How it Works Issue 097 2017

DEA IEST WARRIORS G HISTORY’S DEADL VIKING: NJ VS VIKIN NINJA

MIND TRICKS HI-TECH CH

DISCOVER HOW YOUR SENSES CAN BE FOOLED

ITNESS FITN ITNE How virtual reality H games will get you fit

IS CLIMATE CHANGE A CONSPIRACY?

IS GLOBAL WARM NG OUR FAUIL T?

SEEK & DESTROY The drones that will help clear minefields

ER WON’T WEARRM E B H T A E W BETTER?

NEXT-GEN MOTORBIKES

WHAT’S IN STORE FOR THE SATURN PROBE’S LAST MISSION?

How do woodpeckers avoid head injuries?

Essential nutrients and where to find them

Hop on the two-wheeled rides of tomorrow

ISSUE 097

VITAMINS & MINERALS

Digital Edition

BIRD BRAINS

GreatDigitalMags.com

CASSINI’S GRAND FINALE

NEW MACBOOK PRO TEARDOWN TH THE US CONSTITUTION BRAIN CELLS

ISSUE 97

The magazine that feeds minds!

u are here

“Cassini has almost single-handedly revolutionised our knowledge of Saturn and its moons…” Cassini’s Grand Finale, page 60

© NASA, JPL-Caltech

Meet the team…

Charlie

Jack

James

Duncan

Laurie

Production Editor

Senior Staff Writer

Research Editor

Senior Art Editor The climate change debate continues to rumble on. Find out what really is happening to our planet at the moment on page 12. No ‘alternative facts’ guaranteed!

Assistant Designer

Unless it’s all just a clever illusion, you will find out how your brain can be tricked in to seeing things that aren’t really there on page 36. The mind is a wonderful but fallible thing.

Did you know that Gurkhas must be able to do 70 sit-ups in two minutes to be considered for selection in the British Army? Meet history’s deadliest warriors on page 72!

FOLLOW US…

It’s important to include vitamins and minerals in our daily diet, but sometimes that’s easier said than done. Head over to page 44 to discover which foods have the nutrients we need to keep us healthy.

How It Works magazine

Future fitness tech has got me excited this month. Flick to page 50 to learn about the smartest technology keeping us healthy in 2017 and the new inventions that look set to revolutionise your daily workout.

@HowItWorksmag

There’s a lot of controversy around the idea that human activity can affect the planet’s climate. Despite all the scientific evidence, there are many misconceptions about the causes and effects of global warming, so this month we aim to bust some of the most persistent climate change myths. About 1.2 billion kilometres away from the fragile blue marble we call home, NASA’s Cassini probe is gearing up for it’s grand finale. In this last hurrah, it will sweep between Saturn and its rings before plummeting in to the planet itself. In our space feature, we celebrate the achievements of the record-breaking Cassini-Huygens mission. Over in the science section, prepare to have your mind boggled by optical illusions as we find out how our senses can be fooled so easily. Also discover how virtual reality games and artificially intelligent personal trainer systems will soon be helping us get fit. Enjoy the issue!

Jackie Snowden Deputy Editor

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ENVIRONMENT 12 Climate change myths busted

TECHNOLOGY 50 Hi-tech fitness

What does the science say about global warming?

How VR and AI gadgets will get us in shape

20 Woodpeckers

56 Inside the new MacBook Pro

22 Crepuscular rays

58 Minesweeper drones

24 What is blossom?

58 How does file compression work?

24 The tropics

59 Vending machines

TRANSPORT

SPACE

26 Next-gen motorbikes The latest in two-wheeler tech, from self-balancing bikes to riderless concepts

60 Cassini’s final mission What have we learned about Saturn from Cassini-Huygens?

32 Car dashboards

66 What is airglow?

34 Sukhoi T-50 fighter jet

68 Space-based solar power

34 Tandem bicycles

70 Dark energy vs dark matter

35 Jetboards

70 Future of the Solar System

SCIENCE 36 Mind tricks

CLIMATE CHANGE MYTHS BUSTED

71 Dwarf planets

Find out why optical illusions trick your brain

HISTORY

42 Elbow anatomy 42 Chemical hand warmers 44 Vitamins and minerals 46 Brain cells

72 Deadliest warriors Meet the cut-throat contenders

60

78 Swiss Army knives

Cassini’s Grand Finale

80 Heroes of: Mary Anning

47 Pressure suits 48 Limescale and descalers 48 Elements, mixtures and compounds

12

82 The US Constitution 82 Brown Bess muskets

49 60 second science: heat transfer

Meet the experts… Stephen Ashby Steve takes a trip to the gyms of the future to find out what’s in store for fitness tech over the next few years. He also takes a peek inside the latest Apple MacBook Pro.

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Laura Mears This month, Laura busts some common myths and misconceptions about climate change to try and get to the bottom of this controversial topic. Head to our cover feature on page 12.

Jo Stass Jo’s brain has been well and truly boggled by mind-bending illusions after researching our science feature. Find out how to fool your brain into thinking your nose is really long, or a rubber hand is your own on page 36.

Jonny O’Callaghan

Mike Simpson

In our space feature, over on page 60, Jonny reveals what’s in store for Cassini’s Grand Finale, and celebrates what the epic mission has taught us in its 13 years at Saturn.

In this issue, Mike gets us revved up about the cutting-edge tech that could make motorcycles the future’s top mode of transport. He also explains what’s happening behind a car’s dashboard.

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REGULARS

36

MIND TRICKS

06 Global eye Amazing science and tech stories from around the world

84 Brain dump The place where we answer your most curious questions

90 Book reviews

56 6

M MacBook Prro te eardown

Check out the latest releases for inquisitive minds

94 How to… Make some fossils and create your own sunprints

96 Letters Our readers have their say on all things science and tech

st facts s in ow n ivia that will b blow ur m d

50

26 2

Next-gen motorbikes

24

Blossom

Hi-tech fitness 72

History’s deadliest warriors

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Go to pa ag g 9 for great deals

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Showcasing the incredible world we live in

HIGH HOPES FOR GOOGLE’S BALLOON INTERNET PROJECT Project Loon receives a major boost in its mission for global internet connectivity Currently four billion people on Earth don’t have access to the internet. Google’s Project Loon is seeking to change this, and recent developments in machine learning algorithms have brought its goal one step closer. The project centres around a network of balloons sent 20 kilometres into the stratosphere. Each one is solar-powered and makes use of air currents to move. The breakthrough will enable weather systems to be

predicted much further in advance, which means the balloons can be efficiently moved into different layers of the stratosphere, allowing access to different wind speeds and directions. This will enable greater control of the balloons’ positions, allowing them to be stationed in specific areas, rather than continuously moving across the globe as previously planned. As well as reducing costs, fewer balloons will be needed, making the whole project easier to manage.

Project Loon will work by transmitting a wireless signal from the ground up to the balloon. The balloon then relays the signal down to provide an unconnected region with internet access, with each balloon having a coverage area of 5,000 square kilometres. The balloons’ locations can be tracked by GPS to ensure they can reach the areas that require coverage. It is hoped this recent algorithm advancement will allow the innovative project to really take off. When inflated, each balloon is around the size of a tennis court

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Material The balloons are made from polyethylene, which helps protect them from UV radiation and extreme temperature changes.

“Over half the global population don’t have access to the internet”

Solar panels Transceivers The internet connectivity is transmitted from this part of the balloon down to the ground.

Solar panels power the system during the day and also charge a battery so it can continue to function at night.

Flight capsule

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© Project Loon, X

The new machine learning technology will make the balloons much more effective

This is where the control system and avionics software is located, which allows the balloon to be monitored 24 hours a day.

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10,000-YEAR-OLD MICROBES DISCOVERED IN CRYSTAL CAVE Ancient organisms have been found encased in a cavern underneath a Mexican mountain range

The cave’s largest crystals are 12 metres in length and weigh 55 tons

Deep in the Naica Mountains, one cave plays host to remarkable ancient life forms. Encased in giant gypsum crystals, the microbes are at least 10,000 years old, with some estimates placing them at 50,000 years of age. The subterranean cavern is known as the Cave of Crystals. Temperatures here can reach up to 60 degrees Celsius, so when venturing underground scientists are forced to wear special suits that prevent contamination and keep them cool with ice packs placed all over the body. Despite this harsh environment, the organisms were successfully revived by scientists both on site and under laboratory conditions. The remarkable survival of these hardy microorganisms is down to their ability to chemosynthesise. Using carbon dioxide, water and chemical nutrients in rocks like iron and manganese as a source of energy, the microbes are able to generate enough energy to exist, even without sunlight. The organisms within the crystals were different to those found on the walls of the cave and were discovered in a dormant state encased in pockets of fluid. After taking them away for study, scientists found that they were genetically distinct from any other documented organism on Earth. Within the huge gypsum crystals were 40 different microbe strains, as well as a number of different viruses. The findings suggest that microbial life can withstand more unforgiving conditions than previously believed and could change theories on how microbial life first began.

The Cave of Crystals The microbes were found in the Cave of Crystals, a cavern first discovered in 2000. Miners stumbled across the extraordinary cave by accident after draining the surrounding area for silver mining operations. What they found inside were some of the largest crystals ever uncovered. Over a metre thick, they are scattered across the cave and have grown to these enormous sizes over thousands of years. Anyone who goes into the cavern has to wear a special suit equipped with a breathing and cooling system to withstand the intense heat and humidity. The mask can be taken off for around ten minutes before a human would fall ill. Now that the mining operations have ceased in the area, the Cave of Crystals has naturally flooded once again and for now has become unreachable.

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Scientist believe even more microbes could be buried deep inside the Earth

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NEWS BY NUMBERS

10 trillion years The life expectancy of the dwarf star, Trappist-1

15m The diameter of the largest pancake ever made

40 km/h

How much faster at cornering F1 cars in the 2017 season could be than their predecessors

13 million Pints of Guinness consumed worldwide on St Patrick’s Day

Earth-size exoplanets revealed NASA has uncovered a record-breaking star system The first system with seven Earth-sized exoplanets around a single star has been found by NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope. Located 40 light years away and orbiting the ultra-cool dwarf star, Trappist-1, three of the rocky worlds exist within the designated ‘habitable zone’, meaning they could harbour liquid water. The planets are clustered more tightly together than the celestial bodies in our Solar System, and all orbit closer to their local star than Mercury does to our Sun. Research is currently underway to test these planets for any evidence of an atmosphere.

Trappist-1 is named after an optic robotic telescope in Chile

Rolls-Royce to introduce crewless ships If successful, these vessels could cut sea transport costs by up to 20 per cent In a progressive move, RollsRoyce is working towards making all seaward vessels autonomous. The ships will be controlled remotely from land using virtual decks that can control several vehicles at a time with the help of drones and virtual reality WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

cameras. Starting with ferries before moving on to cargo ships, it’s hoped the development will increase profits, but there are questions over its feasibility. Crewless ships would be easy prey for pirates, plus there are concerns over the effect it will have on jobs.

Woolly mammoth hybrid to be brought back within two years A new genetic project will attempt to resurrect the elephant’s ancestor The woolly mammoth hasn’t roamed the Earth for over 4,000 years, but it could be making a comeback. Using DNA extracted from frozen mammoths, scientists will implant genes into an elephant embryo using CRISPR gene editing. This will create a hybrid with all the physical features of a mammoth, from its warm coat to its ‘antifreeze’ blood. Early tests have been positive and there are hopes in the future of creating mammoth embryos in artificial wombs before implanting into surrogate female elephants.

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© Getty; WIKI/ Alexander Van Driessche; NASA/JPL-Caltech; Rolls-Royce

A modern study stated that 15 million jobs could be lost to automation in the UK in the future

10

COOL THINGS WE LEARNED THIS MONTH

1 The UK will host commercial space flights from 2020 The UK is set to launch its first flights into space. A new Spaceflight Bill has sanctioned a £10 million ($12.4 million) grant to develop the commercial launch capabilities for spaceflight, which will allow Britain to join the booming commercial space age.

will 3 Mars form a ring from its moons Astronomers have predicted that in a few million years, Mars may have a band surrounding it not too dissimilar in appearance to Saturn’s famous ring. Research has predicted that the impact of meteorite strikes and Mars’ gravity will eventually shatter its moons, Phobos and Deimos. The fragments will then join the particles already in Martian orbit to form a band of rock around the Red Planet.

There’s an eighth continent Zealandia could be the world’s eighth continent. Located in the southeast Pacific Ocean, 94 per cent of its five million square kilometres are submerged underneath the water. The remaining six per cent includes islands like New Zealand and New Caledonia, and geologists believe that it should be considered a continent as it is comprised of continental and not oceanic crust. The discovery will help shed more light on the area’s geological history.

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A fossil of a prehistoric reptile has been discovered in south China with an embryo inside. The dinocephalosaurus was an aquatic creature and it is the first archosauromorpha (today represented by birds and crocodiles) found to show evidence of giving birth to live young. It’s predicted that the dinocephalosaurus gave birth in the ocean as its long neck made laying eggs on land difficult. The finding suggests that crocodiles and birds could evolve to give live birth in the future.

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© WIKI; Thinkstock

2

reptile 4 Prehistoric gave birth to live young

8 5 Hibernation may improve cancer treatment

NASA tech will help guide planes for shorter flights A joint venture by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and NASA is aiming to make air travel more efficient. The idea is to incorporate automated digital planning software and GPS into air traffic control at airports to replace voice communication and radar. Early tests have proved successful and the changes will help save fuel and allow more flights to arrive on time.

Research on hibernating animals has suggested that a cooled, deep sleep can protect the body against the toxic effects of radiotherapy. Scientists have taken this idea and speculated that putting a cancer patient into an induced torpor state will allow the body to endure stronger radiotherapy treatment.

6 Vitamin D could help to prevent colds and flu A recent British Medical Journal survey has claimed that 3 million fewer people in the UK would suffer from respiratory infections if Vitamin D supplements were part of their diet. While the evidence is inconclusive, Public Health England recommends that people consider taking a daily Vitamin D supplement in winter.

9 VR can help

calm anxious children in hospitals Children can be very nervous during hospital appointments, but VR technology could help. A scheme is being put forward to provide children with a virtual reality helmet to prepare them for MRI scans. Young patients have been invited to go for a virtual snorkel as anaesthetic is administered, and a mobile app is being made available so children can experience what the MRI scan will be like in advance.

7 Scientists can alter memories Research has found that as we recall a memory, the connections that formed it can be strengthened and changed. Patients can learn to remain calm when recounting a traumatic memory with the help of a chemical that inhibits the stress response. After several sessions, the connections of the brain will adjust and the chemical will no longer be needed. WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

10 Your clothes could soon generate and store electricity Special fibres developed by nanotechnologists from the Georgia Institute of Technology, can convert both solar and kinetic energy into electricity. The technology could be used in garments and accessories such as T-shirts, bracelets and watches, but at the moment a prototype is around four to five years away.

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ENVIRONMENT

DISCOVER THE ANSWERS TO 11 OF THE MOST COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE

C

limate change is one of the defining scientific and political challenges of our time. Since 1880, the global average temperature has risen by up to 0.8 degrees Celsius.The ten warmest years ever recorded all occurred within the last two decades. The global sea level has risen by 17 centimetres in the past century. And, in 2013, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reached a record high of 400 parts per million. The world is changing, and scientists are concerned. It’s not so much the amount of change that’s worrying, it’s the speed. In the past 100 years, the rate of temperature increase has almost doubled. That’s a warning sign that something isn’t right. It’s estimated that if we don’t change

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the way we live, carbon dioxide levels could soar to 1,500 parts per million over the next few hundred years. Ice will melt, sea levels will rise, weather and environments will change, and the effects could be felt for millennia. But we haven’t seen the worst of it yet, and that’s the problem. Glaciers are starting to retreat, Arctic ice is thinning, and animals are already having to adapt to changes in their environment. But day-to-day life for many hasn’t changed and there are still lots of questions that need to be answered. Scientists are working to monitor the planet and to model the possible effects of changes in our climate. Satellites are pointed at the Earth, taking pictures and making measurements, and

scientists on the ground are conducting studies to find out what’s happening now, what happened in the past and what might happen in the future. As this data floods in, governments are trying to take action. Taking advice from experts in the field, they are working to mitigate the risk that climate change poses to the planet. If we act now, we might be able to reverse some of the damage of human-made climate change, but the steps that need to be taken are painful, and acting before we know what’s going to happen makes many feel uneasy. The trouble is, we only have one planet. If we wait to see how the effects of climate change play out, it could be too late. WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? 2017 had the 3rd warmest January since modern records began

Freezing weather in cities like New York has confused people about global warming

This past winter, temperatures in southern Europe plunged to double figures below freezing, and countries used to mild weather were carpeted in thick snow. Across the pond in the US, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) reported double the number of extreme snowstorms in the last half of the 20th century compared to the first. In the face of this Arctic weather, it’s no wonder that climate

Arctic chill How the polar vortex and the jet stream are influenced by a changing climate

sceptics find global warming hard to believe. But weather isn’t the same as climate. Weather is the state of the atmosphere for a short period, climate describes what’s happening long-term. The Arctic is circled by a polar vortex – circular winds that contain the chilly air. At the edges, the vortex interacts with a jet stream that brings warm air up from the equator. Normally, the worst of the winter chill is confined by this air

Polar vortex

Jet stream

Winds circle the poles in the direction of Earth’s rotation.

Fast-moving wind circles where warm air from the south meets cold air from the north.

movement, but an increase in air pressure over the Arctic, or a disruption in the jet stream, can send frigid weather southwards. Overall, global temperatures have been rising and it’s about a degree hotter today than it was in 1880. While fluctuations in air movement have been sending cold weather into North America, Europe and Asia, the average temperature has been climbing, hence the widespread concern.

Impact of warming As the Arctic warms, the jet stream is becoming less stable, contributing to chilly winters.

Cold air Low pressure

Peaks and waves in the jet stream leak over into North America, Europe and Asia, carrying freezing air with them.

Areas of low pressure allow the polar air to push downwards, leakin out of the Arctic.

If the jet stream weakens or wobbles, cold air spills out of the Arctic and down across the continents below

P ;

Snowfall

This NASA satellite image shows snow blanketing the UK in the winter of 2010

“SCIENTISTS DISAGREE ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE” The Earth is getting warmer; temperature records from independent organisations for more than 100 years show that the planet is heating up. The debate comes down to what’s causing the rise, and climate scientists are pointing the finger at us. Searches have been made to pull out published work referencing phrases like ‘global climate change’ and ‘global warming’. These papers have been analysed to find out whether the scientists agree that it is happening, and about the cause. The results of seven of these independent studies were WWW.HOWIT

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published in 2016, and together they found that between 90 and 100 per cent of publishing climate scientists agree that global warming is caused by humans. Backing them up are the National Academi s of Science from 80 countries across the world d, along with the Intergovernmental Panel on Cl mate Change (IPCC), a hundreds-strong team of clim mate hard to experts working with the United Nations. It’s h heir argue with that. Humans need to face up to th culpability, and fast.

The red parts of this map show areas that were warmer between 2000-2009 compared to 1951-1980

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ENVIRONMENT

Human activity is enhancing the natural warming of the planet. We’re flooding our atmosphere with carbon dioxide and methane, and it’s acting as a blanket

Earth has been warmer before. In fact, it’s been much warmer. Geological records can reveal the state of the planet in the distant past, and during the Early Eocene Period, 54-48 million years ago, temperatures were up to 14 degrees higher than today. It was so hot that the ice at both poles completely melted. Our orbit around the Sun is uneven, and as we drift closer to or further from our star, this affects our planet’s climate and has been linked to the onset of ice ages. The Sun brightens from time to time, kicking out more energy, and volcanic eruptions can fill Earth’s atmosphere with

carbon dioxide (heating things up) or lighte blocking particles (cooling things down). These factors have changed the temperature of the e, Earth, and will continue to affect it in the future but that’s not what’s happening now. ve e Over the past few decades, temperatures hav been rising fast. Sophisticated models of globall temperature, ignoring any human input, can recreate the patterns we’ve observed up until the 1950s, but after that point they can’t account for what’s going on. Factor in the effects of the emissions humans are creating, and suddenly the models fit.

Human factors

Nature versus humans NASA’s Goddard Institute has been collecting data to pinpoint the causes of climate change TEMPERATURE

Observed temperature Everything Natural and human factors account for changes in surface temperature. But without greenhouse emissions it would be a very different picture.

Surface temperature fluctuates, but since 1880 it has risen by 0.8 degrees Celsius. It is still climbing today.

The largest single human factor is greenhouse gas emissions. The rise in our gas production closely mirrors the rise that we see in global temperatures.

All forcings

Observed Human factors

Other human factors Deforestation, ozone pollution and aerosols all shift the temperature up and down slightly

Natural N aturall

Natural factors Earth’s orbit, the Sun and volcanic eruptions all impact Earth’s temperature, but even all three combined don’t account for the changes that we are currently seeing.

Rising temperatures increase the risk of extreme weather

TIME

“EXTREME WEATHER I CLIMATE CHANGE” There have been many more cases of extreme weather hitting the headlines over the past few years. Take the US for example, where heat waves are increasing in frequency, even in chilly states like Alaska. Winter storms are becoming more frequent and more intense and the proportion of rainfall happening in single-day flash events is increasing. Storms in the North Atlantic Ocean have also increased in intensity, frequency and duration. But it’s hard to link these directly to climate change.

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a 6 In 2014, NOAA published a repor rld. T extreme weather events across the ti it and d heat h t waves, found a link between human activity but couldn’t prove that the droughts, heavy rain or storms studied were influenced by people. An increasing global temperature does increase the risk of extreme weather, and we can expect events like these to be more common in the future, but it’s not yet possible to point the finger at climate change when a big storm hits. WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? 2014, 2015 and 2016 each broke the previous record for the hottest year since records began

“CO2 ISN’T THE

When it comes to greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide attracts the most attention. CO2 levels in the atmosphere have been rising since the industrial revolution, but it’s not the only gas responsible for global warming. Methane is 30-times better at trapping heat. This little molecule is released when organic materials break down. It enters the atmosphere during the production and transport of fossil fuels; it leaks out as

Since life first emerged, Earth’s temperature has fluctuated wildly. In the Eocene, it was around 14 degrees Celsius warmer than today, and during the last ice age, it was over four de c lder. Species can change their ha s, mov h heir homes or even evolve to esca climate cha . For example, two-spot ladybirdss can be either black h red spots, or red with black k. Numbers used to be about equal, but now mos re red as it seems to help keep them cool. Pin almon are spawning earlier in warmer water , and d he i checkers h k butterfly is moving to higher altitudes. But these kinds off quick fixes aren’t possible for every y species. Clima change is hap ning fast, and evol tion is notoriously w. y species are e strugglin o adapt to their c nging worrld.

the remains of plants and animals decay; and livestock like pigs and cows release it on a daily basis. But it’s not the main reason for global warming. There’s far more CO2 in the atmosphere, and far more of it is being produced. In the US in 2014, it made up 81 per cent of the greenhouse gas emissions, while methane accounted for just 11 per cent. It also hangs around for hundreds, or even thousands of years, unlike methane.

The extinction of the golden toad has been associated with climate change

“Scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal”

“CLIM CHAN CONSPIRACY!

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

“MORE CO2 IS A G THING BECAUSE PLANTS NEED IT”

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CO2 boosts plant growth, but combined with other changes, the effect is reversed

© NASA; Thinkstock; WIKI; Shutterstock

Carbon dioxide is a key ingredient of photosynthesis. Plants combine it with water under the power of the sunlight to create sugars, which, in turn, indirectly provide energy for pretty much every living thing on the planet. Without carbon dioxide, we wouldn’t be here. Adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere does boost plant growth, but in the context of climate change it’s not that simple. Stanford University performed a three-year experiment to test what would happen to plant life 100 years from now if our planet keeps changing as predicted. They doubled the carbon dioxide, raised the temperature by one degree, increased rainfall and increased soil nitrogen (an effect of fossil fuel burning). Under these combined conditions, plant growth stalled.

s myth is the hardest to counter. M ny people are automatically sc cep p ptical of any evidence climate erts might present. imate change isn’t just about e – it’s also about politics. Changing y the world works is going to be , and i ’s no wonder that the research is e g resistance, not least because re ear rs are st ll teasing apart the science. Our understanding is building and changing year by year. But the truth is that internationally respected organisations like the IPCC, NASA, NOAA and the National Academies of Science from over 80 countries agree climate change is happening. The scientific consensus is that human activity is likely to be the cause. When the link between smoking and lung cancer was made, tobacco companies fought to discredit it. Now fossil fuels are in the firing line.

Policies designed to protect the climate have hit businesses hard

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ENVIRONMENT Polar bears d se ea ice to survive. Without it they W fa ace extinction

Since the late 1800s, the world has warmed by less than one degree Celsius. Sounds small, doesn’t it? But a few degrees can make all the d fference. Earth’s story is written in its rocks, a d we kn now that if the average temperature is st a few degrees colder we’re plunged into an e age. A few degrees warmer and the ice caps start to me elt. Global warming focuses on the global average temperatu ure. In reality, the rise isn’t spread evenly acrross the globe. The International Panel on Climate e Change predicted that by 2100, t mperatu ures could rise by as much as 4.5 d grees Ce elsius, and in some places that spike ll be mu uch, much bigger. In an atttempt to slow the warming, the Paris Agreemen nt was signed by 196 countries in 2015. The aim iss to keep temperatures below two degrees Ce elsius warmer than pre-industrial levels, and d hopefully to limit it to 1.5 degrees lsius. Th hat 0.5 of a degree might sound trivial, t it could turn out to be crucial. The Eu uropean Geosciences Union, an i t rnatiional union of professional Earth, a etary and space scientists, published a y 2016 looking at the difference that half a e could make. increase in carbon dioxide levels and e ature is expected to boost the growth crops, like soybeans and wheat, but t te emperature tips over the 1.5-degree old,, this boost could be lost. In some , tem mperatures could soar by ten degrees, e trem me heat and drought could cause these od crops to fail. rk to unpick the consequences of the rise in m eratu ure is still in its infancy, but using the ailable data, scientists in Oxford, UK have also been lookiing at the difference between 1.5 and 2.0 degre s. Thi h s l ttle jum u p carries an increassed

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Desertification Deserts could spread across large areas of land, with many regions becoming too hot and dry for people to survive.

Amazon desert Decreasing rainfall across the Amazon could lead to large-scale loss of forest.

Tawny owls are changing colour from grey to brown as snowfall decreases

Vanishing ecosystems

risk of ex extr trem eme weather events, like droughts, floods and storms, which could have devastating effects on populations, economies and of course the environment. Then there’s sea levels. It takes a while for the oceans to catch up with the rise in atmospheric temperature, so the full impact of melting ice has yet to be seen. A couple of degrees might sound like nothing, but its impact could be huge.

The pristine ecosystem of Antarctica could be completely changed, revealing the land underneath.

DID YOU KNOW? Some of the earliest research into the impact of carbon dioxide on climate was revealed in 1896

Receding ice The frozen lands of Siberia and Canada could become warm and habitable.

“A couple of degrees might sound like nothing, but the impact it could have is huge”

Habitable zone The northern hemisphere is likely to have the mildest climate, allowing crops to grow.

Relocation Unpredictable weather, scorching heat and changes in humidity would lead to mass migration toward habitable regions.

Crop failure A three-degree rise in temperature would be enough to see crops starting to fail, with major impacts felt in Africa, Central America and South Asia.

Homes underwater Rising sea levels could engulf islands and coastal towns, forcing residents to flee

Rising disease Diseases like malaria could affect thousands more people as the mosquitoes that carry them spread.

Extreme weather Dry areas could become drier, and droughts and storms could make currently habitable areas completely inhospitable.

Is this our future? A few degrees rise in average temperature could completely change our world KEY:

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Food growing zones / Compact high-rise cities

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Uninhabitable desert

Uninhabitable due to flooding, drought or extreme weather

Potential for reforestation

Land lost due to rising sea levels

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ENVIRONMENT

It’s too early to admit defeat. We’ve spotted our influence on climate change early, and there’s still time to intervene. The simplest way to reduce temperature-changing greenhouse emissions is to stop creating them. In 2010, a quarter come from producing electricity and heat, another quarter from agriculture and land use, around 20 per cent from industry, and 14 per cent from transport. The gold standard is transitioning to renewable energy, and this is already starting to happen. In 2015, carbon dioxide emissions in the UK dropped by 4.3 per cent thanks to a continuing drop in coal consumption. And between 2005 and 2012, emissions in the US dropped by nearly ten per cent. However, with carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere having already risen, it would take

centuries for things to return to normal even if we do manage to halt our damaging activities. If we want to mitigate the greenhouse effect and halt the rise in global temperature, we need to explore other options too. One idea is to reflect some of the sunlight back into space by seeding bright clouds over the oceans, or spraying reflective particles into the air. Another is to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either naturally by planting more trees and encouraging the growth of algae in the sea, or artificially by developing carbon sinks that can suck the gas out and store it.

Switching to renewable energy sources is our best chance at reducing or reversing some of the damage done to our climate

Is the Sun to blame? Global temperature versus the amount of energy that the atmosphere receives from the Sun

Rising temperature 1.5

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Fluctuations The temperature rises and falls as conditions on Earth vary.

Global surfac ce temperature

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When the Sun’s activity is at its peak, little increases in atmospheric temperature ature ca can be seen.

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Sun’s energy output

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Solar minimum

Solar activity fluctuates up and down roughly every 11 years.

Even when the Sun goes quiet, atmospheric temperature continues to rise.

© Alamy; Al NASA; NASA; W NASA WIKI; Illustration by Jo Smolaga

This image shows the active regions of the Sun in April 2015

The Sun doesn’t put out a constant stream of power. It goes through cycles of increased activity every 11 years or so, culminating in intense sunspots that rage on the surface thanks to fluctuations in its magnetic field. Over the last century, this activity has been intensifying and the Sun is brighter now than it was thousands of years ago. On top of this, Earth’s orbit changes shape over time and our planet tips on its axis, changing the length and intensity of the seasons. In the past, these cycles and changes were linked to fluctuations in temperature on Earth, including the coming and going of ice ages. But warming trends over the past few decades no longer match up to solar activity. As global temperatures have been rising, the Sun’s activity has remained stable. In fact, there was a deep solar minimum between 2007 and 2009, but temperatures on Earth continued to rise.

Average surface temperature has been rising steadily.

DID YOU KNOW? China produces over 25 per cent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions, and the US contributes 16 per cent

Reflective aerosols Cloud brightening Encouraging stable cloud formation over the oceans using fine droplets of seawater could help to reflect the light.

Fine mists of bright particles in the air reflect sunlight back into space, but we don’t yet know how best to use them.

“As global temperatures have been rising, the Sun’s activity has remained stable” Space mirrors An emergency plan suggests launching a cloud of transparent mirrors to shield Earth from the Sun in a crisis

Cycling cold water Upwelling brings cold, nutrientrich water to the surface of oceans, feeding algae that trap arbon dioxide

REVERSING THE DAMAGE Research is underway to find ways to cool the planet

Fertilising the ocea s Algae need iron to photo ynthesise, so adding it to the oceans t boost their numbers is one option bein trialled.

Planting trees Carbon dioxide capture Projects are underway to find methods to capture and store carbon dioxide, removing it from the air.

Trees suck carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, so replacing those that we cut down could help slow climate change. NASA’s images of the Greenland Ice Sheet show it melting earlier than usual in 2016

The red areas show places that experienced unusually high temperatures in 2015

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Thick neck muscles are another feature that help soften the blow when woodpeckers smash their beaks into tree bark.

Muscular necks

Bone around the brain is cushioned with microscopic beam-like bits of tissue. This acts as a shock absorber during drumming.

A spongy skull

Find out about the physical adaptations that make the woodpecker so unique

Woodpecker anatomy

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oodpeckers are a very successful animal family. Over 180 species of these distinctive birds are found worldwide, and they appear on every continent except Australia and Antarctica. They are adapted to many different habitats – you can spot woodpeckers in tropical rainforests and woodlands, but also in grasslands and bamboo forests. Best known for hammering trees, woodpeckers’ threelayered beaks are built for heavy-duty use. The outer layer is made of keratin scales, the same substance that makes up rhino horns. The middle layer is made up of porous bone, and the inner layer of bone with collagen fibres. Together, this construction minimises mechanical stress, which is a good thing, since the average woodpecker will smack its beak

Feathery filters Bristles, or soft feathers, lining woodpeckers’ nostrils keep small bits of flying wood from being inhaled.

Woodpecker tongue muscles wrap around their skulls within the strong, flexible hyoid bone. This two-pronged sheath acts like a seatbelt for the brain.

The longer top half of the beak slides around during impact, lessening the force against the skull.

Overbite

caches of acorns by hammering them into oak trees one nut at a time. But most woodpeckers are willing to eat a variety of food. They feast on caterpillars, spiders, fruit, tree sap, lizards and even other birds’ eggs. Both males and females hollow out tree cavities to rear young. Once the blind and featherless babies hatch, the parents alternate bringing food to the nest or guarding it until the young leave home, typically after 25-30 days. Since they don’t sing, woodpeckers will perform a type of pecking called drumming to warn about predators, mark territory against a rival or attract a mate. They’ll often peck artificial objects to create a deeply resonant sound, which means you may find woodpecker holes in utility poles, and dents in bins, rain gutters or the siding on houses.

Tongue-tied

against something a staggering 12,000 times per day! These birds lead a busy, noisy life. There are multiple reasons that woodpeckers loudly thwack things with their beaks. In addition to searching for food, they also create nest cavities and communicate with each other by rapping on objects in specific rhythms. They wield their beaks like a chisel or a drill. They will crowbar back pieces of bark to grab bugs hiding behind, but also bore directly into trees to reach larvae and insects. A woodpecker will grab prey with the tip of its probing tongue, with some species featuring barbs on their tongues to help secure more food. Some feed specifically on cactus fruits. Others amble along the ground licking up ants. Still others store away whole

Woodpeckers Discover how these boisterous birds are built to eat, make nests and communicate by whacking on wood

ENVIRONMENT

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Some woodpeckers have teamed up with fungi to create tree cavities faster. Researchers have discovered that red-cockaded woodpeckers appear to carry spores of fungi around with them. These spores grow inside the pine tree cavities already created by the birds and help to rot the wood. Both the birds and the fungi, which is a kind of decomposer, benefit from the relationship. The birds don’t have to work as hard to remove rotten wood and the fungi are placed in a space with perfect conditions for them to grow and spread. This arrangement helps other creatures too. Once the woodpeckers move out, other species have a ready-made home.

Partners in crime

Tail support

Fungi flown in by red-cockaded woodpeckers helps the birds hollow out tree cavities to raise their young

Stiff tail feathers anchor woodpeckers to trees, supporting their weight. They also provide leverage for pecking strikes.

A woodpecker’s anatomy helps protect its brain from the forces of pecking

You’d think woodpeckers would sustain multiple concussions with their persistent pecking. Fortunately, their bodies are built to withstand this substantial abuse. Being small helps woodpeckers handle the G-forces associated with sudden stops much better than the bigger brains of other animals. Our brains are like the yellow yolk inside an egg. When our egg heads come to a quick halt, our brains smack into the outer shell. However, woodpecker brains almost directly touch the inside of their skull. This means the brain doesn’t slosh around and bump against the skull during impact. Their skull is also made of thick, spongy bone. This construction is a kind of shock absorber, like having a helmet on while you’re riding your bicycle. Another advantage is that the bone that houses the tongue, called the hyoid, encircles the skull. It’s essentially a seatbelt for the brain. Pretty heady stuff!

Avoiding head injuries

Feet with two toes in each direction enable woodpeckers to cling on to the side of trees for long periods of time.

A clear third eyelid keeps woodpeckers’ eyes from popping out while they’re working. It also protects against errant woodchips.

“Woodpecker’s beaks are partly made of keratin, like rhino horns”

Getting a grip

Safety goggles

DID YOU KNOW? Woodpeckers’ heads can move at around six metres per second, generating forces of over 1,000G

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© Thinkstock; WIKI/US Fish and Wildlife Service Southeast Region; NatGeo Images

ENVIRONMENT

How sunrays form I

To create these beautiful beams, all that’s needed is light, clouds, shadows and dust!

© Illustration by Alex Phoenix; Thinkstock

f you’ve ever looked out at a sunset and seen those intense beams of light radiating from what looks like the Sun sinking behind a cloud, then you’ve seen crepuscular rays. These rays only form when it’s partially cloudy, and they are at their best when the clouds are quite thick and low in the atmosphere, such as cumulus or stratocumulus clouds. As the light from the Sun falls on the clouds, gaps in the clouds let the light through. Dust particles and water vapour in the air cause the light to scatter, much like how the beam of a torch appears if you shine it through smoke. This

is what makes the rays so obvious to the human eye. The shadows cast by the clouds themselves enhance this effect. The ‘sunburst’ appearance is actually an optical illusion – the rays are in fact parallel. Where the rays appear to burst from a single point is just down to perspective. Things look smaller the further away they get, like when you are looking down a railway track. The lines seem to converge in the distance but really you know that they always run parallel to each other. The same is true for crepuscular rays. Less common, but still an atmospheric spectacle, are anticrepuscular rays. These are

rays that appear to burst from the point directly opposite the Sun. For example, if you’re watching a sunset and you’re facing the Sun, the anticrepuscular rays will be behind you. These rays are formed in the exact same way and are just counterparts of crepuscular rays. Think back to the railway tracks analogy – if you’re looking in one direction and the tracks seem to come together in the distance, then you turn around and look the other way, the same will appear to be true. This is the same with crepuscular and anticrepuscular rays. See if you can spot them the next time you gaze at a sunset.

Our perspective from the ground makes it look like the rays are beaming out of the Sun. The cloud height and distance enhances this view

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DID YOU KNOW? Crepuscular means ‘of, relating to or resembling twilight’, as these rays are most often seen at dawn and dusk

Light and shadow How sunlight and clouds work together to form crepuscular rays

Contrast Rays are most visible during sunrise and sunset as the contrast between light and dark is most obvious at this time.

Particles Atmospheric particles like dust and water vapour scatter the light to create the ‘beams’ of light.

The rays are actually near-parallel beams, but as the thick clouds filter the light, we see them very differently from our point of view down here on Earth

“Where the rays appear to burst from a single point is just down to perspective” Clouds These Sun rays are most commonly seen when there are thick, low-lying clouds in the sky.

Sun From this point of view, the rays appear to be radiating from the Sun’s position in the sky, but they are actually near-parallel beams of light.

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ENVIRONMENT The Tropic of Cancer crosses Northern Hemisphere regions such as Mexico, the Bahamas, the Sahara, Saudi Arabia and India, plus others

The tropics What exactly does the Sun have to do with these parts of the Earth?

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magine two invisible parallel lines that circle the globe at the same distance both above and below the equator – the area within these lines is known as the tropics, or the Torrid Zone. The lines of latitude lie both 23.5 degrees north

and south of the equator (known as the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn respectively). The Sun shines more directly on the tropics than on higher latitudes, and as a result the weather is hot and humid, and tropical storms are frequent.

Cancer and Capricorn What defines where the tropics are on Earth? NORTH POLE

Arctic & Antarctic Circles The polar circles are located at 66.5 degrees latitude.

Equator The Sun is directly overhead at noon on both equinoxes, making night and day approximately equal length across the Earth.

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ARCTIC CIRCLE

Previously, when the tropics were named, the Sun appeared in the constellation Capricornus and Cancer, hence their names.

TROPIC OF CANCER

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TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

Ecliptic This is an imaginary line that marks the path of the Sun as it appears from Earth. The signs of the zodiac come from constellations alon the ecliptic.

SOUTH POLE

SUMMER SOLSTICE (NORTHERN HEMISPHERE)

SOUTH POLE

Summer solstice

Winter solstice

On 21 June, when the Sun is directly above the Tropic of Cancer at noon, it will not be visible fro the Antarctic Circle

On 21 December, when the Sun is directly above the Tropic of Capricorn at noon, it will not be visible fro the Arctic Circle

WINTER SOLSTICE (NORTHERN HEMISPHERE)

All about blossom

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ne sure sign that spring is nearly upon us is the appearance of blossom, the name given to the intense clusters of small flowers on trees. It is most often attributed to fruit trees, such as the cherry, apple and peach varieties. The flowers begin to appear in spring, most famously in Japan, where the sakura (cherry blossom) is celebrated every year by hanging paper lanterns in the trees and enjoying a picnic below the branches. Some species, such as the cherry tree, take their cues for when to blossom

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from a ‘temperature sum’ – a prolonged period of constant temperature before the buds emerge. The vibrant colour and scent of the flowers is an evolutionary adaptation for attracting insects, who play a vital role. Trees need bugs to visit their flowers, pick up pollen and transfer it to other flowers (either on the same tree or from other trees, depending on the plant species) to fertilise the ovary. After fertilisation, the trees can grow fruit, which is the seed-bearing structure formed by the ovary. The blossom petals will then whither and drop from the tree.

A hysteranthous tree is one that blossoms before it opens its leaves

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© Shutterstock; Thinkstock

What is blossom and what does it do?

TRANSPORT

Traditional design principles underlie the Motorrad VISION NEXT 100, BMW’s motorbike of the future

f media reports of major technology companies experimenting with self-driving cars have got you thinking that advances in transportation are restricted to vehicles with four wheels, think again. The motorcycle is also heading into a high-tech future every bit as thrilling as that of the car. It makes sense that the same innovations being tested in cars are also on the agenda for motorbike manufacturers. After all, the cool futuristic aesthetics of modern superbikes have given them a prominent place in popular culture, such as the comic book series Judge Dredd and the movies Tron and Terminator

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Salvation. The image of the modern sport bike is perfectly suited to a notion of a future where our machines are sleek, clean and powerful. On a more down-to-earth level, motorcycle enthusiasts face many of the same issues that car owners struggle with, such as how to keep down the cost of maintenance and fuel and find safer and more environmentally friendly ways to travel. The impetus for improving motorcycle technologies is driven by both commercial and personal interests. The first production motorcycle, the Hildebrand & Wolfmüller, was built in 1894. Its

engine was rated at almost 1,500cc (cubic centimetres), a measure of the volume of the cylinders. Ostensibly, the bigger the cc, the more power a motorcycle engine can produce. But that’s far from the whole story, as evidenced by today’s fastest motorbikes. Modern motorbike engines are considered to be big at 1000cc. Yet, the top speed of the latest superbikes doesn’t fall far short of 320 kilometres per hour, and the Kawasaki Ninja H2R can reach around 400 kilometres per hour. That’s almost ten times as fast as the Hildebrand & Wolfmüller could go. These speeds are the result of advances in WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? The Kawasaki Ninja H2R’s 300+ horsepower engine can’t match the 500-horsepower of the Dodge Tomahawk

Planetary gears Kawasaki turned to its aerospace division to design gears able to transfer the supercharger’s power.

Centrifugal-type supercharger This type of supercharger essentially force-feeds air into the engine, boosting internal combustion.

Wheels up Impeller

Launch Control Mode allows the rider to engage maximum acceleration from a standstill without pulling a wheelie.

Air is drawn into the supercharger by the rotation of this component and then pushed into the engine.

Kawasaki Ninja H2R If it is power you want from a motorcycle, you’ll find plenty of it in this mean machine. Indeed, the Kawasaki Ninja H2R is so powerful, it would be illegal to ride one on the road. The design combines principles of physics with precision engineering. As a bike designed for closed course riding only, it has engine components that are specifically designed to ramp up the horsepower far in excess of what is typical for street-legal production motorcycles. Moreover, it comes with a fairing that looks like the front end of a jet fighter, and for good reason. The pointed nose, cowls and wings are shaped at just the right angles to minimize wind resistance and friction-induced heat build-up. But it’s not just the mechanics that are top drawer. State-of-the-art electronics ensure that the ride is smooth, safe and under control, even at 400 kilometres per hour.

Fast and furious This superbike is the result of clever design and cutting-edge engine technology

Electrical connections The electronic system includes functions to aid cornering, traction, braking, acceleration, steering and gear shifting.

Hot wheels

998cc engine

Tough brakes To ensure effective breaking at very high speeds, the semi-floating brake discs are extra-large.

The moving parts of the four-cylinder engine are fine-tuned to keep up with the supercharger.

“The Kawasaki Ninja H2R is too powerful to ride on the road” technology that allow motorbike engines to generate extra power or operate more efficiently. The Ninja H2R, for example, is fitted with a supercharger that boosts the power output of the engine to levels too high for road use. Along with other superbikes such as BMW’s S1000RR and Ducati’s 1299 Panigale S, it also includes sophisticated features that control the bike’s WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

mechanics on the fly to ensure the best possible ride. These include dynamic traction control, which maintains a consistent grip on the road and thereby provides improved manoeuvrability, braking and acceleration. Essentially, a traction control system constantly monitors whether the wheels are turning at the same speed. If a difference is detected, the power going to the rear wheel can be adjusted to slow it down. One example is Italian firm GripOne’s 3D-Intelligence system,

Aerodynamic design The light-weight fairing was designed by aeronautical engineers to generate downforce, which stabilises the bike at high speeds.

which receives data from sensors that measure variables such as tyre load, speed and the bike’s lean angle up to 200 times per second. The next generation of motorbikes could be even more manoeuvrable if flexible smart materials supersede conventional jointed bike frames. This idea is built into BMW ‘s Motorrad VISION NEXT 100 concept bike, the German auto maker’s vision of two-wheeled transport in the 2040s. The bike’s so-called Flexframe is one piece that turns in its entirety in response to

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© kawasaki; BMW Group

The World Superbike Championship-styled wheels are made of lightweight cast aluminium, while the rear tyre measures 200mm for axi u traction

TRANSPORT

Honda Riding Assist The revolutionary technology that keeps a bike upright even when it’s standing still

Small turns Slightly turning the front wheel left and right helps to keep the bike upright.

Self-propelled Honda has demonstrated the Riding Assist bike starting, stopping and manoeuvring through doors without a rider.

Shapeshifter When the bike is standing still, the angle of the front forks changes, extending the wheel outwards.

The Hildebrand & Wolfmüller’s four-stroke engine was capable of providing speeds of up to 45km/h

steering. This should reduce mechanical stress and wear on moving parts. Other features of this bike, according to BMW, are tyres that adapt to the terrain and an engine that changes shape to improve aerodynamics depending on whether the bike is stationary or moving. BMW’s prototype is also fitted with a

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No gyroscopes Rather than use traditional gyroscopes, which would add considerable weight, Honda’s engineers have used balancing technology from their ASIMO robot.

digital companion that makes imperceptible changes to the engine to keep it running in an optimum state for the prevailing conditions. Although state-of-the-art bikes like the VISION NEXT 100 and Ninja H2R have taken on-board computers to the next level, electronic systems that allow a rider to perform actions like braking and shifting gears with a single button are not new. Many premium motorbikes now include ride-by-wire technology as standard, which replaces the old system of cable connections between the rider’s controls and the engine. When the rider opens the throttle, for instance, the action is converted to an electrical signal by a transponder. This signal is then sent to the bike’s electronic control unit,

which initiates the appropriate follow-up action, such as injecting more fuel. Wireless technology is also linking riders to their bikes through their clothing. Bluetoothenabled gloves allow riders to control music and answer phone calls. Meanwhile, smart helmets offer the potential for even more sophisticated interaction. Skully captured the headlines in 2014 with a successful Indiegogo campaign that raised money for the development of a helmet that incorporated a rear-view camera, heads-up display (HUD) and a smartphone link for sourcing turn-by-turn directions and hands-free calls. Unfortunately, it never entered production, but it wasn’t the only advanced motorbike helmet in development. WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? In 2010 students in Melbourne designed the Green Speed Air Motorcycle, which runs on compressed air

Advanced motorcycles may one day utilise hydrogen as a fuel

Green machines It isn’t quite the same thing as the steam-powered velocipedes of the 19th century, but using hydrogen and oxygen – the constituents of water – in hydrogen fuel cells to power vehicles could make motorcycles greener. Fuel cells produce electricity through a chemical reaction that strips electrons from hydrogen atoms. Oxygen may later combine with these electrons and the hydrogen atoms, resulting in the production of water as a waste material. Suzuki demonstrated a motorbike called the Crosscage at the Tokyo Motor Show in 2007 that uses a hydrogen fuel cell to charge a lithium-ion battery. However, as appealing as this sounds for its low environmental impact, the Crosscage remains a prototype. More promising is the use of electrical batteries that can be charged from the mains or a charging station, like Tesla cars. Manufacturers including Zero, Honda and HarleyDavidson are already testing battery-powered motorbikes.

Airbus APWorks Light Rider Meet the 3D-printed motorbike that is light enough to lift by hand

Unbreakable

Lightweight

The frame is made of a corrosionresistant alumninium alloy called scalmalloy that is supposedly almost as tou h as titanium.

The Light Rider warrants its name because it only weighs 35kg.

Parts of the frame are hollow so that cables can run through them.

Multilayered Scalmalloy is made up of thousands of layers of aluminium alloy, each of which is only 60 microns thick.

Zippy The engine is powerful enough to get the bike from 0 to 45km/h in just three seconds.

Inspired by life An algorithm was used to design the body using strong natural skeletal and organic structures as a model.

The Z-Force electric motor found in Zero motorcycles can be charged at standard electrical outlets

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© Honda; Airbus AP Works; WIKI/ Hildebrand Wolfmüller

Body cavivties

TRANSPORT At CES 2016, BMW displayed a design that also incorporates a programmable HUD. Looking to the future, BMW’s engineers are even envisaging a world without helmets. As part of the VISION NEXT 100 project, they’ve designed data glasses that detect where the rider’s looking and accordingly display a virtual rear-view mirror, maps or menus that the rider can manipulate with hand gestures. Tagged with nicknames such as ‘widow makers’, motorbikes have long had a reputation for being dangerous. Education about speed and wearing good leathers has gone some way towards correcting that, but manufacturers have also been adding tech that make riding safer. A 2015 report published by the Victoria State Government in Australia concluded that anti-lock braking systems (ABS) could reduce the rate of deaths and severe injuries by 31 per cent. Most road bikes now come with at least the option of ABS. Like bicycles, motorbikes have separate brakes for their front and rear wheels. Speed sensors monitor how fast these wheels are going. When the rider is applying the brakes, the ABS controller uses this data to make minor adjustments to the brakes on one or both wheels, thus ensuring they don’t lock and cause the bike to skid or fall over. Even with ABS, many motorcyclists will fall off their bikes at some point. Thankfully, that’s less likely to hurt these days due to recent innovations in what riders wear. UK company D3O has developed special polymers that it uses to make flexible but impact-resistant protective body armour for MotoGP and motocross racers. Several companies are also offering jackets that contain airbags. Alpinestars’ Tech-Air jackets, for example, include sensors that activate the

internal airbags when the jacket is zipped up. If the rider is thrown from the bike, the airbags rapidly inflate to protect their back, kidney areas, chest and shoulders. But even falling off could become a thing of the past with the arrival of self-balancing motorcycles. Honda is calling its version Riding Assist. The concept draws on the company’s work in robotics and physics principles associated with the position of the bike’s front wheel. Riding Assist would be a boon to novice riders who struggle with balancing, and all riders will have one less thing to worry about when navigating through slow traffic. With the recent focus on self-driving cars, the next step after self-balancing motorbikes could be bikes that ride themselves. Google has reportedly already begun testing the idea, and a promotional video for Honda’s Riding Assist shows the bike following its rider. Then there are the Brigade and Interceptor self-driving police motorbikes. Designed by Charles Bombardier, founder of Imaginactive.org, it’s envisaged that these vehicles could scan for traffic violations and other threats to law and order using 3D cameras. While these designs are only speculative, they foretell a future in which motorcycles aren’t going to be geared only to enthusiasts. With vehicles filling up our roads, some motorbike manufacturers are investing in ways to reduce our environmental impact. These include using zero emissions power sources, and vehicles like Toyota’s i-Road that blur the lines between cars and motorbikes by borrowing design features from both. These innovations are prototypes today but if they prove to be viable, motorbikes could yet become tomorrow’s mode of personal transport for the masses.

Riderless motorcycles Meet the two-wheeled patrol vehicle concepts that could replace bobbies on the beat

Body armour The frame would be built of a high-strength, low-weight material, such as carbon fibre.

Balancing act Two gyroscope rotors would prevent the bike from falling over when it’s motionless or travelling at slow speeds.

“BMW’s engineers are envisaging a world where helmets won’t be needed” ABOVE BMW’s concept for a heads-up display shows up-to-date journey information on the helmet’s visor RIGHT Toyota’s three-wheeled electric i-Road steers like a car but leans around corners like a motorbike

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Just the ticket Once an offender is identified from a scanned number plate, they could be sent a ticket by e-mail or SMS.

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DID YOU KNOW? In February 2016 a Russian drone-making company demonstrated one of the first electric-powered hoverbikes

Watchful eyes Two 360-degree panoramic cameras mounted on the top could monitor activity in every direction.

Blues and twos Flashing strobe lights would signal to attract the attention of an offender such as a speeding driver.

Incident report If illegal activity is suspected, the cameras could record it and stream the video to police officers stationed nearby.

Electric detective

© Charles Bombadier/ Imaginactive.org; Toyota

The 24-horsepower electric engine will be quiet enough to creep up on offenders and be emission-free.

On patrol These vehicles are designed for slow surveillance of city streets rather than highspeed chases that would drain the battery quickly.

Motorcycle milestones Major events on the route from steam cycles to superbikes

1 Ernest Michaux builds the MichauxPerreaux steam velocipede. Several similar inventions soon appear.

Edward Butler unveils the three-wheeled Butler Petrol Cycle, which has a two-stroke engine.

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The Hildebrand & Wolfmüller Motorrad (German for ‘motorcycle’) enters production.

A new HarleyDavidson motorcycle factory is built in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, US.

The first motorcycle Grand Prix takes place on the Isle of Man.

The Birmingham Small Arms Company becomes the world’s largest manufacturer of motorcycles.

s Japanese motorcycle companies, such as Suzuki and Honda, start to dominate.

The speciallydesigned Ack Attack sets the motorcycle world land-speed record at 606km/h in Utah.

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TRANSPORT

Car dashboards Learn how instrument panels give drivers up-to-the-minute information on what’s happening beneath the bonnet

Dashboard displays What are your car’s other dials and warning lights telling you?

The speedometer and odometer Speedometers and odometers display speed and distance information derived from the rotation of the car’s wheels. Mechanical speedometers and odometers are linked to part of the car’s drivetrain by a strong and flexible cable. Rotation of the drive shaft turns the cable, which produces a magnetic field in a small metal cup connected to the speedometer’s needle. The magnetic field gets stronger as speed increases, which creates powerful eddy currents of electricity in the cup and pulls the needle across the dial. Simultaneously, the drive cable turns a set of gears connected to the numbered rings that make up an analogue odometer’s readout. Electronic speedometers use electrical pulses generated by the interruption of a magnetic field near the connection to the drive shaft. A tiny computer behind the speedometer calculates changes in speed based on the frequency of these pulses. An electronic odometer calculates distance based on how many pulses it has detected.

Open door warning light Engine temperature gauge

The car’s on-board computer monitors the current received from electrical switches in the doors to detect if one isn’t closed.

The temperature sensor uses heat-induced variations in electrical resistance to monitor the engine’s temperature.

Oil pressure warning light The light is activated by a sensor that alerts the driver when there’s not enough oil lubricating the engine.

Battery warning light A running engine charges the car’s battery through the alternator. This light comes on if the alternator’s voltage output begins to fluctuate.

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Tachometer Engine speed generates a voltage that causes a coil to spin within a magnetic field. The rate of spin is then translated into revolutions per minute.

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DID YOU KNOW? The arrowhead next to the petrol tank symbol on your fuel gauge points to the side of the car the tank cap is on

Speed and power

Magnetic attraction

The needle rises when faster speeds increase the magnetic forces working against the hairspring’s resistance.

A magnet turned by the drive cable produces a magnetic field inside the speed cup.

Strong connection The drive cable is made of springs wound tightly around a central wire.

A gear ratio mechanically conveys the wheels’ rotation to the odometer.

The classic fuel gauge consists of a sending unit in the fuel tank and the gauge itself on the dashboard. Changes in fuel level are indicated by the movement of a float on the surface of the fuel. A rod connects the float to a wiper that moves across a resistor as the float goes up or down with changes in fuel level. When the tank is full, the wiper causes the current to pass a shorter distance through the resister. A stronger current therefore reaches the fuel gauge mechanism. This makes the needle point to a higher position on the gauge. As the fuel level decreases, the wiper directs electricity through more of the resister, sending less current to the gauge and causing the needle to drop. Newer cars use a microprocessor to detect the level of resistance in the circuit and transmit this information to the gauge.

Hairspring A hairspring is connected to the speedometer’s needle to constrain its movement.

2 3

1 4

1. Float

2. Resistor

The float is usually foam and provides a reliable but imprecise estimate of fuel level.

The fuel gauge reflects how strong the current is after it passes through the resistor.

3. Heating coil

4. Fuel level

Stronger currents heat up a coil around a bimetallic strip that is connected to the needle. A full tank will yield the most heat.

The metals in the bimetallic strip expand to different volumes, causing the needle to move across the gauge.

Engine warning light Digital display Digital data, such as trip mileage and outside temperature, are received from on-board computers.

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This light can indicate problems with the exhaust or electrical system or be triggered by various sensors in the engine.

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© Illustration by Adam Markiewicz; Thinkstock; Getty; Shutterstock

Gearing up

The fuel gauge

TRANSPORT

Tandem bikes How the drive systems of these two-seater bicycles make them faster than a normal push bike typical tandem bicycle has one frame, two wheels and two saddles, although some models have been designed to seat more than two riders. Both riders can pedal but the front rider controls the bike by steering, changing gear and braking. Tandems have long and complex drive mechanisms, with the drive chain turning the wheels and the timing chain keeping the two riders in sync. Crossover drive systems, with the drive and timing systems on either side of the frame, are common, as are single-side, with both chains on the same side.

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A tandem’s drive train How two cyclists peddling together in harmony can comfortably ride a tandem bike

Brakes Tandems have two types of brake. Drum brakes slow the bike down gradually on long descents, while disc breaks can quickly stop the tandem.

Crossover drive system This tandem has a crossover drive system and is set up with the timing chain on the left and the drive chain situated on the ri ht.

Out of phase Some tandem riders will purposely set their peddling up out of sync to avoid lag in between pedal strokes.

Crankset While the front crankset typically has one chainring, the rear crankset usually has many chainrings, often on both sides.

Timing chain Drive chain Drive chains on tandems wear out quickly as they have to contend with the impact of two people cycling rather than one.

“Both riders can pedal but the front rider controls the bike”

Russia’s new stealth aircraft can avoid rad r detection while cruising at supersonic sp eds he Sukhoi T-50 is a Russian twinengined, fifth-generation fighter that boasts some serious tech. Built to rival the US F-22 Raptor, F-35 Lightning II and the Chinese J-20, it will replace the long-standing MiG-29, which has been in active service since 1981. Its engines are so powerful that it will be able to cruise at supersonic speeds without the need for an afterburner. Its thrust vector jets allow the pilot to perform tight turns and manoeuvres. The T-50’s outer surface is made using carbon fibre composites and the engine is much quieter and energy-efficient than

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those on rival fighte jets. The T-50 is a com at machine that pac a punch. Its internally mo nted cannon one of the lighte t in its class, but can fire incendiary, agmentation or armourpiercing round to destroy armoured vehicles m ured targets. It is also the first and other arm Russian fight to incorporate stealt technology nd can remain cloaked to eva enemy rad r. The plane will go into mass late 2017 and is expected to be productio n military t introduced into the following year. .HOWITWORKSD

© WIKI; Thinkstock; Illustration by Jo Smolaga

The timing chain keeps the cranks in sync. When ‘in phase’ both riders have to pedal at the same time. If one needs a rest, the other has to stop.

DID YOU KNOW? JetSurf’s most basic model, the Ultra Sport, is available to buy online for around £8,000 ($9,800)

How jetboards work Is this the future of surfing? Adrenaline junkies rejoice, the jet-powered surfboard is making waves s there anything more annoying than grabbing your board and wetsuit on a beautiful day and heading to the coast, just to arrive and see a flat, calm ocean? Instead of cursing yourself for not checking the surf report, check out the motorised variety of surfing craft. The WaveJet is a modular ‘pod’ designed to fit onto almost any surfboard, kayak or stand-up paddle board. It’s battery-powered, rechargeable and operated by an accompanying watch unit. Allowing surfers to travel at around three-times faster than paddling, the WaveJet

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The JetSurf board The board that gives your surfing skills an extra boost, with no paddling required

Safety The hand control also acts as a kill-cord, shutting of the engine if the surfer falls off the board.

technology works much like the way a jet ski does, just downsized. Twin motors power two miniature water jets that suck in water and then expel it, creating enough thrust to get the rider into the line-up and ready to ride. A similar competitor is the JetSurf, which is an entire board unit (instead of WaveJet’s pod concept) that is designed to be much faster, reaching speeds of up to 58 kilometres per hour. Made of carbon fibre, the JetSurf boards are very light and portable, with bindings to keep the rider’s feet on the board. Initially designed for

racing on flat water, the JetBoards can also hold their own in the big ocean swell. The ‘hull’ is hydrodynamically designed and looks almost like a small speedboat instead of a surfboard. All of this is powered by a small combustion engine with a unique exhaust system that is the key to producing such high speeds that most (sensible) riders have taken to wearing motocross helmets while on the water.

Control Surfers use their body weight to steer, but a hand control attached to the front of the board controls the n ine’s throttle

The board is made from carbon fibre, making it light yet strong.

Speedy surf The Jetsurf can reach speeds of up to 58km/h and could cross the English Channel in less than 45 minutes.

Engine The Jetsurf is powered by a 100cc engine attached to the back of the board.

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© Shutterstock; WIKI; Alamy

Materials

History of motorised d surfboards The idea has been floating around since the 1930s, ng when a few intrepid individuals tinkered with puttin motors on surfboards. There are even a few examples of them being used by lifeguards. But it p wasn’t until the 1960s that the tech took a real step forward. While a few manufacturers put outboard motors on surfboards, the first jetboard wasn’t produced until 1965. Designed by aircraft engineers, it was created to get the surfer through the waves to save energy on paddling. The 1980s saw the invention of the PowerSki JetBoard, where the jet technology was perfected sso that the board was faster and more manoeuvrable.. A range of boards were developed that could function more like a jet ski – designed for use both on flat water and to catch waves. They were also made ng from lighter and more manageable materials, pavin the way for motorised surfboards today.

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SCIENCE ENT

Discover the mind-bending illusions that prove you shouldn’t always believe what you see or feel s you go about your daily life, your brain continuously perceives the world around you with the help of your senses. The constant stream of information it receives is overwhelming, so it regularly takes shortcuts to simplify what you see or feel and chooses the most likely interpretations. This helps it to concentrate on what’s important, rather than focusing on everything at once. The brain is also very good at predicting the future, helping it to compensate for the slight delay between you physically seeing or touching something and receiving and processing those signals from your eyes or limbs. However, these shortcuts

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and predictions also make it possible for your brain to be fooled. Humans have been discovering ways to trick the mind for millennia, with examples of optical illusions found in Stone Age cave paintings. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle noted that “our senses can be trusted but they can be easily fooled” with an illusion now referred to as the waterfall effect. While watching a waterfall he noticed that shifting his gaze from the moving water to the static rocks made the rocks appear to move in the opposite direction to the flow of water. Now known as ‘motion aftereffect’, it’s n neurons in caused by the wearing out of certain

the brain as they perceive motion. When you move to look at the rocks, competing neurons overcompensate for those that are worn out, creating the illusion of movement. Studying how the brain reacts to illusions has become much easier since Aristotle’s day. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows scientists to analyse the processes going on inside our heads as we experience certain images or situations, examining how the brain responds in real time. However, there is still a great deal more to be explored, as our responses y y to some illusions remain a mystery. The lens in your eye focuses light bouncing off an object on to the retina.

How we see Your eyeballs are your window to the world, enabling your brain to create colourful three-dimensional moving images of your surroundings in amazing detail. They work a bit like a camera, allowing light to enter through a lens, which then focuses it onto a kind of sensor called the retina. Your eyes can even zoom like a camera, as muscles help to flatten the lens to see distant objects, or thicken it to see things close-up. Once the light hits the retina, it is detected by light-sensitive cells called rods and cones. Rods are responsible for our

The human eye © Thinkstock; Getty; WIKI; Illustration by Art Agency

How do we turn waves of light into images of our surroundings?

sight in dark conditions, allowing us to see in n monochrome, while cones allow us to see colour and detail in brighter conditions. When the light hits them, chemicals in the rods and cones change, creating an electrical signal that is sent to the brain. Here the information from each eye is combined and compared so that an image off your surroundings can be accurately reconstructed with plenty of depth and contrast. This whole process takes about a hundredth of a second, enabling you to see the world almost in real time.

Wrong way up The light signals received by the retina are upside down.

Sending signals Light-sensitive cells in the retina convert the light signals into electrical signals.

To the brain The electrical signals travel down the optic nerve towards the brain

Nerves meet When the two optic nerves cross over, the signals from both eyes are combined.

Signals

Bendi The cur the eye the ligh

Light enters

Signals from the left side of both eyes travel to the left side of the brain and vice versa.

Brain power s.

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The brain translates the electrical signals into an image and flips it the ri ht way up.

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DID YOU KNOW? The Best Illusion of the Year contest has been running since 2005, and helps scientists identify new illusions

“Humans have been discovering ways of tricking the mind for millennia”

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SCIENCE ENT

Size illusions Discover how context can mask an object’s true size

© WIKI; Thinkstock

When you look at two objects next to each other, you are probably pretty confident in identifying whether they are the same size or if one is bigger than the other. However, there are certain optical illusions that prove you might not always get it right. That is because our brains often make judgements about the size of an object based on other objects that are nearby, and so can easily be fooled by context. Take, for example, the Ebbinghaus illusion on the top right of this page. Many would consider the orange circle on the right to be larger than the one on the left, but they are in fact both exactly the same size. The brain uses the blue circles to judge the orange circles’ size, and so because the blue circles on the left are larger, the left orange circle seems smaller in comparison. Context can also affect our brain’s depth perception, making objects seem nearer or further away than they really are. This in turn can influence how we perceive their size, as illustrated by the Ponzo illusion shown here. It’s this particular mind trick that makes the Moon appear bigger when it’s near the horizon.

The Ponzo illusion Which of the yellow lines is longer?

illustrates how context affects size perception

Brain fooled

Calculating size

The brain overcompensates and makes the top line appear longer.

The brain reasons that the distant object must be longer in order for it to appear the same size as the near object.

In the distance The converging parallel lines trick the brain into believing that the top line is further away.

In reality The two yellow lin n nes are actually both the t same length.

Screen flicker

Contrast illusions

If an LCD screen is filmed with a video camera, the screen often appears to flicker. This is because the screen is actually flickering in real life, and it’s our eyes that are being fooled into seeing a continuous image. When a camera captures a scene, it takes a series of rapid shots and stitches them together to create a moving image. Therefore, if its frame rate does not match that of the screen it is filming, it picks up the flickering. Our eyes, on the other hand, are constantly sending information to our brains, and so hang onto an afterimage of the light from the screen in order to fill in the gaps caused by th the fli flickeri db k ring. ing.

As well as altering how we perceive an object’s size, context can also affect how we perceive itss e colour. In this image, all of the green squares are exactly the same shade, but the ones on the left appear darker than those on the right. This is because the green squares on the left are on a lighter background, creating more contrast and so making them appear darker in comparison to their surroundings. This simultaneous contrast illusion is believed to be caused by the way the retina’s light-sensitive cells process two different colours next to each other. When the light reflected from a brighter background hits one of

LCD screens rapidly switch their power on and off in order to regulate their brightness

The green squares on the yellow background appear darker than those on the blue background

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In this contrast illusion, squares A and B are actually the same shade of grey

these cells, any adjacent cells are inhibited from firing off signals. This causes the light reflected from the green squares on the left to activate a stronger signal, making them appear darker.

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DID YOU KNOW? A square made up of vertical lines appears to be shorter and wider than a square made up of horizontal lines

“Our brains can easily be fooled by context”

Motion illusions How can your brain be tricked into thinking a still image is moving? When you focus on one small section of this image, you probably just see a stationary pattern, but when you look at the image as a whole, it appears to pulse and come alive. This peripheral drift illusion is a result of the way we perceive light and dark, as well as the rapid movements of our eyes. The combination of light and dark coloured segments in the image overwhelms the brain, tricking its motion sensitive areas into responding as they would to real motion. Because our brains are able to perceive lighter colours more quickly than darker colours, the pattern appears to move in the direction of the lighter shades in the middle. This effect is further fuelled by fast and undetectable eye movements called saccades. Every time your eye makes one of these tiny movements, the image sent to the retina is refreshed, overwhelming it all over again. If you stop the saccades, the brain is given time to adapt, and the illusion of motion fades.

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How It Works | 039

SCIENCE ENT Horizontal lines on clothing affect how our eyes view people’s body shape

Tricking your body

rror therapy The ability to fool the brain into experiencing T ownership of a fake body part is proving useful o ffor helping patients with phantom limb pain – the feeling of pain in an amputated or paralysed limb. By placing the affected limb p behind a mirror and then moving the opposite, b unaffected limb in front of the mirror, the brain u can be tricked into thinking the reflection is a c rreal moving body part. This enables the patient tto mentally move their phantom limb, perhaps unclenching it from a painful position to u provide relief. The illusion works because the p brain prioritises visual feedback over tactile b feedback and so the observation of movement still manages to stimulate the processes in the brain involved in real movement.

Fooling your brain can help reduce physical pain and even create pain when there is none

Rubber hand illusion Trick your mind into believing that a fake hand is your own Believe your eyes The brain prioritises visual input over tactile input, and so believes the hand it can see is yours.

1 Hide your hand

Place an open book on the table in front of you, then sit with one hand underneath the book so that you cannot see it. Put the rubber hand in front of you so that it is lined up with your shoulder. Covering your arm and the ‘arm’ of the fake hand with a cloth will help the illusion.

Mirror therapy tricks the brain into thinking a reflected limb is real

2 Start stroking

Get a friend to stroke the middle finger of your real hand and the middle finger of the fake hand at the same time. After one or two minutes you will start to feel like the fake hand is your own and that your real hand no longer exists.

Shrinking pain The brain’s tendency to prioritise visual input over tactile input makes it possible to manipulate the experience of pain. In a study conducted by researchers at Oxford University, participants suffering from chronic pain in their right arm were asked to move the limb while looking at it through a pair of binoculars. They were then asked to do the same again, but while looking through the other end of the binoculars. When presented with a magnified view of their arm, every participant reported experiencing an increase in pain, but when their arm looked smaller or further away, the pain, and even the swelling, increased significantly less. Exactly how this illusion works remains unclear. One theory is that magnifying the arm enhances the sense of touch, while another suggests that by ‘minifying’ the limb, the brain’s sense of ownership of it is reduced, thus desensitising it to the pain.

Limb disownment Electric impulses in the brain that control the movement of your hand weaken, making it feel like it is no longer there.

3 Inflict some pain

Get your friend to then hit the rubber hand with a hammer. You should feel a brief jolt of pain as your brain combines visual and physical information to create a feeling of ownership over the fake hand.

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Body illusions can be used to help amputees alleviate phantom limb pain

Binoculars have been proven to help reduce physical pain

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DID YOU KNOW? The rubber hand illusion is helping doctors study diseases with symptoms of body distortion, such as anorexia

The Pinocchio illusion Experience the feeling of having an extremely long nose. It’s no lie!

3 Hold noses Place one hand on your own nose, and the other on the nose of the person in front of you.

1 Wear a blindfold Sit in a chair and cover your eyes with a blindfold so that you cannot see.

2 Get an assistant Get a friend or family member to sit in a chair directly in front of you.

5 Which nose?

4 Start stroking

After a minute it should feel as though both hands are touching the same nose.

Gently stroke both noses at the same time with a similar motion. The rubber hand illusion can fool our brains into ‘adopting’ an additional, artificial limb as our own

Success rate Brain fooled With no visual input, the bra s the nos based on tou

A long nose Because your arm is stretched out, the brain reasons that your nose must be really long.

The Müller Lyer illusion features three arrows of the same length, but some appear longer than others

“The brain prioritises visual feedback over tactile feedback” WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

How It Works | 041

© WIKI; Thinkstock; Getty; Illustrations by Art Agency

This illusion works for over 50 per cent of people, so you might not feel any effect.

SCIENCE ENT

What is the funny bone?

Humerus This is the long bone in the arm that protects the ulnar nerve between the shoulder and elbow.

Discover why it hurts so much to bang your elbow

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Elbow anatomy What goes on inside your arm to create that funny bone feeling?

Biceps brachii Running between the shoulder and the elbow, its main purpose is flexing the forearm at the elbow.

Medial epicondyle A protrusion of the humerus bone that the ulnar nerve is sometimes pressed against, causing a shooting pain.

Cubital tunnel

Ulna This is the bone in your forearm that runs parallel to the radius and protects the ulnar nerve. Hitting your ulnar nerve sends a weird tingling feeling down your arm

Hand warmers Discover the chemical reactions that keep your fingers toasty in the cold hen you’re reaching for a heat pack that will thaw your frozen digits, there are two main types you can choose from. Disposable hand warmers use a reaction called oxidation – the same process that creates rust. When you remove the outer packaging, oxygen from the air seeps in through tiny holes in the pouch, oxidising the iron powder inside and generating heat. Salt is added to speed up the reaction, while carbon helps to spread the heat evenly, and vermiculite prevents it from escaping too quickly.

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042 | How It Works

Olecranon Ulnar nerve This string of sensitive fibres sends signals to and from the muscles in your arms and hands.

A bony protrusion where the radius and ulna bones meet the humerus bone.

The ulnar nerve passes through this small, 4mm-long channel at the elbow.

Hand warmers were originally created by Japanese inventor Niichi Matoba in 1923

Reusable hand warmers use a different – and reversible – chemical reaction. Inside the pouch is a small metal disc surrounded by a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate crystals dissolved in water. The liquid sodium acetate is able to hold onto the heat energy used to dissolve it, but when the metal disc is snapped it turns back into a solid and releases that heat to warm your hands. To reuse it, you just need to boil the pouch in water. This reverses the chemical reaction, dissolving the sodium acetate crystals back into a liquid solution. WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

© Illustration by Art A Agency ency / Barry Croucher; Thinkstock; Th kstock; SPL

hat unpleasant tingling feelin ng you get when you knock your ‘funny bone’ doesn’t actually come from a bone at all. Instead it stems from the ulnar nerve, which runs from your neck down to your hands. This nerve is mostly protected by layers of bone and muscle, but at the elbow it passes through the cubiital tunnel, where there is only skin for it u to hide behind. Therefore, when you hit your arm at just the wrong angle, he the nerve is compressed between th skin and a knob of bone called the da medial epicondyle, causing it to send shooting pain down your arm and in nto your fingers.

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SCIENCE ENT

Vitamins and minerals explained V

044 | How It Works

Milk, eggs, fortified cereals B2 is involved in releasing energy, and it’s also an antioxidant that helps to scavenge free radicals.

Vitamin B12

What are micronutrients, and where can you find them? itamins and minerals are essential nutrients. The body needs them to survive, but in much smaller amounts than nutrients like protein, carbohydrates and fats. The body is made of cells, which are essentially tiny molecular factories. They are surrounded by a fatty membrane, they use carbohydrates for fuel, and most of the molecules they produce come in the form of proteins. So, the body needs large amounts of fats, carbs and proteins to survive, but it also requires small quantities of micronutrients. Vitamins and minerals are used to produce crucial molecules like enzymes and hormones, which help the body to maintain its balance of fluids, to send short- and long-distance signals, and to strengthen and repair tissues. Vitamins are organic and made by other living organisms, while minerals are inorganic – most often metals – and are found in the soil. The human body cannot produce them by itself, so we need to take them in through our diets. There are two main types of vitamin, categorised according to how they dissolve. Fat soluble vitamins can be found in foods like oils, dairy products, eggs, liver and fish, and they are also stored in the fats inside the body. This helps to prevent deficiency, but it means that it is possible to overdose if you eat too much. In contrast, water soluble vitamins cannot be stored by the body. They are found in fruits, vegetables, grains and dairy products, and any excess is rapidly excreted in the urine. This makes it harder to overdose, but easier to become deficient. Luckily, a healthy, balanced diet is usually enough to ensure that you have the right mixture of vitamins and minerals to keep your body functioning normally.

Vitamin B2 aka riboflavin

Meat, fish, milk

Vitamin D Oily fish, red meat, made from sunshine This vitamin is important in maintaining the right amount of calcium and phosphate, critical for stron bones.

B12 is involved in healthy nerves and red blood cells, and helps the body process folic acid.

Vitamin B5 aka pantothenic acid Chicken, beef, potatoes B5 is used to make Coenzyme A, which breaks down fats and carbs.

Phosphorous Red meat, poultry, oats This mineral is found in every cell in the body, and it helps strengthen bones.

Zinc Meat, shellfish, wheat germ Zinc is important for making new cells and enzymes.

Vitamin A Eggs, cheese, oily fish

Vitamin B6 aka pyridoxine

Vitamin A is needed for the production of light-sensitive pigments in the eye. It’s also involved in immune function and skin health.

Pork, chicken, fish B6 is involved in the storage of energy, and in making red blood cells.

Vitamin C aka ascorbic acid Citrus fruits, strawberries, blackcurrants This vitamin is involved in the production of collagen, which supports the skin and other tissues.

Vitamin B3 aka niacin

Vitamin E

Liver, fish, wheat, sunflower seeds

Plant oils, nuts, seeds

B3 is involved in breaking carbohydrates down into the simple sugar glucose.

Vitamin E is an antioxidant that helps to neutralise free radicals. It’s important for skin, eyes and the immune system.

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DID YOU KNOW? The first ever clinical trial took place in 1754, and tested whether citrus fruits (vitamin C) could treat scurvy

Folic acid aka folate

Potassium

Molybdenum

Bananas, broccoli, pulses

Broccoli, sprouts, liver

Potassium works with sodium to pass signals along the nerve cells, helping the heart to function.

Nuts, cereals, peas, beans

Folic acid is involved in the development of the nervous system – crucial during pregnancy.

Vitamin B1 aka thiamin Fortified cereals, nuts and meats

Molybdenum helps enzymes involved with making and repairing genetic aterials

The first of eight B vitamins involved in breaking down fats and carbs to release energy.

Chromium Meat, whole grains, broccoli Chromium is involved in insulin signalling and maintaining blood sugar levels.

Copper Nuts, shellfish, offal This metal is involved in making blood cells.

Vitamin B7 aka biotin Eggs, nuts, whole grains This vitamin is essential for the metabolism of fat.

Selenium Brazil nuts, fish, meat Selenium is an ingredient in enzymes that help prevent cell damage.

Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables, cereals Vitamin K is crucial for blood clotting. It is a component of many of the clotting factors that help to stop bleeding after injury. It also plays a role in bone health

Manganese Tea, cereals, peas Manganese helps with clotting and is important in connective tissue and bone

Calcium Dairy products, green leafy vegetables, soya beans This is the most abundant mineral in the body. It is used to build strong bones, and is involved in the signals that contract and relax muscles.

Iodine Seafood, iodised table salt Iodine is vital for making thyroid hormones, which are responsible for regulating metabolism.

Sodium Table salt Salt contains sodium and chloride, both crucial for fluid balance, and sodium is vital for nerve signalling.

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Magnesium

Iron

Green leafy vegetables, brown rice, whole grains

Meat, beans, dark green leafy vegetables

This mineral helps the parathyroid glands produce hormones important for bone health.

Iron is a key component of haemoglobin – the red pigment that carries oxygen around the blood.

KEY: Vitamin Mineral How It Works | 045

SCIENCE ENT

Brain cells

How many cells?

Find out what’s really going on inside your head our brain is an incredible thing. It is one of the most complex structures in the known universe, and for decades, scientists have been teasing it apart to find out what it’s made of and how it works. The brain is an electrical and chemical circuit, and nerve cells, or neurons, are the components. They each have a cell body, which contains their genetic code, an axon to transmit electrical impulses, and dendrites to receive them. They are connected together at junctions known as synapses. When an impulse arrives, packets of molecules are released, passing the message on. Each neuron makes hundreds, or even thousands, of connections, producing the complicated patterns that drive human thought. There are hundreds of different types of neuron in the brain, categorised according to their unique structure and function, and more

Y

Under the microscope A closer look at the brain reveals a complex network of different cells

are being discovered all the time. But they can’t function on their own. They are supported by a network of glial cells – a name that literally means ‘glue’. There are three main types of glial cell. Oligodendrocytes have fatty branches, which they wrap around the conducting axons of nerve cells like the plastic coating on electrical wires. This provides insulation, preventing signals from getting crossed and speeding up their transmission along the chain. Microglia are part of the immune system and act like an in-house cleanup crew, tracking down pathogens and clearing debris from the brain. Then there’s the star-shaped astrocytes, which reach between nerve cells and blood vessels with their long, thin arms, shuttling nutrients, mopping up waste products, and even getting involved with chemical signalling.

Microglia

Oligodendrocyte

These are specialist immune cells, helping to keep the brain healthy and free from disease.

These cells provide insulation, wrapping fatty membranes around the neurons to speed up their electrical signals.

It’s hard to know exactly how many cells are in the brain. Individual neurons have long, thin axons and branching trees of dendrites that cross over with their neighbours, forming a tangled mass that is almost impossible to accurately examine. One of the most commonly quoted estimates is 100 billion neurons, with anywhere between three and ten times as many supporting glial cells, but the latest research suggests that these numbers are in fact wrong. Using a new technique for counting cells, scientists have come up with a different number. Each cell has one nucleus, and they can be stained up to make it easy to tell whether they belong to a neuron or a glial cell. Rather than count them under a microscope, the researchers popped the cells open and turned them into a ‘soup’ so that they could be quickly counted by machine. Using this technique, they revealed that there are closer to 86 billion neurons and about the same number of glial cells – far fewer than expected.

Neuron These are the nerve cells, responsible for transmitting and receiving the electrical and chemical signals in the brain.

Different parts of the brain contain different numbers of cells

Dendrite

Synapse

Astrocyte This microscope image shows astrocytes grabbing on to blood vessels with their ‘feet’

These star-shaped cells support the neurons, providing nutrients, clearing waste and contributing to signalling.

Axon This part of the neuron transmits electrical signals towards neighbouring cells.

Chemical signals are exchanged at these junctions, passing messages from one neuron to the next

© Thinkstock; Shutterstock

These branching processors receive thousands of incoming signals from other neurons.

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DID YOU KNOW? Felix Baumgartner wore a slimmed down version of a spacesuit on his 2012 ‘edge of space’ free fall

Pressure suits

The Model MC-3 pressure suit

t altitudes of 15,000 metres or more both oxygen and pressure levels decrease significantly. The air is so thin that if an aircraft cockpit is depressurised, a pressure suit is needed to survive. There are two types: partial and full. When depressurisation occurs, a partial pressure suit tightens as the capstans, or bladders, that are attached to the suit inflate. Both the sensation and the process are similar to how a cuff feels around your arm when a doctor measures blood pressure. The fabric around the thorax and the major muscle groups is constricted, creating counterpressure that prevents the body from swelling uncontrollably. Pilots can still breathe effectively and move their limbs freely as oxygen is provided through the helmet. It remains tight until the aircraft is able to descend safely to a lower altitude. Full pressure suits are made from fireresistant materials like Nomex. Rather than putting actual mechanical pressure on the body, these suits envelop a pilot in a layer of air. This is an artificial atmosphere that the pilot is able to breathe and function in. It’s like an air filled balloon surrounding the body. They have anti-g layers built into them, which neutralises the strain exerted on the body by fighter jet manoeuvres and space rocket launches. As this suit doesn’t directly pressurise the body, it can be worn for much longer, and some even have straws installed so pilots can eat and drink on long flights without taking off their helmet.

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Why is the water boiling?

Helmet The MA-2 helmet is made from a fibreglass shell and provides oxygen via a high-pressure hose.

Capstans In a depressurised environment, tubes called capstans inflate, tightening the suit to protect the wearer.

Atmospheric pressure

The main image (above) was taken during an experiment by the US Air Force in the 1950s as they were investigating the limits of human flight. It shows a man testing a partial pressure suit in a chamber designed to simulate an altitude of nearly 20,000 metres. But why is the water in the container boiling? This phenomena is a result of the fact that boiling point and atmospheric pressure are linked. A liquid will boil when its vapour pressure (the tendency of its molecules to escape the liquid’s surface to become a gas, which increases with temperature) is equal to atmospheric pressure. Therefore the lower the atmospheric pressure, the less energy (and so a lower temperature) is required for a liquid to boil. For example, water boils at 100 degrees Celsius at sea level, but if you were to climb to the top of Everest, you’d find that water boils at just below 70 degrees Celsius.

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Astronauts require fullpressure suits when conducting extravehicular activities (spacewalks)

Low pressure The chamber simulates the low atmospheric pressure of high altitude, so water boils at much lower temperatures (see boxout).

Vapour pressure

Normal conditions

Boiling point

Low pressure

At room temperature at sea level, water doesn’t boil because the vapour pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure.

At sea level, raising water temperature to 100°C increases its vapour pressure to equal atmospheric pressure, boiling it.

Under low pressure conditions, liquids boil at lower temperatures because less energy is required for the water to vapourise.

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© WIKI; NASA

How pressurised clothing enables pilots to soar high up into the atmosphere

A partial pressure suit donned by US Air Force pilots between 1946 and 1989

SCIENCE ENT

Elements, mixtures and compounds What are the differences between these configurations of atoms?

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A guide to how atoms make up elements, mixtures and compounds

Elements

Molecules Molecules are represented by two or more spheres joined together.

Atoms Atoms are represented by single spheres of the same size and colour.

Molecules of elements Molecules form when any two or more atoms join together. All compounds are molecules.

Mixtures

Atoms + atoms

Mixtures

Atoms + molecules

Compounds

Mixtures can consist of individual atoms, molecules and compounds, but they’re not chemically joined.

Molecules + molecules

Compounds Compounds form when at least two different elements join together. Not all molecules are compounds, as some molecules contain only a single element.

Molecules + compounds

“Substances in mixtures are not chemically bound together”

Limescale

Build-up Evaporated hard water leaves behind a calcium carbonate deposit.

Discover what causes limescale and how chemical descalers can remove it Limescale is a crusty, off-white deposit of calcium carbonate left behind by hard water, and mostly found in your kettle and boiler. Hard water contains an above average concentration of dissolved minerals, like calcium and magnesium ions. Limescale becomes an issue when hard water is heated or left to stand. When the moisture evaporates, the dissolved minerals solidify and turn to limescale, which is difficult to remove. A build-up of limescale in central heating pipes, washing machines and dishwashers can restrict water flow, making them less efficient and can even clog them up completely.

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Fortunately, there are ways to remove limescale. For example, ion exchange columns contain ion exchange resin in the form of beads. As water passes through the column, the calcium and magnesium ions in the water swap places with the ions in the column, gradually removing the unwanted minerals. Citric acid, sesquicarbonate and other compounds can also be found in water-softening agents, which prevent the calcium and magnesium ions from forming limescale deposits. Acids are used in most limescale removers because they react with limescale and produce soluble metal salts that can be washed away.

Limescale haven The warm drum of a washing machine can encourage limescale.

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©Thinkstock

ll matter is made of atoms – tiny particles that cannot be seen through the lense of a conventional microscope. Atoms make up the table of elements, and all elements are made up of the same parts: protons, neutrons and electrons. The atoms of a particular element are all the same as each other, as they all contain the same number of protons in their nuclei. A compound contains atoms of two or more different elements, which are chemically joined together. Water is a compound that contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A mixture is a substance consisting of different atoms, molecules or compounds that aren’t chemically joined. Air, for example, is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, argon and others.

How do they differ?

DID YOU KNOW? Before scientists began studying thermodynamics, it was believed a perpetual motion machine could be built

Heat transfer H E 60-SECO ND LOWDO N N GET TH T B T ETS F O HOW HEAT

Heat transfer in action Boiling a pan of water uses all three methods of heat transfer

Expansion

BACKGROUND

Conduction The free electrons in the metal pan transfer heat by bumping into molecules and setting them vibrating.

Convection As the water at the bottom of the pan heats up, the molecules move faster.

Infrared cameras reveal the thermal radiation emitted by different objects

Convection currents

IN BRIEF Conduction is the transfer of heat through solids by the movement of particles. Heat energy is transferred by movement, and if moving particles bash into each other, they pass some of their energy on. Metals are particularly good at conducting heat because they have free electrons that can move around inside, taking heat energy with them. Convection happens in fluids. When liquids and gasses are heated, the particles inside them move faster. This causes the warm fluid to expand and become less dense, rising above the colder fluid. As the colder fluid is heated, it expands and rises, and as the warm fluid cools, it contracts and falls, creating convection currents. All objects also emit infrared radiation. The higher the temperature, the more radiation is released. These electromagnetic waves can travel through a vacuum, allowing heat to be transferred even in space.

SUMMARY Heat is the transfer of energy by conduction or convection, which both involve particles, or by radiation, a process that involves electromagnetic waves, which are capable of travelling through a vacuum. WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

The cool water drops to the bottom of the pan, before being heated and rising to the top.

Radiation

Heat source

Infrared radiation from the flames travels through the air, colliding with the metal of the pan.

The combustion reaction in the fire converts chemical energy to thermal energy.

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS THER T IS THE SCIE EN N ERGY A I 1850 5 , IEN IS S RUDOLF CL S I OMSON, (BARON KELVIN,, T IT KELVIN IS NA ) TA T TE THE RST LAW OF THERMODYNAM CS, WHICH DES RIBES ENERGY CONSERVATION. ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR DESTROYED, BUT IT CAN TRAVEL FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER. IT CAN ALSO BE CONVERTED INTO OTHER TYPES OF ENERGY LIKE CHEMICAL, ELECTRICAL, LIGHT AND SOUND.

HE FI S L STA T TES THAT THE MO NT FE Y IN SYSTEM IS EQUAL TO THE HEAT TR R NSF MINUS T E WORK DONE. FOR EXAMPLE, IN A CAR ENGINE, A SPARK IGNITES PETROL G S, CONVERTING CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO THERMAL ENERGY AND CAUSING THE GAS TO EXPAND INSIDE A CLOSED CYLINDER. THIS PUSHES AGAINST A PISTON AND, AS THE PISTON MOVES, IT TURNS THE CRANKSHAFT. THE THERMAL ENERGY IS CONVERTED INTO KINETIC ENERGY TO MOVE THE CAR.

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© Thinkstock; WIKI/Elisa; Illustration by Jo Smolaga

Our universe is made up of matter and energy, and its countless particles are constantly in motion. You can measure this motion with a thermometer. The temperature tells you the average kinetic (movement) energy – the more the particles are moving, the higher the temperature will be. Heat is the transfer of this energy from one place to another. If an object feels warm, it’s because it is transferring energy to your body. This can happen in three ways: conduction, convection and radiation. This understanding of heat developed in the 1800s and overturned many now obsolete theories that were proposed before it.

The fast-moving water molecules get further apart and the heated water becomes less dense.

TECHNOLOGY

ll i w t a h t s t e g d a y g h t e l r a u e t h The fu u get fit and help yo echnology makes staying fit easier, there’s no doubt about it. Whether you wear a tracker on your wrist to monitor your heart rate and calorie burn, or use an app to track running or cycling sessions, there are clear benefits for tooling up before you work out. With fitness trackers still only in their infancy, and technologies like virtual reality and artificial intelligence quickly improving, the future of fitness gadgets will take these simple apps and trackers to a whole new level. First and foremost, the future of fitness will almost certainly revolve around data analysis.

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Yes, we can already hear you yawning, but bear with us. We already track our workouts to see how our fitness improves over time, whether it’s bike rides, gym sessions or marathons. Smartphone apps, which take advantage of the device’s GPS chip, as well as various accelerometers and gyroscopes, pick up all kinds of movements to give us a good idea of how well we’re performing. But there are plenty more trackers available, which can check our heart rates and analyse speed, along with many other stats. As measurements become more easily available our ability to examine our

fitness will improve. Soon we’ll be able to check out our muscle tone using devices like the Skulpt Scanner, which analyses 24 locations in the body to show you the fat percentage and rating of certain muscles. The device measures the quality of specific muscles using a method called composition myography. It effectively sends a small current through each muscle. Body fat and muscle affect this current in different ways, and the change is monitored by electrodes to provide a readout of your muscle’s condition. It will also soon be possible to accurately measure the amount of WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? The interface of the Vi is designed to be conversational, and the voice will speak naturally to encourage you

Inside the Vi headset

AI personal trainers With digital assistants like Siri, Cortana, and Google Assistant already in the devices we carry around with us every day, it was only a matter of time until fitness-focused AI gained momentum. Artificial personal trainers, like the Vi neckband, allow users to get personalised workouts, live data about their heart rate and pace, and high-quality audio all in one device. The voice of the Vi will push you to beat your personal best, tell you if you’re running a little slower than normal, and check whether you want to stop your workout when you get tired. The device learns more about you every day by tracking your workouts and measuring improvements. You can wear the neckband all day too, listening to music and making phone calls wirelessly when you’re not exercising. As this kind of technology becomes smaller and more portable, these smart workout assistants will only get better, but the Vi is a great start.

Take a look at the tech behind the smart workout assistant

Microphone The built-in microphone means you can speak to Vi ask it questions, and make phone calls.

Premium sound

Stay connected The antenna will connect to your smartphone, so your workouts will be saved

Sensing everything Sensors like a barometer and heart rate sensor built into the headphones will help record lots of data.

All-day battery Three buttons on the neck band will allow you to easily interact with the Vi when voice control isn’t possible.

The battery takes up one side of the neck band, and should last for around eight hours on a full char e.

connected gumshield can measure the impact of each collision, and links with an app to monitor users for head injuries. For those that play rugby or American football, tech like this could be a huge help in detecting injuries that might otherwise go unnoticed. There are approximately 3.8 million sports-related concussions per year, but many athletes do not report their symptoms, putting their health at risk. The company behind FitGuard hope their device will help solve this problem. As we work out more and more, the data we collect from these devices, and the others that

Measuring muscle tone is now as simple as holding a Skulpt to your skin

© Thinkstock; Vi Tech; Skulpt

Simple interface

body fat you burn when you exercise, and track your respiration. Samsung’s Body Compass 2.0 uses smart clothing, with six different types of sensor built into the clothes themselves to track these readings and provide you with feedback, letting you know if you’re exercising properly. It’s still very much a prototype, but with developments like these we could see similar smart clothing hitting the shelves very soon. People involved in more contact-heavy sports also have a brighter future thanks to devices intended to monitor – or protect against – injuries. One example is the FitGuard. This WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

The magnets at the end of the Vi allow the headphones to attach to the neckband, and the ends to clip together.

The headphones attached to the Vi are produced by Harmon Kardon, a high-end audio company.

The Vi sits around your neck, so you can wear it for long periods without it getting in the way

“The Vi learns more about you every day by tracking your workouts”

Magnetic

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TECHNOLOGY follow on from them, will be combined to form a complete picture of our bodies. What’s more, a full analysis of our workouts and health has far-reaching benefits. Doctors will be able to find out more about us and our bodies before we even go in for a check-up. And with problems being flagged immediately and relevant advice made available to you online, there may be less need for a doctor’s input. As healthcare becomes more personal and more available, health services will be put under less of a strain. But this data can be used for more than just health checks. As artificial intelligence improves, computers will get better at analysing your workouts, your body and your own goals, and will be able to create truly personalised workout regimes that you can follow without ever needing to pay for a personal trainer. These computers will be able to recommend exercises that improve on specific areas of your fitness, whether it’s fat burning or toning certain muscles in your body. As you start to work on them you will be able to see exactly how well you’re progressing over time. The computer will analyse your results and recommend more workouts, whether it’s to continue to improve in specific areas or to maintain your current form. In time, the tech needed to do this will also be built into the clothes we wear to exercise. Companies like Under Armour have created connected shoes, called SpeedForm Gemini 3 RE, which track your pace, stride and more. Soon these kinds of trackers will be built into workout shirts, shorts and other wearables like headphones and wristbands. The same sort of technology might well be built into our pyjamas too. It might sound strange, but getting a good night’s sleep is essential to living healthily, and improving your sleep can have big impacts on your body. You can already use trackers to monitor the duration and quality of your sleep, and as these sensors get smaller, cheaper and easier to wear they will become more commonplace. Of course, the workout doesn’t stop when you finish a session. New technology will also aid budding athletes in their recovery, improving circulation and relieving muscle pain caused by sprains and other injuries. Devices like these lready exist, such as the Quell, which stimulates nerves to make your brain release chemicals to dull the sensation of pain. This portable device can be strapped onto the upper calf, and over the course of weeks can duce discomfort from chronic pain or injuries. More intensive

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Staying fit with VR VR headsets might have a huge part to play in the future of fitness, allowing users to feel like they’re playing a game, while staying fit at the same time. When paired with a system like the Icaros, this ‘gameification’ of fitness becomes all the more exciting. This kit makes users feel like they’re flying, and as you lean in different directions your whole body will move around you. Paired with a VR headset, this experience feels even more real. But what makes the system so good is that it works out a number of muscles without you even realising. Balancing on the system requires a strong core, and after a few minutes on the Icaros you’ll soon start to feel the burn in your abs, shoulders and quads. Soon VR headsets may also be paired with smart treadmills that measure our speed and adapt their speed to match our movement.

Devices like the FitGuard can track collisions and help to alert players to injuries instantly

Flying with Icaros Find out how the Icaros system works and how it challenges your body

Personalised ride You can adjust the positions of the arm and leg rests to get the best and most comfortable ride for you.

Ab workout The Icaros system is expensive, but this kind of workout experience could be the future of fitness

Your abs and shoulders will take the most strain in the Icaros system, which should help tone them.

Play the game The VR experience is a flying game that tasks you with getting through rings, but there are others available.

The Gear

In control

The Icaros currently works with the Galaxy Gear VR headset, but HTC Vive support is coming soon.

The controller on the hand grip controls the game, and links to your smartphone to feedback every movement of the Icaros.

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DID YOU KNOW? The Icaros team have made their development kit available to others, so more apps will hopefully be coming soon

Fly away

Concentration

The Icaros, paired with the VR smartphone game, will make you feel like you actually are flying.

The Icaros system works out your brain as well as your abs, as you have to concentrate to play.

Reflexes As well as good balance, the system will help you improve your reflexes.

“Paired with a VR headset, this experience feels even more real” Specific muscles The system will require some physical effort to control, so your muscles will get a good workout.

© Fitguard; Alamy; Icaros

Balance is key Getting onto the Icaros properly may take some practice, but once you’re on, shifting your body weight will help you balance.

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TECHNOLOGY methods, such as those on offer from the XTreemPulse PureFlow, can aid recovery immediately after exercise. After wrapping the legs in specially-designed cuff the PureFlow system pumps air into the cuff compressing areas of t leg and increasing bloo flow, and therefore the flow of oxygen and nutrients, to the muscles that need it. The machine is large, and usually requires a technician to operate, meaning the PureFlow is certainly more of a specialist device, but soon the technology may be more portable and affordable, and more commonplace in gyms. Of course, all of these gadgets focus on helping individuals to improve their workout and their bodies. But there’s one hugely important aspect of fitness that will undoubtedly expand in the next few years – social fitness. As we become more connected to smart devices with all kinds of trackers, keeping fit may become more of a social experience. Some fitness apps already let you add friends and see their progress, and this will only increase as we access more metrics about ourselves. Exercise will innevitably turn into more of a competition, with workouts becoming a game that you’re playing against your friends. Who reduced their body fat by the most this month? Who improved their muscle tone more? Who ran further, cycled faster or bench-pressed more? Competition is great, especially when you’re trying to stay healthy, and apps and services will soon let fitness become about winning as well as working out. Other technology may take this ‘gamification’ of fitness even further. Virtual reality headsets worn while working out could turn your gym into a video game world, where you see your friends running next to you in real time. Workouts will become more social as you race against friends in the game world, or try and beat the time they set a few days ago. Alternatively, your movements in the workout may be turned into other actions in the game. The faster you run, for example, the faster your avatar will complete a certain mini-game ni game. Consoles like the Nintendo Switch h and PlayStation VR already have game es that have you moving in the real world, and this could simply be the next iteration of those typess of game. Many of these technologies are sstill in their infancy and must develop over the e next few years before they become availablle to consumers. But with so much fitne ess tech on the horizon, soon we will have h all the tools we need to get up and get fit.

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The gym of the future Take a look at how hi-tech gyms might be kitted out in the next few years

Biometric sign-in Signing into the gym, and logging into each machine, will be as simple as scanning your fingerprint or iris.

Interactive treadmills

Cryochambers

These treadmills will help running in the gym feel more fun, providing virtual worlds to immerse you in.

Three minutes in a cryochamber will be like 20 in an ice bath. Climb in and your recovery will be much faster.

Smart recommendations When you arrive at the gym, you’ll be able to get personalised workout suggestions based on your goals and history.

Smart shoes are already giving users useful information about their workouts

VR everywhere You’ll start to see VR headsets all over the gym as people use them to feel like they’re exercising outdoors.

Go fly New kinds of machines, like the Icaros, will help workouts feel more like video games, and make the gym more fun.

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DID YOU KNOW? A gym in Italy is already using connected machines, cloud-based exercise regimes and virtual personal trainers!

The PlayStation VR is already helping people get more active while having fun, and it’s just the start

Smart mirrors Weight lifters will use smart mirrors, with built-in screens and digital avatars, to see if their posture and movements are correct.

“Exercise equipment can capture the energy created by people working out” E i powered gyms Green energy is key to the survival of our planet, and every little helps. That’s why some gyms are setting up their exercise equipment to capture the energy created by people working out, and using it to cut down on their electricity bill. At the moment this is mainly used on elliptical machines, but there’s no real reason why the technology couldn’t also be used on cross-training, rowing and cycling machines in the future. The devices are set up with a power converter and all plug into a central power unit, which can then be used to power other parts of the gym. With exercise in gyms becoming more and more popular, this seems like a great way to cut down on a little energy consumption.

Holographic instructors

Smart sensors Sensors like the Vi headset will be everywhere to help you improve your fitness.

Charged up Many of the machines will be hooked up to the gym’s power grid, providing free energy for the building.

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Machiness that capture energy, like this SportsArrt G575U Cycle machine, might be the future of gyms

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© Underarmour; SportsArt Fitness; Sony; Illustration by Nicholas Forder

When doing stretches or yoga, holographic coaches will be able to show you the correct form.

TECHNOLOGY Batteries

Inside the latest MacBook Pro

One of the biggest challenges in thin laptops is fitting in powerful batteries, which is why these flat batteries take up so much space.

How does Apple’s new laptop actually work? pple took a big leap of faith with the new MacBook Pro. With competitor laptops increasingly using touch-screen displays that allow users to tap on the screen like a tablet, and in some cases detach the screen so it literally becomes one, Apple stuck to its guns. Rather than making the new MacBook’s display a touch-screen, the company instead decided to add a touch bar to the top of the laptop’s keyboard. This bar is really just a long, thin touch-screen, and can display all kinds of extra controls and shortcuts depending on what apps you’re using on-screen. Tap or drag across it and you can use these features without having to dig through menus to find the thing you need – it’s right at your fingertips. There are plenty of other improvements too. There’s a Touch ID sensor on the far right of the Touch Bar, which allows you to unlock or sign into your laptop with just your fingerprint. It also helps you purchase things online in seconds using Apple Pay. The trackpad below the keyboard is large and pressure sensitive. This means you can press more firmly to access different options. The trackpad itself uses tiny vibrations, called haptic feedback, to let you know when you’re clicking or pressing firmly. An upgraded Retina display provides some stunning images, with so many pixels packed in that you may forget you’re looking at a screen. The question is, how does Apple get so much tech into such a portable device?

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MacBook Pro teardown Take a look inside Apple’s latest smartbook

Speaker There are two speakers, one on each side of the keyboard. These both pump out sound, so that the laptop can produce stereo audio.

Fans The fans in Apple’s laptops are very smart. The blades of the fans are all spaced out slightly differently, which means that when they spin the whirring sound is quieter. The Touch Bar sits at the top of the laptop’s keyboard, in the place the function keys would normally be

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The Touch Bar

Haptic feedback

This thin strip is the Touch Bar, a long touch-screen, which can change its display depending on what you’re doing.

The small chips on the back of the trackpad control the touch-inputs, and also provide slight vibrations as feedback when you click.

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DID YOU KNOW? If you hold down the FN key, the Touch Bar reverts to a strip of 12 function keys

“Apple has added a Touch Bar to the top of the MacBook’s keyboard” Superfast ports The MacBook features four Thunderbolt ports. These tiny ports need adaptors for traditional USB connections, but offer a superfast connection.

SSD storage Four tiny chips on the motherboard provide the 256GB of storage for all your files and photos. They’re tiny considering what they do!

Motherboard This board is where all the important chips and other components are. On it you’ll find the processor, the Wi-Fi chip, Bluetooth module and uch ore

Apps like Photoshop and Microsoft Word have been updated to use the Touch Bar’s adaptable display

The MacBook’s competitors p

Microsoft Surface Book Microsoft’s Surface Book is a serious MacBook competitor, with powerful processors, a detachable touch-screen and a touch pen for drawing.

Heat sink This strip is normally attached to the motherboard, and helps to keep the MacBook’s main processor and graphics chip cool.

Le e

o

The touch trackpad The trackpad is massive – almost as big as an iPad mini – and the glass panel can track multiple fingers at the same time.

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The MacBook is really thin and light, especially considering the power it offers

HP Envy 13-ab009na It might ght not be as thin as the MacBook, MacBook but the th HP Envy 13-ab009na offers power, portability and touch-screen capabilities in an affordable package.

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© iFixit; Apple; HP; Lenovo; Microsoft

The flexible Lenovo Yoga 910 is designed with touch at the centre of the interface. The screen can rotate to create an easel-like setup, or fold back on itself.

TECHNOLOGY

File compression

Growing up among mine fields in Afghanistan inspired Massoud Hassani to design the drone

The clever process that makes it possible to share files online

S Minesweeper drones The flying machine that can locate and destroy landmines quickly and safely

T

en people every day are killed or injured by landmines, left behind after conflicts and forgotten. There are thought to be 100 million worldwide, which will take hundreds of years to clear using current technologies. But one man hopes to do it in ten. Afghan designer

Massoud Hassani has developed the Mine Kafon Drone, a flying robot that can map and destroy mines using its three different attachments. It is up to 20-times faster and 200-times cheaper than current methods, and more importantly keeps humans out of harm’s way.

Search and destroy The three-step mine removal process

Detonator

of the Mine Kafon Drone

Advantages The drone can hover safely over areas that would be too dangerous for demining personnel to check on foot

The detonators are about the size of a tennis ball and work on a timer.

ending and downloading a complete image, audio or video file over the internet takes a long time, not to mention the fact that it eats up your bandwidth, so they are usually compressed first to make them more manageable. There are two main types of file compression, and the first, lossless compression, can be illustrated using bricks, as shown in this visual analogy. It works by replacing any redundant data, such as repeated information, with instructions telling the computer how to reconstruct the original file, and is typically used for text documents or image files intended for high-quality printing. Lossy compression, on the other hand, simply removes the redundant information altogether, so the original file cannot be reconstructed. Audio files, for example, are commonly compressed this way into an MP3 format, with any sounds that humans can barely hear removed from the original recording. JPEG image files are also formed using this method, as they are intended to only be viewed on screen, not printed, and so a lot of the information can be removed. However, it’s important to remember that lossy compression cannot be reversed.

Lossless compression Find out how computers can compress and reconstruct files with this simple analogy

Before Before compression, each brick represents a piece of data contained within the file.

After

1

After compression, the same information is expressed in a compact form, giving instructions on how to recreate the original data.

Mapping

© Getty; Illustrations Adrian Mann

Using a 3D mapping system and GPS, the drone analyses the terrain, turning it into a grid.

Attachments The three different attachments can be easily swapped between each lap of the area.

2

Detecting

Hovering four centimetres above the mine, a metal detecting arm geotags its location.

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3

3 2 Destroying

A robotic arm places a detonator on each mine, which is then triggered remotely.

DID YOU KNOW? A South Korean vending machine gives out a free can of cola if it’s impressed by a customer’s dance moves

Vending machines

Forgeries and fakes

How these everyday devices dispense our favourite snacks and drinks

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Inside a vending machine How these machines collect your cash and deliver your chosen product

Modern vending machines can stock all kinds of items, including burgers, shoes and even gold ingots

save energy by only cooling popular items, or only cooling during certain periods of the day. Airtight doors prevent the cool air from being lost, keeping the products nicely chilled. A vending machine doesn’t simply sell just snacks anymore, and can provide almost everything from hamburgers to prescription medicine. There are even 3D printer vending machines designed to print out 3D models when c an SD card is inserted.

Some banknotes contain ink that fluoresces when exposed to a specific light in vending machines

Pay by card For those short of cash, many vending machines now accept payment from credit cards, contactless debit cards and smartphones.

Coin mechanism An electromagnetic field can judge the authenticity of coins, identifying what value they are and if they are the correct currency.

Metal spirals Products are held in place by spiral rings. A motor is controlled by the computer, which turns the coils when that product is chosen and the correct amount of money is inserted.

Detecting the fakes

Ce entral computer Dispenser A line of lasers and light sensors at the bottom of the dispenser let the computer know if the customer has received their product or not.

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Some machines assess the composition of coins from their thickness to the amount of ridges they have.

The e vending machine’s com mputer is located beh hind the keypad and read ds which combination the customer has pun nched in.

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© Thinkstock; Shutterstock; Illustration b Adrian Mann

vending machine has a simple premise: a customer inserts money and is given a product in return. The technology behind the machines, however, is much more complex. The first vending machine was invented by ancient Greek engineer Hero of Alexandria, who created a coin-operated appliance that distributed holy water. These innovative creations would become popular much later in the 19th century, when vending machines in London were engineered to sell postcards. A keypad is now a common way of choosing your preferred confectionary, but some of today’s vending machines use touchscreen technology instead. This gives the user more information about the product they are ordering when they part with their hard-earned cash. Some vending machines also have microchips that scan your smartphone to complete the transaction. The latest devices even have facial recognition built in so it can remember your past S orders if you’re a frequent user. Some can also

When banknotes or coins are inserted, a vending machine has to identify their value and whether they are legal tender or not. Notes move along a small treadmill and travel underneath an optical scanner, which can process the image for signatures of legitimate currency. Some notes are also printed with fluorescent or magnetic ink, which a scanner can also recognise. Simpler vending machines judge coins by measurements such as thickness, diameter and the number of ridges, but more advanced machines can use electromagnetism to identify different coins. Unaccepted or damaged notes are simply fed back to the customer, while fake or unreadable coins are dropped straight into the dispenser where change is given.

SPACE

CASS HUYGENS’ GRAND FINALE How this groundbreaking mission revealed the secrets of Saturn

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assini-Huygens is arguably the greatest mission humanity has ever sent into the cosmos. It has almost single-handedly revolutionised our knowledge of Saturn and its moons, providing vital clues in the search for life beyond Earth in the process. On 15 October 1997, Cassini-Huygens was lofted into space aboard a Titan IV-B rocket from Cape Canaveral in Florida. The primary spacecraft, NASA’s Cassini, was named after the 17th century Italian-French astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini, who discovered gaps in Saturn’s rings and four of its moons. Its companion, a small spacecraft built by the European Space Agency (ESA) named Huygens, which would attempt a daring landing on the

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moon Titan, was named for that moon’s discoverer, Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, also from the 17th century. Prior to Cassini, only three spacecraft had ever glimpsed Saturn up close. The first was Pioneer 11 in September 1979, which flew within 20,000 kilometres of the planet. It was followed by Voyager 1 in November 1980, and Voyager 2 in August 1981, both also flying past the gas giant. But no spacecraft had ever orbited Saturn. That all changed on 1 July 2004, when Cassini officially entered orbit to rapturous applause in mission control following a journey of 3.5 billion kilometres. On 24 December that year, it released the Huygens probe. Entering the atmosphere of Titan on 14 January 2005,

Huygens took measurements of Titan’s wind, atmosphere and more all the way to the surface, where it returned images before succumbing to the harsh environment. To this day, it remains the only landing in the outer Solar System. Cassini’s mission has been extended twice, during which time it has discovered bodies of liquid on Titan, jets of possible water spurting from Enceladus, irregularities in Saturn’s rings caused by small moonlets, and much more. This year, however, we will be saying goodbye to the Cassini mission. On 15 September 2017, the spacecraft will be sent to burn up in the atmosphere of Saturn as it’s running out of fuel. Right up to its very last moments, though, it will be returning stunning data to Earth. WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

s across, Cassini is the largest interplanetary s DID YOU KNOW? At 6.7 metres high and 4 metres

aft ever launched

LEARNED ss i as Some of the stunning discoveries Cass made in its 13 years of operations In 2010, Cassini was on hand to witness a remarkable storm encircle the entire planet of Saturn. It lasted for about a year and in the process shot plumes of gas high into the atmosphere of the planet. It also produced a 5,000-kilometre-wide vortex, sent jet streams across the planet and disrupted Saturn’s seasons. These planet-wide storms repeat roughly every 20 to 30 years, possibly kept quiet in between by vapour in Saturn’s atmosphere. Studying the rings of Saturn, Cassini has managed to glimpse how Saturn formed its 62 known moons. In 2013, it spotted an object at the outer edge of the rings that is thought to have grown within them, which will move away from the rings and eventually become a fully-fledged satellite. It also found giant vertical mounds of icy particles in the rings that towered up to four kilometres high. Cassini has observed dramatic seasonal changes in the atmosphere of Saturn, brought

Saturn’s magnetosphere

about by its long 30-year orbit around the Sun and the cooling effect of the shadow caused by its rings. The planet is able to quickly adjust to any changes of temperature by filling cold areas with warmer air. One particularly surprising finding was a large and long-lived hexagonal jet stream in the north pole, and two hurricane-like storms in the south. The eye of the northern storm is about 50-times larger than an average hurricane on Earth, although how these storms form is not entirely clear. Cassini also made an interesting discovery about Saturn’s magnetosphere, namely that it is fed by the moon Enceladus, although it is generated deep in the planet’s fluid interior. Saturn’s magnetic field is much weaker than Jupiter’s, but was thought to be linked to the rotation rate of Saturn. However, despite measurements from Cassini, scientists still aren’t sure exactly how fast Saturn rotates –

anywhere from about 10.6 to 10.8 hours. It m thing in Saturn’s atmosphere is be thatt so s ffe s the planet’s magnetic disrupting the effe et a etter idea as field, and scientists hope to get Cassini gets closer to Saturn this year.

Saturn has a mysterious hexagonal jet stream at its north pole

Donut A donut shape of dense neutral gas surrounds the rings of Saturn.

Ring current Saturn’s magnetic field traps energetic ions within a vast plasma sheet.

The huge magnetic field that surrounds this giant gas planet

Magnetotail Saturn’s magnetotail stretches many times the planet’s radius away from the Sun as it is blown by the solar wind.

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Magnetopause Plasma sheet The sheet of plasma that surrounds Saturn is blown back by the solar wind.

Behind the bow shock is the magnetopause, the boundary between the plasma in the solar wind and the magnetosphere.

Bow shock The point where the solar wind hits the magnetic field is called the bow shock. Outside of this region, the Sun’s magnetic forces dominate.

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© NASA/ JPL-Caltech; SPL

“Cassini travelled 3.5 billion kilometres to reach Saturn”

SPACE

Saturn’s moon Hyperion has a weird, sponge-like appearance

Cassini’s major discoveries regarding Saturn’s 62 known mo One of Cassini’s earliest discoveries concerned Titan. The atmosphere of this moon is so thick that we cannot see through it from Earth, but by bouncing radio waves off the ground, Cassini has painted a picture of what it looks like. Together with the Huygens lander, it found evidence of organics in the atmosphere and on the surface of Titan, which are the building blocks of life. Using its radar, it has also identified lakes and seas on the surface, composed of liquid hydrocarbons. This makes Titan the only place other than Earth known to have bodies of liquid on its surface. Cassini returned stunning images of the bizarre two-toned moon called Iapetus, one side of which is as black as tar, and the other as bright as snow. It was first theorised to have two colours back in the 17th century by Giovanni Cassini, but it was not until his namesake probe arrived that we got to look close-up. Thanks to the spacecraft, we now believe that the dark material is caused

by dust from other moons hitting Iapetus, coupled with ice migrating to the poles. Perhaps the most surprising discovery of all though were plumes of liquid ejecting from the south pole of the moon Enceladus. Further studies led to the prediction that Enceladus must have a vast ocean of water beneath its surface, which may provide a habitable environment for life. Hot spots from the ocean cause the jets to escape, and Cassini has flown through them a couple of times to sample them. The moon appears to be geologically active, with ‘tiger stripes’, or cracks, running across its surface. Cassini has also provided fascinating information on a number of other Saturnian moons. It discovered that the sponge-like moon Hyperion builds up a static charge, the only moon other than Earth’s known to do so. Dione and Rhea, meanwhile, were found to have extremely thin atmospheres, about 5 trillion

Huygens on Titan

times less dense than t atmo ph he att ound he level on Earth. Mimas, nicknamed the Death Star moon for the large defining crater on its surface, may have a small underground ocean like Enceladus. Cassini also found several more rings. small moons hiding in Saturn Saturn’ss rings

You can track Casssini’s final orbits live on the NASA website

Drogue parachute At an altitude of 125km, Huygens jettisoned its main parachute and used its drogue parachute to descend safely to the surface.

How this probe performed the first landing in the outer Solar System

Atmosphere During descent, Huygens used its gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer to start sampling the atmosphere.

Lamp Once on the surface, Huygens turned on a lamp to illuminate and image the round around it.

Entry On 14 January 2005, Huygens entered the atmosphere at an altitude of 1,270km above the surface.

Slowed by its parachutes, Huygens landed on Titan at a speed of about 6m/s.

Heat shield 42 seconds later, Huygens jettisoned its front heat shield and started gathering data about Titan.

Parachute

Panorama

About 180km above the surface, travelling at a speed of 400m/s, Huygens deployed its pilot parachute, followed by its main parachute.

The descent imager/ spectral radiometer then captured the first panorama of Titan, and took images all the way down.

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Landing

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DID YOU KNOW? Cassini only had 1/30th of the fuel needed to complete its mission, so it used Titan to shape its orbit

This Great White Spot storm was seen encircling Saturn in 2011

Enceladus’ ocean Cassini revealed this moon has a vast amount of water under its icy surface

Saturn’s magnetic field can create powerful aurorae at its poles

Ice shell The icy surface of Enceladus is thought to be about 30 to 40km thick.

Plumes Jets of material from the ocean shoot out at about 1,300km/h and extend hundreds of kilometres into space.

Ocean

Hot spots The plumes may be the result of hotspots or hydrothermal vents blasting material up through cracks in the surface.

Beneath the icy shell, the ocean may be as thick as 10km based on gravity data from Cassini.

Cassini has used radio waves to map the surface of Titan

At the bottom of the ocean is the rocky core of Enceladus, which may be heated by being pushed and pulled by Saturn’s gravity during its orbit.

“Perhaps the most surprising discovery of all were plumes of liquid ejecting from Enceladus” WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

Tiger stripes Cracks on the surface known as tiger stripes may be the result of the hot water interacting with the icy shell.

© ESA/D Ducros; ESA; NASA/JPL/SSI/ University of Arizona, University of Leicester

Rocky core

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SPACE

Inside Cassini The instruments that have helped this spacecraft explore Saturn

Radar The Cassini radar uses radio waves to map the height of surface features on moons, and also mapped the surface of Titan.

Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer The VIMS has been used to measure the chemical compositions of the surfaces and atmospheres of the rings and moons of Saturn.

Radio Science Subsystem Interestingly, the RSS was intended to find gravitational waves beyond the Solar System, but has found none so far.

Antenna Cassini uses its high-gain antenna to communicate with Earth and send data and images home.

Cassini by numbers Stats and facts about this pioneering spacecraft

7 YEARS How long it took for Cassini to reach Saturn

3.5BN KM

The distance Cassini travelled to reach Saturn

85 MINS It takes nearly 1.5 hours to send or receive a signal from Cassini

Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) These two cameras have been used to capture some stunning wide-angle and detailed images of Saturn and its moons.

Magnetometer This instrument studies the magnetic field of Saturn, and sees how it interacts with the solar wind and the moons.

10 Number of new moons found by Cassini

$3.27

Radio and Plasma Wave Spectrometer The RPWS has measured plasma waves near Saturn, generated either by the Sun or by the planet itself.

BILLION The total cost of the Cassini space mission

379,300 Cassini has taken almost 400,000 images as of 2016

27

Cosmic Dust Analyzer The CDA is used to study ice and dust grains found near Saturn

Number of nations involved in the mission

RTGs

Huygens probe

The spacecraft has three Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) to supply it with power.

The ESA’s Huygens probe detached from Cassini on 24 December 2004. It successfully coasted to Titan and landed 21 days later.

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Composite Infrared Spectrometer The CIRS is used to measure infrared energy from the surface and atmospheres of the moons, and from Saturn’s rings and its atmos here.

3,616 Science papers published on Cassini data as of 2016

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DID YOU KNOW? Cassini will have completed a remarkable 293 orbits of Saturn by the time its mission ends in late 2017

THE FINAL MISSION Soon we’ll be saying goodbye to the Cassini spacecraft They say all good things must end. For this mission, it may be one of the most bittersweet endings of all. On 15 September 2017, Cassini will be purposefully sent into the atmosphere of Saturn to destroy the spacecraft as it begins to run out of fuel. It will have spent almost 20 years in space, and returned a huge amount of scientific data in the process. Starting on 22 April, Cassini will begin a series of 22 orbits that take it between the planet and the inner edge of the rings, each taking six days. These orbits will give Cassini a closer look at Saturn than ever before, with some of the science including studying the interior of the planet, measuring the amount of material in the rings and even sampling them. We’ll also, of course, be getting some rather stunning images of Saturn’s rings and the planet itself up close. It will be the closest any spacecraft has ever come to the gas giant. Prior to this, Cassini is performing a series of ring-grazing orbits, where it is passing through the outer edges of the rings. It began these in December 2016 and is continuing up until the grand finale begins. In both phases, there will be multiple flybys of some of the moons too, including Titan, so expect some more images.

One of the major reasons for ending the spacecraft with its destruction is to prevent it from contaminating one of the moons like Titan or Enceladus with Earth-based microbes, as the two may be potentially habitable. This has been done with spacecraft before to prevent similar situations occurring, such as the Galileo spacecraft around Jupiter in 2003. There will be some glorious science and images all the way down but, sadly, later this year we will be saying goodbye to what has been a truly groundbreaking mission. This will leave Saturn without a spacecraft in orbit for the first time since 2004, and at the moment it’s not quite clear when we’ll be returning. But the Cassini won forgotten. won’tt be forgotten

ABOVE Scientists work to assemble the Cassini spacecraft BELOW Cassini’s demise will bring to an end 13 years of exploration at Saturn

The end

Ring-grazing From December 2016 to April 2017, Cassini carries out 20 ring-grazing orbits that take it past the outer rings.

How Cassini will live out its final months at Saturn

Grand finale Close shave The gap between the rings and Saturn, where Cassini will fly, is just 400k wide

From April 2017, Cassini will begin 22 orbits between the inner edge of the rings and Saturn.

Science The grand finale could answer how long Saturn’s day is, and how old its rings are.

“Cassini will be purposefully sent into the atmosphere of Saturn” WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

On 15 September 2017, Cassini will be sent into Saturn and destroyed by the intense pressure.

Titan Cassini will use the moon Titan to reshape its orbit as it has limited fuel remaining.

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© Shutterstock; NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI

The mission ends

SPACE While both airglow and the Aurora Borealis are produced by the same oxygen molecules, they are different phenomena

Viewing airglow

The science behind the phenomena that causes the sky to glow in a rainbow of colours irglow is a photochemical reaction in the Earth’s atmosphere caused by electronically excited atoms, molecules and ions that react to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. When these components return to their normal state, they release energy in the form of visible and infrared light. What we see as a result of this is usually a green glow. Although the glow is present at all layers of the atmosphere, it’s only visible across a narrow band that is six to ten kilometres wide and around 85 to 95 kilometres high into the atmosphere. Below 85 kilometres, the atoms and molecules collide more readily as they’re more concentrated, so their energy is released sooner. Above 95 kilometres, the atmosphere’s density is too low for the atoms to collide enough.

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The three types of airglow – dayglow, twilightglow and nightglow – all form in different ways. Dayglow is produced when molecules in the daylight atmosphere absorb sunlight and gain excess energy. As they become excited they release the energy as light at the same or a slightly lower frequency as the light they absorbed, but we can’t see it because it is much dimmer than daylight. The difference with twilightglow is that only the upper atmosphere is lit by the Sun, so the light is visible to the naked eye because we and the rest of the atmosphere are in darkness. Since no sunlight shines on the nighttime atmosphere, nightglow is very different. As such, chemiluninescence is responsible for the glowing atmosphere after dark.

To try and capture this atmospheric spectacle, take a long-exposure photo of a clear night sky

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© SPL

Airglow

The best way to view airglow is from the International Space Station (ISS) when it is orbiting over the night side of Earth. From here, airglow will look like a thin band because the ISS is viewing the atmosphere at a shallow angle, so the airglow layer’s relative visibility is therefore increased. However, most of us don’t have access to the ISS, so how do we increase our chances of catching a glimpse of this phenomenon? The most effective way is to take a long-exposure photograph of a clear, dark night sky. As long as you aim your camera around ten to 20 degrees above the horizon at an area of sky that is free from light pollution, you should be able to capture airglow.

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SPACE

Space-based solar power Can we feasibly beam solar energy to Earth from space?

Beaming to Earth Receiver A receiving station on Earth, perhaps wires spread over a field, would harness the incomin beamed ener .

he idea of space-based solar power (SBSP) goes back to the mid-20th century, touted as a way to provide us with vast amounts of clean energy from space. Despite the promise of a better future, though, the technology has largely struggled to get off the ground. Solar panels on Earth are hampered by our atmosphere, which blocks about 30 per cent of the energy from sunlight reaching our planet. In space, however, solar panels have an unobstructed view of the Sun’s rays. SBSP would see satellites laden with solar cells placed high in orbit – perhaps geostationary orbit about 35,800 kilometres up – where they can stay over the same spot on Earth. Reflectors would be used to direct solar radiation onto solar panels, with the solar power converted into a microwave or laser and beamed back to collectors on Earth. Positioned here, a satellite can be in almost continuous sight of the Sun. Some estimates suggest solar cells in space could outperform their Earth-based counterparts by 40 times. But in order to power anything as large as a city you’d need enough reflectors to span about three kilometres in space, with a similarly sized collector on Earth. Several organisations have looked into the feasibility of SBSP, including NASA and the Japanese space agency, JAXA. But there are a number of issues, not least the cost of launching and assembling the satellites, and working out how to efficiently beam the power back to Earth. It’s an exciting idea that sounds like science fiction. For now, it may remain just that.

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How to collect solar energy and send it down from space

Beam Either a microwave or laser beam would be used to send the solar ener to Earth.

Drawbacks Despite the exciting potential of space-based solar power, there’s a reason we’re not living off it yet. For one thing, launching the large satellites required to collect this energy is hugely expensive. Estimates suggest a system to power a city with SBSP would cost in the tens of billions of dollars. Then there’s the issue of transmitting the energy to Earth. Our best microwave transmitters can only manage a few hundred meters so far, while laser transmission, although able to handle the distance, wouldn’t carry enough energy to be useful. SBSP certainly has its proponents. But other options like nuclear fusion might be more viable for our future energy needs.

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Geostationary In a geostationary orbit 35,800km up, the satellite would always be above the same location on the equator of Earth.

Launch costs in to space are still in the tens of millions of dollars

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DID YOU KNOW? In 2015, scientists in Japan managed to send 10 kilowatts of power over 500m using microwave transmission

Array

Reflector

An array could be used to direct the beam on Earth, so that the satellite can stay in the same position.

Mirrors could be used to bounce solar radiation into the cells and keep the satellite in one position.

“SBSP would see satellites laden with solar cells placed high in orbit” Transmitter Microwave or laser-based wireless power transmission could be used to send the energy to Earth.

In one second, our Sun produces as much energy as humankind has used in its entire history. While this radiates in all directions, what hits us here on Earth still amounts to a lot. At any one time we receive about 173,000 terawatts (trillions of watts) of energy, which is about 10,000 times more than our total energy use at any one time. Almost a third of this gets blocked by our atmosphere, and considering that 71 per cent of our planet is water, we can’t collect it all. But there’s a vast amount of energy there for us to harness, if we want it.

Converter Photovoltaic cells could be used to convert the incoming solar radiation into a transmittable form of energy.

Solar cells Solar panels on the satellite would collect the incoming solar radiation.

© NASA; SpaceX

Solar energy

The Sun’s energy could power all our electronics on Earth with ease

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SPACE

Dark matter and dark energy There’s still much we don’t know about our universe espite their similar names, dark energy and dark matter are separate – but they are equally mysterious. Dark energy is thought to be a force that causes the expansion of the universe to accelerate. In theory, gravity should cause the universe to decelerate and collapse, but that’s not the case. Dark energy is thought to make up 68 per cent of the universe and permeates through all of space. The only problem is we have no direct evidence for its existence – but many think it’s a viable possibility. Dark matter, on the other hand, is a type of unseen matter that we have indirect evidence for. Making up 27 per cent of the cosmos, we can predict it’s there based on the way galaxies rotate. Their outer stars travel just as fast as their inner stars, suggesting invisible halos of matter – dark matter – may be lurking at their edges.

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The future of the Solar System What will become of the Sun and the planets in a few billion years? t 4.6 billion years old, our Sun is about halfway through its lifetime. But, eventually, it will run out of fuel, and that might not be good news for us. As our Sun ages, it fuses its hydrogen into helium in a process called nuclear fusion. Once the hydrogen is gone, it will start fusing heavier and heavier elements, causing the star to expand as

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End of days How the Sun will determine the fate of our Solar System

its internal pressure builds. It will continue expanding into a red giant, eventually becoming so big that it swallows Mercury and Venus as it grows to about twice the Earth-Sun distance. And it could consume us too, unless we get pushed out further. But the Sun will boil our oceans away about one or two billion years from now as it gets hotter, so don’t worry too much.

Uranus and Neptune The bigger Sun will melt ice on the nus, but moons of Uranu Neptune will be largely unchanged.

The evidence Why we think dark energy and dark matter exist

Rotation Hidden dark matter could explain why galaxies rotate uniformly throughout their structure

Lenses Clumps of dark matter may also bend light from distant galaxies.

Jupiter and Saturn These two giant gas planets may swell slightly due to the effects of solar heating.

Mars Mars might survive; a bigger Sun could even make it habitable.

Earth Our planet will either be pushed further out into space by the Sun, or totally obliterated.

Venus Acceleration Observations of distant supernovae show the universe is expanding faster than before, perhaps due to dark energy.

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Redshift Light shifts toward the red end of the spectrum the further away a galaxy is, which suggests an expanding universe.

Sun In about 5 billion years the Sun will expand into a red giant 200 times its current size as it runs out of fuel.

The hottest planet, Venus, is also likely to face the chopping block.

Mercury The innermost planet, Mercury, is almost certain to be engulfed by the expanding Sun.

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DID YOU KNOW? Pluto was visited by the New Horizons spacecraft on 14 July 2015, which was launched in 2006

What are dwarf planets? How these diminutive worlds differ from their more expansive counterparts

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NASA’s Dawn spacecraft recently found evidence of organic material on Ceres, indicated by the red areas on the image

Meet the five celestial dwarves of our Solar System that have been discovered so far

Ceres Ceres is located in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and was first discovered in 1801. It is described as an ‘embryonic planet’ due to the gravitational pull from nearby Jupiter preventing it from gaining the mass required to complete its growth.

Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars

CERES

Jupiter

Pluto Originally designated as the ninth planet in the Solar System, Pluto was reclassified – controversially according to some – as a dwarf planet in 2006 due to its failing to meet the added criteria of being able to clear its own orbital path. In spite of its size, Pluto has five moons: Charon, Hydra, Nix, Kerberos and Styx.

Saturn

Uranus

Eris Named after the Greek goddess of discord and strife, the climate on Eris is aptly turbulent. Due to its distance from the Sun, its atmosphere often collapses and subsequently freezes. Moreover, its orbit is similarly erratic, crossing the path of Pluto and nearly intersecting with Neptune’s on an orbit of the Sun that takes Eris 557 years.

Neptune

PLUTO

HUAMEA

Makemake Discovered in 2005, it was Makemake – along with the uncovering of Eris two years before – that prompted the IAU to reconsider the classification of planets in the first place. This dwarf planet takes its name from the god of fertility in Rapanui mythology, which originated with the native people of Easter Island.

MAKEMAKE

ERIS

Haumea Haumea’s ellipsoid shape means that it only just meets dwarf planet criteria. Its unusual shape is due to the rapid rotational spin that it possesses. It is thought that this rotation is likely due to a collision, as Haumea is situated within the Kuiper Belt. © WIKII

s their name suggests, dwarf planets share a lot of similarities with what we would generally refer to as ‘planets’. For instance, they orbit the Sun, and possess enough mass to assume an approximate spherical shape. However, it is their differences that serve to draw a dividing line between them and what astronomers consider to be true planets. The most apparent observation is that dwarf planets are much smaller than conventional planets; even smaller than the size of Earth’s Moon (although they can have moons themselves). Their size also means that they are unable to clear their orbital path, as is the case with Pluto, which is restricted by both the orbit of its larger neighbour Neptune and assorted objects in the Kuiper Belt. The planets of the Solar System are able to clear a path around the Sun for their orbit, while dwarf planets are unable to do this. Currently, there are five recognised dwarf planets in our Solar System: Ceres, Eris, Makemake, Haumea and Pluto, which was controversially reclassified in 2006, having originally been recognised as the ninth planet in the Solar System. Distinguishing them even further is the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) designation of dwarf planets that orbit the Sun beyond Neptune as ‘plutoids‘, in honour of the former planet.

The big planets’ little siblings

Dwarf planet sizes shown relative to Earth’s Moon

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ENT HISTORY GY

the o t i r y ke a i r t s d l u e o who c attle-har n s r e t h g eth fi en the most b ev earts ou t history, many soldiers from acro t world have been contenders r ti of the deadliest warrior, but o really as t most formidable? It takes more than st s r strength or bloodlust to be considered legen ary fighter. st imp tant o all is weaponry; even the toughest sol er can e defeated in a one-on-one al by a ri l with s perior firepower. As the d adage es, don’t ing a knife to a gunfight, and the be fighters a e always equipped for the b, wheth it’s a huge tched battle or a covert eration. popular t ory as to why Custer’s men were t unced at L le Bighorn was the fact at the Sio warriors y have wielded superior rifl to the US A y. Just as es ntial as hav the right tools is using the ri t tactics. With a well-planned and iciently e cuted strategy, soldiers can outmanoe re and outthink numerically

How It

ger en my y. In I superior force or a physically s a hypothetical battle between a samurai u of ninja of Japan, for example, the use an underhand tactics could easily g e the n upper hand against a samurai bou to is moral code and obligated to fight w h hon . t Finally, a deadly warrior must hav th attitude and appetite to emerge victor us. Whether it’s to protect their homeland or s earn a wage as a mercenary, a fighter w he purpose is much more dangerous. During th Crusades, Christians and Muslims fought to a e to ake uphold their religious values and would ta o the battlefield again and again in the name of their faith. e n ern Ranging from ancient times to the mode a liest adl era, read on to learn about some of the dea n nt warriors in history. Any soldier would wan these legendary fighters standing by their side on the eve of battle.

W WWW.HOWITW

K

IL LY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? The Qin Dynasty saw the building of the first Great Wall, a standardised currency and state-linking roads

Helmet

CIRCA 476-206 BCE

Called a galea, the Roman helmet absorbed blows to the head and protected the side of the face.

Qin soldier The Qin Dynasty was a period of great progress for China. The new emperor Qin Shi Huang made a series of sweeping changes that unified the country and modernised its military. In came China’s first professional conscripted army, staffed by formidable soldiers and led by skilled generals. Qin soldiers used some of the most advanced weapons during the era, from sharp iron swords to powerful crossbows. Their role on the battlefield as shock infantry was supplemented by more heavily armed foot soldiers, as well as flanking cavalry and chariots. The warriors that battled on horseback were held in the saddle by a new invention, the stirrup, giving them greater balance than their adversaries. Some of their enemies were worthy foes, in particular, nomadic tribes from the north with mounted archers. But fuelled by a desire for conquest and loyalty to their emperor, the Qin often held their own in battle.

Notable battle… QIN’S WARS OF UNIFICATION 236-221 BCE Hairstyle A Qin soldier’s hairstyle denoted rank as well as his unit. Braids in a leather cap were a popular choice that didn’t obstruct the fighter in battle.

Ribbons The number of ribbons fastened to the chest plate was another way of indicating the soldier’s rank.

onze rd ri

words were ally made ronze, but e later lac with gh n.

WEAPONS OF CHOICE

Armour Light robes, padded trousers and iron-riveted armour allowed the wellprotected warriors to remain nimble.

CROSSBOW, BRONZE SWORD

Pilum A type of heavy javelin, the pilum had a strong tip and was weighted in such a way that it could pierce enemy armour.

PILUM, GLADIUS, PUGIO

Gladius Unsheathed after the pilum had been thrown, the gladius would be used in tight melees to thrust and stab the enemy.

Chain mail Even though Romans are often associated with lorica segmentata armour, legionaries also wore chain mail.

CIRCA 400 BCE-476 CE

Roman legionary One of the ancient world’s finest armies comprised dedicated, hardened soldiers The Roman legions were the finest fighting force on Earth for hundreds of years. Manned by well-drilled legionaries, they conquered most of Europe as well as parts of Africa and Asia Minor. At the height of Roman power, the primary tactic was to throw a spear called a pilum into the enemy masses. It would either impale them or stick in their shields, rendering them unusable. After this, the legionaries drew a short sword, called a gladius, and charged at their foes. Legionaries first wore chain mail but later changed to lorica segmentata. These overlapping metal strips were just as protective but allowed the soldiers to be more agile in combat. Despite being ferocious warriors in their own right, the prowess of the legionary was complemented by intelligent strategies. Formations like the testudo (tortoise) and siege weapons like the ballista could often be the difference on the battlefield and helped legions overwhelm opposing forces larger than their own. The Roman legions were also often better prepared than their enemy. Legionaries carried saws, rope, pickaxes, cooking pots and rations to set up camps deep into enemy territory. In the later days of the empire, Roman tactics and armour changed as auxiliary soldiers sourced from around the empire began to fill the ranks. Being a legionary was a well-respected career in the empire, and victorious generals were treated to celebratory processions on their return to Rome.

Notable battle… BATTLE OF PYDNA, 168 BCE

Sandals The Roman legionary marched in thick, heavy sandals that were stuffed with wool or fur in cold weather.

Scutum The iconic rectangular wooden shield protected the body and was glued carefully so it could interlink in the testudo formation.

Roman training

© WIKI; Mary Evans

The military that fought ruthlessly to unify China

WEAPONS OF CHOICE

The Terracotta Army is made up of ceramic versions of Qin soldiers. The statues were buried with the emperor in his tomb to accompany him in the afterlife

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Legionaries were trained to be superior to their enemies. To become part of the legion, the soldiers would be judged on their height, their eyesight and their physical fitness. Recruits were p taken on from the age of 18 and would be expected to march up g, to 30 kilometres a day. A huge emphasis was placed on training from battlefield formations to swordplay. In specialised training schools, legionaries fought with wooden swords and could lose rations if they did not perform well.

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ENT HISTORY GY Bascinet

8TH-11TH CENTURY

Viking raider These brutal warriors devastated coastal towns right across Europe Anglo-Saxon Britain was assaulted by a series of raids by Norsemen from Scandinavia. Pitching their longboats up on the shore, Vikings pillaged the local area before returning to their ships with valuable plunder. As time wore on, the attacks became more and more frequent and an area known as the Danelaw was established, encompassing northern and eastern England. Wealthy Vikings used doubleedged swords, but the majority of fighters carried axes or spears into battle. The Vikings didn’t have standardised tactics, giving them greater variety on the battlefield. Warriors called berserkers went into battle brandishing huge two-handed axes that they used to hew down anyone who got in their way. The Vikings had a rich appetite for battle as well as an upbringing based on the necessity of war. The longboat helped initiate rapid attacks that would strike an enemy before its forces could retaliate. These tactics helped them conquer not just parts of the British Isles but also territories in Spain, France and Russia. The emperor of the Byzantine city of Constantinople even had his own Norse bodyguards, the Varangian guard, who were some of the toughest mercenaries of the era.

The iconic fully enclosed Crusader helmet protected the face and the neck.

“The Pope promised that anyone who fought would be forgiven their sins”

From mail to plate Early Crusader knights wore chain mail, but this later changed to more durable and protective plate armour.

Broadsword The Crusaders’ swords weren’t always sharp – some were more effective as clubs rather than cutting instruments.

Kite shield The kite or tear shaped shield could be strapped on a Crusader’s back to carry on long journeys.

Notable battle… ATTACK ON LINDISFARNE 793 CE Ringed mail Chain mail coats were worn by some cheiftains into battle.

Weapon The most popular viking weapons were axes, swords and spears.

Iron dome Viking helmets did not have horns but they did have visors that helped protect the wearer’s face.

WEAPONS OF CHOICE BROADSWORD

11TH-13TH CENTURY

Crusader knight Clad in protective armour, these western knights fought in holy wars approved by the Pope

WEAPONS OF CHOICE SWORD, AXE, SPEAR

Keeping warm In cold temperatures on land and at sea, a thick under-tunic was worn below the armour.

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Round shield Circular shields were made of wood and iron and attached to the side of a longboat when travelling.

Between 1096 and 1272 there were a total of nine crusades to the Holy Land. The foot soldiers of these Christian armies fought to reclaim Muslim-controlled cities like Jerusalem, which they believed to be rightfully theirs. Pope Urban II initiated the First Crusade, promising that anyone who fought would be forgiven for their sins. The Crusaders’ iconic look was completed with a red cross emblazoned on a white surcoat. This was worn to identify each knight as a Christian as well as protecting the metal armour from the hot Sun. The knights fought both on horseback and on foot as the ownership of the Holy Land changed hands

between the Crusaders and the Saracens frequently. Many bloody battles were fought as huge losses mounted on both sides. Both forces still continued fighting undeterred though, fuelled by religious passion and an unwavering belief that they were dying in their god’s name.

Notable battles… SIEGES OF ANTIOCH (1097-1098), SIDON (1110) AND ACRE (1189-1191) WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? The Vikings may have been the first Europeans to land in the Americas, centuries before Columbus

Warriors of the Sun

1325-1521

Warriors wore a feathered headdress and wooden headgear that symbolised a bird’s open beak.

Aztec eagle warrior The warriors of the Sun who formed an elite fighting force

WEAPONS OF CHOICE MACUAHUITL, ATLATL

Protection

Prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, the Aztec Empire dominated vast areas of modern-day Mexico. One of the infantry types that helped maintain control were the eagle warriors. Along with jaguar warriors, they formed an elite unit of Aztec society that was renowned for its military prowess. To be part of the society, an Aztec had to prove their worth on the battlefield by capturing a set number of enemy soldiers to be used in sacrificial rituals. The aim of returning foes for sacrifice meant that most of the eagle warrior’s weapons were designed to wound, not kill. The Aztec society did not have the technology to smelt metal so they used the world around them to arm themselves. Rocks were collected as ammunition for slings, turkey feathers were used to fletch arrows and tunics were soaked in salt so they would crystallise and harden. Eagle warriors also carried unique weapons like the atlatl, a spear and dart throwing device, and the macuahuitls, a blunt wooden paddle with sharp glass blades protruding from it.

Notable battles… FALL OF TENOCHTITLÁN 1521, BATTLE OF OTUMBA 1520

The warriors wore a quilted cotton tunic and carried a brightly coloured, feathered, round leather shield called a chimalli.

Other weapons As well as spears, eagle warriors carried slings and bows tipped with either rock, bone or obsidian. Captive soldiers were often gruesomely sacrificed to the gods

Macuahuitls A favourite weapon was the macuahuitls, a wooden paddle with glass made from volcanic rock embedded in it.

Hidden identity Sneaky operations Ninjas were especially useful in sieges, infiltrating castles and distracting the surprised defenders.

Weaponry Ninjas were experts at using poison, and would add it to an enemy’s food or infuse their blades with it.

A life in the shadows

Dressed in black

Even though they carried swords and other weapons, ninjas only fought when absolutely necessary, preferring a silent kill or stealthily gathering secrets.

The archetypal ninja is dressed head to toe in black, but they would only wear this attire for when it was needed, such as covert operations at night.

WEAPONS OF CHOICE

Martial arts training

SHURIKEN, MANRIKIGUSARI, FUKIYA

Ninjas were trained in martial arts like jujitsu, so they were a dangerous foe even when unarmed.

Ninja tool kit

An array of weapons and accessories helped ensure ninjas always had a trick up their sleeves

Kakute

Shuriken

Fukiya

Similar to a knuckleduster, kakute were small, spiked iron rings worn around the fingers. They were an asset in hand-to-hand combat.

These throwing stars could quickly and secretly eliminate targets from distance. They were small enough to be hidden in clothing.

Blowpipes launched poison darts at enemies or sent secret messages to allies. They could also be used as breathing straws.

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10TH-17TH CE ENTURY

Ninja With stealth as a priority, ninjas struck silently from the shadows Among the most famous assassins in history, the ninja were dangerous adversaries in feudal Japan. Also known as shinobi, in folklore the ninja were first formed to fight back against oppression from the ruling class by a rogue samurai who went against the bushido code. They practised ninjutsu, the art of stealth, which taught special ninja combat skills and how to remain hidden. Ninjas were the opposite of the samurai, and rather than having codes based on honour like Bushido, they would happily covertly kill their enemies, an act considered immoral by the samurai. But this didn’t mean that the two were enemies, instead, the ninja were often employed to aid the samurai. Contrary to popular depictions, ninjas didn’t just wear black; they dressed to blend in, so they would just as likely be clad in civilian clothing to avoid detection. In combat, ninjas would use standard Japanese weapons of the era, but also wielded their own special equipment. The shuko was a small device used for traction when scaling walls and a tessen was an inconspicuous metal fan that could be used as a weapon. Ninja combat may not have been just reserved for men, either; tales of female ninjas, or kunoichi, described their dressing as servants or dancers to secretly infiltrate forts and compounds to get closer to a target.

Notable battles… NANBOKUCHO WARS 1331-1392, ONIN WAR 1467-1477 How It Works | 075

© Thinkstock

The secretive ninjas hid their identity whenever possible, so few ninjas from history are known by name.

ENT HISTORY GY Bow and arrow

14TH-19TH CENTURY

Ottoman janissary

The Sioux bow fired iron arrows over a short range and some were backed with animal tendons to provide extra power.

WEAPONS OF CHOICE BOW, ARQUEBUS, SWORD

War paint

The elite infantry of the Ottoman Empire For centuries the Ottoman Empire’s mighty army was led by janissaries. The first force was formed around 1380 by Christian prisoners captured after successful Ottoman campaigns in Europe. Aged between six and 14, they were taken from their homeland and bred for battle. After being drafted into the army, they became the property of the sultan and acted as his personal bodyguards. The janissaries were forced to observe strict rules and were trained to a high standard as disciplined and skilful warriors. As the sultan’s most trusted guards, the companies resided in barracks and were constantly drilled for a life of war. The janissary commander was called the agha and ranked above other commanders in the Ottoman military. Janissaries used swords and rifles as they moved quickly to overwhelm fortresses or to outflank cavalry. On the battlefield, janissaries were recognisable due to their distinctive headgear. They also fought at sea, using their rifles to fire at mariners on enemy ships. They gained a reputation as some of the best marksmen in the world, deploying devastating walls of fire. In peacetime they also served in Ottoman cities as policemen. At their peak in the early 19th century, there were over 100,000 janissaries and the Ottoman Empire represented one of the finest fighting forces in the world.

Notable battles…

A Sioux warrior’s face and body were covered in war paint, and bird feathers were worn in the warrior’s hair.

Tomahawk Before rifles were introduced by settlers, axes were used as both melee or projectile weapons.

Shield The small shield was made of animal skin or leather and could deflect enemy arrows.

SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 1453 BATTLE OF MOHÁCS 1526 Headgear Robe A felt robe was worn in place of armour. Lightweight and flexible, it allowed janissaries to move swiftly and engage in naval operations.

A janissary’s headgear was unique and designed to strike fear into enemies, who could recognise the formidable force from a distance.

Axe When fighting at close quarters, a janissary would swing their axe, hacking away at anyone that crossed their path.

Long robes were stuffed into breeches so they were out of the way both during marching and in the midst of battle.

BOW, SPEAR, AXE, RIFLE, COUP STICK

Native American warriors who preferred to count coups rather than draw blood

Primary weapon

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PRE-EUROPEAN COLONISATION-1890

Sioux warrior

Breeches

Starting off as archers, janissaries soon modernised and wielded arquebuses, becoming some of the most accurate marksmen in the world.

WEAPONS OF CHOICE

Secondary weapon With its curved blade the yatagan sword was useful on the battlefield as well as an enduring symbol of the janissary.

Unlike many of the other warriors on this list, the Sioux seldom fought in large numbers. They preferred to attack in small raiding parties that focused on stealing horses or avenging a fallen comrade rather than occupying territory. The Sioux, like other Native American tribes, did not believe in the ownership of land, but they did compete with rivals like the Crow for hunting and living space in the summer months. Both Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse were Sioux warriors, and it was any young man’s ambition to prove their status

within a tribe. In Sioux warrior societies it wasn’t considered heroic to die, and instead the ultimate show of courage was to touch an enemy with a coup stick. Enemies that were killed were scalped. This, the Sioux believed, prevented enemies from revisiting warriors in the afterlife, and scalps would be hung as spoils of war outside tips and on spears and shields.

Notable battle… BATTLE OF LITTLE BIGHORN 1876 WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

DID YOU KNOW? Janissary colonels were nicknamed ‘soup cooks’ due to their ladle insignia, a sign of loyalty to the sultan

PRE-EUROPEAN COLONISATION-19TH CENTURY

Zulu warrior

Headdress Zulu regiments wore distinguishing headdresses so their commanders could orchestrate battles from a distance.

Assegai Equipped with a sharp, pointed blade, this spear was used to stab enemies from behind a large shield.

The men who defied the European imperialists Zulus were divided up into regiments of hundreds or thousands of warriors called an ibutho. Younger unmarried men comprised the main fighting force, and to maximise their time in service, chiefs often didn’t let their troops marry until their mid-30’s. When a Zulu was married, they could choose to leave the ibutho and from then on were only required to fight in times of war. Shields were only issued in wartime; Zulus were not allowed to own one in peacetime to help quell potential civil war. Younger regiments tended to have darker shields while more experienced contingents defended themselves with lighter coloured versions. The shields themselves were used to knock enemies off balance before stabbing them with short spears. As well as being traditional, it helped Zulu leaders identify different units on the battlefield. There wasn’t a standing army and Zulu warriors returned to their homes between conflicts. The army didn’t have any sort of supply system and lived off the land. This made operations short but often decisive. The Zulus knew the lay of their land better than anyone, which made ambush attacks highly effective. Their prowess in battle enabled the Zulus to conquer rival tribes and made them more than a match for the invading Europeans .

Modern firearms As well as spears, Zulu warriors also wielded rifles that had been imported into Africa by settlers or taken from defeated foes.

Isihlangu A Zulu war shield was made from cowhide and when beaten with a spear, made a loud intimidating noise.

Stamina With no supply train or heavy armour, Zulu forces could cover over 30 kilometres in a day.

Cowhide

ASSEGAI, RIFLE

Notable battles… BATTLE OF ISANDLWANA 1879, BATTLE OF RORKE’S DRIFT 1879

Horns of the buffalo formation When the Zulus delivered a crushing defeat to the British at the Battle of Isandlwana in 1879, they had their tactics to thank. The formation was pioneered by Zulu king Shaka and involved a strong central core of warriors flanked by horns – two units of light troops. As the enemy moved to engage the strongest Zulu units in the centre, they would be flanked and encircled. This strategy was devastatingly effective against local tribes but was less successful against the British, especially at Rorke’s Drift, where concentrated rifle fire prevented the Zulus from getting in close. However, against the scattered British forces at Isandlwana, it led to an emphatic victory.

1815-PRESENT

Gurkha

King Shaka introduced new military tactics

ENEMY ZULU FLANKING FORCE – HORNS ZULU MAIN FORCE – HEAD ZULU RESERVE FORCES

The two flanking horns would pressure the enemy toward the main body of the Zulu force.

Battlefield courage Gurkha regiments universally wore this headgear during WWI for traditional reasons.

During World War I, Gurkhas were some of the finest soldiers on the side of the Allied powers. They travelled from their native Nepal to many theatres of the war, including the treacherous cliffs of Gallipoli and the blood-soaked fields of the Western Front. Time and again, the brave Gurkhas led assaults on key positions. Gurkhas were first enlisted by the British in 1815 and around 3,500 still serve the British Army. Almost 2,000 were awarded gallantry awards during The Great War and several have received the Victoria Cross. Their motto is ‘better to die than be a coward’.

WEAPONS OF CHOICE KUKRI

Loyal and fearless, they were a vital asset to Britain in WWI

Over 200,000 Gurkhas served as allies of the British in the two World Wars

Kukri A distinctive curved knife made of tempered steel, the kukri was a lethal weapon in practiced hands.

Notable battles… BATTLE OF LOOS 1915, GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN 1915-1916 WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

© Alamy; WIKI

WEAPONS OF CHOICE

The cowhide used to make the shields was made extra durable by drying it in the Sun, burying it under manure and then hitting it with rocks.

Weapon and tool n The kukri can o also be used to d chop food and d wood. An old d legend stated o that it had to d draw blood every time itt was drawn..

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ENT HISTORY GY

Swiss Army knives

The Roman multi-tool

The multifunctional pocketknife that has become an incredibly useful tool for soldiers and civilians alike he origins of the Swiss Army knife lie in the late 19th century. In the small village of Ibach, cutler Karl Elsener decided to create a foldable tool for his country’s armed forces. Its purpose was to help troops open canned rations, and disassemble and service their rifles. The first model was called the soldier knife, and when it was supplied to the army’s rank and file in October 1891 it was immediately popular. The original design contained a blade, a reamer hole punch, a can opener and a screwdriver; all tucked inside the handle until required. In addition to the original knife, an improved ‘Schweizer Offiziersmesser’, or Swiss Officer’s knife, was created. This version included two new tools – a small blade for scraping mistakes off documents and a corkscrew to open wine bottles. The knife was later sold to civilians and became popular with farmers and climbers.

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As the popularity of the device grew, so did the number of rivals attempting to make their own versions. In response, Elsener made sure that all of his authentic knives had the same symbol emblazoned upon them – a Swiss flag on a shield. By 1921 the knives were being made with stainless steel, which made it both stronger and n also easier to clean. Ten years later, the factory in which the knives were made was automated, which improved quality standards. The design was developed further with the addition of several more useful tools including a wood saw, nail file, toothpick, tweezers and scissors. The knives became even more popular after World War II when American soldiers brought them home. Replicas are now produced all over the world and it remains an incredibly useful alternative to carrying numerous different knives and tools. Over 15 million are made each year and there are now over 400 variants.

Evolution of the Swiss Army knife

Several decades ago, archaeologists working in the Mediterranean uncovered a device that bears a striking resemblance to a Swiss Army knife. The instrument was dated to between 200 and 300 CE and is believed to have originated in ancient Rome. The 15-centimetrelong silver tool is believed to have been used primarily as portable cutlery by travellers. Its foldaway equipment comprises a fork, spatula, spoon, knife and a spike that was used to pry snails out of their shell. It may also have been used to take out stones from horse’s hooves. As it was crafted from silver, not bronze, it’s thought that the utensil was a luxury item item, only available to the wealthiest in Roman society. Bronze knife and spoon tools were common, but this instrument is rare.

The tool looks remarkably like a modern-day Swiss Army knife and is currently housed in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge

Original tools

Aluminium alloy

The first Swiss Army knife included just four tools: a short blade, screwdriver, reamer and can opener.

In 1951, Swiss Army knives were made lighter by using an aluminium alloy rather than nickel or silver.

Since it was first distributed in 1891, the Swiss Army knife has been refined into a highly versatile modern multi-tool

Tradition

Casing The original Swiss Army knife had a wooden case. Metal and plastic casings are also used in today’s models.

The metal saw is made using a hardening process that gives it the strength needed to cut through tough materials.

Hi-tech additions Modern Swiss Army knives can include gadgets such as laser pointers, USB drives and even fingerprint scanners.

New tools Red handle Civilian Swiss Army knives were coloured red so they could be easily found if dropped in the snow.

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The current soldier knife includes 10 tools: a large blade, reamer, bottle opener, wire stripper, wood saw, can opener, key ring and three screwdrivers.

© The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 2017; Illustration by The Art Agecny/Nick Sellers

Swiss soldiers are still issued with Victorinox pocket knives; this latest iteration was introduced in 2008.

Saw

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Anning’s work helped change the views of many leading contemporary geologists and paleontologists

Mary Anning A trailblazer for palaeontology who excavated prehistoric fossils and helped broaden scientific study

A LIFE’S WORK Mary Anning’s life of fossil finding on the cliffs of Dorset

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orn into poverty on 21 May 1799, Mary Anning had to work hard from a young age. She didn’t have a formal education and was only taught to read at Sunday school. Raised in the seaside resort of Lyme Regis in Dorset, Mary and her older brother Joseph made a living selling ammonoid fossils to holidaymakers at their father’s waterfront stall. Her life changed in 1811 when Joseph noticed a skull embedded in rock. Curious, the siblings chipped away until an entire skeleton was uncovered. Unbeknown to them, this was the first ever discovery of an ichthyosaurus, a marine reptile from the Triassic period. There was a huge fanfare over the find, which only escalated when famous surgeon Everard Home wrote a scientific paper on the ichthyosaurus three years later. The fossil was found at an area now known as the Jurassic Coast, a part of Dorset that was underwater when dinosaurs roamed the Earth. The cliffs where Anning grew up were filled with fossils from the Jurassic period, and she would often scour the beach after storms when rocks had been eroded or dislodged by the weather. Anning noted down every find she made, and after failing to find any new fossils for over a year, in 1821 she made her next discovery, unearthing three more ichthyosaur skeletons. This was followed two years later by an even more impressive find – a complete plesiosaur skeleton. This was so extraordinary that many leading scientists declared it a fake, unwilling to believe that an uneducated 24-year-old could find such remarkable remains. Additionally, society at the time was highly religious and many rejected these discoveries as they conflicted with the teachings of the Bible. Despite the setback, Anning continued to make more startling revelations. She uncovered belemnoidea fossils, squid-like creatures that were among the first prehistoric animals discovered that had the ability to squirt ink. Anning also dug up fossilised faeces, which helped experts understand the diets of prehistoric creatures. But her biggest finding of all was the first complete skeleton of a pterosaur in 1828.

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1799

1811

1814

1819

1820

Mary Anning is born into poverty on 21 May in Lyme Regis in Dorset, England.

Her brother Joseph finds an ichthyosaur skull and Mary, aged 12, helps dig up the rest of the skeleton.

A scientific paper on the discovery is written and published by the famous surgeon Everard Home.

The skeleton is put on display at the British Museum in London, giving the Jurassic Coast national coverage.

After not finding any fossils for over a year, the Anning’s are forced to sell furniture to pay rent. Thomas Birch, a local naturalist, helps fund more digging.

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Five things to know about…

Groundbreaker The first complete pterosaur fossil discovery Mary Anning’s discovery of the pterosaur Dimorphodon macronyx was a turning point For the first time there was hard proof that many different species of flying reptile had existed in the prehistoric era. It lived 200 million years ago and had shorter wings and a larger head than previous species found in Germany. The fully intact skeleton provided scientists with a physical specimen to study Additionally, her finding of a squaloraja fossi helped bridge the gap between the evolutio of rays and sharks, decades before Darwin’s On The Origin Of Species was released.

MARY ANNING

of Germany and the first complete pterosaur fossil found

All of Mary Anning’s discoveries helped influence the study of palaeontology as scientists began to take an increased interest in fossilised animals and plants. Her work also prompted people to question the history of the Earth in more detail as well as encouraging girls and those from poorer backgrounds by proving that they could succeed in scientific study, a profession dominated by wealthy upper-class men. She died in her hometown in 1847 from breast cancer, aged just 47. A stained glass window in a local church was made in her memory and is still there today. Anning is thought to have inspired the ‘she sells sea shells on the sea shore’ tongue-twister

“The biggest finding of all was the first complete skeleton of a pterosaur in 1829”

1

She was immortalised in song

Mary Anning’s life was thought to be the inspiration for a song written in 1908, which included the tongue-twister ‘she sells sea shells on the sea shore’.

2

She could speak French

3

Two fish are named after her

Anning was a keen reader of the works of Georges Cuvier, a prominent French palaeontologist. To help understand his writing, she learned to read French herself.

In recognition for her achievements, Acrodus anningiae and Belenstomus anningiae are named in her honour. The two fish species were found by Louis Agaasiz, who visited the Jurassic Coast in 1834.

Anning’s unearthing of the Dimorphodon was the first pterosaur found outside of continental Europe

4

She was very nearly killed by lightning

A popular story claims Anning nearly died aged just 15 months. Caught in a sudden thunderstorm with her babysitter and two other children, a lightning strike killed the other three but somehow she survived.

5

Her discoveries were painted

1821

1823

1824

1828

2010

Three more fossilised ichthyosaurs are found, which are up to six metres in length.

Anning finds her biggest discovery yet in December – the complete skeleton of a plesiosaur.

Fossilised animal faeces are dug up, helping experts understand the diets of some prehistoric animals.

Anning finds the first ever pterosaur fossil outside of Germany. This is followed a year later by the first ever complete skeleton.

The Royal Society recognises her as one of ten British women who have made major contributions to the development of science.

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© WIKI/Kevin Walsh; Thinkstock

Anning helped put the Jurassic Coast on the map as a hotbed for prehistoric excavation

Geologist Henry De la Beche was inspired by Anning’s discoveries to paint a picture of what prehistoric life may have been like. The painting encouraged many people to speculate about the distant past.

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The Brown Bess musket The British Army’s weapon of choice against Napoleon’s Grande Armée and Washington’s revolutionaries he Long Land Pattern Flintlock Musket, or Brown Bess, is the longest serving firearm in the history of the British Army. This popular musket was wielded by British redcoats across the world and used during the American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. The Brown Bess was not famed for its firing rate or its accuracy, and was most useful at ranges of 50 metres or less. Rather than sharpshooting, the British tactic was to fire en masse, launching a deadly volley against the enemy. Alternatively, a bayonet could be fixed for a devastating infantry charge.

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Brown Bess muskets are sometimes credited as ‘the weapons that won Waterloo’

The famous British Army musket With its muzzle-loaded flintlock mechanism, the Brown Bess was a reliable all-rounder on the battlefield

1 Full-cocked

As the trigger is pulled, the flint strikes the steel frizzen at high speed. This creates a spark, which ignites the gunpowder, first in the pan and then in the barrel.

2 Half-cocked

The hammer is pulled back into the half-cocked position and the pan is covered by the frizzen. The gun is now loaded and ready to fire.

Ammunition The round musket balls were made from lead and weighed approximately 30 grams. They were loaded along with a small amount of gunpowder as part of a paper cartridge.

Smoothbore barrel The Brown Bess’ barrel didn’t have rifled grooves, which affected accuracy. It was particularly inaccurate over long distances and had a maximum effective range of around 100 metres.

Ramrod The musket was loaded from the muzzle. The ramrod was carried underneath the barrel and was used to push the ammunition into the bore.

3 Un-cocked

A small flint rock is held in place in a hammer next to a steel frizzen (the ‘L’ shaped piece of steel). A small amount of gunpowder is put into the pan.

The US Constitution fter victory in the American Revolutionary War, the newly formed United States of America was governed under the Articles of Confederation. Written during the war, it was fast becoming problematic and flawed. 12 of the 13 former colonies (Rhode Island declined to participate) selected representatives to help craft a new article. They were known as the Framers, and after much debate behind closed doors, the US Constitution was born. The document was signed on 17 September 1787 with 38 signatures, including many who had been Founding Fathers like Benjamin Franklin, James

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082 | How It Works

Madison and George Washington. The Constitution was officially approved in July 1789 and had a huge effect on politics as the government was divided into three branches: Executive (President), Legislative (Congress) and Judicial (Supreme Court). While it was being written, the Framers knew it wouldn’t be perfect, so it was designed to be revised. These alterations are the Amendments and there have been 27 so far, with the first ten compiled under the Bill of Rights, which was authorised in 1791. The US Constitution is both the oldest constitution and the shortest governing document in the world, and all US laws stem from it in some way.

The Constitution’s master copies are now held at the National Archives in Washington DC

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© Illustration by Adrian Mann; WIKI/Tony Hisgett

The iconic piece of parchment that became the supreme law of the land

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[email protected] The ruins of Reactor 4 at Chernobyl were covered by the New Safe Confinement structure in late 2016

Because enquiring minds need to know…

MEET THE EXPERTS Who’s answering your

questions this month? Laura Mears Laura studied biomedical science at King’s College London and has a master’s from Cambridge. She escaped the lab to pursue a career in science communication and also develops educational video games.

Alexandra Cheung Having earned degrees from the University of Nottingham and Imperial College London, Alex has worked at many prestigious institutions, including CERN, London’s Science Museum and the Institute of Physics.

Tom Lean Tom is a historian of science at the British Library where he works on oral history projects. He recently published his first book, Electronic Dreams: How 1980s Britain Learned To Love The Home Computer.

Sarah Bankes Sarah is the editor of Photoshop Creative, has a degree in English and has been a writer and editor for more than a decade. Fascinated by the world in which we live, she enjoys writing about anything from science and technology to history and nature.

Joanna Stass Having been a writer and editor for a number of years, How It Works alumnus Jo has picked up plenty of fascinating facts. She is particularly interested in natural world wonders, innovations in technology and adorable animals.

084 | How It Works

Is Chernobyl still radioactive? Marcus Lewis Q In 1986 a reactor explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power station released huge quantities of radioactive materials. Radioactivity decays over time, but much of the area around Chernobyl is still dangerously radioactive. It’s surrounded by a 2,600-squarekilometre exclusion zone, which isn’t expected to be

What did the Tudors eat? Kevin Watson QTudor England was generally selfsufficient, not needing to rely on imports People ate a lot of fresh food because storing food was difficult. Even peasants had small pieces of land, so the wealthy and poor kept animals, from chickens, pigs and cows, to ox, venison and wild boar. However, fish was always eaten on Fridays. Fruit and vegetables were plentiful, such as beans, carrots, peas, onions, apples, plums, pears, strawberries and cherries. Everyone ate bread and cheese, but the type of bread and cheese determined the class of a person. Expensive bread was made of white wheat flour, whereas cheap bread was a mixture of rye and wheat. SB

totally safe for human habitation for hundreds of years, although workers and tourists are allowed limited access. The actual reactor ruins, which lay sealed inside a giant concrete sarcophagus to stop radiation escaping, will be radioactive for thousands of years. As the sarcophagus is ageing, a new shield has recently been placed over the top. TL

The type of meat, bird or bread on a Tudor dinner table was indicative of class

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What are the ‘poles of cold’? Naomi Isles Q We’re all familiar with the poles of our planet - the northern and southernmost points according to the spin of the Earth and the position of its magnetic field. But, the Poles of Cold are a little different. These are the places with the coldest air temperatures ever recorded. In the northern hemisphere, the Pole of

Oymyakon in Siberia is the coldest inhabited place on Earth

Cold is found in the valley of Oymyakon in Siberia, Russia. The temperature there can fall to below -50 degrees Celsius on average in the winter, but in spite of the chill, it is inhabited all year round. It can be reached using the Kolyma Highway, or Road of Bones, named for the vast number of prisoners who died building it in the 1930s. LM

NASA grew this sunflower on the International Space Station

How are plants able to grow towards the Sun? Geoffrey Chang QExposure to sunlight is critical for plants because their entire source of sustenance comes from photosynthesis. Being able to find ‘up’ and grow towards it is crucial for their survival. Plants use light-sensitive molecules to detect the direction of the Sun, and produce a hormone called auxin to change the growth of their stems. The auxin is passed from cell to cell until it reaches the side of the stem furthest from the light source. Here, it stimulates growth, causing the stem to bend over and lean towards the Sun. They also use gravity to orientate themselves, and even without light, they will still grow upwards. LM

Why can we still see bright objects after shutting our eyes? Peter Reeves Q This is known as an afterimage, and is caused by the effects of the light on the cells in the back of your eye. Your eye detects light using specialised cells packed with sensitive pigments. You have rods, which detect light and dark, and cones, which transmit information about colour. If you look at a bright light for too long, the pigments become bleached, and the nerve cells become fatigued. It takes them a little while to recover, and while this is happening, the area of your eye that was exposed to the light cannot transmit any more signals. The effect is a negative imprint of the image in your vision. LM WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

Bright lights bleach the pigments at the back of the eye


   

  




 

FASCINATING

FACTS What is the fastest car in the world? The world’s fastest car is the jet-propelled Thrust SSC, which reached a speed of 1,227.985 kilometres per hour in 1997, breaking the sound barrier and the land speed record. JS

Why do we smile and why does smiling make us feel so happy? Cosmo MacLellan Q Smiling is one of the most basic of human expressions, and is thought to be related to the ‘silent bared teeth display’ in other primates. Opening the mouth to show off closed teeth is a nonthreatening signal of cooperation, and for us, it has become a reflex way to express happiness. There’s a difference between spontaneous smiles and forced smiles. Natural smiles are more symmetrical, and involve wrinkling at the

outer edges of the eyes. It’s difficult to ‘fake’ a smile convincingly, and people are normally able to distinguish between the two. However, even though people might be able to tell your smile isn’t natural, it is not wasted. Smiling at the right time is a social signal of cooperation, and can trigger a positive response in the people around you. It also affects your mood. Smiling is thought to have a feedback effect on the brain, making you feel happy. LM

Who invented email? Today’s email systems are built on many people’s inventions, but the first programme for sending electronic mail between computers was created in 1971 by Ray Tomlinson, who also put the @ sign into email addresses. TL

How do you define a dinosaur? Dinosaurs are formally defined as all the descendents of the last common ancestor of birds and triceratops. By this definition, modern birds are dinosaurs, but flying prehistoric reptiles like pterosaurs are not. SB

What is Area 51? Chelsea Barker QLocated 134 kilometres north of Las Vegas in the state of Nevada, Area 51 is a US military base that is off-limits to the general public and has been shrouded in secrecy for decades. This has led to it becoming the subject of many conspiracy theories, with some

086 | How It Works

speculating that it is actually a centre for research on aliens and UFOs. However, in 2013, the CIA publicly acknowledged the base, declassifying documents that revealed it to be a testing facility for experimental aircraft. It was first established in the 1950s to develop the U-2 spy plane. JS WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

BRAIN DUMP

Who invented music notation? XXXX XXXX

How do superfast cameras work? Phoebe Sims Q A superfast camera is an electronic device that uses a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) active pixel sensor. The sensor is so sensitive to light that it doesn’t need to be exposed to it for as long as it would need to be in a typical camera, and is therefore able to record a huge amount of light at a superfast speed. This means that the camera is capable of recording more than 1,000 frames per second into dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). It can th play the images back slowly SB then

Ellie Thomas Q Music notation evolved more than it was invented. Ancient civilisations wrote music on clay tablets as early as 2000 BCE, and in the centuries that followed many different notation systems developed around the world. The story of modern music notation begins with a book on music notation written by Italian monk Guido of Arezzo in about 1025 AD, but many other people have built on this to create the notation we have today. TL

What does ‘uncanny valley’ mean?

W When was the first ever Chinese dynasty founded?

Who won he s Nobel Prize and why?

Derek McKintock Q The first Chinese dynasty was likely the Xia Dynasty, but there is some disagreement in terms of exactly when it ruled. The traditional chronology, which is based on calculations by Xin Dynasty Chinese historian Liu Xin, states that the Xia ruled between 2205 and 1766 BCE. However, the chronicle of ancient China, Bamboo Annals, claims that it ruled between 1989 and 1558 BCE. The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project therefore concluded that the Xia existed between 2070 and 1600 BCE. The Xia Dynasty included the rule of 17 emperors, but Yu the Great was its first ruler and founder. SB

Reggie Doyle Q When he died, the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel left instructions that his vast wealth should provide annual prizes in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and peace, for individuals who “during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit to mankind”. So there were five first Nobel prizes, awarded in 1901 to: Wilhelm Röntgen, for discovering X-rays; Jacobus Henricus van ‘t Hoff, for discovering the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure; Emil Adolf von Behring, for developing a serum for diphtheria; Sully Prudhomme, for poetic composition; and, jointly, to peace activist Frédéric Passy and the founder of the Red Cross, Jean Henry Dunant. TL

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© Thinkstock; Shutterstock; WIKI

Robots that are near-perfect human replicas make us uneasy

m Keith The uncanny valley is a theory that xplains why people become uneasy about plicas of humans. For example, as robots ecome more human-like we become more omfortable around them, but there is a point which near-perfect replicas of humans ake us uncomfortable. Yet as they become ven more like us, our feelings towards them mprove again. The dip in emotional sponse is the uncanny valley. We’re not re why it happens, but it could be because most-human replicas subconsciously mind us of sickly people, which we have volved to avoid. TL

How It Works | 087

Why do squirrels twitch their tails? Anita Frink Q Squirrels have many uses for their tails. They act as a counterbalance to help them walk along narrow branches, as an umbrella to shield them from the rain, and as a fluffy blanket to keep them warm while they sleep. However, they also have an important part to play in communicating with other squirrels. Although squirrels can make a range of calls, their tails are their main method for sending signals. For example, if they sense danger nearby they will twitch their tail to warn others, or if they’re feeling aggressive they will fluff it up. JS Squirrels shiver their tails when approaching a member of the opposite sex

The Moon is responsible for the gradual lengthening of days on Earth

Why is the Earth’s rotation slowing down? Freddy Sinclair Q The ocean tides caused by the Moon are gradually slowing down our planet’s rotation. The Moon’s gravity creates a slight bulge on the ocean surface on the side of the Earth that is closest. This bulge in turn exerts a gravitational pull on the Moon. But as the Earth rotates faster than the Moon orbits it, the bulge moves forward in relation to the Moon. As a result, the Earth’s rotation slows slightly, giving a little bit of energy to the Moon. Every century, the length of a day on our planet grows by about two milliseconds. AC

Do magnets ever lose their strength?

Why do pigeons bow to each other? Carly Ledham QThe bowing motion between pigeons is part of their courtship ritual, which can take place at any time throughout the year. The male bird will puff up his neck feathers to make himself look bigger and more impressive. He will then quickly walk towards the hen, bowing and turning as he gets closer to her. He continues to bow and pirouette before mounting her. SB

088 | How It Works

Over time magnets lose their properties as their atoms are disturbed

Carrie Kendal Q Magnets get their magnetic properties from the alignment of their atoms, and can lose their magnetism if something causes these atoms to become misaligned. One way this can occur is if a magnet is heated – the resulting jostling of atoms can disturb their arrangement. Dropping certain magnetic steels can also knock their atoms out of alignment and lose their magnetism. Finally, applying a strong enough opposing magnetic field can also demagnetise a magnet. AC

FASCINATING FACTS How far out does the Sun’s atmosphere extend? Q The lower layers of the Sun’s atmosphere are roughly 2,400 kilometres thick. The outermost layer, the corona, has no real ‘edge’ since it has a very low density, stretching to several million kilometres. AC

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BRAIN DUMP

How do you decaffeinate coffee?

Hayley Todd Q Caterpillar tracks are commonly found on military tanks and other heavy machinery, helping them to spread their weight over a larger area to improve traction. They consist of a set of two or more wheels encased inside

metal track plates that act like a continuous conveyor belt. At the front and back of the vehicle, sprockets (a type of wheel with teeth that lock onto the track plates) are rotated by the engine. In turn they rotate the track, setting the vehicle in motion. JS

Why do some phone batteries suddenly explode? Rachel McIntyre Q Phone batteries have been known to explode when the battery’s terminals come into contact, creating a short circuit. A battery contains a positively charged and a negatively charged terminal, separated by an electrolyte. In lithium-ion batteries – the most efficient type – this electrolyte is flammable. Chemical reactions at each terminal create a flow of charged ions through the phone’s circuitry. But if the terminals come too close together as a result of damage or a defect, a current can flow directly between the two terminals. This can cause the flammable electrolyte to overheat, triggering a runaway reaction that can cause the phone to catch fire or explode. AC

Lucas Rathborn QThe most widespread decaffeination method strips caffeine from coffee beans using a solvent such as ethyl acetate (which can be derived from fruit and vegetables) or methylene chloride. First the beans are soaked in hot water to make the caffeine soluble, then the solvent is circulated through the beans to draw the caffeine out. The beans are then rinsed and steamed to remove any traces of the solvent. Repeating these steps removes up to 97 per cent of caffeine. Water processing uses a solution of green coffee bean extract, which is rich in flavour compounds, as a solvent. Caffeine is drawn into the solution and then filtered out by a bed of activated charcoal that has been treated to prevent flavour compounds from being absorbed. This process is repeated until over 98 per cent of the caffeine is removed. A final method uses compressed carbon dioxide to remove caffeine from beans. LM

No decaffeination method removes 100 per cent of the caffeine from coffee beans

Timothy Newton Q On a traditional manual gearbox, the gears are arranged so that first and second, third and fourth, and fifth and reverse are located across from each other. This makes it easy for the driver to switch between the most commonly used first and second gears. A dogleg gearbox is arranged slightly differently however, with reverse and first, second and third, and fourth and fifth positioned across from each other. This type of

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gearbox is typically used in race cars, as racing drivers rarely use first gear and so benefit more from being able to switch between second and third gear easily. The name dogleg comes from t more complicated method of switching betwee first and second on this type of gearbox, as the up-over-up movement required resembles the shape of a dog’s hind leg. In non-performance cars, the dogleg gearbox has been phased out in favour of six-speed gearboxes. JS

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What is a dogleg gearbox?

BOOK REVIEWS The latest releases for curious minds

Everything You Know About Science Is Wrong Digging into scientific facts to set the record straight Q Author: Matt Brown Q Publisher: Batsford Q Price: £9.99 (approx. $12.50) Q Release date: Out now

M

att Brown’s introduction to Everything You Know About Science Is Wrong is probably much more topical now than he could have ever predicted it would be when he wrote it. He opens his book by describing the difference between real, provable scientific facts and ‘pseudoscience’ – that is, facts that sound like they are probably scientifically accurate, but are actually misconceptions. In an era where terms like ‘alternative facts’ and ‘fake news’ are so commonly used, and where scientists are being told to stay silent, it is essential to check facts before taking any scientific statement at face value. As Brown goes onto explain, that’s excellent practice in all areas of science, and is exactly what this book does. Brown takes some common ‘facts’ that people think they know, such as ‘water is a good conductor of electricity’ and ‘astronauts float in zero gravity’, and explains why they aren’t strictly true. For example, Brown explains that astronauts appear to be floating, but that doesn’t mean they are in zero gravity. In fact, they are still feeling around 89 per cent of the gravity we feel on Earth, but because they’re hurtling around the planet at such fast speeds, they are really just ‘falling’ around the curve of the planet at the same speed as the space station around them. Interesting, right? With any book of this kind – where things you thought you knew are proven to be wrong – there’s a risk of the author making the reader feel stupid. Thankfully, Brown does a fantastic job of avoiding this by keeping his tone friendly and lighthearted. Humorous asides will raise smiles now and then, but mostly he simply does an excellent job of explaining complex science in an

090 | How It Works

understandable and non-patronising way, which all readers will appreciate. Admittedly, some of the ‘facts’ that he includes are weaker than others. For example, many readers will already know that the Great Wall of

China isn’t actually visible from space, and that humans aren’t the pinnacle of evolution. Thankfully, these are just small pauses in an otherwise entertaining and interesting read.

YOU MAY ALSO LIKE… Science: The Definitive Visual Guide Editor: Adam Hart-Davis Publisher: DK Price: £30 / $50 Release date: Out now If you want to investigate some of the theories in Brown’s work, this is a good place to start. It covers everything from Greek geometry to quantum physics.

101 Bets You Will Always Win Author: Richard Wiseman Publisher: Boxtree Price: £9.99 / $14.99 Release date: Out now Wiseman takes everyday objects and sets them up as bets with your friends that you will always win. This illuminating book then explains the fascinating science that explains how you do it!

Everything You Know About London Is Wrong Author: Matt Brown Publisher: Batsford Price: £9.99 / $14.95 Release date: Out now This book seeks to bust the common myths about the Big Smoke. If you enjoyed Brown’s writing in his science book, you’ll probably love this too.

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BOOK REVIEWS

30-Second Medicine Half-minute medical marvels

Megatech: Technology In 2050

Math Lab For Kids

Predicting the tech revolution

Maths, but not as you might know it

Q Author: Daniel Franklin Q Publisher: Economist Books Q Price: £15 / $18.99 Q Release date: Out now

Q Author: Rebecca Rapoport & JA Yoder Q Publisher: Quarto Q Price: £16.99 / $24.99 Q Release date: Out now

What will technology be like in 2050? Megatech has amassed the opinions of industry leaders, star academics and acclaimed science fiction writers to try and find out. A wide range of technologies are covered, from lab grown, cruelty-free meat to guided bullets and knitted cars. The fact that all the authors are from different backgrounds helps keep the book fresh. Overall, it’s a fascinating book that speculates what the future could have in store. The fact that every idea, no matter how awe-inspiring, is grounded in realism, makes this release a resounding success.

Maths isn’t just endless times tables and long division. There’s tons of interesting stuff that isn’t just to do with numbers. Math Lab For Kids introduces children to what it calls a “secret world of mathematics”, and encourages the reader to think like a mathematician. With more than 50 activities inside, there’s so much to do, whether it’s making prisms and pyramids or building your own toothpick puzzles. The book is intended to be dipped in and out of and not read cover to cover, and will appeal more to younger readers interested in the more practical side to maths.

Utterly Amazing Earth

A brilliant activity book k for budding inventors Q Author: Steve Martin Q Publisher: Ivy Press Q Price: £9.99 (approx. $12.50) Q Release date: Out now ok is This easy to follow yet interesting boo ideal for any younger readers wanting to know more about how the world workks. With its stickers, poster and press-outt model, Engineer Academy is a fantastic into sections starting point for inventive kids. The book is divi lternative energy generation that cover subjects from aerospace, alternative and robotics. Richly illustrated and creatively put together, readers are encouraged to complete several try at home tasks, like making a pulley and designing a water wheel. Rewarding and fun, this is an excellent book for children wanting to learn about engineering.

The science of the stars i book a superbly illustrated b Q Author: Dr Christoph Englert & Tom Clohosy Cole Q Publisher: Wide Eyed Editions Q Price: £12.99 / $19.99 Q Release date: Out now

Q Author: Dougal Jerram Q Publisher: DK Q Price: £14.99 / $19.99 Q Release date: Out now

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Engineer Academy

Destination: Space

An entertaining look at the world we live in

Filled with pop-ups, flaps and pull-tabs, Utterly Amazing Earth is the perfect book for young minds interested in planet Earth. The interactive illustrations are complemented by mind-blowing facts and figures about the natural world. The book covers the Earth from surface to core and has pages dedicated to the rock and water cycles and parts of nature

Q Author: Gabrielle M Finn Q Publisher: Ivy Press Q Price: £14.99 (approx. $18.50) Q Release date: Out now Covering 50 topics, 30-Second Medic an insight into the world of illness and treatments. A series of short, punchy entries, it provides an overview of everything from 3D bioprinting to in vitro fertilization (IVF). Biographies of medical pioneers such as Hippocrates are inclu uded and vivid descriptions prevent the entries from being boring. Fast facts also add variation variation. For example, did you know Otto von Bismarck set up the first welfare state? The book isn’t (and doesn’t claim to be) exhaustive, but it’s a welcome addition to the series.

like volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis. Be sure to look out for the amazing extreme weather pop out too. At 31 pages it’s relatively short, and while it may not take long to finish, there are plenty of reasons to revisit the book to check up some facts. Recommended for inquisitive young minds.

Destination: Space is a fantastic read. Starting at the beginning of the universe before progressing on to black holes and space exploration, this is a journey through space for both adults and children. Images are the focus of the book and every turn of the a m d by a beautiful illustration of the Solar System. S This is by no means a picture book though, as Destination: S Space tackles kl potentially ll mind-boggling subjects with bite-sized and easy to digest answers. One of the easiest to read yet informative books on space out there, this is a must for anyone interested in the final frontier.

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Practical projects to try at home

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DON’T DO I ALONTE IF YOU’RE UN

Make your own fossils Create fossil uncover the

Plaster of Paris

1

First, you’ll need to mix up some plaster of Paris with water to make a thick liquid. This will form your fossil, but you need to make it slightly thicker than the packet will likely recommend. Combine one cup of plaster of Paris and one cup of water, then mix them together t t t mixture. When left to set the p but first you need a fossil shap

see if your friends can eologist!

2

@HowItWorksmag

Shell shaped

To create your fossil shape you’ll need a shell from the beach, or another interesting item with a good texture. Try to choose something that will look like it could’ve been encased in rock thousands of years ago. To make your mold, find a shallow bowl and fill it to around two centimetres deep with modelling clay. Press it down with your fingers to make sure it’s flat and there are no gaps.

DER 18, MAKE S HAVE AN URE YOU AD WITH YO ULT U

Press it in

3

Push the shell or other item into the clay firmly and leave it there for a few seconds, then carefully take it out. Millions of years ago, dinosaurs would stand in soft clay like this, leaving a footprint. When the water level rose, soft mud would fill this print, and create a fossil when more and more mud layered on top of it over thousands of years.

“To create your fossil shape you’ll need a shell from the beach” In summary…

4

Pour and set

To simulate the soft mud, you need to pour the plaster of Paris into the mold that you created in the clay. You’ll need to leave it for at least 12 hours so it can set and go really hard. Remember, if this were a real fossil, the process would take thousands of years as the pressure of mud and soil pressed down on the footprint and made the mud into hard rock.

094 | How It Works

5

Paint it!

When your plaster is set, carefully ease it away from the clay. You might need to ask an adult to do this with a knife if your finger doesn’t get it out. Now you can paint your fossil dark brown, and paint the space around it in a lighter brown, to make it look like the real thing. Try burying your finished fossil in sand and challenging your friends to find it, just like real fossil hunters!

If you find a shell-like fossil in rocks at the beach, it’s possible that you’ve found a trilobite. These sea creatures had hard shells covering their outer layer, but their insides were soft. When they died, these soft inner parts decayed and minerals filled the space inside them, eventually hardening into fossils.

Disclaimer: Neither Future plc nor its employees can accept liability for any adverse effects experienced after carrying out these projects. Always take care when handling potentially hazardous equipment or when working with electronics and follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

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How to make amazing Sun prints

NEXT ISSUE BUILD

A BEARING LOADBRIDGE MAKE ICY ORBS

Create amazing prints with special light-sensitive paper

Prepare the paper

For this project, you’ll need some lightsensitive paper that you can buy from most craft shops or online. The chemicals on the paper react to light, but you’ll need to work fast to make sure your prints look good. For best results, you should go outside on a sunny day before you start, but once you take the paper out of the packet and pin it to a piece of corrugated cardboard, you’ll have to work fast!

“Once you take the paper out you’ll need to work fast”

2

Be quick!

3

Wash and dry

As soon as you have pinned the paper to the cardboard, place some feathers or leaves on the paper, arranging them how you want them to look. Try not to move anything while the paper is absorbing the light, as it will make your print look less effective. Leave the feathers or leaves on the paper for a couple of minutes – or longer if you’re doing it on a cloudy day – and then remove the feathers and unpin the paper from the cardboard.

As quickly as you can, place the paper into a tray of water. You’ll immediately see that the deep blue colour that was left under the feathers will wash off, and the pale blue areas around them will start to get darker. Leave the paper in the water for a few minutes, then place it between two dry tea towels with a heavy book on top to help remove the water and keep it flat. Leave it for a few hours to dry.

In summary… The paper is covered in chemicals that start to react together when activated by ultraviolet light. As they react, a deep blue compound forms. But the reaction doesn’t take place under the feather, so when the original chemicals are washed off, the shapes appear clearly.

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Letter of the Month

Will we ever leave Earth? QDear HIW, I absolutely love your magazines, as they are packed full of amazing scientific facts! In issue 94 I loved reading the article about sharks and I was astonished (and relieved) to find out that the odds of being killed by a shark are 1 in 3,700,000! I also thoroughly enjoyed reading about ‘how marbles are made’, as I have a very extensive collection of marbles and it was fascinating to read how they are actually created. My question for you is: do you believe that humans will ever be able to live on a planet other than Earth? Thank you very much for reading this letter. Yours sincerely, Lucy Underwood (aged 13) If humans are ever to live on another planet permanently, there are a number of

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096 | How It Works

hurdles to clear. First and foremost, we’ll need to devise a propulsion system that could reach habitable celestial bodies in a feasible time frame. The planet or moon chosen must also have suitable conditions to support human life, such as liquid water, a supply of oxygen and survivable temperatures. And we also need to create a clever way of protecting our future colonists from harmful radiation, which we’re fortunately sheltered from here on Earth. Developments in engine designs, robots and new spacecraft, as well as increased funding for future missions, are increasing the likelihood of human colonisation of other planets, with several agencies and companies looking to send humans to Mars in the next few decades.

Why do we get goose bumps? QDear HIW, I love reading your magazine, I find it so interesting! There is so much stuff in there I wouldn’t know if I didn’t read it! Here’s my question: what are goose bumps and what is their purpose? I would love it if you could answer my question! Josh (aged 12)

Potential space colony candidates include the Moon, Mars and exoplanets beyond the Solar System

us today, and is a result of our built-in flight or fight response. When threatened, our more hairy ancestors would’ve looked much more intimidating with raised hair. And the system also more effectively retained heat to help keep them warm.

How fast are we running out of fossil fuels? Q Dear HIW, How It Works is my favourite magazine and I always read the latest issue, which really feeds my mind. I am wondering when will the Earth run out of its oil and gas resources? Will we run out of fossil fuels before we make a successful transition towards alternative, renewable sources of energy? Adil Babayev

Goose bumps are bumps on the skin that are caused by an uncontrollable response to cold temperatures or strong emotions. The sympathetic nervous system triggers the contraction of arrector pili muscles, raising the hairs on our skin. This was much more useful to our evolutionary ancestors than it is to

A goose’s skin is similar to human hair follicles after its feathers are plucked

The birth of planet Earth

these isotopes to get there. These studies have led to the current estimate we have for the age of our planet: around 4.5 billion years.

Fossil fuels have been extracted from the Earth and used as the human race’s primary energy supplies since the Industrial Revolution. It is estimated that known oil reserves will run dry around 2052, and natural gas by 2060 as its use is increased to fill the void left by crude oil. Coal will last until approximately 2088, but that may be sooner if demand increases with rising populations, or later if more reserves are found. The transition to cleaner, renewable power is underway though, and in 2015, 25 per cent of Britain’s electricity was generated by renewable energy technologies.

Scientists estimate that the Moon formed shortly (relatively speaking) after the Earth

Developing and improving methods to harness energy from renewable sources will reduce our fossil fuel dependence

Q Dear HIW, I wanted you to know that even though I am all the way in Australia, I love getting a subscription to your magazine. I have a question for you! I would like to know how do we know how old Earth is, and how old is it? Thank you! Alyce Keegan The age of the Earth is estimated via a combination of geological study and radiometric dating. Many of the oldest rocks on Earth have been destroyed and then replaced by the constant movement of plate tectonics, but fortunately some very old rocks still exist. Inside these rocks are elements that have undergone very slow radioactive decay, and we can measure this decay to see how long it has taken

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Urban animals: the secrets of city creatures

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How It Works | 097

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Brain surgery and rocket Is nuclear power the science go head to head future of energy?

FAST FACTS Amazing trivia to blow your mind

THE AVERAGE TEMPERATURE ON EARTH HAS INCREASED BY AS MUCH AS 0.8°C OVER THE PAST CENTURY

$651

HOW MUCH EACH US CITIZEN WOULD GET IF APPLE DIVIDED OUT ITS WORTH EQUALLY

34,000

NUMBER OF SWISS ARMY KNIVES PRODUCED BY THE COMPANY VICTORINOX EVERY DAY

400°C

THE TEMPERATURE OF A MIG-25’S FUSELAGE WHEN FLYING AT MACH 2.5

$30

THE AMOUNT JACOB SHALLUS WAS PAID TO WRITE OUT THE US CONSTITUTION

,000 25 FRENCH CASUALTIES AT THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO

44

THE NUMBER OF MEN WHO HAVE SERVED AS PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES

12%

THE EFFECTIVENESS LOST BY A HEATING ELEMENT WITH JUST A 1.6MM COATING OF LIMESCALE 098 | How It Works

THE BRAIN CONTAINS AROUND 86 BILLION NEURONS

5.5 MILLION ONLY 90 OF THE 118 ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE ARE NATURAL: HUMANS MADE THE OTHERS

20 MINS

ESTIMATED NUMBER OF VENDING MACHINES IN JAPAN

20

THE AMOUNT OF PECKS A WOODPECKER CAN COMPLETE IN ONE SECOND

THE ESTIMATED TIME IT TAKES FOR YOUR BODY TO PRODUCE ITS DAILY VITAMIN D WITH EXPOSED ARMS AND LEGS ON A SUNNY DAY

0

9001 1