him at a meeting in 770, although Emperor Daizong publicly claimed that he committed suicide.

2.71.1 Background Yu Chao'en was born in 722, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong. His family was from Lu Prefecture (瀘州, in modern Luzhou, Sichuan). Late in Emperor Xuanzong's Tianbao (742–756) era, Yu was an eunuch attached to the examination bureau of government (門下省, Menxia

2.71. YU CHAO'EN

137

Sheng). It was said that he was intelligent and was ca- Emperor Daizong gave Yu the title of monitor of troops pable both in publicly announcing imperial edicts and in over the entire realm (天下觀軍容宣慰處置使, Tianxia accounting. Guanjunrong Xuanwei Chuzhishi). After Emperor Xuanzong's return to Chang'an later in the year, Yu continued to be in command of the Shence Army and was greatly favored by Emperor Daizong, receiving much wealth. He 2.71.2 During Emperor Suzong's reign was also permitted to enter and leave the palace as he Early in the Zhide (756–758) era of Emperor Xuanzong's wished. As the generals under his command continued son and successor Emperor Suzong, during which Em- to achieve important victories, particularly in the subseperor Suzong was occupied with trying to suppress the quent conflict against the rebellious general Pugu Huai'en, rebel state Yan, Yu Chao'en was often commissioned to he considered himself capable in military command. As serve as a monitor of the armies, including serving as he considered himself learned in the Confucian classics monitor of the army of Li Guangjin (李光進) during the as well and was capable of writing. In 765, during an atrecapturing of the capital Chang'an from Yan forces in tack by Pugu's forces, aligned with Huige and Tufan, Yu 757. For his contributions to the campaign, he was put tried to use his soldiers to coerce the imperial officials in charge of the eunuch bureau (內侍省, Neishi Sheng) into concurring with moving the capital to Hezhong (河 and given a general title. Subsequently, after Tang forces 中, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), but when an official recaptured the eastern capital Luoyang (which served as named Liu publicly denounced the plan even with Yu's Yan's capital), forcing the Yan emperor An Qingxu to flee soldiers surrounding him, Yu abandoned the plan.* [2] to Yecheng, nine Tang military governors (Jiedushi) put Also in 765, Yu, because he believed himself capable in Yecheng under siege. The two most prominent generals literary matters, was made the acting principal of the imof the nine were Guo Ziyi and Li Guangbi (Li Guangjin's perial university (國子監, Guozijian). He was also crebrother), and as Emperor Suzong did not want to force ated the Duke of Zheng. Under him, the imperial univerone to submit to the command of the other, he did not sity, which had been destroyed during the Anshi Rebelcommission a supreme commander; rather, he made Yu lion, was rebuilt. In 766, when the university's constructhe monitor of the armies. It was said that Yu was jealous tion was completed, Yu personally lectured about the I of Guo and often submitted reports criticizing Guo, but Ching, tried to satirize the chancellors by talking about that Guo defused the tension by being humble with Yu. how a ding (a large cooking vessel often used to symbolIn 759, the Yan general Shi Siming, who had briefly submitted to Tang but then rose again against Tang, attacked Tang forces at Yecheng and, while not achieving a victory, caused the Tang forces to collapse by themselves. He subsequently killed An Qingxu and took over the Yan throne. Meanwhile, Yu blamed the collapse on Guo, and as a result, Li Guangbi was put in command of the armies. Shi Siming subsequently attacked Luoyang and captured it. After a failed attempt by Tang forces to capture Luoyang, instigated by Yu and opposed by Li Guangbi, Shi tried to attack west toward Chang'an, but was repelled by the general Wei Boyu (衛 伯 玉), who was under Yu's command, at Shan Prefecture (陝 州, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan). After a joint Tang and Huige army recaptured Luoyang in 762, Yu stationed his elite Shence Army to Bian Prefecture (汴州, in modern Kaifeng, Henan). For his contributions in this battle, he was created the Duke of Fengyi. Later in 762, he moved back to Shan Prefecture.

2.71.3

During Emperor Daizong's reign

Also in 762, Emperor Suzong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Daizong. In 763, when Tufan launched a sudden attack against Chang'an, Emperor Daizong was forced to flee to Shan Prefecture. When he fled, very few imperial guard soldiers accompanied him, and it was not until Yu Chao'en met him at Huayin (華陰, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi) that he was protected by an army.

ize chancellorship) would overturn if imbalanced. The chancellor Wang Jin, was visibly incensed, but the more powerful Yuan Zai remained calm and pleasant, leading Yu to comment,“It is common for the target to get angry, but one who remains smiling needs to be paid attention to even more carefully.”* [3] Yuan, however, was secretly resentful. Yu continued to be the principal of the university until 768, despite opposition by the official Chang Gun that a eunuch should not head the university. In 767, Yu donated his mansion outside Chang'an to be rebuilt into a Buddhist temple dedicated to Emperor Daizong's deceased mother Consort Wu. As she was posthumously honored Empress Zhangjing, the temple was named Zhangjing Temple. The temple was said to be so luxuriously built that the wood in Chang'an was not enough, and several imperial pavilions had to be torn down so that the wood could be reused, and many officials and generals were required to donate their own houses for wood. In 768, he was created the Duke of Han. That year, at the anniversary of Consort Wu's death, Yu held a feast in her honor —at which he openly talked about how the chancellors were incompetent and should yield their seats. The chancellors did not dare to respond, but the junior officials Xiangli Zao (相里造) and Li Kan (李 衎) responded and rebuked Yu, causing him to be displeased and to adjourn the feast early. Late in the year, Guo Ziyi's father's tomb was opened by grave robbers, but it was commonly believed that, because Yu disliked Guo immensely, that he was responsible for instigating it, and

138 thus, when Guo subsequently arrived in the capital, there was anticipation that Guo would react violently. Guo defused the tension by stating that his soldiers have themselves robbed many graves, and that this must have been divine retribution.* [3] In 769, when Emperor Daizong had Yu escort Guo on a tour of Zhangjing Temple, Yuan tried to exploit the tension between the two by having Guo's subordinates falsely warning Guo that Yu was set to kill him during the tour. Guo refused to take precautions and told Yu about the rumors, defusing the tension between the two. Meanwhile, several things caused Emperor Daizong to begin to be pleased with Yu. Yu was beginning to expect Emperor Daizong to accept every suggestion of his, and on one occasion, when Emperor Daizong did not, Yu stated, “Is there anything in this realm that I cannot decide?" Yu's young adoptive son Yu Linghui (魚令徽) was then serving as a eunuch inside the palace, and he wore the green robe for sixth and seventh rank officials. On an occasion, he had an argument with his colleagues, and he told Yu Chao'en about the argument. Yu Chao'en met Emperor Daizong the next day and stated, “My son's rank is too low, and his colleagues look down on him. Please let him wear a purple robe.* [4]" Even before Emperor Daizong could respond, the officials nearby, following Yu Chao'en's cue, already brought out a purple robe and put it on Yu Linghui. Yu Linghui bowed to thank Emperor Daizong, who smiled and responded, “This child now has a purple robe. He should be happy.”However, he was internally displeased about how the incident went. Yuan saw that Emperor Daizong was becoming displeased with Yu, and therefore suggested to Emperor Daizong to eliminate Yu. They began to plot together. Yuan began to bribe two close associates of Yu's; Zhou Hao (周皓) the commander of the imperial guard archery corps, and Huangfu Wen (皇甫溫) the military governor of Shan Circuit (headquartered in modern Sanmenxia). Zhou and Huangfu became associates of Yuan's, and from this point on, Yuan and Emperor Daizong were able to anticipate Yu's moves.

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS then issued a public rebuke of Yu and then claimed that, when Yu received the rebuke, he committed suicide. Emperor Daizong still had him buried with honors, at imperial expense.

2.71.4 Notes and references [1] http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/kiwi1/luso.sh? lstype=2&dyna=%AD%F0&king=%A5N%A9v& reign=%A4j%BE%E4&yy=5&ycanzi=&mm=3&dd= 10&dcanzi= [2] That Yu wanted to move the capital to Hezhong was per the Zizhi Tongjian. The New Book of Tang indicated that he wanted to move the capital to Luoyang, while the Old Book of Tang did not discuss the incident at all. Compare Old Book of Tang, vol. 184; New Book of Tang, vol. 207; and Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 223. [3] Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 224. [4] A purple robe was for an official of the third rank or above. See the Bo Yang Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 54 [770].

• Old Book of Tang, vol. 184. • New Book of Tang, vol. 207. • Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 220, 221, 222, 223, 224.

2.72 Zhang Rang Zhang Rang (pinyin: Zhāng Ràng) (135–189) was a eunuch of the late Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han; he was also the leader of the Ten regular attendants (Also known as the Ten Eunuchs), a group of court eunuchs who held great influence in the Han imperial court. Such was Zhang Rang's power that Emperor Ling referred to him as 'father(阿父)' and allowed him control of most matters in court. The people and the officials, including He Jin, Yuan Shao and Cao Cao, all agreed that Zhang Rang's power was too great. After Emperor Ling died and was succeeded by his son Liu Bian in 189, these individuals invaded the capital for the purpose of defeating the Ten Attendants, leading to He Jin's beheading in the palace courtyard by the Ten Attendants. Zhang kidnapped the emperor and his brother, the future Emperor Xian. However, Zhang was soon surrounded by enemy soldiers and so jumped in the river and drowned himself.

In spring 770, at Yuan's suggestion, Emperor Daizong carried out several moves that were intending to be preludes to eliminating Yu —moving the general Li Baoyu from being the military governor (Jiedushi) of Fengxiang Circuit (鳳 翔, headquartered in modern Baoji) to Shannan West Circuit (山南西道, headquartered in modern Xi'an, Shaanxi, to the southwest of Chang'an), while moving Huangfu, then the military governor of Shan Circuit (headquartered in modern Sanmenxia) to Fengxiang —while allaying Yu's suspicions by transferring control of four counties near Chang'an to the imperial guards, under Yu's command. (Yuan's intent was that, as Huangfu arrived in Chang'an, to use his soldiers against Yu.) Soon, 2.72.1 References when Huangfu arrived in Chang'an, Yuan laid a trap for Yu with Huangfu's and Zhou's soldiers, and at a secret meeting between Emperor Daizong and Yu, Yuan and 2.72.2 See also Emperor Daizong acted and killed Yu. Emperor Daizong • List of people of the Three Kingdoms

2.73. ZHAO GAO

2.73 Zhao Gao This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zhao.

139 punishable by death. Meng Yi was the official in charge of sentencing and he sentenced Zhao to death and removed him from the officials list as instructed by Qin Shi Huang. Zhao was later pardoned by Qin Shi Huang and returned to his official status.

Zhao Gao (Simplified Chinese 赵高, died 207 BC) was a Chinese politician of the Qin dynasty. Allegedly a eunuch, he served as a close aide to all three emperors of 2.73.2 Coup following Qin Shi Huang's the Qin dynasty – Qin Shi Huang, Qin Er Shi and Ziying death – and was regarded as having played an instrumental role in the downfall of the dynasty. At the end of the reign of Qin Shi Huang, Zhao Gao Zhao Gao started his career under Qin Shi Huang as a was involved in the death of Meng Tian and his younger zhongche fuling (中車府令), an official in charge of man- brother, Meng Yi. Meng Tian, a reputable general and a aging the palace horse-drawn carriages. During this pe- supporter of Qin Shi Huang's eldest son, Fusu, was stariod of time, he also served as an attendant to Huhai, Qin tioned at the northern border, commanding more than Shi Huang's youngest son, and tutored him in the laws 200,000 troops for the inconclusive campaign against the of the Qin Empire. In 210 BC, after Qin Shi Huang Xiongnu. Following the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang died in Shaqiu (沙 丘; south of present-day Dapingtai at Shaqiu, Zhao Gao and Li Si, the Chancellor, persuaded Village, Guangzong County, Hebei), Zhao Gao and Li the emperor's youngest son, Huhai, to falsify the emSi, the Chancellor, secretly changed the emperor's final peror's will. The fake decree forced Fusu to commit suiedict, which named Fusu, the crown prince, the heir to the cide and stripped Meng Tian of his command. Harbourthrone. In the falsified edict, Fusu was ordered to commit ing hatred for the entire Meng family due to his prior suicide while Huhai was named the new emperor. After sentencing by Meng Yi, Zhao Gao destroyed the Meng Huhai was enthroned as Qin Er Shi, he promoted Zhao brothers by convincing Huhai to issue a decree that forced Gao to langzhongling (郎中令), an official post whose Meng Tian to commit suicide and execute Meng Yi. duties included managing the daily activities in the impe- Qin Er Shi, who viewed Zhao Gao as his tutor, became rial palace. Zhao Gao, who was highly trusted by Qin Er the next Qin emperor. Shi, instigated the emperor to exterminate his own siblings to consolidate power, and used the opportunity to Two years later, Zhao Gao also killed Li Si, ironically exeliminate his political opponents such as Meng Tian and ecuting him via the "Five Pains" method, Li's own invenMeng Yi. He also framed Li Si for treason and had Li and tion. The method consisted of having the victim's nose his entire family executed, after which he replaced Li as cut off, cutting off a hand and a foot, then the victim was the Chancellor and monopolised state power. In 207 BC, castrated and finally cut in half in line with the waist. He when rebellions broke out in the lands east of Hangu Pass, also had Li Si's entire family exterminated. Zhao Gao became worried that Qin Er Shi would blame In 207 BC, rebellions broke out in the lands east of Hangu him, so he launched a coup in Wangyi Palace (望夷宮; Pass. Zhao Gao was afraid that Qin Er Shi might make in Xianyang, near present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi) and assas- him responsible for the uprisings. To preempt this, he sinated the emperor. Following Qin Er Shi's death, Zhao launched a coup and assassinated Qin Er Shi, and then Gao installed Ziying, Fusu's son, on the throne. Ziying installed Ziying, Fusu's son, as the new emperor. sent Han Tan (韓談), a eunuch, to assassinate Zhao Gao. Ziying, however, knew that Zhao Gao intended to kill him afterwards to appease the rebels, so he feigned illness on the day of the coronation, which forced Zhao to arrive 2.73.1 Early life at his residence to persuade him to attend. The moment Zhao Gao arrived, Ziying ordered a eunuch, Han Tan, to kill Zhao. Zhao Gao's entire clan was exterminated on Further information: Eunuch § China Ziying's order. Zhao Gao was distantly related to the royal family of the Zhao state of the Warring States period. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Zhao Gao's parents committed crimes and were punished. His brothers were castrated; it is unclear whether Zhao Gao himself was a eunuch or not.* [1] However, Qin Shi Huang valued Zhao Gao since he was learned in criminal law. This was very useful to Qin Shi Huang since he himself was always looking for ways to control the people by laws and punishments. Zhao Gao enjoyed a steady rise in position.

2.73.3 Calling a deer a horse

One Chinese idiom that is derived from an incident involving Zhao Gao is“calling a deer a horse”(simplified Chinese: 指 鹿 为 马; traditional Chinese: 指 鹿 為 馬; pinyin: zhǐ lù wéi mǎ), meaning“deliberate misrepresentation for ulterior purposes”. The Records of the Grand Historian records that Zhao Gao, in an attempt to control the Qin government, devised a loyalty test for court When Zhao was a minor official, he committed a crime officials using a deer and horse:

140

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS Zhao Gao was contemplating treason but was afraid the other officials would not heed his commands, so he decided to test them first. He brought a deer and presented it to the Second Emperor but called it a horse. The Second Emperor laughed and said, “Is the chancellor perhaps mistaken, calling a deer a horse?" Then the emperor questioned those around him. Some remained silent, while some, hoping to ingratiate themselves with Zhao Gao, said it was a horse, and others said it was a deer. Zhao Gao secretly arranged for all those who said it was a deer to be brought before the law and had them executed instantly. Thereafter the officials were all terrified of Zhao Gao. Zhao Gao gained military power as a result of that. (tr. Watson 1993:70)

2.74.1 See also other ten regular attendants: • Zhang Rang • Cheng Kuang • Duan Gui • Feng Xu • Guo Sheng • Hou Lan • Jian Shuo • Cao Jie • Xia Yun

2.73.4

Alternative viewpoints

There is a conspiracy theory that Zhao Gao was a descendant of the royal family of the Zhao state, which was destroyed by the Qin state, and Zhao Gao was seeking revenge on Qin. With Zhao Gao in charge of the Qin government, it was natural that the Qin Empire collapsed in such a short time. In fact, Zhao Gao killed all the sons and daughters of Qin Shi Huang, including the Second Emperor, Huhai. In revenge, Ziying killed Zhao Gao and all of his family members. Thus Zhao Gao or his brothers have no known descendants.

2.75 Zheng He Not to be confused with Zhang He. This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zheng.

Zheng He (1371–1433 or 1435), formerly romanized as Cheng Ho, was a Hui court eunuch, mariner, explorer, diplomat, and fleet admiral during China's early Ming dynasty. Zheng commanded expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433. The historian Li Kaiyuan (李開元) believes Zhao Gao was not a eunuch at all. He bases this in part on the fact As a favorite of the Yongle Emperor, whose usurpation eunuchs were not allowed to serve as chancellors, which he assisted, he rose to the top of the imperial hierarchy Zhao did. and served as commander of the southern capital Nanjing (the capital was later moved to Beijing by the Yongle Emperor). These voyages were long neglected in official Chinese histories but have become well known in China and 2.73.5 References abroad since the publication of Liang Qichao's Biography of Our Homeland's Great Navigator, Zheng He* [3] in [1] Loewe, Michael (2005). “On the Terms bao zi, yin 1904.* [4] A trilingual stele left by the navigator was disgong, yin guan, huan, and shou: Was Zhao Gao a covered on the island of Sri Lanka shortly thereafter. Eunuch?". T'oung Pao. Second 91 (4/5): 301–319. doi:10.1163/156853205774910124. JSTOR 4529012.

2.75.1 Family Zheng He was the second son of a family from Kunyang,* [lower-alpha 1] Yunnan.* [5] He was originally born with the name Ma He.* [1]* [6] His family were Hui four sisters* [1]* [6]* [7]* [8] and one older Zhào Zhōng (趙忠) (died 189) was a eunuch of the late people. *He had * Han Dynasty, who served Emperor Ling of Han the Ten brother. [1] [7] regular attendants (Also known as the Ten Eunuchs). The Zheng He was born into a Muslim family.* [6]* [9]* [10] eunuchs who had gained considerable power in the Han His religious beliefs may have become all-embracing and imperial court. When He Jin attempted to assassinate all eclectic in his adulthood.* [9]* [10] According to Edward the palace eunuchs it was Zhao Zhong and Zhang Rang Dreyer, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions suggest who were the ones who beheaded him in the palace court- that Zheng He's devotion to Tianfei (the patron goddess of sailors and seafarers) was the dominant faith to which yard

2.74 Zhao Zhong

2.75. ZHENG HE he adhered, reflecting the goddess' central role to the treasure fleet.* [11] John Guy mentions"When Zheng He, the Muslim eunudi leader ot the great expeditions to the “Western Ocean”(Indian Ocean) in the early fifteenth century, embarked on his voyages, it was from the Divine Woman that he sought protection, as well as at the tombs of the Muslim saints on Lingshan Hill, above the city of Quanzhou.”* [12]

141 ated.* [19]* [21] Zheng He would spend his early life as a soldier on the northern frontier.* [19]* [20] He often participated in Zhu Di's military campaigns against the Mongols.* [21]* [22] On 2 March 1390, Zheng He accompanied Zhu Di when he commanded his first expedition, which was a great victory as the Mongol commander Naghachu surrendered as soon as he realized he had fallen for a deception.* [23]

He was a great-great-great-grandson of Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, a Persian who served in the administration of the Mongol Empire and was the Governor of Yunnan during the early Yuan dynasty.* [13]* [14] His great-grandfather was named Bayan and may have been stationed at a Mongol garrison in Yunnan.* [6] His grandfather carried the title hajji.* [1]* [15] His father had the surname Ma and the title hajji.* [1]* [6]* [15] The title suggests that they had made the pilgrimage to Mecca.* [1]* [6]* [15] It also suggests that Zheng He may have had Mongol and Arab ancestry and that he could speak Arabic.* [16]

Eventually, he would gain the confidence and trust of the prince.* [21] Zheng He was also known as“Sanbao”during the time of service in the household of the Prince of Yan.* [2] This name was a reference to the Three Jewels (triratna) in Buddhism.* [24] He received a proper education while at Beiping, which he would not have had if he had been placed in the imperial capital Nanjing as the Hongwu Emperor did not trust eunuchs and believed that it was better to keep them illiterate.* [2] Meanwhile, the Hongwu Emperor exterminated many of the original Ming leadership and gave his enfeoffed sons more military authority, especially those in the north like the Prince * In the autumn of 1381, a Ming army invaded and of Yan. [25] conquered Yunnan, which was then ruled by the Mongol prince Basalawarmi, Prince of Liang.* [17] In 1381, Ma Hajji (Zheng He's father) died in the fighting between the Adulthood and military career Ming armies and Mongol forces.* [7] Dreyer (2007) states that Zheng He's father died at age 39 while resisting the Zheng He's appearance as an adult was recorded: he was * Ming conquest.* [17] Levathes (1996) states Zheng He's seven chi [lower-alpha 2] tall, had a waist that was five chi father died at age 37, but it is unclear if he was helping the in circumference, cheeks and a forehead that were high, Mongol army or just caught in the onslaught of battle.* [7] a small nose, glaring eyes, teeth that were white and wellWenming, the oldest son, buried their father outside of shaped as shells, and a voice that was as loud as a bell. It is Kunming.* [7] In his capacity as Admiral, Zheng He had also recorded that he had great knowledge about warfare * * an epitaph engraved in honor of his father, composed by and was well-accustomed to battle. [7] [26] the Minister of Rites Li Zhigang on the Duanwu Festival The young eunuch eventually became a trusted adviser to of the 3rd year in the Yongle era (1 June 1405).* [18] the prince and assisted him when the Jianwen Emperor's

2.75.2

Life

Early life and castration Zheng He was captured by the Ming armies at Yunnan in 1381.* [7] General Fu Youde saw Zheng He on a road and approached him in order to inquire about the location of the Mongol pretender.* [19] Zheng He responded defiantly that he had jumped into a lake.* [19] Afterwards, the general took him prisoner.* [19] The young Zheng He was soon castrated before being placed in servitude of the Prince of Yan.* [17] However, Levathes (1996) has stated that he was castrated in 1385.* [19]

hostility to his uncle's feudal bases prompted the 1399– 1402 Jingnan Campaign which ended with the emperor's apparent death and the ascension of the Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, as the Yongle Emperor. In 1393, the Crown Prince had died, thus the deceased prince's son became the new heir apparent.* [25] By the time the emperor died (24 June 1398), the Prince of Qin and the Prince of Jin had perished, which left Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, as the eldest surviving son of the emperor.* [25] However, Zhu Di's nephew succeeded the imperial throne as the Jianwen Emperor.* [27] In 1398, he issued a policy known as xiaofan, “reducing the feudatories”, which entails eliminating all the princes by stripping their power and military forces.* [28] In August 1399, Zhu Di openly rebelled against his nephew.* [29] In 1399, Zheng He successfully defended Beiping's city reservoir Zhenglunba against the imperial armies.* [30]* [31] In January 1402, Zhu Di began with his military campaign to capture the imperial capital Nanjing.* [32] Zheng He would be one of his commanders during this campaign.* [32]

He was sent to serve in the household of Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, who later became the Yongle Emperor.* [17]* [19] He was 10 years old when he entered into the service of the Prince of Yan.* [20] Zhu Di was eleven years older than Zheng He.* [21] Since 1380, the prince had been governing Beiping (the fu- In 1402, Zhu Di's armies defeated the imperial forces and ture Beijing),* [17] which was located near the north- marched into Nanjing on 13 July 1402.* [32]* [33] Zhu Di ern frontier where the hostile Mongol tribes were situ- accepted the elevation to emperor four days later.* [33]

142 After ascending the throne as the Yongle Emperor, he promoted Zheng He as the Grand Director (Taijian) of the Directorate of Palace Servants.* [33] During the New Year's day on 11 February 1404,* [30] the Yongle Emperor conferred the surname“Zheng”to him (his original name was still Ma He), because he had distinguished himself defending the city reservoir Zhenglunba against imperial forces in the Siege of Beiping of 1399,* [30]* [34] Another reason was that the eunuch commander also distinguished himself during the 1402 campaign to capture the capital Nanjing.* [34] It is believed that his choice to confer the surname “Zheng”was because the eunuch's horse had been killed during the battle at Zhenglunba near Beiping at the onset of his rebellion.* [35]

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS spired beforehand.* [44] Nevertheless, the Xuande Emperor would eventually come to trust Zheng He.* [44] In 1430, the new Xuande Emperor appointed Zheng He to command over a seventh and final expedition into the “Western Ocean”(Indian Ocean).* [45] In 1431, Zheng He was bestowed with the title “Sanbao Taijian”.* [46]

2.75.3 Death One theory is that Admiral Zheng He died in 1433.* [47] It may have happened during or shortly after the seventh voyage.* [47] Another belief is that Zheng He continued as the defender of Nanjing, dying in 1435.* [48]

He was initially called Ma Sanbao: either 三寶 (s 三宝, In 1985, a Muslim-style tomb was built in Nanjing on the lit. “Three Gifts”) or 三保 (lit. “Three Protections”, site of an earlier horseshoe-shape grave; it contains his both pronounced sān bǎo).* [36] clothes and headgear as his body was buried at sea.* [49] In the new administration, Zheng He served in the highest He adopted a son. posts, as Grand Director* [6]* [8]* [37] and later as Chief Envoy (正使, zhèngshǐ ) during his sea voyages. Over the 2.75.4 Expeditions next three decades he conducted seven of these voyages on behalf of the emperor, trading and collecting tribute Main article: Treasure voyages in the eastern Pacific and Indian Oceans. The Yuan dynasty and expanding Sino-Arab trade during In 1424, Admiral Zheng He traveled to Palembang to confer an official seal* [lower-alpha 3] and letter of appointment upon Shi Jisun, who was placed in the office of Pacification Commissioner.* [38] The Taizong Shilu 27 February 1424 entry reports that Shi Jisun had sent Qiu Yancheng as envoy to petition the approval of the succession from his father Shi Jinqing, who was the Pacification Commissioner of Palembang, and was given permission from the Yongle Emperor.* [39] On 7 September 1424, Zhu Gaozhi had inherited the throne as the Hongxi Emperor after the death of the Yongle Emperor on 12 August 1424.* [40]* [41] When Zheng He returned from Palembang, he found that the Yongle Emperor had died during his absence.* [42]* [43] The route of the voyages of Zheng He's fleet. After the ascension of Zhu Di's son as the Hongxi Emperor, the ocean voyages were discontinued and Zheng He was instead appointed as Defender of Nanjing, the empire's southern capital. In that post, he was largely responsible for the completion of the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, an enormous pagoda still described as a wonder of the world as late as the 19th century.

the 14th century had gradually expanded Chinese knowledge of the world:“universal”maps previously only displaying China and its surrounding seas began to expand further and further into the southwest with much more accurate depictions of the extent of Arabia and Africa.* [50] Between 1405 and 1433, the Ming government sponsored seven naval expeditions. The Yongle Emperor – disregarding the Hongwu Emperor's expressed wishes* [51] – designed them to establish a Chinese presence and impose imperial control over the Indian Ocean trade, impress foreign peoples in the Indian Ocean basin, and extend the empire's tributary system. It has also been inferred from passages in the History of Ming that the initial voyages were launched as part of the emperor's attempt to capture his escaped predecessor,* [50] which would have made the first voyage the“largest-scale manhunt on water in the history of China”.* [52]

On 15 May 1426, the Xuande Emperor ordered the Directorate of Ceremonial to sent a letter to Zheng He to reprimand him for a transgression.* [44] Earlier, an official* [lower-alpha 4] petitioned the emperor to reward workmen who had built temples in Nanjing.* [44] The Xuande Emperor responded negatively to the official for placing the costs to the court instead of the monks themselves, but he realized that Zheng He and his associates had instigated the official.* [44] Dreyer (2007) noted that the nature of the emperor's words indicated that Zheng He's behaviour in this situation was the last straw, but Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the huge that there's too little information about what had tranfleet and armed forces that undertook these expeditions.

2.75. ZHENG HE

143 was already a sizable Chinese community. The General Survey of the Ocean Shores (瀛涯勝覽, Yíngyá Shènglǎn) composed by the translator Ma Huan in 1416 gave very detailed accounts of his observations of people's customs and lives in the ports they visited.* [63] He referred to the expatriate Chinese as "Tang" (唐人, Tángrén).

Early 17th-century Chinese woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships.

Wang Jinghong was appointed his second in command. Preparations were thorough and wide-ranging, including the use of such numerous linguists that a foreign language institute was established at Nanjing.* [50] Zheng He's first voyage departed 11 July 1405, from Suzhou* [53]* :203 and consisted of a fleet of 317* [54]* [55]* [56] ships holding almost 28,000 crewmen.* [54] Zheng He's fleets visited Brunei, Java, Thailand and Southeast Asia, India, the Horn of Africa, and Arabia, dispensing and receiving goods along the way.* [56] Zheng He presented gifts of gold, silver, porcelain, and silk; in return, China received such novelties as ostriches, zebras, camels, and ivory from the Swahili.* [53]* :206* [56]* [57]* [58]* [59] The giraffe he brought back from Malindi was considered to be a qilin and taken as proof of the favor of heaven upon the administration.* [60] While Zheng He's fleet was unprecedented, the routes were not. Zheng He's fleet was following longestablished, well-mapped routes of trade between China and the Arabian peninsula employed since at least the Han dynasty. This fact, along with the use of a more than abundant amount of crew members that were regular military personnel, leads some to speculate that these expeditions may have been geared at least partially at spreading China's power through expansion.* [61] During the Three Kingdoms Period, the king of Wu sent a diplomatic mission along the coast of Asia, which reached as far as the Eastern Roman Empire. After centuries of disruption, the Song dynasty restored large-scale maritime trade from China in the South Pacific and Indian Oceans, reaching as far as the Arabian peninsula and East Africa.* [62] When his fleet first arrived in Malacca, there

The Kangnido map (1402) predates Zheng's voyages and suggests that he had quite detailed geographical information on much of the Old World.

Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. But a contemporary reported that Zheng He“walked like a tiger”and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might.* [64] He ruthlessly suppressed pirates who had long plagued Chinese and southeast Asian waters. For example, he defeated Chen Zuyi, one of the most feared and respected pirate captains, and returned him back to China for execution.* [65] He also waged a land war against the Kingdom of Kotte on Ceylon, and he made displays of military force when local officials threatened his fleet in Arabia and East Africa. From his fourth voyage, he brought envoys from thirty states who traveled to China and paid their respects at the Ming court. In 1424, the Yongle Emperor died. His successor, the Hongxi Emperor (r. 1424–1425), stopped the voyages during his short reign. Zheng He made one more voyage during the reign of Hongxi's son, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1426–1435) but, after that, the voyages of the Chinese treasure ship fleets were ended. Xuande believed his father's decision to halt the voyages had been meritorious and thus“there would be no need to make a detailed description of his grandfather’s sending Zheng He to the Western Ocean.”* [51] The voyages “were contrary to the rules stipulated in the Huang Ming Zuxun" (皇明祖 訓), the dynastic foundation documents laid down by the Hongwu Emperor:* [51]

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CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS Some far-off countries pay their tribute to me at much expense and through great difficulties, all of which are by no means my own wish. Messages should be forwarded to them to reduce their tribute so as to avoid high and unnecessary expenses on both sides.* [66]

They further violated longstanding Confucian principles. They were only made possible by (and therefore continued to represent) a triumph of the Ming's eunuch faction over the administration's scholar-bureaucrats.* [50] Upon Zheng He's death and his faction's fall from power, his successors sought to minimize him in official accounts, One of a set of maps of Zheng He's missions (郑和航海图), also along with continuing attempts to destroy all records re- known as the Mao Kun map, 1628 lated to the Jianwen Emperor or the manhunt to find him.* [51] Although unmentioned in the official dynastic histories, Zheng He probably died during the treasure fleet's last voyage.* [50] Although he has a tomb in China, it is empty: he was buried at sea.* [67]

A section of the Wubei Zhi oriented east: India in the upper left, Sri Lanka upper right, and Africa along the bottom.

Detail of the Fra Mauro map relating the travels of a junk into the Atlantic Ocean in 1420. The ship also is illustrated above the text.

Zheng He led seven expeditions to the “Western”or Indian Ocean. Zheng He brought back to China many trophies and envoys from more than thirty kingdoms – including King Vira Alakeshwara of Ceylon, who came to China as a captive to apologize to the Emperor for offenses against his mission. Zheng himself wrote of his travels:

We have traversed more than 100,000 li of immense water spaces and have beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising in the sky, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapors, while our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds day and night, continued their course [as rapidly] as a star, traversing those savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare...* [73]

2.75.5 Sailing charts See also: Chinese geography and Mao Kun map Zheng He's sailing charts, the Mao Kun map, were published in a book entitled the Wubei Zhi (A Treatise on Armament Technology) written in 1621 and published in 1628 but traced back to Zheng He's and earlier voyages.* [74] It was originally a strip map 20.5 cm by 560 cm that could be rolled up, but was divided into 40 pages which vary in scale from 7 miles/inch in the Nanjing area to 215 miles/inch in parts of the African coast.* [75] There is little attempt to provide an accurate 2-D representation; instead the sailing instructions are given using a 24-point compass system with a Chinese symbol for each point, together with a sailing time or distance, which takes account of the local currents and winds. Sometimes depth soundings are also provided. It also shows bays, estuaries, capes and islands, ports and mountains along the coast, important landmarks such as pagodas and temples, and shoal rocks. Of 300 named places outside China, more than 80% can be confidently located. There are also fifty observations of stellar altitude.

2.75. ZHENG HE

2.75.6

Size of the ships

Traditional and popular accounts of Zheng He's voyages have described a great fleet of gigantic ships, far larger than any other wooden ships in history. Some modern scholars consider these descriptions to be exaggerated.

145 in history, surpassing l'Orient, 65 metres (213.3 ft) long, which was built in the late 18th century. The first ships to attain 126 m (413.4 ft) long were 19th century steamers with iron hulls. Some scholars argue that it is highly unlikely that Zheng He's ship was 450 feet (137.2 m) in length, some estimating that they were 390–408 feet (118.9–124.4 m) long and 160–166 feet (48.8–50.6 m) wide instead* [84] while others put them as small as 200– 250 feet (61.0–76.2 m) in length, which would make them smaller than the equine, supply, and troop ships in the fleet.* [85]

Chinese records* [76] state that Zheng He's fleet sailed as far as East Africa. According to medieval Chinese sources, Zheng He commanded seven expeditions. The 1405 expedition consisted of 27,800 men and a fleet of 62 treasure ships supported by approximately 190 smaller ships.* [77]* [78] The fleet included: One explanation for the seemingly inefficient size of these colossal ships was that the largest 44 Zhang treasure • "Chinese treasure ships" (宝船, Bǎo Chuán), used ships were merely used by the Emperor and imperial buby the commander of the fleet and his deputies reaucrats to travel along the Yangtze for court business, (nine-masted, about 127 metres (417 feet) long and including reviewing Zheng He's expedition fleet. The 52 metres (171 feet) wide), according to later writ- Yangtze river, with its calmer waters, may have been navigable by these treasure ships. Zheng He, a court eunuch, ers. would not have had the privilege in rank to command • Equine ships (馬船, Mǎ Chuán), carrying horses and the largest of these ships, seaworthy or not. The main tribute goods and repair material for the fleet (eight- ships of Zheng He's fleet were instead 6 masted 2000-liao masted, about 103 m (338 ft) long and 42 m (138 ships.* [86]* [87] ft) wide). • Supply ships (粮船, Liáng Chuán), containing staple 2.75.7 Legacy for the crew (seven-masted, about 78 m (256 ft) long and 35 m (115 ft) wide). Imperial China • Troop transports (兵船, Bīng Chuán), six-masted, In the decades after the last voyage, Imperial officials about 67 m (220 ft) long and 25 m (82 ft) wide. minimized the importance of Zheng He and his expe• Fuchuan warships (福船, Fú Chuán), five-masted, ditions throughout the many regnal and dynastic histories they compiled. The information in the Yongle about 50 m (160 ft) long. and Xuande Emperors' official annals was incomplete • Patrol boats (坐船, Zuò Chuán), eight-oared, about and even erroneous; other official publications omitted 37 m (121 ft) long. them completely.* [4] Although some have seen this as seeking to eliminate memories of the voy• Water tankers (水船, Shuǐ Chuán), with 1 month's a conspiracy * ages, [92] it is likely that the records were dispersed supply of fresh water. throughout several departments and the expeditions – unauthorized by (and in fact, counter to) the injunctions Six more expeditions took place, from 1407 to 1433, with of the dynastic founder – presented a kind of embarrassfleets of comparable size.* [79] ment to the dynasty.* [4] If the accounts can be taken as factual Zheng He's trea- State-sponsored Ming naval efforts declined dramatically sure ships were mammoth ships with nine masts, four after Zheng's voyages. Starting in the early 15th century, decks, and were capable of accommodating more than China experienced increasing pressure from the surviving 500 passengers, as well as a massive amount of cargo. Yuan Mongols from the north. The relocation of the Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta both described multi-masted capital north to Beijing exacerbated this threat dramatships carrying 500 to 1,000 passengers in their trans- ically. At considerable expense, China launched annual lated accounts.* [80] Niccolò Da Conti, a contemporary military expeditions from Beijing to weaken the Monof Zheng He, was also an eyewitness of ships in South- golians. The expenditures necessary for these land cameast Asia, claiming to have seen 5 masted junks weighing paigns directly competed with the funds necessary to conabout 2,000 tons.* [81] There are even some sources that tinue naval expeditions. Further, in 1449, Mongolian claim some of the treasure ships might have been as long cavalry ambushed a land expedition personally led by the as 600 feet.* [82]* [83] On the ships were navigators, ex- Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu Fortress, less than a day's plorers, sailors, doctors, workers, and soldiers along with march from the walls of the capital. The Mongolians the translator and diarist Gong Zhen. wiped out the Chinese army and captured the emperor. The largest ships in the fleet, the Chinese treasure ships This battle had two salient effects. First, it demonstrated described in Chinese chronicles, would have been several the clear threat posed by the northern nomads. Second, times larger than any other wooden ship ever recorded the Mongols caused a political crisis in China when they

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The Cakra Donya Bell, a gift from Zheng He to Pasai, now located at the Museum Aceh in Banda Aceh.

Southeast Asia Cult of Zheng He Among the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia, Zheng He became the object of cult veneration.* [94] Even some of his crew members who happened to stay in this or that port sometimes did as well, such as “Poontaokong”on Sulu.* [93] The temples of this cult – called after either of his names, Cheng Hoon or Sam Po – are peculiar to overseas Chinese except for a single temple in Hongjian originally constructed by a returned Filipino Chinese in the Ming dynasty and rebuilt by another Filipino Chinese after the original was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution.* [93] (The same village of Hongjian, in Fujian's Jiaomei township, is also the ancestral home of Corazon Aquino.) The pet giraffe of the Sultan of Bengal, brought from Medieval Somalia, and later taken to China* [88]* [89]* [90]* [91] in the twelfth year of Yongle (1415).

released the emperor after his half-brother had already ascended and declared the new Jingtai era. Not until 1457 and the restoration of the former emperor did political stability return. Upon his return to power, China abandoned the strategy of annual land expeditions and instead embarked upon a massive and expensive expansion of the Great Wall of China. In this environment, funding for The Sam Po Kong Temple in Malacca. naval expeditions simply did not happen. However, missions from Southeast Asia continued to arrive for decades. Depending on local conditions, they could reach such frequency that the court found it necessary to restrict them: the History of Ming records imperial edicts forbidding Java, Champa, and Siam from sending their envoys more often than once every three years.* [93]

Malacca The oldest and most important Chinese temple in Malacca is the 17th-century Cheng Hoon Teng, dedicated to Guanyin. During Dutch colonial rule, the head of the

2.75. ZHENG HE

147

Cheng Hoon Temple was appointed chief over the com- Poo Kong temple in Semarang was built to commemorate munity's Chinese inhabitants.* [93] Zheng He's voyage to Java. Following Zheng He's arrival, the sultan and sultana of Malacca visited China at the head of over 540 of their subjects, bearing ample tribute. Sultan Mansur Shah (r. 1459–1477) later dispatched Tun Perpatih Putih as his envoy to China, carrying a letter from the sultan to the Ming emperor. The letter requested the hand of an imperial daughter in marriage. Malay (but not Chinese) annals record that, in the year 1459, a princess named Hang Li Po or Hang Liu was sent from China to marry the sultan. The princess came with 500 high-ranking young men and a few hundred handmaidens as her entourage. They eventually settled in Bukit Cina. It is believed that a significant number of them married into the local populace, creating the descendants now known as the Peranakan.* [95] Owing to this supposed lineage, the Peranakan still use special honorifics: Baba for the men and Nyonya for the women. Indonesia

Modern scholarship In the 1950s, historians such as John Fairbank and Joseph Needham popularized the idea that after Zheng He's voyages China turned away from the seas due to the Haijin edict and was isolated from European technological advancements. Modern historians point out that Chinese maritime commerce did not totally stop after Zheng He, that Chinese ships continued to participate in Southeast Asian commerce until the 19th century, and that active Chinese trading with India and East Africa continued long after the time of Zheng. Moreover, revisionist historians such as Jack Goldstone argue that the Zheng He voyages ended for practical reasons that did not reflect the technological level of China.* [100] Although the Ming dynasty did ban shipping with the Haijin edict, this was a policy of the Hongwu Emperor that long preceded Zheng He and the ban – so obviously disregarded by the Yongle Emperor – was eventually lifted entirely. However, the ban on maritime shipping did force countless numbers of people into smuggling and piracy. Neglect of the imperial navy and Nanjing dockyards after Zheng He's voyages left the coast highly vulnerable to Japanese Wokou during the 16th century.* [101]* [102]

Richard von Glahn, a UCLA professor of Chinese history, commented that most treatments of Zheng He present him wrongly: they “offer counterfactual arguments”and “emphasize China's missed opportunity.” This “narrative emphasizes the failure”instead of the accomplishments, despite his assertion that “Zheng He The Zheng Hoo Mosque in Surabaya. reshaped Asia.”Glahn argues that maritime history in the 15th century was essentially the Zheng He story and the Indonesian Chinese have established temples to Zheng He effects of his voyages.* [103] in Jakarta, Cirebon, Surabaya, and Semarang.* [93] In 1961, the Indonesian Islamic leader and scholar Hamka credited Zheng He with an important role in the development of Islam in Indonesia.* [96] The Brunei Times credits Zheng He with building Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines. These Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language.* [97] This Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, who urged his followers to assimilate and take local names. The Chinese trader Sun Long even supposedly adopted the son of the king of Majapahit and his Chinese wife, a son who went on to become Raden Patah.* [98] Amid this assimilation (and loss of contact with China itself), the Hanafi Islam became absorbed by the local Shafi'i school and the presence of distinctly ethnic Chinese Muslims dwindled to almost nothing.* [99] The Malay Annals also record a number of Hanafi mosques – in Semarang and Ancol, for instance – were converted directly into temples of the Zheng He cult during the 1460s and '70s.* [93] The Sam

Cultural influence Despite the official neglect, the adventures of the fleet captured the imagination of some Chinese and novelizations of the voyages occurred, such as the Romance of the Three-Jeweled Eunuch in 1597.* [92] On his travels, Zheng He built mosques while also spreading the worship of Mazu. He apparently never found time for a pilgrimage to Mecca but did send sailors there on his last voyage. He played an important part in developing relations between China and Islamic countries.* [104]* [105] Zheng He also visited Muslim shrines of Islamic holy men in the Fujian province. In modern times, interest in Zheng He revived substantially. In Vernor Vinge's 1999 science-fiction novel A Deepness in the Sky, a race of commercial traders in human space are named the Qeng Ho after the admiral. The expeditions featured prominently in Heather Terrell's 2005 novel The Map Thief. For the 600th anniversary of

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Zheng He's voyages in 2005, the China's CCTV produced a special television series Zheng He Xia Xiyang, starring Gallen Lo as Zheng He. He is also mentioned in part of the main storyline of the first-person shooter game Far Cry 3.

Commemoration

Relics

2.75.8 Gallery

In the People's Republic of China, 11 July is Maritime Day (中 国 航 海 日, Zhōngguó Hánghǎi Rì) and is devoted to the memory of Zheng He's first voyage. Initially Kunming Changshui International Airport was to He also has a slot machine named after him, 1421 Voybe named Zheng He International Airport. ages of Zheng He, manufactured by Spielo.

Nanjing Temple of Mazu Zheng He built the Tianfei Palace (天妃宫, Tiānfēigōng, lit. “Palace of the Celestial Wife”), a temple in honor of the goddess Mazu, in Nanjing after the fleet returned from its first western voyage in 1407.

• Zheng He's tomb in Nanjing • Museum to honour Zheng He, Nanjing • Gallery of Admiral Cheng Ho in Malacca • Zheng He statue in the Quanzhou Maritime Museum

Taicang Stele

2.75.9 See also

The “Deed of Foreign Connection and Exchange” (通番事跡) or “Tongfan Deed Stele”is located in the 2.75.10 Notes Tianfei Palace in Taicang, whence the expeditions first departed. The stele was submerged and lost, but has been [1] It is located south of Kunming (Levathes 1996, 61). rebuilt. Nanshan Stele In order to thank the Celestial Wife for her blessings, Zheng He and his colleagues rebuilt the Tianfei Palace in Nanshan, Changle County, in Fujian province as well prior to departing on their last voyage. At the renovated temple, they raised a stele entitled “A Record of Tianfei Showing Her Presence and Power”(天妃靈應之記, Tiānfēi Líng Yīng zhī Jì), discussing their earlier voyages.* [106] Sri Lankan Stele

[2] A chi is thought to vary between 10.5 to 12 inches (Dreyer 2007, 19). [3] The Taizong Shilu 27 February 1424 entry reports that Zheng He was sent to deliver the seal, because the old seal was destroyed in a fire. The Xuanzong Shilu 17 September 1425 entry reports that Zhang Funama delivered a seal, because the old seal was destroyed in a fire. The later Mingshi compilers seem to have combined these accounts, remarking that Shi Jisun's succession was approved in 1424 and that a new seal was delivered in 1425, suggesting that only one seal was destroyed by fire. (Dreyer 2007, 96) [4] Unnamed official who served as a Department Director under the Ministry of Works, who earlier had departed for Nanjing to supervise the renovation of government buildings and to reward the skilled workers (Dreyer 2007, 141).

The Galle Trilingual Inscription in Sri Lanka was discovered in the city of Galle in 1911 and is preserved at the National Museum of Colombo. The three languages used in the inscription were Chinese, Tamil and Persian. The 2.75.11 References inscription praises Buddha and describes the fleet's donations to the famous Buddhist Tenavarai Nayanar temple [1] Dreyer 2007, 11. of Tondeswaram.* [107]* [108] [2] Levathes 1996, 63.

Tomb and Museum Zheng He's tomb in Nanjing has been repaired and a small museum built next to it, although his body was buried at sea off the Malabar Coast near Calicut in western India.* [109] However, his sword and other personal possessions were interred in a Muslim tomb inscribed in Arabic. The tomb of Zheng He's assistant Hong Bao was recently unearthed in Nanjing, as well.

[3] Liang Qichao. "Zuguo Da Hanghaijia Zheng He Zhuan". 1904. (Chinese) [4] Hui Chun Hing. "Huangming Zuxun and Zheng He’s Voyages to the Western Oceans". Journal of Chinese Studies, No. 51 (July, 2010). Accessed 17 October 2012. [5] Levathes 1996, 61. [6] Mills 1970, 5. [7] Levathes 1996, 62.

2.75. ZHENG HE

[8] Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture, p. 621. (2000) Dorothy Perkins. Roundtable Press, New York. ISBN 0-8160-2693-9 (hc); ISBN 0-8160-4374-4 (pbk). [9] Ray 1987, 66. [10] Dreyer 2007, 148. [11] Dreyer 2007, 148 & 150. "[...] The inscriptions [...] devotion to Tianfei, the goddess of seafarers, had become the dominant strand in his eclectic religious heritage.”

149

[35] Levathes 1996, 72. [36] Historical documents have both spelling. See e.g. Xiang Da (向达),《关于三宝太监下西洋的几种资料》(“Regarding several kinds of historical materials on the expeditions of Eunuch Grand Director Sanbao to the Western Ocean”), in 《郑和研究百年论文选》(100 Years of Zheng He Studies: Selected Writings, ISBN 7-301-07154X, p.10). [37] Levathes 1996. 61-63.

[38] Dreyer 2007, 95 & 136. [12] John Guy. “Quanzhou: Cosmopolitan City of Faiths” . The World of Khubilai Khan: Chinese Art in the Yuan [39] Dreyer 2007, 95. Dynasty. Yale University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0300-16656-9. [40] Dreyer 2007, 136–137. [13] Shih-Shan Henry Tsai: Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. University of Washington Press 2002, ISBN 978-0-295-98124-6, p. 38 (restricted online copy, p. 38, at Google Books)

[41] Duyvendak 1938, 388. [42] Dreyer 2007, 95 & 136–137. [43] Duyvendak 1938, 387.

[14] Chunjiang Fu, Choo Yen Foo, Yaw Hoong Siew: The great explorer Cheng Ho. Ambassador of peace. Asiapac Books Pte Ltd 2005, ISBN 978-981-229-410-4, p. 7-8 (restricted online copy, p. 8, at Google Books)

[44] Dreyer 2007, 141–142. [45] Mills 1970, 6.

[15] Levathes 1996, 61–62.

[46] Mills 1970, 7.

[16] Peterson, Barbara Bennett (1994). “The Ming Voyages of Cheng Ho (Zheng He), 1371-1433”(PDF). The Great Circle (Australian Association for Maritime History) 16 (1): 43. Retrieved 26 March 2015. – via JSTOR (subscription required)

[47] Dreyer 2007, 165.

[17] Dreyer 2007, 12

[48] Mills 1970, 6. [49] Lin (Chief Editor). Compiled by the Information Office of the People's Government of Fujian Province, ed. (2005). Zheng He's Voyages Down the Western Seas. China Intercontinental Press. p. 45.

[18] Levathes 1996, 62–63. [19] Levathes 1996, 58. [20] Dreyer 2007, 16. [21] Dreyer 2007, 18.

[50] Chang, Kuei-Sheng. "The Maritime Scene in China at the Dawn of Great European Discoveries". Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 94, No. 3 (July–Sept., 1974), pp. 347-359. Retrieved 8 October 2012.

[23] Levathes 1996, 64–66.

[51] Hui Chun Hing (2010). “Huangming zuxun and Zheng He’s Voyages to the Western Oceans (A Summary)". Journal of Chinese Studies (Institute of Chinese Studies) 51: 85. Retrieved 11 May 2011.

[24] Dreyer 2007, 12.

[52] Deng 2005, pg 13.

[25] Dreyer 2007, 19.

[53] Shih-Shan Henry Tsai (2002). Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98124-6.

[22] Levathes 1996, 64.

[26] Dreyer 2007, 18–19. [27] Dreyer 2007, 20 [28] Levathes 1996, 67. [29] Dreyer 2007, 21. [30] Dreyer 2007, 22–23. [31] Levathes 1996, 72–73.

[54] “The Archaeological Researches into Zheng He's Treasure Ships”. Travel-silkroad.com. Retrieved 1 September 2008. [55] Richard Gunde. “Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery”. UCLA Asia Institute. Retrieved 1 September 2008.

[33] Dreyer 2007, 21–22.

[56] Tamura, Eileen H.; Linda K. Mention; Noren W. Lush; Francis K. C. Tsui; Warren Cohen (1997). China: Understanding Its Past. University of Hawaii Press. p. 70. ISBN 0-8248-1923-3.

[34] Levathes 1997, 72–73.

[57] East Africa and its Invaders pg.37

[32] Levathes 1996, 70.

150

[58] Cromer, Alan (1995). Uncommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science. Oxford University Press US. p. 117. ISBN 0-19-509636-3. [59] Evan Hadingham is NOVA's Senior Science Editor. (6 June 1999). “NOVA | Ancient Chinese Explorers”. Pbs.org. Retrieved 17 August 2012. [60] Duyvendak, J. J. L. (1939),“The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth Century The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth Century”, T'oung Pao, Second Series 34 (5): 402

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS

[80] Science and Civilization in China, Joseph Needham, Volume 4, Section 3, pp.460-470 [81] Science and Civilization in China, Joseph Needham, Volume 4, Section 3, p.452 [82] Taiwan: A New History, Murray A. Rubinstein, page 49, M. E. Sharp, 1999, ISBN 1-56324-815-8 [83] Chinese discoverers dwarfed European travels, Tony Weaver, IOL, 11 November 2002. [84] When China Ruled the Seas, Louise Levathes, p.80

[61] Graffe, David A. “Book Review of Zheng He: China [85] Church, Sally K. (2005). “Zheng He: An investigation into the plausibility of 450-ft treasure ships”(PDF). Monand the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405–1433” umenta Serica LIII: 1–43. . Journal of Military History. Retrieved 14 November 2012. [86] Xin Yuanou: Guanyu Zheng He baochuan chidu de jishu fenxi (A Technical Analysis of the Size of Zheng He's [62] Deng 2005 Ships). Shanghai 2002, p.8 [63] Ma Huan. Ying-yai Sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the [87] The Archeological Researches into Zheng He's Treasure Ocean's Shores. Ships, SilkRoad webpage. [64] Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert (2007). Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. McGraw- [88] Wilson, Samuel M. “The Emperor's Giraffe”, Natural History Vol. 101, No. 12, December 1992 Hill. p. 586. ISBN 0-07-340693-7. [65] “Shipping News: Zheng He's Sexcentary”. China Heritage Newsletter. Retrieved 4/12/2011. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[89] Rice, Xan (25 July 2010). “Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral”. The Guardian.

[66] Yen Ch'ung-chien. Ch'u-yü chou-chih lu, Vol. III, ch. 8, 25. National Palace Museum (Peiping), 1930. Op. cit. in Chang, 1974.

[90] “Could a rusty coin re-write Chinese-African history?". BBC News. 18 October 2010.

[67] “The Seventh and Final Grand Voyage of the Treasure Fleet”. Mariner.org. Retrieved 23 July 2009. [68] Chan 1998, 233–236.

[91] “Zheng He'S Voyages To The Western Oceans 郑和下 西洋". People.chinese.cn. Retrieved 17 August 2012. [92] Blacks in Pre-Modern China, p. 121–122.

[69] The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China By Joseph Needham, Colin A. Ronan. Google Books.

[93] Tan Ta Sen & al. Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009. ISBN 9812308377, 9789812308375.

[70] Chinese accounts of Bengal, Banglapedia

[94] Geoffery Wade lecture Nov, 2012

[71] History of Sino-Bengal contacts

[95] Jin, Shaoqing (2005). Office of the People's Goverernment of Fujian Province, ed. Zheng He's Voyages down the Western Seas. Fujian, China: China Intercontinental Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-7-5085-0708-8. Retrieved 2 August 2009.

[72] Dreyer 2007, 150–163. [73] Tablet erected by Zheng He in Changle, Fujian Province, in 1432. Louise Levathes. [74] Mei-Ling Hsu (1988). Chinese Marine Cartography: Sea Charts of Pre-Modern China. 40, pp96-112 (Imago Mundi ed.). [75] Mills, J.V. (1970). Ma Huan Ying Yai Sheng Lan: The overall survey of the ocean shores. Cambridge University Press. [76] Dreyer (2007): 82–95 [77] Dreyer (2007): 122–124 [78] “Briton charts Zheng He's course across globe”. Chinaculture.org. Retrieved 23 July 2009. [79] Dreyer (2007)

[96] Wang, Rosey Ma. "Chinese Muslims in Malaysia, History and Development". [97] AQSHA, DARUL (13 July 2010). “Zheng He and Islam in Southeast Asia”. The Brunei Times. Retrieved 28 September 2012. [98] Li Tong Cai. Indonesia – Legends and Facts. Op. Cit. "Wali Songo: The Nine Walis". [99] Suryadinata Leo (2005). Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia. Singapore Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 981-230-329-4. [100] Goldstone, Jack. “The Rise of the West - or Not? A Revision to Socio-economic History”.

2.76. ZHENG ZHONG

151

[101] Yuan-Kang Wang (20 August 2013). Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-231-52240-3.

Chun with introduction, notes and appendices by J. V. G. Mills. White Lotus Press. ISBN 974-849678-3.

[102] Jakub J. Grygiel (20 December 2006). Great Powers and Geopolitical Change. JHU Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-08018-8480-1.

• Ming-Yang, Dr Su. 2004 Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China (1405–1433)

[103] “Zheng He's Voyages of Discovery|UCLA center for Chinese Study|". International.ucla.edu. 20 April 2004. Retrieved 23 July 2009. [104] Tan Ta Sen (2009). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 171. ISBN 9789812308375. [105] Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2011). History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800. Hong Kong University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-9888083343. [106] Fish, Robert J. "Primary Source: Zheng He Inscription". Univ. of Minnesota. Accessed 23 July 2009. [107] Xinhua News Agency. "A Peaceful Mariner and Diplomat". 12 July 2005.

• Ray, Haraprasad (1987). “An Analysis of the Chinese Maritime Voyages Into the Indian Ocean During Early Ming Dynasty and Their Raison d'Etre”. China Report 23 (1): 65–87. doi:10.1177/000944558702300107. • Viviano, Frank (2005). “China's Great Armada.” National Geographic, 208(1):28–53, July. • Shipping News: Zheng He's Sexcentenary - China Heritage Newsletter, June 2005, ISSN 1833-8461. Published by the China Heritage Project of The Australian National University.

2.75.13 External links

[108] Association for Asian Studies. Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644, Vol. I. Columbia Univ. Press (New York), 1976.

• Zheng He - The Chinese Muslim Admiral

[109] Levathes, Louise. When China Ruled The Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne 1405-1433, p. 172. Oxford Univ. Press (New York), 1996.

• Zheng He 600th Anniversary

2.75.12

Bibliography

• Chan, Hok-lam (1998).“The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns, 1399–1435”. The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521243322. • Deng, Gang (2005). Chinese Maritime Activities and Socioeconomic Development, c. 2100 BC - 1900 AD. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29212-4. • Dreyer, Edward L. (2007). Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming, 1405–1433. Library of World Biography. Longman. ISBN 0-321-084438.

• Zheng He Journey to Arabia

• BBC radio programme “Swimming Dragons”. • TIME magazine special feature on Zheng He (August 2001) • Virtual exhibition from elibraryhub.com • Ship imitates ancient vessel navigated by Zheng He at peopledaily.com (25 September 2006) • Kahn, Joseph (2005). China Has an Ancient Mariner to Tell You About. The New York Times. • Newsletter, in Chinese, on academic research on the Zheng He voyages • 國立成功大學鄭和研究站

2.76 Zheng Zhong

• Duyvendak, J.J.L. (1938). “The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fif- Zheng Zhong (鄭 眾), courtesy name Jichan (季 產) teenth Century”. T'oung Pao 34 (5): 341–413. (died 107), was the first Han Dynasty eunuch with true doi:10.1163/156853238X00171. JSTOR 4527170. power in government, thanks to the trust that Emperor • Levathes, Louise (1996). When China Ruled the He had in him for his contributions in overthrowing the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, clan of Empress Dowager Dou, particularly her autocratic 1405–1433. Oxford University Press, trade paper- brother Dou Xian. He was also a close associate of Emperor He's wife Empress Deng Sui and continued to be back. ISBN 0-19-511207-5. powerful after Emperor He's death, during her regency • Mills, J. V. G. (1970). Ying-yai Sheng-lan, The over his son Emperor Shang and Emperor An. He was Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores (1433). trans- also the first Eastern Han Dynasty eunuch to be created a lated from the Chinese text edited by Feng Ch'eng marquess. (The only Western Han Dynasty eunuch who

152 was created a marquess was Empress Xu Pingjun's father Xu Guanghan (許廣漢), whose creation was thanks to his relationship with his daughter and his son-in-law Emperor Xuan, not his post as a eunuch.) Zheng was from Nanyang Commandery (roughly modern Nanyang, Henan) -- the same commandery that the Eastern Han imperial clan was from. He was described to be cautious, agile, and a deep thinker. He first served in the household of Emperor Zhang while he was still crown prince under his father Emperor Ming. After Emperor Zhang ascended the throne, he was eventually promoted to the post of imperial attendant (中常侍). During the time of Empress Dowager Dou's regency over Emperor He, Zheng served as the director of imperial gardens (鉤盾令). He was one of the eunuchs who did not endear himself to Empress Dowager Dou's clan. In 92, Emperor He, apparently dissatisfied with his suppression by the Dou clan, plotted a coup d'état with his brother Liu Qing the Prince of Qinghe, and Zheng. They were successful in carrying out the overthrow of the Dous, and as a reward, Emperor He promoted Zheng to the post of the empress' palace's head of household (大長秋). Zheng accepted the post but declined most of the monetary rewards that Emperor He gave him, a fact that made Emperor He even more impressed with him. Emperor He often consulted with him on major affairs of state, and this started a precedent of eunuchs becoming involved in imperial governance. In 102, breaking past precedent, Emperor He created Zheng the Marquess of Chaoxiang. Zheng supported Emperor He's wife Empress Deng through the turmoils of Emperor He's death in 106 and the death of his son and successor Emperor Shang later that year. For his support, she added 300 households to his march in 107. He died later that year.

CHAPTER 2. FAMOUS EUNUCHS We, Zheng He and his companions [including Admirals Hong Bao, Zhou Man, Zhou Wen, and Yang Qing], at the beginning of Zhu Di's reign received the Imperial Commission as envoys to the barbarians. Up until now seven voyages have taken place and, each time, we have commanded several tens of thousands of government soldiers and more than a hundred oceangoing vessels. We have...reached countries of the Eastern Regions, more than thirty countries in all. We have...beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising sky-high, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away, hidden in a blue transparency of light vapors, whilst our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds, day and night continued their course, rapid like that of a star, traversing those savage waves.

2.77.1 In fiction Thomas Seinbeck's“In the Shade of the Cypress”(published 2010) is a historical novel whose main character is Zhou Man. In his book 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, amateur historian Gavin Menzies argues that Zhou Man built a fortess at Bittangabee Bay Australia and that his fleet approached and mapped the Pacific coast of North America and may have been wiped out by a megatsunami resulting from a comet impact creating Mahuika crater. The Australian geographer Professor Victor Prescott states that the structure at Bittangabee is considered by local archaeologists to be early 19th century and that Menzies misinterpreted the Waldseemüller map which he used as evidence for a visit by Zhou Man to the Americas.* [1]

2.77.2 Notes

2.77 Zhou Man

[1] Prescott, Victor.“1421 AND ALL THAT JUNK”. Retrieved 13 June 2013.

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zhou. Zhou Man (Chinese: 周 滿; pinyin: Zhōu Mǎn), was a 15th-century Chinese admiral and explorer. He was born into a wealthy merchant family in the year 1378 AD; when he was six years old, his father died on an overseas voyage to Korea. Mourning his father's death, he left his mother and his four younger siblings behind. He worked his way into the emperor's staff by the age of 22. At 32, he was assigned“Grand Leader of All Vessels Commanded by the Emperor's Swift Hand.”

2.78 Zong Ai Zong Ai (宗 愛) (died 452) was a eunuch who briefly came to great power in the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei in 452 after assassinating Emperor Taiwu and making his son Tuoba Yu emperor.

Little is known about Zong's career prior to 451. What is known is that he was punished with castration for unspecified crimes, and subsequent to his castration, he served Zhou, with the help of three other commanders, ex- in the Northern Wei palace as a eunuch. In spring 451, plored wide reaches of the Indian Ocean. A stone inscrip- when Emperor Taiwu held a great gathering of imperial tion, dated 1431, at the Palace of the Celestial Spouse in officials and handed out titles and other rewards for ofLiujiagang, Jiangsu is translated as: ficials' accomplishments, Zong was created the Duke of

2.79. ZUO FENG

153

Qing Commandery, but it is not known for what accom- seizing him and making Tuoba Jun emperor. Both Zong plishments he was created as such. and Jia were executed by extremely cruel means—a five Later in 451, Zong came into conflict with Emperor step process: Taiwu's crown prince Tuoba Huang. Crown Prince Huang had been considered able and all-seeing, but overly trusting of his associates, while privately managing farms and orchards and receiving profits from them. Crown Prince Huang greatly disliked Zong, who was described as corrupt and power hungry, and Zong decided to act first, accusing Crown Prince Huang's associates Chou'ni Daosheng (仇 泥 道 盛) and Ren Pingcheng (任 平 城) of crimes, and Chou'ni and Ren were executed. Further, many other associates of Crown Prince Huang were dragged into the incident and executed. Crown Prince Huang himself grew ill in anxiety, and died in summer 451. Soon, however, Emperor Taiwu found out that Crown Prince Huang was not guilty, and became heavily regretful of his actions in pursuing the crown prince's associates.

1. Their faces were tattooed. 2. Their noses were cut off. 3. Their big toes were cut off. 4. They were killed by repetitive whipping. 5. Their bodies were decapitated, and then the bodies were ground up. Zong's and Jia's clans were also slaughtered.

Subsequent historians have pondered the unusual natures of Zong's crimes—that despite having assassinated two emperors, Zong was only accused by the coup leaders of having assassinated Tuoba Yu, not Emperor Taiwu. The Fearful that he would be punished because of Crown officials' failure to arrest Zong or to announce Emperor Prince Huang's death, Zong assassinated Emperor Taiwu Taiwu's death also led to speculation that Zong did not in spring 452. Initially, the officials Wuluolan Yan (烏洛 act alone. However, insufficient information is available 蘭延), Suhe Pi (素和疋), and Chigan Ti (叱干提) did not to judge whether the speculations are correct. announce news of Emperor Taiwu's death, as they considered whom to make Emperor Taiwu's successor. Because 2.78.1 References they considered Crown Prince Huang's son Tuoba Jun to be too young and wanted an older emperor, they sum• Book of Wei, vol. 94. moned Emperor Taiwu's second son, Tuoba Han (拓拔 翰) the Prince of Dongping to the palace. However, their • History of the Northern Dynasties, vol. 92. discussions stalemated when Chigan insisted on making • Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 126. Tuoba Jun, who as the crown prince's older son would be the proper heir under the Confucian rules of succession, emperor. Zong heard this, and believing that he had already offended Tuoba Jun and disliking Tuoba Han, he 2.79 Zuo Feng secretly summoned Emperor Taiwu's youngest son Tuoba Yu, the Prince of Nan'an, to the palace, while forging Zuo Feng was a eunuch who lived during the Eastern an edict from Emperor Taiwu's wife Empress Helian to Han Dynasty. According to the Romance of the Three summon Wuluolan and a number of other officials, who Kingdoms, Zuo Feng had Lu Zhi arrested on trumped up did not suspect that anything was wrong and entered the charges after Lu Zhi failed to pay Zuo a bribe during the palace. Upon their doing so, 30 eunuchs that Zong had Yellow Turban Rebellion. armed arrested and executed them, as well as Tuoba Han. Zong then made Tuoba Yu emperor. Zong was created the Prince of Fengyi and made the commander of the 2.79.1 References armed forces, and he became the actual power in the • Romance of the Three Kingdoms/Chapter 1 regime. In fall 452, displeased at how powerful and arrogant Zong had become, Tuoba Yu planned to strip him of his authority. Zong heard about this, and while Tuoba Yu was making a sacrifice to his great-grandfather Emperor Daowu at night, Zong sent his assistant Jia Zhou (賈周) to assassinate him. He then considered whom to make emperor to replace Tuoba Yu, quickly rejected a suggestion by his associate Dugu Ni to make Tuoba Jun emperor, on the account that Tuoba Jun, once he was grown, would surely make Zong account for his father's death. Dugu then entered into a plot with other officials, Yuan He, Baba Kehou (拔拔渴侯), and Buliugu Li and rose against Zong,

Chapter 3

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Timmyshin, Beeline23, Teamjenn, Banchoryboy, CHRISTismyROCK83, Viceregency, Millelacs, J04n, Karlmudjin, Prunesqualer, Barundeep23, Nishant6rawlley, Astatine-210, WhiteThunder1492, Nonamer98, Lololhaha, Orijentolog, Tobby72, ZardKhansdin, Haeinous, Willcwhite, Citation bot 1, Finn Froding, Nicolas79, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, Sunfireproductions, Half price, Tinton5, RedBot, Carol4929, ScottMHoward, Smoking Pole, MJ loves the boyz, Reconsider the static, 'Iw 'Ip ghomey, Brouillette.ryan, Terissn, JAzevado, Kgrad, FoxBot, Lotje, EmperorFishFinger, Reaper Eternal, Kungkang, Weedwhacker128, Athene cheval, Ninjaman12321, Blaabeck, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, XinaNicole, Jake, Solarra, Zach0981, ZéroBot, Susfele, DragonTiger23, Pingpongkingkong8867, Mar4d, SandorKrasna, Sahityakar, Elektrik Shoos, H3llBot, Wikignome0530, Labnoor, Misterhistory, Donner60, Eggbelly, FalcoPunch, ClueBot NG, Happy Happy Joy Joy Joy, MelbourneStar, TheGibonFromHeck, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Brianwhitecalf, Biga29, Byshelby, Rocksz, DBigXray, RobMarvin, Mohamed CJ, Prcc27, Gladbags77, Cold Season, Stateofyolandia, CitationCleanerBot, Nopark40, Fotoriety, Critical M104, BattyBot, Thecostumelady, Tutelary, Keeganolton, YFdyh-bot, DarkguardNova201, TinyTedDanson, Soni, Pbe013, Forgiventoforgive, SantoshBot, 316john, Mogism, Alirocks93, Rajmaan, Epicgenius, Red-eyed demon, Jamesmcmahon0, Melonkelon, Jorbie77, Lan Thoa, Tentinator, JTLofton, Ray Holtsma, WEGTC, 818meets703, DavidLeighEllis, Shiningroad, Lý Minh Nhật, Pres. T0ny Fr3sh, Chief tree high, JosephSpiral, Noyster, Robedclaws, Migoortiz, Jehoys, Ananiujitha, Khan zor, Crumpets blare fairs, Pugilist66, Therealpirateblue, King sorks, Serencia, Redleader388, Monkbot, Bobsnow, Brohno, Hersheychu, Samuelbut1ene, Wp mirror, Samuelevilla, Fungal vexation, Pastaboy888, Borishuang, GoldenGuy23, LarryBrown123, MateraIscientist, GaryGearing123, Azealia911, KasparBot, Bullets and Bracelets, Ye eunuch and Anonymous: 810 Castrato Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrato?oldid=679326143 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, WojPob, The Anome, ErdemTuzun, Gianfranco, Camembert, J.F.Quackenbush, Hephaestos, Frecklefoot, Edward, Infrogmation, Dante Alighieri, Lquilter, Ellywa, Julesd, BRG, Next Paige, Tedius Zanarukando, Selket, Hyacinth, Nv8200pa, Jnc, Fibonacci, Pixote~enwiki, Prisonblues, Raul654, Bcorr, JorgeGG, Huangdi, EdwinHJ, Evirated12345, Finn-Zoltan, Siroxo, ElfMage, Meddlin' Pedant, Geni, Jokestress, Ganymead, Ukexpat, Avihu, Stereo, George V Reilly, Rdb, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Rsanchezsaez, Liffey, Viriditas, Man vyi, Apostrophe, Grutness, Alansohn, Druid816, Keenan Pepper, Carbon Caryatid, SpaceFalcon2001, Axl, WikiParker, SidP, HenryLi, Dismas, Bobrayner, MONGO, Kelisi, GregorB, SDC, Gimboid13, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, NeonMerlin, Bensin, MarnetteD, FlaBot, Lebha, RasputinAXP, Zotel, Chobot, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Mfero, Horncomposer, Erielhonan, Welsh, Froth, Tony1, Phgao, StuRat, Ali K, Arnie587, SMcCandlish, LeonardoRob0t, Contaldo80, Pádraic MacUidhir, Fastifex, Bibliomaniac15, SmackBot, Antrophica, Hardyplants, Voxdoc, Carbonix, Hmains, Ghosts&empties, Xmahahdu, Rakela, Kleinzach, Fplay, Raoul-Duke, Nixeagle, Deeb, *Ria777*, Makemi, Nakon, Hoof Hearted, GuillaumeTell, Derek R Bullamore, Wizardman, Ck lostsword, Ohconfucius, Esrever, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Ian Spackman, JosePaolantonio, Michael Bednarek, Cielomobile, Voceditenore, Maltydog, Interlingua, Neddyseagoon, MTSbot~enwiki, Violncello, Andymallinson, Roydosan, Courcelles, Adam sk, JForget, W guice, Moreschi, Pgralla, Grabar, Malleus Fatuorum, Epbr123, Albul~enwiki, Headbomb, Kathovo, PaulVIF, Escarbot, John Smythe, Flowbee, John1987, DagosNavy, Husond, Denn333, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Mindgoneawol, Nyttend, Froid, Fallschirmjäger, Cgingold, Coughinink, Mellow honey, JMyrleFuller, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Wiki Raja, AlphaEta, Svetko, Numbo3, Straywolf432, Whjayg, Prhartcom, Sparafucil, GreenWyvern, Ja 62, VolkovBot, Carterdriggs, DoorsAjar, GroveGuy, A4bot, Acakewouldbenice, Nrswanson, ElinorD, CanOfWorms, The dog2, Voxclamans, Falcon8765, Insanity Incarnate, Yak99, Groovyjazzyfunky, SieBot, Born Again 83, Patricia Howard, FunkMonk, Breawycker, Kghastie, Denisarona, Ratemonth, Uncle Milty, Boing! said Zebedee, Sabri76, Auntof6, Jusdafax, Albert Wincentz, Contains Mild Peril, Daniel1212, Tdslk, Krumovies26, XLinkBot, WillOakland, Some jerk on the Internet, Yobmod, Redheylin, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jarble, Legobot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Un chien andalou, Citation bot, Newman Luke, Xqbot, ChicagoDilettante, Jeanambr, XZeroBot, J04n, Vitellia, Cresix, Singingteacher, Postitnote Crazy, Citation bot 1, Diannaa, Found A Dojo, ParadoxBacklash, And we drown, 4meter4, Solarra, Tommy2010, Susfele, Wayne Slam, Orange Suede Sofa, Pic69845, Yousmellpretty, ClueBot NG, Cpluscarden, Hazhk, Neljack, Ganstaman, Pluma, RafikiSykes, FRank Walker Jr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gbestnorniron, Achowat, DKotz92, Pepexonega, Fraulein451, Cyberbot II, Acire93, Very Odd Bod, Rachellains, Jacobkcarpenter, KasparBot and Anonymous: 304 Aetios (eunuch) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aetios_(eunuch)?oldid=640699678 Contributors: Dimadick, RussBot, Moe Epsilon, SmackBot, Cplakidas, SMasters, Tiamut, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Stegop, No. 108, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, Autokrator, Justincheng12345-bot and Dexbot Artoxares Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artoxares?oldid=634059919 Contributors: Sburke, Tabletop, FlaBot, Jaraalbe, RussBot, Cplakidas, Amizzoni~enwiki, The Man in Question, Alucard (Dr.), WVhybrid, Crispus, Deflective, Magioladitis, TXiKiBoT, Auntof6, MystBot, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Mickreally0, Chewings72, Hmainsbot1, Fimatic and Anonymous: 4 Bagoas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagoas?oldid=675605404 Contributors: RodC, Dimadick, Robbot, Everyking, DavidBrooks, Williamb, Sam Hocevar, Arcturus, Neutrality, User2004, Paul August, Joshbaumgartner, Andrew Gray, Binabik80, Gimboid13, FlaBot, Eubot, TheDJ, Shauni, YurikBot, Aldux, Zwobot, Curpsbot-unicodify, Gaudio, KnightRider~enwiki, PiCo, Bouette, Moez, Pawelkg, A. Parrot, ConstantinetheGreat~enwiki, Cydebot, Headbomb, Noroton, Crispus, Dsp13, Waacstats, STBotD, VolkovBot, SieBot, Xavexgoem, Addbot, CarsracBot, Omnipedian, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bob Burkhardt, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Orijentolog, DefaultsortBot, MondalorBot, PBS-AWB, Chewings72, HistoryofIran, ArmbrustBot, Johnvf5, KasparBot and Anonymous: 21 Bagoas (courtier) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagoas_(courtier)?oldid=664690627 Contributors: RodC, Robbot, Gadfium, Haiduc, Xezbeth, Eritain, Axl, Kbdank71, Tim!, Nandesuka, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, Aldux, Gadget850, Asarelah, Maunus, Bouette, Herostratus, Cplakidas, Zdravko mk, Das Baz, Amizzoni~enwiki, Nareek, Archangel2244, Firegirl223, Cydebot, Studerby, Doug Weller, Keraunos, Crispus, Ekabhishek, Maraxan~enwiki, FisherQueen, Aciram, Ray-Ginsay, Stanning, Yintan, Delta1989, Kain Nihil, Catalographer, AnotherSolipsist, Addbot, Balbec1897, Farmercarlos, LinkFA-Bot, Luckas-bot, JanUD, Omnipaedista, Prezbo, FrescoBot, Tonalone, Durutomo, GlassmasterDX, ZxxZxxZ, Dexbot and Anonymous: 30 Basil Lekapenos Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Lekapenos?oldid=662772204 Contributors: Dimadick, Auric, XLerate, Str1977, Jaraalbe, NawlinWiki, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Cplakidas, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Headbomb, Dmitri Lytov, Waacstats, Johnpacklambert, Skier Dude, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DefaultsortBot, Annabelleigh, RjwilmsiBot, ZéroBot, Jbribeiro1, Philafrenzy, YFdyh-bot and Anonymous: 7 Cai Lun Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cai_Lun?oldid=680121031 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Ktsquare, Formulax~enwiki, Olivier, Infrogmation, Menchi, Dramatic, CatherineMunro, Mxn, Tpbradbury, Riddley, Fredrik, Kamakura, Spencer195, Yekrats, Piotrus, Kaldari, Neutrality, Michael L. 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CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Persiana, Hyper nell bomber, Kehrbykid, PericlesofAthens, EmxBot, SieBot, ClueBot, Kafka Liz, Sevilledade, Uncle Milty, Excirial, Alexbot, Bchaosf, Rror, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Rubinbot, Citation bot, JimVC3, Anna Frodesiak, Ute in DC, Volvo B9TL, RibotBOT, D'ohBot, DrilBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, MastiBot, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Zanhe, ZhBot, Soewinhan, Gimmemoretime, GoingBatty, K6ka, AndrewOne, Thine Antique Pen, Chewings72, Sven Manguard, ClueBot NG, Hazhk, Rurik the Varangian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Frozen Feeling, CimanyD, Aatifwahab, Cherri909, Drkswmm, Khakiweebus, Pratyya Ghosh, Tahc, VIAFbot, ‫محمد افضل‬, Bobthepibbguy, KasparBot and Anonymous: 106 • Cao Jie (eunuch) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Jie_(eunuch)?oldid=611702021 Contributors: The Anome, Chobot, RussBot, Nlu, Fram, Hmains, Neo-Jay, Underbar dk, A-cai, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Waacstats, Erkan Yilmaz, SieBot, Addbot, Luckasbot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, DefaultsortBot, ZhBot, Trungda, HenryXVII, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 1 • Cao Teng Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Teng?oldid=650748392 Contributors: Chobot, Nlu, AlexSmall, SmackBot, Lds, Hmains, Underbar dk, Jonathan Groß, Cashie, Cydebot, JamesAM, Headbomb, Armando12, Magioladitis, 子房, Wiki monde, Addbot, Yobot, Timmyshin, Trungda, Yiyang2012, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 2 • Cheng Kuang Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_people_of_the_Three_Kingdoms?oldid=676749948 Contributors: BD2412, Lds, Neo-Jay, Egsan Bacon, Underbar dk, Addbot, Tassedethe, NeoBatfreak, Luckas-bot, Timmyshin, RibotBOT, LucienBOT, EmausBot, Angrytoast, HenryXVII, FunkyCanute, Rafton5, Turner1987, Fillthemill, Benjitheijneb, Quix712, Elaqueate, Kellyprestonthenakedwoman and Anonymous: 5 • Cheng Yuanzhen Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheng_Yuanzhen?oldid=680145342 Contributors: Jayjg, BD2412, RussBot, Nlu, Cydebot, Oerjan, Headbomb, Waacstats, KConWiki, RogDel, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Timmyshin, DefaultsortBot and RjwilmsiBot • Chrysaphius Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysaphius?oldid=636059787 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Xezbeth, Roger pearse, Kmorozov, Bluebot, Cplakidas, Neddyseagoon, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Vikas Kumar Ojha, Waacstats, DragonBot, Addbot, Xqbot, TakenakaN, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Renato de carvalho ferreira, Mcpasztori and Anonymous: 4 • Duan Gui Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duan_Gui?oldid=601128388 Contributors: The Anome, Bgwhite, RussBot, Nlu, Fram, Racklever, A-cai, Cydebot, Headbomb, Dohe, Addbot, KamikazeBot, TechBot, GrouchoBot, ZhBot and Ripchip Bot • Ebed-Melech Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebed-Melech?oldid=678681047 Contributors: HollyAm, Everyking, Humblefool, Longhair, Grutness, Culix, Kingsean1, Woohookitty, NatusRoma, RobyWayne, RussBot, FocalPoint, Eliyak, Rigadoun, Shinryuu, Alaibot, Crashj, Java7837, StAnselm, AMbot, Addbot, 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Pixie Bot, Markunit23 and Anonymous: 2 • Eustratius Garidas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustratius_Garidas?oldid=678978298 Contributors: Varangian, Chuunen Baka, Jeff5102, Cplakidas, Headbomb, Waacstats, Thismightbezach, A ntv, Addbot, Omnipaedista, Ιων, Jbribeiro1, BG19bot, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, ExperiencedArticleFixer and Anonymous: 1 • Eutropius (consul) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutropius_(consul)?oldid=676290650 Contributors: Panairjdde~enwiki, Abou Ben Adhem, Dimadick, Fredrik, Academic Challenger, Stbalbach, Cmdrjameson, Hooperbloob, Qurqa~enwiki, Chris Buckey, Rjwilmsi, 0o64eva, RussBot, .marc., Sandstein, GrinBot~enwiki, FocalPoint, Cplakidas, Labattblueboy, Rrburke, Neddyseagoon, Lugnuts, Abmcg, Headbomb, Nuno Gabriel Cabral~enwiki, Waacstats, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, SieBot, Interlinking, MystBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Xqbot, TechBot, TakenakaN, DefaultsortBot, Dinamik-bot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, ChuispastonBot, Khazar2, Dexbot, SNUGGUMS and Anonymous: 8 • Feng Xu Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_Xu?oldid=601125358 Contributors: The Anome, Bgwhite, RussBot, Nlu, Fram, Underbar dk, A-cai, Joseph Solis in Australia, Cydebot, Headbomb, Erkan Yilmaz, Gauge00, WereSpielChequers, Addbot, Luckas-bot, GrouchoBot, ZhBot and YFdyh-bot • Galli Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galli?oldid=669603141 Contributors: Tucci528, AlexR, Karada, Timwi, Jay, GreatWhiteNortherner, Sarahandrea, Eequor, Bacchiad, Phil Sandifer, Kate, Dbachmann, Dlloyd, Paul August, Bender235, Ntennis, Brian0918, AKGhetto, Alansohn, ^demon, Angusmclellan, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, Zwobot, Asarelah, NYArtsnWords, SmackBot, Unyoyega, LauraSeabrook, John D. Croft, 16@r, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Roger Pearse, Noclevername, Cynwolfe, Magioladitis, STBot, Rei-bot, Edmardo, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Catalographer, Ragnii, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TParis, Citation bot, Ekwos, RibotBOT, Haploidavey, Pablassamo, EmausBot, XinaNicole, Cherri777, Accotink2, Mallexikon, Chester Markel, Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Witch1b4, ÄDA - DÄP, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Melonkelon and Anonymous: 41 • Gang Bing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang_Bing?oldid=679603935 Contributors: Danny, Michael Hardy, Circeus, Darwinek, Rolfmueller, Jeltz, Ghirlandajo, Canderson7, GeeJo, Ptcamn, Nlu, David Straub, Crystallina, SmackBot, Lds, Mikhajist, Linnell, Makyen, Cydebot, Jackyd101, Lugnuts, NorthernThunder, Biruitorul, Headbomb, Gunsfornuns, Clouseth, Tengku syariful~enwiki, Wiendietry~enwiki, Wirosableng, Quoth nevermore~enwiki, Hadrianvs et antinovs, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Citation bot, ZhBot and Anonymous: 7 • Ganymedes (eunuch) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganymedes_(eunuch)?oldid=675594541 Contributors: Dimadick, FeanorStar7, Kbdank71, Black Sword, RussBot, Nolanus, SmackBot, Cplakidas, CmdrObot, Basawala, Fordmadoxfraud, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Quijote3000, Trilobitealive, Andres rojas22, Varoon Arya, Drmies, Oskar71, Bilsonius, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Erik9bot, DefaultsortBot, MastiBot, EmausBot, BattyBot, Hmainsbot1, Absalao777, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 3 • Gao Lishi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gao_Lishi?oldid=673969511 Contributors: Edward, Menchi, CatherineMunro, D6, Hooperbloob, Pion, Melaen, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Pol098, BD2412, Jaxl, Nlu, Bhumiya, SmackBot, Sneltrekker, Ck lostsword, Ricky@36, Cydebot, SueMW, Headbomb, WinBot, Barefact, Waacstats, Kayau, Emeraldhue, StAnselm, Dcattell, Mild Bill Hiccup, DumZiBoT, RogDel, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Timmyshin, DefaultsortBot, ZhBot, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Trungda, PhnomPencil and Anonymous: 7

3.1. TEXT

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• Guo Sheng (eunuch) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guo_Sheng_(eunuch)?oldid=633784544 Contributors: The Anome, RussBot, Nlu, Fram, SmackBot, Racklever, A-cai, Cydebot, Headbomb, Waacstats, VolkovBot, Dohe, Addbot, TechBot, GrouchoBot, 777sms, ZhBot and Hmainsbot1 • Hadim Ali Pasha Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Had%C4%B1m_Ali_Pasha?oldid=641958263 Contributors: Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Bgwhite, Joel7687, Cloj, Cplakidas, Cydebot, Headbomb, WereSpielChequers, Takabeg, Addbot, Nedim Ardoğa, Starzynka, EmausBot, MALLUS, Zoupan, ‫عبدالله آل علي‬, DemirBajraktarevic, Ithinkicahn, KoolerTheFirst and Anonymous: 1 • Hadân Suleiman Pasha Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Had%C4%B1m_Suleiman_Pasha_(governor_of_Rumelia)?oldid= 667499581 Contributors: PFHLai, Physicistjedi, Anittas, Ligulem, RussBot, Anonimu, SmackBot, Davewild, Bluebot, Sadads, Cplakidas, Andrei Stroe, Mukadderat, Turanyuksel, Iridescent, CmdrObot, Oo7565, Headbomb, Waacstats, Baristarim, Noyder, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, DSisyphBot, Nedim Ardoğa, DefaultsortBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Rereward, Antidiskriminator, Zulayhe, Zoupan, Braincricket, Khazar2, Parsedan, Ithinkicahn and Anonymous: 11 • Halotus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halotus?oldid=674963589 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Dimadick, Michael Devore, MisfitToys, FeanorStar7, BillC, Koavf, Jaraalbe, RussBot, Grafen, Gadget850, E Wing, SmackBot, Gilliam, Chris the speller, PrimeHunter, OrphanBot, R.F.La Fontaine, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Clarityfiend, Newyorkbrad, Cydebot, Kozuch, Headbomb, Domusaurea, ZackTheJack, CommonsDelinker, Anonymous Dissident, Seb26, Rockstone35, Dwiakigle, Sfan00 IMG, Dpmuk, Andplus, PixelBot, MelonBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Citation bot, OgreBot, RjwilmsiBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 4 • Heraclius (primicerius sacri cubiculi) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius_(primicerius_sacri_cubiculi)?oldid=631646132 Contributors: GoodDay, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Fayenatic london, RogDel, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Citation bot, TakenakaN, RjwilmsiBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Quiet Editor and Anonymous: 1 • Hermotimus of Pedasa Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Pedasa?oldid=610995285 Contributors: WolfgangRieger, SmackBot, Hmains, Cplakidas, Biscuittin, Oskar71, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Tjmoel, Stpowell, MALLUS and HistoryofIran • Hong Bao Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Bao?oldid=679670184 Contributors: Danny, Bender235, Rjwilmsi, Tomer Ish Shalom, Vmenkov, Crystallina, SmackBot, Lds, Betacommand, Nishkid64, Skinsmoke, Agent007bond, SohanDsouza, Cydebot, HResearcher, Aldis90, Headbomb, Ling.Nut, Waacstats, ClovisPt, Philg88, Jeepday, Bnynms, Addbot, Yobot, Citation bot, Omnipaedista, Jann, Dinamik-bot, Moswento, Helpful Pixie Bot, Cold Season and Anonymous: 5 • Hou Lan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hou_Lan?oldid=636079313 Contributors: The Anome, Bgwhite, RussBot, Nlu, Fram, Lds, A-cai, Cydebot, Headbomb, Alexbot, Addbot, GrouchoBot, ZhBot and Anonymous: 1 • Huang Hao Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang_Hao?oldid=670781349 Contributors: Robbot, Hooperbloob, Crzrussian, Plastictv, FlaBot, YurikBot, RussBot, Chensiyuan, Nlu, SmackBot, Lds, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Underbar dk, Ligulembot, Jonathan Groß, DabMachine, The Cake is a Lie, Armando12, Magioladitis, LordAnubisBOT, Dohe, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Zhang Zifang, Citation bot, JiangWei95, GrouchoBot, Angrytoast, 飘零之琴, EkmanLi, Turner1987, Numbermaniac and Anonymous: 4 • Jian Shuo Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jian_Shuo?oldid=673979049 Contributors: Confuzion, Pearle, RJFJR, Rjwilmsi, Skyfiler, Nlu, Whitejay251, Fram, JLaTondre, SmackBot, Lds, Underbar dk, Jonathan Groß, A-cai, Cydebot, Headbomb, Waacstats, Dohe, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Timmyshin, GrouchoBot, D'ohBot, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 5 • John the Eunuch Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_the_Orphanotrophos?oldid=626341303 Contributors: The Anome, FeanorStar7, Str1977, Jaraalbe, Spasemunki, RussBot, SmackBot, Srnec, Cplakidas, Nosimplehiway, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Nick Number, TAnthony, Waacstats, Skier Dude, Alexbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Barochetto, Annabelleigh, Jbribeiro1, Davidiad, MrNiceGuy1113 and Anonymous: 2 • Judar Pasha Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judar_Pasha?oldid=649993168 Contributors: Auric, Hooperbloob, Jheald, Dvyost, FayssalF, NekoDaemon, Jaraalbe, Linguiste, Cplakidas, Mukadderat, MisterCDE, Cydebot, S710, Zupez zeta, T L Miles, Waacstats, Java7837, Andres rojas22, Snowbot, AlleborgoBot, ClueBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Lightbot, The Deceiver, Yobot, Citation bot, Aa77zz, D'ohBot, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Omar-toons, Panna Wodzianna, Helpful Pixie Bot, PhnomPencil, Tachfin, PuchaczTrado, Asqueladd, Nimetapoeg, Harunabdurrahman, Scheff66, Xoegki and Anonymous: 6 • Lausus (eunuch) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausus_(eunuch)?oldid=631925480 Contributors: Nabla, Rjwilmsi, Jivecat, Nimur, Mr.Rocks, RussBot, Hmains, Cplakidas, Cydebot, Alaibot, Mojo Hand, Waacstats, Lorddragyn, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Xqbot, DefaultsortBot, Full-date unlinking bot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 1 • Li Fuguo Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Fuguo?oldid=673967953 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Confuzion, TonySapphire, Tiger Khan, Percy Snoodle, BD2412, Clee7903, Bgwhite, RussBot, Manxruler, Badagnani, Nlu, JLaTondre, Gaudio, SmackBot, Norm mit, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Emeraldhue, Snowybeagle, BotKung, SwordSmurf, AlleborgoBot, Æthelwold, Lightmouse, DumZiBoT, RogDel, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Timmyshin, Kungkang, EmausBot and Anonymous: 2 • Li Lianying Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Lianying?oldid=677487134 Contributors: Olivier, Colipon, Fuzheado, YUL89YYZ, Hooperbloob, Ctande, User6854, RHaworth, Quale, Hathawayc, Chichui, Caerwine, Nlu, Lds, Hmains, Underbar dk, Cydebot, WinBot, Waacstats, Exiled Ambition, Addbot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Ferox Seneca, 唐吉訶德的侍從, DefaultsortBot, Full-date unlinking bot, TobeBot, RjwilmsiBot, BG19bot, Kbabej and Anonymous: 9 • Liu Jin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Jin?oldid=663699059 Contributors: Ctande, EamonnPKeane, RussBot, Nlu, Mix321, SmackBot, Lds, Underbar dk, Ergative rlt, Ben Jos, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Alaibot, Headbomb, Nick Number, Heroeswithmetaphors, Qwerty Binary, VoABot II, Waacstats, Philg88, VolkovBot, Omegastar, Alex Middleton, Hans yulun lai, ClueBot, Philosophy.dude, RogDel, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Yobot, Madivalar594032, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, HRW in 1899, Boxofsushi, Lotje, Kungkang, RjwilmsiBot, ZéroBot, Wuxinghongqi05, Helpful Pixie Bot, Khanate General, Kd103, KoolerTheFirst and Anonymous: 9 • Melito of Sardis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melito_of_Sardis?oldid=664349348 Contributors: Llywrch, Ihcoyc, Charles Matthews, Wetman, Dimadick, JackofOz, Wereon, GreatWhiteNortherner, Discospinster, Wareh, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, JW1805, ADM, Drbreznjev, Pictureuploader, KHM03, Str1977, YurikBot, ASmolderingWiki, Lockesdonkey, Wolfling, SmackBot, COGwriter, PureRED, Cplakidas, JonHarder, Savidan, LoveMonkey, Euchiasmus, InfernoXV, Rwflammang, HGoldman, Cydebot, Languagehat, Thijs!bot, Deschreiber, Massimo Macconi, Waacstats, JaGa, STBot, Beit Or, VolkovBot, Margacst, Homun, TXiKiBoT, John Carter, Infogoddess54, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Gingerwiki, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Bepimela, Gr8opinionater, Benkenobi18, Ewawer, Wojwoj, DerBorg, Daniel1212, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Leszek Jańczuk, Тиверополник, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dizzle3, Citation bot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Tucked, Surv1v4l1st, Gugu102, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, EmausBot, Fidulario, ChuispastonBot, Sever Juan, Julian Colgan, KasparBot and Anonymous: 22

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CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• Mohammad Khan Qajar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khan_Qajar?oldid=680591308 Contributors: Itai, Dimadick, ChrisO~enwiki, Roozbeh, Jason Quinn, D6, Parishan, CanisRufus, Dalf, Zanganeh, Boris Živ, Giraffedata, Pouya, Kober, Zereshk, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, Briangotts, Amikeco, Pictureuploader, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Gryffindor, Lpstubbs~enwiki, YurikBot, Conscious, Cunado19, EvKnight13, BOT-Superzerocool, Ali1986, Andrewbot, Nokhodi, タチコマ robot, SmackBot, Shervin1982, Grandmaster, TimBentley, Salvo46, TheLeopard, OrphanBot, Kashk, Dl2000, Cydebot, Languagehat, PKT, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Headbomb, Crispus, Demophon, Waacstats, Aziz1005, Edward321, MartinBot, Kimse, DrKiernan, Jeepday, The Behnam, VolkovBot, Kyle the bot, SieBot, Alex Middleton, Aumnamahashiva, Gorrrillla5, JL-Bot, Sitush, Closestyle321, Binksternet, All Hallow's Wraith, Plastikspork, Megastrike14, Alexbot, Octavian history, Takabeg, Anual, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Benjamin Trovato, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Hinio, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Zhangmoon618, J04n, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, Njamali, OgreBot, Farhikht, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, GMIAMIR.2010, ‫مانفی‬, ZéroBot, Midas02, Ali Hassanzadeh, SporkBot, Alborzagros, 19thPharaoh, Delusion23, The Empire of History, Ardy11, Egeymi, Nimetapoeg, HistoryofIran, LouisAragon, OccultZone, KasparBot, History of Persia and Anonymous: 52 • Narses Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narses?oldid=680730427 Contributors: Andre Engels, Jsc1973, Ktsquare, Llywrch, DopefishJustin, Darkwind, Caffelice~enwiki, Adam Bishop, Jfruh, Dimadick, Pibwl, Snobot, TOO, Kuralyov, Kelson, Lacrimosus, CALR, Giraffedata, Hooperbloob, Binabik80, Oystertoadfish, Kay Dekker, Tintin1107, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, FlaBot, Chobot, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Eupator, Aldux, BrorMartin, SmackBot, Piccadilly, Liontooth, Cplakidas, MarshallBagramyan, Iblardi, Norm mit, Keith-264, Janrpeters, Rwflammang, Cydebot, Hebrides, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Japo, Black Walnut, Rei-bot, Sniperz11, Daufer, Vahagn Petrosyan, SieBot, StAnselm, Mimihitam, Svick, DragonBot, -Midorihana-, Estirabot, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, 1ForTheMoney, Barosaurus Lentus, Benedict of Constantinople, Bilsonius, Addbot, AndersBot, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, Xqbot, Taron Saharyan, TakenakaN, GrouchoBot, Shelhabiron, Veron, Lotje, Jfmantis, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Eyadhamid, Senjuto, ClueBot NG, Aram-van, Vahan.hovh, BG19bot, Narayan89, Yerevantsi, Dexbot, Makecat-bot, Nimetapoeg, Markunit23, KasparBot, Sergioisrael07 and Anonymous: 35 • Nguyen An Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_An?oldid=677774901 Contributors: Clubmarx, Woohookitty, Bgwhite, RussBot, Kauffner, Nlu, SmackBot, Audacity, TheLeopard, Underbar dk, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Edward321, Moonriddengirl, BobShair, PalaceGuard008, Fadesga, Kanguole, RogDel, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Sea888, Citation bot, Amore Mio, 唐吉訶 德的侍從, FrescoBot, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, In ictu oculi, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1, E8xE8 and Anonymous: 2 • Nikephoritzes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikephoritzes?oldid=668702705 Contributors: Dimadick, BD2412, Cplakidas, TGC55, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Waacstats, R'n'B, MystBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Citation bot, RjwilmsiBot, Renato de carvalho ferreira, No. 108 and Helpful Pixie Bot • Origen Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen?oldid=679203228 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, MichaelTinkler, Css, RK, Amillar, Christian List, Mintguy, Hephaestos, Olivier, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Nixdorf, Stephen C. Carlson, Sannse, Karada, Radicalsubversiv, Mkweise, Kricxjo, Abou Ben Adhem, Irmgard, Александър, Rl, Charles Matthews, Dogface, Kenatipo, JorgeGG, Jhobson1, Dimadick, Robbot, Postdlf, Blainster, Moink, Carlj7, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dbenbenn, Jacob1207, Per Honor et Gloria, Wmahan, Andycjp, Quadell, Ellsworth, Chepry, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Stbalbach, Edgarde, Bobo192, Danesparza, Snowolf, Ksnow, Garzo, Gpvos, TheCoffee, Dismas, Preost, FeanorStar7, Sburke, Robert K S, Trödel, Tabletop, Rchamberlain, Palica, KHM03, Paxsimius, Graham87, BD2412, Qwertyus, Koavf, ElKevbo, Kalogeropoulos, FlaBot, Eubot, RexNL, President Rhapsody, Nick81, Rekleov, Chobot, Kazuba, VolatileChemical, YurikBot, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, Pvasiliadis, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, Big Brother 1984, Nowa, Roy Brumback, Alan Millar, Nlu, J S Ayer, Nikkimaria, Contaldo80, QEDQED, Christophermluna, Ephilei, Katieh5584, Gaudio, Tom Morris, Jackturner3, SmackBot, Zerida, Rbreen, Jagged 85, Eskimbot, Srnec, Vassyana, Hmains, B00P, NovakFreek, Jeff5102, Szepattila, Eusebeus, Mladifilozof, Gamahucheur, Matthew, Lapisphil, Nakon, LoveMonkey, Hgilbert, Andrew c, Kendrick7, Pjlmac, SimonATL, Freederick, MTSbot~enwiki, Vanished user, Geoffg, Delta x, Jbolden1517, Ghaly, Bribroder, Mcinnes robert, JJackman, Rwflammang, 5-HT8, Fordmadoxfraud, FilipeS, Cydebot, Jonathan Tweet, Meno25, Miguel de Servet, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, The Radio Star, Roger Pearse, Escarbot, Widefox, MetaManFromTomorrow, Fayenatic london, SimonDonnelly, Mercury543210, Fennessy, JAnDbot, Deflective, Caracaskid, RebelRobot, Alastair Haines, Magioladitis, Doug Coldwell, Tedickey, Soulbot, Presearch, Nikolaj Christensen, JaGa, C.Logan, Immanuel1, B9 hummingbird hovering, CommonsDelinker, Agapornis, Nigholith, Lhynard, WarthogDemon, Johnbod, LordAnubisBOT, Belovedfreak, Bermuda shawn, Phatius McBluff, Robertgreer, Student7, Lanternix, Juliancolton, Lyonski, Jamesontai, Remember the dot, Pastordavid, MishaPan, Inwind, Ajwest1983, Deor, Dampinograaf, Paxcoder, TXiKiBoT, Plenilune, Fano Ksenaki, Emmo827, Togussa, Ontoraul, ^demonBot2, Wikiisawesome, Jfoxvog, Synthebot, Jfreif, Thanatos666, Insanity Incarnate, Alcmaeonid, Jjdon, Maengpong, SieBot, StAnselm, Meldor, Valleyofangels, StudentoftheWord, OKBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Bepimela, Ciacg, Theruteger, ClueBot, Rumping, Fyyer, Takinen, Mild Bill Hiccup, J8079s, Niceguyedc, Stylteralmaldo, Leadwind, Auntof6, DragonBot, Riccardo Riccioni, Kklines, Antiquary, Glorthac, Catalographer, Practical321, Editor2020, Schinleber, DumZiBoT, Selotll, Acouto, BodhisattvaBot, Sarakm1, Richard-of-Earth, Stonewhite, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Atethnekos, Mrplainswalker, Leszek Jańczuk, Download, AgadaUrbanit, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Iune, Alain08, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, The Earwig, EnochBethany, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Saintorigen, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Xqbot, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Ender's Shadow Snr, Kevin-CTM, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, GhalyBot, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Anthony on Stilts, Chrysologus, Quodvultdeus, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Gugu102, Diomedea Exulans, Dazedbythebell, Skyerise, Joshualeasure, Julien1978, LutP, Pollinosisss, Lotje, Leondumontfollower, Aoidh, Ammodramus, Lung salad, Ripchip Bot, Absolyte, In ictu oculi, KinkyLipids, ImprovingWiki, Benguhin, WikitanvirBot, Lipsio, Laurel Lodged, Mychele Trempetich, Grantpant, Resolver-Aphelion, H3llBot, Erianna, Mcc1789, Markg17, ClueBot NG, Mannanan51, Telpardec, Swansnic, Helpful Pixie Bot, The Cake 2, Ocyril, BG19bot, Ska8ter, JohnChrysostom, Acsu, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Mark Arsten, Joshua Jonathan, Jfhutson, Jrknight5, He to Hecuba, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, Pirhayati, Periglio, VIAFbot, Drewbigs, Gabby Merger, UW Dawgs, Mario Baghos, Stauracius, Pmarten1, Metchley, Js314514, Sever Juan, Igamer101, Napalatt, Perfect Orange Sphere, NickLaz777, Monkbot, Griit12, Lgrn75124, Windywoodsmen, KasparBot and Anonymous: 255 • Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanus_I_of_Constantinople?oldid=671017986 Contributors: Wesley, Ktsquare, Llywrch, GTBacchus, Ahoerstemeier, JASpencer, Adam Bishop, Dimadick, TOO, Hutcheson, Incka, Rich Farmbrough, Caeruleancentaur, Qurqa~enwiki, Valentinian, Jaraalbe, RussBot, SmackBot, MalafayaBot, Alfion, Cplakidas, Nakon, Hectorian, Dl2000, InfernoXV, Cydebot, Imladjov, Lugnuts, Frank, Kostisl, Johnbod, Spaceflower, MishaPan, Thismightbezach, Margacst, John Carter, PipepBot, Alexbot, AMC0712, A ntv, MystBot, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Rubinbot, Citation bot, Analphabot, RibotBOT, Thehelpfulbot, MastiBot, ΙΣΧΣΝΙΚΑ−888, EmausBot, PBS-AWB, Bulwersator, NeverDoING, Mannanan51, Helpful Pixie Bot, Raoli, Marcocapelle, TheGreekWithNoName, Hmainsbot1, Loose eel and Anonymous: 10 • Patriarch Nicetas I of Constantinople Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicetas_I_of_Constantinople?oldid=665445493 Contributors: Dimadick, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Valentinian, Jaraalbe, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Hectorian, InfernoXV, Cydebot,

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Lugnuts, Alaibot, Headbomb, Waacstats, Thismightbezach, A ntv, RogDel, Addbot, The history nut, Vasiľ, Luckas-bot, Citation bot, Erik9bot, HRoestBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Jbribeiro1, Marcocapelle, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 1 • Peter Phokas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_(stratopedarches)?oldid=650883359 Contributors: Mandarax, Cplakidas, Cydebot, Headbomb, Waacstats, VolkovBot, RogDel, Addbot, Miyagawa, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, No. 108, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, SteenthIWbot, Stamptrader and Anonymous: 1 • Philetaerus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philetaerus?oldid=676635968 Contributors: The Anome, Panairjdde~enwiki, Paul A, Joy, Flauto Dolce, Per Honor et Gloria, Sam Hocevar, Paul August, QuartierLatin1968, Varana, Binabik80, Grenavitar, WojciechSwiderski~enwiki, FeanorStar7, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, Kyriakos, Zotel, YurikBot, RussBot, Seb35, Zwobot, Ajdebre, Edward Waverley, SmackBot, Tsca.bot, Cplakidas, Regnator, Andrew Dalby, The Man in Question, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Deflective, Albmont, Mfoch, VolkovBot, AlleborgoBot, Bielle, Lucasbfrbot, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Saddhiyama, Estirabot, Catalographer, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Againme, ArthurBot, Jeanambr, TjBot, Alph Bot, EmausBot, Mychele Trempetich, ZéroBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vagobot, Davidiad, Solomon7968, Clescision, Animus93, ArmbrustBot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 7 • Philip of Mahdia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_of_Mahdia?oldid=646170347 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Jaraalbe, RussBot, PanchoS, Nlu, Srnec, Cloj, Cplakidas, KRBN, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Waacstats, Balloonguy, RafaAzevedo, Good Olfactory, Addbot, AndersBot, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, John of Reading, RafikiSykes and Anonymous: 1 • Pothinus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pothinus?oldid=676103349 Contributors: Charles Matthews, JCarriker, Joy, Alexf, Grm wnr, Jpallan, Polylerus, Ricky81682, Daniel Lawrence, RxS, UriBudnik, DoubleBlue, Tufflaw, Eubot, RussBot, Nlu, Igiffin, Nolanus, Garion96, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Ala.foum, AlbertSM, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Picus viridis, Dawkeye, Waacstats, Andi d, Pajfarmor, TXiKiBoT, Grrahnbahr, Bellroth, Oskar71, Good Olfactory, Addbot, LaaknorBot, SteveLaino, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, RibotBOT, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Slightsmile, ZéroBot, Chewings72, Helpful Pixie Bot, Khazar2, Dexbot, Herr Pajfarmor, Lawlcatz69, PieCatLady, Dukon and Anonymous: 17 • Qiu Shiliang Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Shiliang?oldid=674000337 Contributors: YUL89YYZ, BD2412, Nlu, SmackBot, Cydebot, JimCubb, Waacstats, Philg88, RogDel, Addbot, Timmyshin, RjwilmsiBot, Cold Season and Johnson103 • Samonas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samonas?oldid=640580694 Contributors: Ukexpat, Aldux, Closedmouth, Cplakidas, Alessandro57, Waacstats, CommonsDelinker, Addbot, Ptbotgourou, Citation bot, Stegop, RjwilmsiBot, ZéroBot, Renato de carvalho ferreira, No. 108, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davidiad, CitationCleanerBot, Dexbot and Monkbot • Sima Qian Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Qian?oldid=679558799 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Amillar, Shii, Ktsquare, Olivier, Menchi, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Ve~enwiki, Slawojarek, Mountain, RedWolf, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, DHN, Gbog, Somercet, Sj, Nat Krause, Spencer195, Madw, Henry Flower, Python eggs, Confuzion, J3ff, 1297, Mamgeorge, Neutrality, Fg2, Aponar Kestrel, Andrejj, Liuyao, Bill Thayer, Jguk 2, Jojit fb, Nk, Lfcho, Hintha, 0101CHEUNGKH, 0101YOUNGhy, 0101LOcw, 0101AUsy, 0101KAMt, Kitty3c, Jumbuck, 0101HOkw, 0101NGks, 0101WONGfm, 0101CHANyp, Ctande, Burn, Tony Sidaway, Kusma, Annael~enwiki, Rintojiang, Mel Etitis, FeanorStar7, PoccilScript, JFG, BlankVerse, Twthmoses, Pictureuploader, Iluvchineselit, DoubleBlue, Cethegus, Charliewong, FlaBot, Colinoncayuga, Pathoschild, Hansamurai, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Arado, Rincewind42, Wimt, Rjensen, Pttcc, Nlu, Saranghae honey, Arthur Rubin, BorgQueen, Shawnc, Willtron, Tonyho, Chris1219, Quirky, KNHaw, SmackBot, Lds, Dgilman, Gilliam, Bluebot, Quinsareth, MalafayaBot, Stevenmitchell, Underbar dk, Got Milked, Perches, LDHan, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Takamaxa, Linnell, Korovioff, 2T, Shoeofdeath, Guss2, Cashie, Pi π, Richard Keatinge, Cydebot, MC10, SyntaxError55, Languagehat, Meno25, Travelbird, Hanfresco, JCO312, 刻意, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Missvain, J. W. Love, Ludde23, Wakefencer, Visik, AntiVandalBot, AstroLynx, MER-C, Joshua, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, WeakishJiang, ArthurWeasley, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Nikolaj Christensen, Philg88, Khalid Mahmood, FANSTARbot, Square Genesis, Malplaquet, SJP, Drakarst, Ymwang42, Useight, HONGCHELT, Idioma-bot, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Lear's Fool, TXiKiBoT, DoktorMax, Japanese biplane, PericlesofAthens, EmxBot, SieBot, ToePeu.bot, June w, Ode2joy, Flyer22, Hzh, Fratrep, Kgroussos, Dcattell, EveryDayJoe45, Brightrising, ClueBot, Sevilledade, DragonBot, Coralmizu, Kanguole, Herveba, SchreiberBike, Sparrowgoose, Budelberger, Chronicler~enwiki, RogDel, Belekvor, JinJian, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Feťour, Longboatgirl, Douglas the Comeback Kid, CarsracBot, AndersBot, LinkFA-Bot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, HerculeBot, Life Adventure, Legobot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Darx9url, Nallimbot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Galoubet, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Timmyshin, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, MakeSense64, White whirlwind, Thehelpfulbot, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, HRoestBot, DefaultsortBot, Tom.Reding, MastiBot, Jauhienij, Trappist the monk, Jann, Zanhe, Zywiki, TjBot, EmausBot, Evolver.97, Δ, Chewings72, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, ‫ساجد امجد ساجد‬, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ghost Bunny, Juro2351, Cold Season, Ghost frost6, MrBill3, TBrandley, Bonkers The Clown, BattyBot, Taief.shahed, JYBot, Dexbot, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, ArmbrustBot, Mimo, OccultZone, TheQ Editor, VegasCasinoKid, Y-S.Ko, KasparBot, Sjh02 and Anonymous: 156 • Staurakios (eunuch) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staurakios_(eunuch)?oldid=640510456 Contributors: Dimadick, Woohookitty, BD2412, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Headbomb, Faizhaider, Waacstats, SieBot, Dwiakigle, Martarius, RogDel, Addbot, Luckas-bot, DustFormsWords, Aa77zz, Miracle Pen, Stegop, Xtzou, Jbribeiro1, No. 108, Helpful Pixie Bot, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Byzantine writer and Anonymous: 1 • Sun Cheng Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Cheng?oldid=635062511 Contributors: Rjwilmsi, YurikBot, Nlu, SmackBot, Rbreen, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Waacstats, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, LilHelpa, Timmyshin, Erik9bot and RjwilmsiBot • Sun Yaoting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yaoting?oldid=640475213 Contributors: The Anome, Jni, D6, Hooperbloob, Ctande, User6854, Plastictv, RussBot, BrainyBroad, Nlu, Fram, Rigadoun, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Headbomb, Waacstats, Kaijucole, KylieTastic, BOTijo, ArdClose, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Citation bot, IsleofPlan, HRoestBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Northside777, Obsidian Soul, RjwilmsiBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, C.Nilsson, Aliaretiree, Yvette0618, Kurrymurr and Anonymous: 9 • Ten Attendants Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Attendants?oldid=673979057 Contributors: Olivier, Confuzion, Rich Farmbrough, Cmdrjameson, Russ3Z, Bathrobe, Skyfiler, Kerowyn, Chobot, Gardar Rurak, Caerwine, Nlu, SmackBot, Lds, Octahedron80, Kittybrewster, Underbar dk, A-cai, Cydebot, YaYa42, P64, Erkan Yilmaz, DWP17, Gauge00, PericlesofAthens, Optimatis, Aloysiuspendergast, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jlg4104, Timmyshin, Angrytoast and Anonymous: 12 • Tian Lingzi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tian_Lingzi?oldid=622523239 Contributors: Fornadan, Woohookitty, BD2412, Bgwhite, Nlu, Cydebot, Headbomb, Dcattell, RogDel, Addbot, Timmyshin, KarlsenBot and Hmainsbot1

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• Tong Guan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tong_Guan?oldid=607257729 Contributors: The Anome, Woohookitty, Bgwhite, RussBot, Chensiyuan, Nlu, SmackBot, Lds, Lombroso, Underbar dk, Cydebot, Mattisse, R'n'B, PericlesofAthens, Good Olfactory, Addbot, ContinentalAve, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Timmyshin, LucienBOT, HenryXVII, Crown Prince, Mjbmrbot, Khanate General and Anonymous: 2 • Tutu Chengcui Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutu_Chengcui?oldid=673999044 Contributors: BD2412, Bgwhite, RussBot, Nlu, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Mentifisto, Philg88, RogDel, Timmyshin, KLBot2, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 1 • Wang Jinghong Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Jinghong?oldid=678679786 Contributors: Babelfisch, Vmenkov, SmackBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, PamD, Headbomb, JohnBlackburne, Andres rojas22, Pengyanan, Addbot, Luckasbot, Amirobot, Glenfarclas, Zanhe, Bigvernie, Labnoor, Helpful Pixie Bot, Decathlete, MoohanBOT, KasparBot and Anonymous: 1 • Wang Shoucheng Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Shoucheng?oldid=621834384 Contributors: Woohookitty, BD2412, RussBot, Nlu, SmackBot, Cydebot, Headbomb, JimCubb, Philg88, Snowybeagle, RogDel, Addbot, Ulric1313, Timmyshin, RjwilmsiBot, Decathlete and Hmainsbot1 • Wang Zhen (eunuch) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(eunuch)?oldid=601134051 Contributors: Shanes, Danaman5, Eubot, Badagnani, Nlu, Fram, SmackBot, Hmains, Xyzzyplugh, Cydebot, Headbomb, Reiner Stoppok, Hugo999, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, COBot, PixelBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Zee money, DefaultsortBot, EmausBot, Villa Villekulla, ( ), Decathlete and Vieque • Wei Zhongxian Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wei_Zhongxian?oldid=678618925 Contributors: Fuzzie, Everyking, Confuzion, LiDaobing, Rich Farmbrough, Cacophony, Hooperbloob, Ctande, Bathrobe, RexNL, Bgwhite, RussBot, Samuel Curtis, Nlu, Mike Selinker, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Lds, Lombroso, Michael David, Keithh, Cydebot, NAD 0108, HammerHeadHuman, Waacstats, Devinlee~enwiki, Acosean, TXiKiBoT, Hans yulun lai, Muro Bot, Staygyro, Paladin R.T., Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Shanghainese.ua, Zanhe, Felis domestica, ZhBot, ZéroBot, KLBot2, D.s.ronis, Guo77, KasparBot and Anonymous: 17 • Wimund Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wimund?oldid=677696105 Contributors: The Anome, Michael Hardy, Warofdreams, Dimadick, Gentgeen, Warling, Everyking, OwenBlacker, Stbalbach, Man vyi, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Woohookitty, Angusmclellan, Jaraalbe, RussBot, Mais oui!, Kungfuadam, Mauls, Chris the speller, Krich, The Man in Question, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, FinnBjo, Malleus Fatuorum, Headbomb, Brett Dunbar, Brendandh, NJW494, Kijog, Hugo999, Jameselmo, Addbot, PMLawrence, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, The Almightey Drill and Anonymous: 6 • Xia Yun Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_Yun?oldid=601125374 Contributors: The Anome, RussBot, Nlu, Fram, A-cai, Cydebot, Headbomb, JimCubb, Waacstats, SieBot, Alexbot, Addbot, Ben Ben, GrouchoBot, DefaultsortBot, ZhBot, ZéroBot and Hmainsbot1 • Yang Fugong Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Fugong?oldid=638145713 Contributors: BD2412, Bgwhite, Nlu, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Waacstats, RogDel, Addbot, Ulric1313, Timmyshin, KarlsenBot and Hmainsbot1 • Yang Fuguang Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Fuguang?oldid=637121747 Contributors: BD2412, Bgwhite, Nlu, Cydebot, Waacstats, Addbot, Timmyshin, KarlsenBot, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 1 • Yishiha Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishiha?oldid=679670959 Contributors: Ubiquity, Ezhiki, Kwamikagami, Embryomystic, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Vmenkov, RussBot, Nlu, Lds, Chris the speller, Shibo77, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Crocodilicus, Keithh, Cydebot, Grahamec, Hebrides, JAnDbot, ACSE, Andres rojas22, Nedrutland, Koumz, Addbot, BabelStone, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Citation bot, LilHelpa, 唐吉訶德的侍從, Slb nsk, ZhBot, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Corphine, Helpful Pixie Bot, BattyBot, Saafib, Nimetapoeg, Cartakes and Anonymous: 4 • Yu Chao'en Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_Chao'en?oldid=636934637 Contributors: Auric, Rich Farmbrough, BD2412, RussBot, Nlu, CmdrObot, Cydebot, JamesAM, Miller17CU94, JimCubb, Waacstats, Philg88, Snowybeagle, Azoreg, Millionsandbillions, RogDel, Lightbot, Timmyshin, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Trungda, KLBot2, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 3 • Zhang Rang Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Rang?oldid=674225215 Contributors: Curps, Confuzion, Hooperbloob, Sherurcij, Alai, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Nandesuka, Skyfiler, Chobot, Benlisquare, Uvaduck, DengMao, Nlu, Fram, Lds, Betacommand, GoodDay, Jonathan Groß, Bertport, Cydebot, Headbomb, JimCubb, Waacstats, TXiKiBoT, Gauge00, Dohe, Paladin R.T., Good Olfactory, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, SassoBot, BenzolBot, 777sms, Ivantalk, Mjbmrbot, , KasparBot and Anonymous: 6 • Zhao Gao Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Gao?oldid=675600169 Contributors: Ktsquare, Olivier, Wshun, Nikai, Wirehead, Kucing, Robbot, Kamakura, Kent Wang, Mandel, Cutler, Sj, Confuzion, Hardouin, D6, Hooperbloob, Vipuser, TonySapphire, Kusma, Daranz, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Optimistic-x, Faustus37, Geppy, Nlu, SmackBot, Lds, Hmains, WikiFlier, Stevenmitchell, Xinophiliac, TheNeon, Phuzion, Louis Liang, Cydebot, NAD 0108, Headbomb, Dfrg.msc, Taurion, WinBot, Waacstats, Devinlee~enwiki, GrammarNSpellChecker, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Ponyo, SieBot, Kernel Saunters, Dcattell, Hadrianheugh, Lau Wai Shing, Alexbot, Zlesliez, RogDel, PurrfectPeach, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Tavatar, Citation bot, Xqbot, JonDePlume, DefaultsortBot, ThomasAnime, ZhBot, TjBot, Solomonfromfinland, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, DBigXray, Bonkers The Clown, BattyBot, Dexbot, ArmbrustBot, Frayten, KasparBot, Yiwenshi and Anonymous: 23 • Zhao Zhong Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Zhong?oldid=601130019 Contributors: Woohookitty, Nlu, SmackBot, Jon513, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, A-cai, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Headbomb, YaYa42, Waacstats, Choihei, Dohe, RogDel, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Erik9bot, D'ohBot, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, Mjbmrbot and Anonymous: 2 • Zheng He Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He?oldid=681358707 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Andre Engels, Fnielsen, Roadrunner, Ktsquare, Formulax~enwiki, Olivier, Leandrod, Stevertigo, Llywrch, Earth, Fred Bauder, Voidvector, Dominus, Gabbe, Menchi, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Jiang, Panoramix, Mnementh, Koxinga, Geoff, Jwrosenzweig, Fuzheado, Wik, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Dunshi, VeryVerily, Nickshanks, AnonMoos, Jerzy, Pilaf~enwiki, Eugene van der Pijll, Robbot, Fredrik, RedWolf, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Casu Marzu, Sverdrup, Yacht, Gidonb, JB82, Timrollpickering, Andrew Levine, Kamakura, Saganaga, Hadal, Terrorgen, Mandel, DigiBullet, DocWatson42, Kbahey, Tom harrison, Martijn faassen, RealGrouchy, Spencer195, Ausir, Per Honor et Gloria, Eequor, Bobblewik, Comatose51, Gadfium, Utcursch, Bact, Telso, Toytoy, Sonjaaa, Jackcsk, Excalibur, MarkSweep, Pettifogger, Wiking (usurped), Bumm13, Bosmon, Kuralyov, Jcw69, Trevor MacInnis, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Miborovsky, Friedrich Barbarossa, A-giau, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Kdammers, Cacycle, Pmsyyz, Vsmith, Mani1, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Loren36, Aecis, MBisanz, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Bookofjude, Shoujun, Bobo192, Brons, Boris Živ, Ruszewski, Smalljim, Shenme, Viriditas, KitHutch, .:Ajvol:., Notyetlost,

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Yuje, Dsal, Jojit fb, Rajah, Darwinek, Roy da Vinci, Hintha, Mixcoatl, Pharos, Hooperbloob, Perceval, LegolasGreenleaf, Geschichte, HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary, Guy Harris, Keenan Pepper, Babajobu, Nurban, Ricky81682, JoaoRicardo, Ahruman, Burn, Titanium Dragon, Snowolf, Abstrakt, Wtmitchell, Jobe6, Harej, Grenavitar, Ghirlandajo, HunterAmor, Instantnood, Geographer, HenryLi, Infinoid, Feezo, Bobrayner, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), OwenX, Woohookitty, Arky~enwiki, FeanorStar7, Mr Tan, Spettro9, Miaow Miaow, Deeahbz, Mpatel, Twthmoses, Pufferfish101, Mangojuice, Astanhope, John Hill, Skybum, SDC, J M Rice, Brendanconway, Wayward, Farhansher, Cckerberos, Gisling, Eirikr, Exult, PeregrineAY, Gerbrant, Sin-man, Gettingtoit, Saposcat, WBardwin, Cuchullain, Kbdank71, Dpr, Solace098, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Plourdm, Haya shiloh, UriBudnik, Sferrier, Nigosh, Vuong Ngan Ha, FlaBot, Skyfiler, Nsae Comp, NeoChrono Ryu, Nihiltres, BnaiBrithChai, Kerowyn, RexNL, Gurch, President Rhapsody, Fresheneesz, Le Anh-Huy, Benjwong, King of Hearts, CJLL Wright, DVdm, Bgwhite, Vmenkov, Measure, YurikBot, RobotE, Wester, Mongol, RussBot, Open4D, Manicsleeper, John Smith's, Conscious, Hede2000, Curuinor, CanadianCaesar, Raquel Baranow, Jonathan Stanley, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Rsrikanth05, Kennethtennyson, Wimt, Ugur Basak, EvKnight13, Friday, Wiki alf, Dialectric, Grafen, Howcheng, Dureo, Retired username, Iggi.au, CaliforniaAliBaba, Acalpixca, Moe Epsilon, Ac101, Nlu, Smaines, Nick123, Wknight94, AjaxSmack, Alarob, Gregzeng, Smoggyrob, Closedmouth, Abune, Little Savage, Petri Krohn, Red Jay, Shawnc, Edluu, Peter, Anclation~enwiki, Arundhati bakshi, Ethan Mitchell, Kubra, Bluezy, Katieh5584, KNHaw, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Lamaer, Bestlyriccollection, Luk, Wai Hong, Sunnyhsli, SmackBot, Malaca, PiCo, Mark Tranchant, Elonka, InverseHypercube, Royalguard11, Pgk, C.Fred, Jagged 85, Lds, Tclphz, JoeMarfice, Kintetsubuffalo, HalfShadow, Gilliam, Hmains, Andy M. Wang, Anwar saadat, MK8, JDCMAN, B00P, WikiFlier, SchfiftyThree, Hibernian, N.Hopton, Dlohcierekim's sock, TheLeopard, Vietlong, Dual Freq, Tarikash, Blueshirts, Trekphiler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, 赵里昱, RyanEberhart, Mitsuhirato, OrphanBot, NickDupree, Rrburke, Kittybrewster, YourKhan, Babykul, Downwards, Engwar, Underbar dk, Caniago, Funky Monkey, Dreadstar, RandomP, DoubleAW, Jerry picker, Dcamp314, IrisKawling, Soobrickay, Jonfernquest, LeoNomis, Bidabadi~enwiki, Pilotguy, Kukini, FlyHigh, Qmwne235, Ohconfucius, Cgbikes, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, ArglebargleIV, JzG, Sambot, Ergative rlt, Joro Iliev, Marco polo, AnonEMouse, AllStarZ, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Mr.Clown, Breno, Amcg, Green Giant, Stwalkerster, Optakeover, Jmical, Intranetusa, Peter Horn, Dl2000, Norm mit, Kanatonian, Iridescent, Haus, HongQiGong, SohanDsouza, Tawkerbot2, Cashie, Erikringmar, Cheburashka, Chris55, GeneralIroh, Adam Keller, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Megazero, Aherunar, The Cake is a Lie, Picaroon, Difference engine, JohnCD, Nunquam Dormio, Drinibot, Basawala, Nickm57, Richard Keatinge, Funnyfarmofdoom, Murasakint, Cydebot, Ed-it, Phil in the 818, Gogo Dodo, Hebrides, Soetermans, Doug Weller, BhaiSaab, Vyselink, Yingdong, Bensmith53, JodyB, Farhan00, Satori Son, Aldis90, JohnInDC, Torie, Epbr123, Barticus88, Exchaoordo, Qwyrxian, Hijau, Headbomb, RevolverOcelotX, Marek69, Dyslexik, Huanghe63, Itsmejudith, Deschreiber, Nezzadar, Merbabu, Matthew Proctor, Heroeswithmetaphors, Salavat, AlefZet, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Sbandrews, ColourBurst, AntiVandalBot, Sobaka, NeilEvans, Ybgursey, Paste, Farosdaughter, Sehsuan, Quixotic115, Sluzzelin, Deadbeef, Raylopez99, JAnDbot, MER-C, Scythian1, Snowolfd4, Ohpuu, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Edipedia, Sangak, VoABot II, Jetstreamer, Cowrider, JNW, Grano~enwiki, Rivertorch, Twsx, Avicennasis, ClovisPt, 3idiot, Talon Artaine, JaGa, Philg88, Dunkenud, Gun Powder Ma, MartinBot, Poeloq, Krushdiva, Anaxial, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Lifebonzza, Rosenz, Gunkarta, Smokizzy, Yeiseul1109, Lethoso, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Filll, Czib, El Belga, Michaelyek, Chrononaut~enwiki, Century0, Davidprior, UltimateEvan32, Salih, Katalaveno, Crisscross900, Ipigott, HiLo48, Alexb102072, SmilesALot, Chenhsi, Zeo197, Cometstyles, Jamesontai, Lao Zhang, Gwen Gale, Treisijs, Bonadea, Alan012, Ja 62, Dfinley3, Halmstad, SoCalSuperEagle, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Agamemnus, Speciate, Sllee19, Brazil15, VolkovBot, CWii, Murderbike, Pleasantville, Jeff G., Kyle the bot, WOSlinker, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Tobyhung123, HenriLobineau, Andres rojas22, Hotrock3, Slysplace, LeaveSleaves, Vgranucci, Katimawan2005, Mwilso24, Kmhkmh, BigDunc, Graymornings, Synthebot, Somaliwarrior, Rainbowek99, TobyHung1234, Monty845, AlleborgoBot, Kevinfromhk, Liveangle, Dark Dragon Sword, PericlesofAthens, SieBot, StAnselm, TJRC, Dusti, Izady, Moonriddengirl, BotMultichill, Echoeyes, Pengyanan, Caltas, Mazdakabedi, GarrettHeath4, DrHacky, Penguin12314, Quest for 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Ronhjones, Martindo, Mens Sana, Vishnava, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Glane23, Junjunz, Numbo3-bot, W8291, LarryJeff, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, Алый Король, Luckas Blade, Gail, Zorrobot, Trotter, LuK3, Ben Ben, Legobot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Adamsguo, Becky Sayles, KamikazeBot, JoJo, Laserforce, Synchronism, 阿 pp, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Angry bee, Rjanag, Jim1138, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Keithbob, EHRice, A-eng, LlywelynII, Arilang1234, Hax in bed, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Dewan357, ArthurBot, Clark89, DirlBot, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Estlandia~enwiki, Heallo88, A455bcd9, Jeffrey Mall, Timmyshin, NFD9001, Urbanmanx, Hi878, ‫קײק ּפלז‬, ProtectionTaggingBot, Amaury, Aperson1234567, AustralianRupert, Mbcwilkins, Kulikah, Chongkian, Etherwarguy, Plung3r, Acs92003, Bloodmerchant, Fingerz, FrescoBot, Redrvm, Zhinanzhen, D'ohBot, Tubbagavin, Scandreamer, Xhaoz, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, TheNothingNihilates, Haaqfun, PrincessofLlyr, Jonesey95, Rbawsome, Loyalist Cannons, BigDwiki, Tomcat7, Dront, RedBot, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Meaghan, Merlion444, Jauhienij, SkyMachine, Inuit18, FoxBot, TobeBot, Jann, Curious1949, Zanhe, Navalinterest, Katineee, Kungkang, Specs112, Tbhotch, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Akuhambatuhan, Difu Wu, Kkoribiana99, RjwilmsiBot, Likerawr, Chipmunkdavis, TjBot, Tomchen1989, GarthJones, J36miles, EmausBot, Mmm333k, Yggdrasilius, Heracles31, Hala101, Razor2988, Lilmariam22, Sp33dyphil, History3000, HarDNox, Wikipelli, Jinkouri, Homunculus, Werieth, ZéroBot, Fæ, Knight1993, Squashnut, Labnoor, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, L Kensington, Ghoomas, Maximilianklein, Yclept:Berr, DASHBotAV, Rocketrod1960, Cgt, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Mechanical digger, Smtchahal, LogX, Borgmcklorg, Asukite, Runehelmet, Widr, Mowers3, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Shippingnews, Vagobot, M0rphzone, Northamerica1000, Wiki3Languages, PhnomPencil, Si Gam, MusikAnimal, Cold Season, Melypceout, Carlstak, Rumbus123, Min.neel, Glacialfox, Modestmau5, Bob Toggaf, RawrMeGusta, Jemp75, Taief.shahed, Justincheng12345-bot, Tutelary, Chaz van Rijn, Riley Huntley, Chairapplyxheng, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Ultra Venia, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, CamN1, Saehry, Thenewadmiral, Enroute, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Frosty, SFK2, Drajay1976, Dispeter, Nimetapoeg, Beam Luna, Kilternom, JDawg1447, Vanished user kjn lsr35kjhwertsek4, Epicgenius, Hermanege.ege, Melonkelon, PhantomTech, Tentinator, Afpwong, Ugog Nizdast, Tyrese Hughes, My name is not dave, Ginsuloft, Quenhitran, Wheatley36, Nenowick, Rubbish123, Kungchai9270, 1236987ss, Epic Failure, TheEpTic, Bob joe12345, Furno123, Adn85120, Arunvrparavur, Monkbot, Matcatanz, Reaggsdagf, Marsden107, KH-1, Liance, Joy1412, A0112443, 468SM, Lux ex Tenebris, Derekzz4, Cartakes, Crayolabowsandcheercrayons, Aruppillai, Irfanarmio, HRW in the 1900, Buttsimongw21, Lucasvip1, Ayehoho, Xtremedood, Vikram901, KasparBot, Tonyzehs, Xsdustyxs, Tropicalkitty, Binggo666, Bobacon, Kthekiller1, Meetnaman, Lillithisbae and Anonymous: 1065 • Zheng Zhong Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_Zhong?oldid=601125295 Contributors: Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Nlu, SmackBot, DMacks, Jonathan Groß, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Waacstats, Carocat, Addbot, Dawynn, Lightbot, Luckas-bot,

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ThaddeusB, Ulric1313, ArthurBot, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, MadonnaPenguin and Anonymous: 2 • Zhou Man Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Man?oldid=625698382 Contributors: Voidvector, Rje, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, WBardwin, Cuchullain, Vmenkov, Badagnani, Caerwine, Alarob, Cybergoth, Teiladnam, Abune, Fram, SmackBot, Sirex98, Tarikash, John Reaves, David G. Smith, Joseph Solis in Australia, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Aldis90, Headbomb, JustAGal, Waacstats, ClovisPt, CommonsDelinker, BobWinet, Bnynms, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Twooars, Jordan 12345678910, Jojalozzo, ImageRemovalBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, DefaultsortBot, ZhBot, ClueBot NG, Khazar2 and Anonymous: 13 • Zong Ai Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zong_Ai?oldid=564501432 Contributors: Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Nlu, Hmains, CmdrObot, Lugnuts, Headbomb, Waacstats, Exiled Ambition, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, 蔭人, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, Captain Assassin! and Anonymous: 2 • Zuo Feng Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuo_Feng?oldid=601125300 Contributors: Bearcat, RJFJR, Nlu, A-cai, Cydebot, Headbomb, JimCubb, Waacstats, Addbot, Luckas-bot and Ripchip Bot

3.2 Images • File:00058_christ_pantocrator_mosaic_hagia_sophia_656x800.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/ 00058_christ_pantocrator_mosaic_hagia_sophia_656x800.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Byzantinischer Mosaizist des 12. Jahrhunderts • File:A_eunuch_of_Qing_Dynasty.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/A_eunuch_of_Qing_Dynasty. JPG License: Public domain Contributors: K. Chimin Wong (王吉民) and Wu Lien-teh (伍連德), History of Chinese Medicine: Being a Chronicle of Medical Happenings in China from Ancient Times to the Present Period. Second edition, Shanghai: National Quarantine Service, 1936, plate XIX after p. 202. Original caption: “A young eunuch undressed to show site of castration, taken in Peking 1901.”Online source: http://www.usrf.org/news/010308-eunuchs_china.html. Original artist: Unknown • File:Agha_Mohammad_Khan_Qajarpainting_in_Soleimaieh_palace_croped.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/c2/Agha_Mohammad_Khan_Qajarpainting_in_Soleimaieh_palace_croped.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from fa.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Maryammoon at Persian Wikipedia • File:Agha_Mohammad_Khan_with_Ebrahim_Khan_Kalantar.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/ Agha_Mohammad_Khan_with_Ebrahim_Khan_Kalantar.png License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication: 18th-century Immediate source: http://a7.typepad.com/6a017ee66ba427970d01bb07a5caa7970d-pi Original artist: Unnamed author from the 18thcentury (Life time: 18th-century) • File:Alessandro_Moreschi.ogg Source: Public domain Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Alessandro_Moreschi.ogg License:

• Transcoded from http://bassocantante.com/opera/music/moreschi.rm. Original artist: Alessando Moreschi recorded for G&T by W. Sinkler Darby in 1904. • File:Architect.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Architect.png License: Public domain Contributors: From an 1893 technical journal, now in the public domain. Scanned in 600 dpi by Lars Aronsson, 2005. See http://runeberg.org/tekuke/ 1893/0161.html Original artist: Anonymous • File:Arg_of_Karim_Khan_in_Shiraz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Arg_of_Karim_Khan_in_ Shiraz.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Far-gh • File:Ashuradeh_caspian_sea.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Ashuradeh_caspian_sea.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Antique Map. HISTORICAL RUSSIAN CHART. Wood engraving Original artist: unknown Russian • File:Byzantine_castrato.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4e/Byzantine_castrato.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Cakra_Donya.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Cakra_Donya.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Si Gam Acèh • File:Capture_of_Tiflis_by_Agha_Muhammad_Shah._A_Qajar-era_miniature._03.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Capture_of_Tiflis_by_Agha_Muhammad_Shah._A_Qajar-era_miniature._03.png License: Public domain Contributors: FATH 'ALI KHAN SABA: 'SHAHINSHAH NAMA' (The British Library) Original artist: Unknown • File:Caspian_coast_of_Iran_during_the_Safavid,_Afsharid,_Qajar,_and_early_Pahlavi_era.png Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Caspian_coast_of_Iran_during_the_Safavid%2C_Afsharid%2C_Qajar%2C_and_early_ Pahlavi_era.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: HistoryofIran • File:Cheng_Hoo1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Cheng_Hoo1.JPG License: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: So-called_vita (talk) (Uploads) • File:Chevalier_Auguste_de_Henikstein_-_Kislar_Agassi._Grand_eunuque_du_G._Seineur._Bakadgi_Sűlűslű._Astahi. _Cuisinier_du_G._Seigneur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Chevalier_Auguste_de_Henikstein_ -_Kislar_Agassi._Grand_eunuque_du_G._Seineur._Bakadgi_S%C5%B1l%C5%B1sl%C5%B1._Astahi._Cuisinier_du_G._Seigneur.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Romanian Academy Library, via europeana.eu Original artist: Chevalier Auguste de Henikstein • File:Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/235_poc.html Original artist: Unknown, presumably U.S. Army personnel • File:Clement_alexandrin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Clement_alexandrin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Internet Archive scan of Les vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustres grecz, latins et payens Original artist: André Thévet

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• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Constantine_the_Paphlagonian_is_tonsured_at_Samonas'{}_orders.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/0/03/Constantine_the_Paphlagonian_is_tonsured_at_Samonas%27_orders.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: History of John Skylitzes (Skyllitzes Matritensis (Biblioteca Nacional de España)) Original artist: Unknown, 13th-century author • File:Crystal_Clear_app_Login_Manager_2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c2/Crystal_Clear_app_Login_ Manager_2.png License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Crystal_personal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/24/Crystal_personal.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically:“Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Farinelli_female_caricature_edited.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Farinelli_female_ caricature_edited.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Farinelli female caricature edited.jpg Original artist: Pier Leone Ghezzi • File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Man.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Man.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Sodipodi flag collection, OpenClipart Original artist: Edited by Reisio, Alkari, e.a. • File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_ Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: DsMurat* talk • File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_ People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/ design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:FraMauro1420Ship.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/FraMauro1420Ship.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Galba_single.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Galba_single.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Tantalus Coins, uploaded by Rasiel Suarez Original artist: Rasiel at en.wikipedia • File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/ Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart. svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides • File:Hidras_of_Panscheel_Park-New_Delhi-1994-2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Hidras_of_ Panscheel_Park-New_Delhi-1994-2.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Hidras of Panscheel Park II, New Delhi, India, 1994. Original artist: R D´Lucca from Caracas, Venezuela • File:Hildegard_von_Bingen_Liber_Divinorum_Operum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/ Hildegard_von_Bingen_Liber_Divinorum_Operum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original artist: Creator:Hildegard von Bingen • File:Hourglass_drawing.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Hourglass_drawing.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Iren_and_Constantin2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Iren_and_Constantin2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dionisy.com/img/276/frag_lg.jpg Original artist: Dionisius • File:Islam_in_China.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Islam_in_China.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Rockfang. Original artist: Original uploader was Cunado19 at en.wikipedia • File:Ja`far_Khan.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/59/Ja%60far_Khan.png License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication: http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/asian-and-african/2014/06/some-portraits-of-the-zand-rulers-of-iran-1751-1794. html Immediate source: http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/asian-and-african/2014/06/some-portraits-of-the-zand-rulers-of-iran-1751-1794. html Original artist: Ursula Sims-Williams • File:Jacopo_Amigoni_-_Retrato_de_Carlo_María_Broschi,_Farinelli_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Jacopo_Amigoni_-_Retrato_de_Carlo_Mar%C3%ADa_Broschi%2C_Farinelli_-_Google_ Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: AQGXo0CFP-nHyQ at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Jacopo Amigoni

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• File:Justinian.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Justinian.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:KHM_Wien_I_880_-_Büste_des_Eutropios.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/KHM_Wien_I_ 880_-_B%C3%BCste_des_Eutropios.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Unknown • File:KangnidoMap.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/KangnidoMap.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Yi Hoe, Kwon Kun and Kim Sa heyong • File:Li_Lianying.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Li_Lianying.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://history.chinadada.com/rwqt/20090619/580147169440.html Original artist: Unknown • File:Lion_and_Sun_Emblem_of_Persia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Lion_and_Sun_ Emblem_of_Persia.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sodacan • File:LocationofVietnam.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/LocationofVietnam.png License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Original by User:Vardion, Image:A large blank world map with oceans marked in blue.svg Original artist: Rei-artur • File:ManZhow_8Flag_BlueInBorder.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/ManZhow_8Flag_ BlueInBorder.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ming-Expeditions.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Ming-Expeditions.svg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vmenkov, based on the blank map File:Asie.svg (ver. 1) by User:Historicair • File:Mohammad_Khan_stamp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Mohammad_Khan_stamp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.iichs.org/PDF_files/D_mohrhyeQajar.pdf Original artist: Unknown • File:Moreschi_giovane.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Moreschi_giovane.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Voxclamans at en.wikipedia • File:Narses.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Narses.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Detail of Justinian's mosaic (File:Justinian mosaik ravenna.jpg) Original artist: Vahan.hovh • File:Nero_Palatino_Inv618.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Nero_Palatino_Inv618.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jastrow • File:NomismaMikaelVIIDoukas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/NomismaMikaelVIIDoukas.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: self-made, photographed at the Musee Saint-Denis Original artist: PHGCOM • File:Origen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Origen.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Osmanli-nisani.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Osmanli-nisani.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Juris Tiltins • File:Ottoman_eunuch,_1912.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Ottoman_eunuch%2C_1912.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://mideastimage.com/result.aspx Original artist: Unknown • File:P_christianity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/P_christianity.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:P_vip.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Philetaerus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Philetaerus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: User PHG on en.wikipedia • File:Philetaerus_of_Pergamon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Philetaerus_of_Pergamon.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Saddhiyama • File:Plato-raphael.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Plato-raphael.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Raphael • File:Portrait_of_Mehmed_II_by_Gentile_Bellini_(Cropped).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/ Portrait_of_Mehmed_II_by_Gentile_Bellini_%28Cropped%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Gentile Bellini • File:PriestOrthodox.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/PriestOrthodox.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Pope.svg Original artist: • derivative work: Geraki * TL * G • File:Prince_Zhanghuai'{}s_tomb,_eunuchs.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Prince_Zhanghuai% 27s_tomb%2C_eunuchs.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Paludan, Ann. (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: the Reignby-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0500050902. Page 115. Original artist: Unknown Tang-era tomb artist • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Ravenstein-Tyr-monument-196.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/ Ravenstein-Tyr-monument-196.png License: Public domain Contributors: Illustration on page 196 in the book by E.G.Ravenstein “The Russians on the Amur”. Can be found on Google Books at http://books.google.com/books?id=_XEEAAAAYAAJ Original artist: Drawing by G.M. Permikin, engraved by W.Brewer

3.2. IMAGES

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• File:Relief_of_Archigallus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Relief_of_Archigallus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://trivium.revues.org/docannexe/image/3362/img-3.jpg Original artist: Anna-Katharina Rieger • File:Rembrandt_169.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Rembrandt_169.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: postcard Original artist: Rembrandt • File:Sacrifice_to_Cybele_-_Ostia_Antica.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Sacrifice_to_Cybele_ -_Ostia_Antica.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Cropped image from the original file here Original artist: Lalupa • File:Samonas_incites_Emperor_Leo_against_Andronikos_Doukas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 8/8f/Samonas_incites_Emperor_Leo_against_Andronikos_Doukas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: History of John Skylitzes (Skyllitzes Matritensis (Biblioteca Nacional de España)) Original artist: Unknown, 13th-century author • File:Scalzi_by_Flipart.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Scalzi_by_Flipart.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original uploader was Voxclamans at en.wikipedia Original artist: Charles Joseph Flipart • File:Sebah,_Pascal_–_Ottoman_Eunuch.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Sebah%2C_Pascal_ %E2%80%93_Ottoman_Eunuch.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Pascal Sebah • File:Senesino.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Senesino.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Alexander van Haecken • File:ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/~{}amm2009/3956/Earlymod.html Original artist: Anonymous • File:Shiji.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Shiji.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Sima_Qian.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Sima_Qian.png License: Public domain Contributors: Lushan Museum Original artist: Photoed and reproduced by User:Mountain • File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. • File:Solidus-Irene-sb1599.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Solidus-Irene-sb1599.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Statue_of_Gallus_priest.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Statue_of_Gallus_priest.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://trivium.revues.org/docannexe/image/3362/img-4.jpg Original artist: Anna-Katharina Rieger • File:The10Commandments.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/The10Commandments.png License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Alkivar • File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp. 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Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:WuBeiZhi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/WuBeiZhi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 武備志/武备志 Original artist: ? • File:Yishiha.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Yishiha.svg License: Public domain Contributors: User: Shibo77 Original artist: User:Shibo77 • File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/ Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vmenkov, based on the blank map File:Asie.svg (ver. 1) by User:Historicair • File:ZhengHeShips.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/ZhengHeShips.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Not available; not given by uploader Original artist: ? • File:Zheng_He.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Zheng_He.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? 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CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Zhongwen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Zhongwen.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Zoe_asks_Sgouritzes_to_poison_John_the_Orphanotrophos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ a7/Zoe_asks_Sgouritzes_to_poison_John_the_Orphanotrophos.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: History of John Skylitzes (Skyllitzes Matritensis (Biblioteca Nacional de España)) Original artist: Unknown, 13th-century author • File: 马 六 甲 三 宝 庙.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%AD%E7%94% B2%E4%B8%89%E5%AE%9D%E5%BA%99.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gisling

3.3 Content license • Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0