How It Works. World of Animals - Issue 14 2014

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WEIRDEST MAMMALS YOU NEVER KNEW EXISTED DO ELEPHANTS 100 FALL IN LOVE? OVER

AMAZING ANIMAL PHOTOGRAPHS INSIDE

HOW NATURE’S GIANTS FORM THE STRONGEST EMOTIONAL TIES

THE REAL ANIMALS MEET THE BUSH VIPER OF MADAGASCAR

Discover the spiked snake’s dance ritual

PLUS PANGOLIN

Earth’s most unique species revealed

FLYING LEMUR

BEAUTIFUL BUTTERFLIES

HOW BEAVERS SHAPE NATURE

Meet six of the most Busy mammals colourful insects ever that prevent floods

SAIGA ANTELOPE

SUMATRAN ORANGUTAN

MYSTERIES OF THE

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Welcome

Do you think meerkats are like humans? Outside of pricecomparison adverts, of course not. And yet there are similarities we all recognise – meerkats show unbreakable bonds similar to those humans experience, as the plucky creatures team up to fend off predators twice their size (page 12). It’s not just the smaller animals on Earth that show social traits we experience ourselves – elephants pass family traditions on through generations (page 74) and horses take on amazing maternal roles (page 34). As we’re now in the harsh cold of winter, we thought we’d take you on a journey to hotter climates on page 58, showcasing some stunning imagery to remind you of sunnier times. Finally, we end the year with a look at the weird and wonderful on page 20 – the antelope with a trunk, the pangolin with teeth in its stomach and the only vegetarian sea mammal on the planet!

Charis Webster Editor

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Welcome to issue14 06 Amazing animals

12 The meerkat mob

How wildlife’s mob-mentality rebels take on the biggest of predators as a team

20 10 weirdest mammals

From the long-lived dugong to the armoured pangolin

26 Meet the butterflies

You wouldn’t believe the array of butterfly species there are

54 Wildlife of Asian mangroves

From tigers and sharks to monkeys and eagles, discover a habitat brimming with life

Follow the epic journeys of the world’s greatest movers

64 20 facts about eagles

From their aerial acrobatics to their playful nature

68 Mysteries of the black panther

30 Invasion of Burmese pythons

74 Do elephants fall in love?

34 All about horses

80 Real animals of Madagascar

The giant snake that has made itself at home on the opposite side of the globe

Race through the life of a wild horse, from the first uneasy step to cantering in a herd

46 Sumatran orangutan

Discover why this incredible great ape is under threat and what’s in action to help

48 Nature’s greatest architects: beavers

Marvel at some of the brainiest builders in the animal kingdom

THE IUCN RED LIST

Throughout World of Animals you will see symbols like the ones you see here. These are from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of animal species in the world. Here’s what they mean:

EXTINCT EXTINCT IN THE WILD CRITICALLY ENDANGERED ENDANGERED VULNERABLE NEAR THREATENED LEAST CONCERN

4

The bizarre snake that hisses with its scales

58 Amazing migrations

28 Iberian lynx

Your guide to catching a glimpse of one of the rarest cats on Earth

98 Bush viper

26

Step into the world of a legendary predator that blends into the night

Learn about the emotions elephants feel and the bonds they make out of love

The island that is alive with creatures wackier than you can imagine

97 Next month

Take a sneak peek inside next month’s World of Animals

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62

84 Readers’ Q & A

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page 66

12

MEERKATS DISCOVER THE SECRETS OF A DESERT MOB’S SUCCESS

90 5 best-ever expert

tips on wildlife photography

74

94 Your amazing

animal photos

48

58

68 5

The amazing world of animals

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The amazing world of animals

© Rex Features

A lion fish inspects a school of fish before choosing its meal This predator watched the swarming group of sweeper fish in the Red Sea, before charging into the wall of fish to grab a bite to eat.

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The amazing world of animals

© Rex Features

This six-spot burnet moth has been drenched by an early morning rain shower Aer spending the night clutching onto a stem, this dew-covered winged beauty has to dry off before it can fly away.

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The amazing world of animals

© Rex Features

This warthog made a feathered friend after taking a drink from a bird hide The oxpecker bird landed on the warthog’s face and eventually tucked itself behind the animal’s ear to feed on lice.

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The amazing world of animals

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The amazing world of animals

With the flounder between its jaws, this bear in Katmai national park in Alaska is a top-notch hunter, though up to 90 per-cent of a grizzly’s diet is made up of plants.

© Alamy

A grizzly bear walks home after a day of fishing in the shallows of the Pacific ocean

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Survival secrets of a meerkat mob

12

SURVIVAL SECRETS OF A

MEERKAT MOB The mob take care of their own, and each member plays a vital role in the survival of the entire group Words Dom Reseigh-Lincoln

MEERKAT

Suricata suricatta Class Mammalia

Territory Botswana, Namibia, Angola, South Africa Diet Insects, rodents, fruit, birds, eggs, lizards Lifespan 12-14 years Adult weight 731g (1.61Ib) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

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Survival secrets of a meerkat mob

Hierarchy of the mob Living in a structured society stops meerkats competing for food and having a specific role means every meerkat knows exactly where they stand The social structure of a meerkat family is one of the attributes that makes them so fascinating. They are one of the few mammals that take on different roles depending on the situation, and it makes an individual gang incredibly versatile in the wild. For instance, while a group goes foraging for food or is busy digging further tunnels, one or two meerkats will remain on sentry duty, alerting the rest of the group to any dangers via a series of low growls and squeaks. Meerkats will even climb the small, cracked shrubs and trees of the desert in order to gain a better view of the surrounding land. Meerkats also have a distinct set of vocalisations to communicate everything from danger to the call to feed. These excellent sense of predatory awareness allows a wild meerkat to live up to six to eight years of natural life. Meerkats rely on hierarchy and roles for the survival of their species. At the top of the meerkat pecking order sits the alpha male and the alpha female. The alpha has exclusive mating rights to his female counterpart and is usually the most resourceful and wily member of the group. The alpha female is usually the only member of the gang that may fall pregnant so she’s the heart and soul of the group. Below them are the beta males and females. These are the pups that have grown to almost adult size but are yet to reach adult maturity. Both males and females will leave their birth gang at around ten months to seek better breeding opportunities elsewhere (and thus attain alpha statuses of their own). If a group falls apart, beta females will leave and attach themselves to roving males, forming a tentative new gang in the process. Pups are the youngest of the class, and the alphas and betas will spend time mentoring the young ones, teaching them to forage and burrow in the desert. The position of babysitter and sentry are roles that cycle between members, but the role of tending the young usually falls to meerkats aged six months and older. Meerkats are also cooperative breeders, so the raising of young is a responsibility shared between the whole group.

“Meerkats rely on hierarchy and roles for the survival of their species”

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Meerkats

While the leadership of a meerkat gang is shared between the two alphas, the true heart of the family is the alpha female. It’s her role to bolster the group with new offspring, usually having around three to four pregnancies each year.

2. Alpha male Hierarchy

Hierarchy

1. Alpha female

As the main male in the gang, the gentleman alpha patrols the family’s territory, spreading his scent around the burrows to ward off other rogue males. The alpha will also serve as a chief hunter and a sentinel, ensuring the safety and longevity of the group.

Much like a beta male, the lesser female of the group serves multiple roles within the gang including mentoring pups in skills such as foraging and digging. Beta females will also break off from the family between 18 and 30 months to seek a new role as an alpha.

5. Babysitter

The sentry role is shared by all members of the group, from juveniles right up the alpha male. Multiple sentries can be on patrol at once and some members of the group even spend time tutoring pups in the finer points of danger watching.

Just like the sentry role, the position of babysitter is incredibly important to the survival of a meerkat gang. Babysitting as a role is shared by a majority of the gang, with the alpha female taking the lead to guard, feed and mentor her young pups.

Hierarchy

5. Sentry

Beta males form part of the juvenile cast of a meerkat family and help extend and maintain the burrow, perform sentry duties and serve as a babysitter for the pups too small to fend for themselves.

6. Pup Hierarchy

Hierarchy

Hierarchy

4. Beta female

Hierarchy

3. Beta male

Pups are the youngest members of the family and are usually ten months or younger in age. Despite being the most vulnerable in the group, meerkat adults insist that pups take part in every aspect of their lives in order to hone the skills needed to survive and strengthen the gang.

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Survival secrets of a meerkat mob

Mob activity explained There’s more to a meerkat’s life than standing guard, and life in the group throws up different challenges all the time

Keeping active The life of a meerkat can be a varied one, varying from playful scraps with young pups to a lazy lounge in the midday sun. A typical day includes an initial survey of the area to check for intruders, digging to maintain the burrow, hunting and playing with the pups.

On all fours Meerkats are speedy little creatures on four legs – in fact, a meerkat can reach a speed of up to 32km/ph (20mph). Which is handy considering the need to cover great distances and defend their territory at the drop of a hat. Keeping safe While meerkats have incredible vision and hearing to detect predators, the desert is still a dangerous place to live. In order to ensure pups are kept safe at all times, they are supervised at all times. A pup will usually leave its birth den around three weeks for a few hours at a time.

Standing tall Standing on its hind legs offers a sentry a much clearer vision of the desert around it and enables it to spot threats on the ground and in the sky much more efficiently. An adult meerkat can see up to 4.8km (three miles) away and even look into direct sunlight without being blinded.

Building the den Meerkats need to survive in the harsh environment of the African desert, so building a cool home to raise young and evade predators is really important. It takes two to three days of hard work for a alpha pair to build a suitable den for a small mob.

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Meerkats

Strength in numbers Having a gander While it’s true that one or more meerkats will act as a sentry to protect the group while others are digging or foraging, standing on the their hind legs also serves as a far more passive purpose. Meerkats are naturally inquisitive creatures and even pups will be encouraged to stand up and observe the world around them.

Babies in the burrow A single gang’s territory can contain anything from two to 16 different dens, varying in size, role and complexity. As long as it isn’t disbanded or driven away, a gang will reuse a specific set of burrows for the birth and nurturing of young.

Meerkats are high on the menu for many African predators, so their mob rules mentality is vital in keeping them safe and social in the wild Meerkat gangs can vary in size, with the largest numbering as low as three members and as high as 40. And with such a large contingent at its disposal, a meerkat gathering has the potential to drive off everything from snakes, jackals and monitor lizards, to other meerkats who stray too close to their home. It’s a mob mentality, swarming an intruder with alarming numbers in order to protect their young and the group as a whole. Since a meerkat gang is stronger in a larger size, successful breeding is incredibly important to its survival. Burrows are usually fairly small in size for a new family, with the alpha male building one to two dens for his small family to huddle within. Once an alpha female falls pregnant, gestation lasts around 70 days with a litter that usually bears five to six pups. After ten months a pup is old enough to perform tasks by itself in the group such as sentry duty and the babysitting of new pups. The more pups that successfully survive infanthood (predators and the drop in nighttime temperatures being the biggest threats to their livelihood) the stronger the family becomes. Clashes between rival gangs are also a common occurrence considering a single gang’s territory is around 2-3km squared in size. With multiple burrows spread across this locale, other meerkat families can start to take over a burrow, den by den. Once the dominant gang spots the squatting family, it reacts immediately. All the adults and juveniles old enough to fend for themselves begin a mobbing tactic, rushing the opposing group on all fours, their tails raised high in the air and their fur fluffed to make them appear bigger. Both sides will assume this manoeuvre, bunching together and making as much noise as possible with some meerkats jumping in and attacking their opposite number. Whole territories can be defended and won in clashes such as this, with the bigger and more imposing group usually winning out.

“It’s a mob mentality, swarming an intruder with alarming numbers to protect the group”

Adult meerkats can see for up to 4.8km (three miles)

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Survival secrets of a meerkat mob Enemies of the mob

The meerkat is one of the most keen-eyed animals on Earth, but the ground and skies are still full of predatory dangers

Martial eagle The martial eagle is the apex predator in the skies of Africa, so it’s no surprise the meerkat forms part of its varied diet. Martial eagles hunt while in flight, usually circling a hunting ground before swooping in. In order to protect its gang, multiple meerkats will stand sentry, using low growls to warn of an aerial threat.

Jackal Jackals are opportunistic carnivores, so most will attempt to snag one member of the gang if it strays too far from the group. If the keen eyesight of a meerkat fails to spot it first, meerkats are known to form into a pack and crowd a jackal. Meerkats will stand up on their hind legs to empathise their size and will eventually drive the threat away.

How a mob communicates

Puff adder With a venomous bite that could easily kill a human, the puff adder is no passing scare, but the meerkat has its own antisnake tactics up its sleeve. The gang will form into a mob and advance on the adder on all fours, their tails raising in the air to keep it from striking their heads. They will then slowly press forward in a line, forcing the adder to retreat.

Meerkats help each other out without expecting reward

In a meerkat mob, only the dominant male is allowed to mate with the alpha female, meaning that their newborns have only the strongest genes. When meerkats were evolving millions of years ago, those with the instinct to survive were the ones that could produce offspring with that same instinct, making each new generation stronger than the last. When faced with challenges like drought, extreme temperatures or predation, only the quickthinking meerkats survived long enough to reproduce. Their young were born wired with genes to help them survive, and over time meerkats developed the complex societies we see today. Unlike a lot of animals that just look out for themselves, meerkats have evolved to live in altruistic groups. This means that they help each other out without expecting a reward and rely on others for protection. The helpers in a mob care for the young, dig tunnels and stand guard for the good of the entire group. Looking out for each other is the best method they’ve found to survive, and keeping watch for predators is what they are best at. Meerkats are more vigilant when there are babies in the group that need protection, and when a predator comes they seek to give the others advance warning, rather than just running away. Meerkats give different warning calls depending on what kind of predator is approaching, letting the rest of the mob figure out the best way to escape. Meerkat predators include birds, reptiles and carnivores, so knowing the approaching danger is coming from above requires a different response to escaping a slithering snake. This warning system is like a language, and it has developed over time to give every single meerkat the best chances of surviving. Calling out to warn others uses very little energy and knowing what kind of predator is in the area helps meerkats take immediate action. This is just the beginning of understanding meerkats and we are yet to uncover the rest of their language.

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© Alamy, Thinkstock, FLPA

The way meerkats help one another out is a strategy to survive, and the way they interact has become complex and refined over time

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MAMMALS Hidden across the globe are nature’s strangest-looking and strangestbehaving mammals Words Amy Grisdale

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10 weirdest mammals

During migration this oddlooking species will gather in groups from 10 to 2,000 strong

The antelope with a trunk so it can breathe easy in its dusty habitat The dangling trunk of a saiga is convoluted and lined with hairs to help extract moisture from the dusty air it breathes in its native eastern Europe. Despite being efficient breeders, saigas are endangered and their behaviour before mating is partly responsible. Males have violent fights to establish dominance, which can result in death. Males clash horns that are more than 25 centimetres (ten inches) long, and the last male standing gets his pick of the ladies. Similarly to polar bears and penguins, male saigas fast during breeding season so they must immediately bulk up afterwards to face the winter. A male’s harem of females can give birth after a short five-month

pregnancy to two babies each that are able to graze by themselves at only a few days of age. The vegetarian saiga is nomadic and travels up to 115 kilometres (70 miles) in a single day through Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in search of lush grass. In winter the saiga’s coat thickens and fades to white to blend in with the surrounding snow to help them hide from wolves. In order to escape attack, saigas can run at speeds of 130 kilometres (80 miles) per hour. In early evening, saigas make their own beds from soft soil using their hooves and horns, especially in the cold winter, though they migrate southwards in large groups when the cold begins creeping in.

SAIGA

Saiga tatarica Class Mammalia

Territory Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan Diet Grass, lichen and shrub Lifespan 6-10 years Adult weight 40kg/88lbs Conservation Status

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

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10 weirdest mammals The armoured mammal can curl up into a ball when threatened, its scales overlapping for extra protection

An anteater with teeth in its stomach This scale-covered mammal repels predators by curling into a tight ball and erecting its sharp spines that are made of the same hardened protein that makes up fingernails. A pangolin has at least 18 rows of overlapping scales that continue to grow throughout its life because they are constantly filed down when the animal moves around. This scaly mammal is incredibly well adapted for digging and can excavate a burrow nearly three metres (eight feet) deep in five minutes. To find underground insects like termites and ants to feast on, it uses its long tongue to scoop the juicy insects into its toothless mouth. The tongue can reach 40 centimetres (16 inches) in length, which is two thirds of its 60-centimetre (24-inch) body. Though the mouth contains no teeth, pangolins

crush their food with teeth in the lining of their stomachs. The pangolin’s ‘C’ shaped stomach is equipped with horned points to help grind down the insects. These stomach teeth are surrounded by thick layers of strong muscle that contract to mash the pangolin’s meal into an easily digestible pulp. Pangolins also ingest small rocks to speed up the digestion process, helping it absorb as much nutrition as possible. As well as digesting insects efficiently, the pangolin’s stomach also acts as a buoyancy device. Before entering water this bizarre mammal fills its stomach with air to keep it afloat, then kicks its feet leisurely to propel itself forwards. Similarly to skunks, pangolins have foul-smelling acid they can secrete from the anus to fend off attackers, though they can’t spray this fluid outwards.

Why eating stones helps the pangolin survive The tough pyramid-shaped spines embedded in the stomach lining act just like teeth to munch through the insects a pangolin swallows.

The stomach can be inflated to act as a life jacket so the pangolin can swim through water with ease. The stones a pangolin purposely gobbles help the spikey stomach chew up food ready for the intestines to work on.

PANGOLIN

Manis pentadactyla Class Mammalia

Territory Southern China, India and Nepal Diet Insects Lifespan Up to 20 years Adult weight 5kg/11lbs Conservation Status

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

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Weirdest mammals These underwater mammals use their teeth to establish dominance, not to eat

A weird whale that dives two miles deep This elusive whale is the most common of all 24 species of beaked whale, but when fragments of its bones were first discovered in the early 1800s it was thought to be already extinct because it had never been seen. This whale, reaching lengths of seven metres (23 feet), lives across the globe feeding on deepdwelling squid, which are swallowed whole. Only male cuvier’s beaked whales have teeth but they aren’t used for chewing, males scratch one another with their two tiny tusks to establish

dominance. This whale is the deepest diving mammal in history reaching depths of almost 3,000 metres (1.9 miles) and staying submerged for longer than two hours, and between dives they spend an average of only two minutes at the surface. To achieve this, the brain is rich in oxygen-carrying proteins that keep cells functioning. To protect the whale’s lungs at such depths, the rib cage collapses during a dive that is the equivalent of 60 lengths in an Olympic swimming pool without a single breath.

Four freaky tree-dwellers Spending the majority of their time high up in the trees, these strange creatures are rarely heard of, let alone seen

Binturongs communicate with chuckles Although the binturong is built like a carnivore, it eats mostly fruit in the treetops of south-east Asia. It sleeps with its prehensile tail curled around the tree branch it’s lying on to stop itself rolling out of bed, and it rarely needs to even visit the ground. Binturongs drag themselves along branches to mark their territory with sweet secretions that smell of buttered popcorn, and emit vocalisations that sound like sniggering chuckles.

Tree kangaroos spend less than 10 per cent of their time on the forest floor The climbing kangaroos of Papua New Guinea spend less than ten per cent of their time on the forest floor. They can survive a two metre (6.6 foot) freefall to the ground, which is the equivalent of a human falling from the top of a double decker bus without harm. Like their terrestrial cousins, tree kangaroos are marsupials and 45 days after mating females give birth to tiny joeys.

Flying lemurs can glide in the air for up to 70 metres

Giant squirrels like to play with monkeys

Flying lemurs of south-east Asia are nocturnal and rely on sound to communicate and navigate, but they are colugos rather than true lemurs. The volume of a flying lemur’s ear canal is exceptionally large so that even a distant predator will set a colugo’s alarm bells ringing. To escape a predator a colugo will climb high up with its sharp, curved claws. Their webbed feet can also form suction cups to grip trees when climbing in a hurry.

The 45-centimetre (18-inch) body of the giant squirrel is balanced by its 60-centimetre (24-inch) tail. They build their nests at the highest point of the trees to protect their young from stalking cats and civets. They feed from only a few species of tree and eat perfectly ripe fruit, so they chase away others in their territory. When waking up, giant squirrels call loudly to warn others and continue to scent-mark while foraging.

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10 weirdest mammals

The primate that freezes when startled Distinctive De Brazza’s monkeys live for 30 years and have at least ten specific call types that tell others their age, gender and reproductive status. Young males imitate their fathers by strutting along branches with their tails held high while slamming branches together to make loud noises. Adults make frequent booming calls to their neighbours but their strongest method of communication is visual. These monkeys threaten others by staring, yawning or bobbing their head up and down. Remarkably, the creatures are also known to try and diffuse a heated situation by baring their teeth in a smile to show they are not being aggressive. De Brazza’s monkeys are hunted by chimpanzees and freeze when approached, making them fairly easy prey for intelligent chimps. On occasions, males will emit loud

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calls to hold a predator’s attention while females and young escape behind the attacker’s turned back. When preparing to mate, females pout to males who display their blue genitals, and when babies are born they cling to their mother’s fur until they are big enough to start exploring the trees. Young monkeys become independent after a year of living with their mother and male offspring often leave to find a new group. De Brazza’s monkeys live in small groups of up ten, feeding on fruit, flowers and insects in flooded forests. Males are almost double the size of females at weights of seven kilograms (15 pounds) though both males and females sport impressive white beards. They stay close to rivers and use their cheek pouches to digest fibrous fruit collected in the early morning throughout the day.

DE BRAZZA’S MONKEY Cercopithecus neglectus Class Mammalia

Territory Central Africa Diet Fruit and seeds Lifespan Up to 30 years Adult weight 7kg/15lbs Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

Weirdest mammals DUGONG

Dugong dugon Class Mammalia

Territory Coasts of the Indian and Pacific oceans Diet Sea grass Lifespan Up to 70 years Adult weight 400 kg / 880 lbs Conservation Status

VULNERABLE

Living to the age of 70, dugongs are the only fully herbivorous sea mammal, feeding on specific types of sea grasses that grow in warm, shallow water. They use their flexible upper lips to rip up entire sea grass plants from the roots and eat the whole thing, eating up to 30 kilograms (66 pounds) of plant matter every day. Though their eyesight is poor, sensory hairs along their upper lips and bodies detect vibrations in the surrounding water. Their hearing is also excellent to make up for their poor vision, and dugongs whistle, chirp and bark to communicate. Once a patch of sea grass has been decimated, the dugong group moves on to find another underwater garden to graze. These marine vacuum feeders live in groups between two and 200, congregating in big groups for males to compete and display to impress observing females.

Nature’s ventriloquist act These Asian monkeys eat pine needles and firs in the forests of south-west China and stand at a height of 70 centimetres (2.2 feet). Snub-nosed monkeys can call without moving their mouths, a skill that enables them to communicate while eating. These monkeys are very social, living in groups of up to 600 animals, making communication incredibly important and excuses talking with a full mouth. Males and females produce different types of calls where females make

‘shrills’ and ‘chucks’ and males produce long whines, while they can even communicate by belching. Mating pairs of snub-nosed monkeys often duet to bond, and males are outnumbered significantly by females at a ratio of five females to one male. To let males know they are ready to mate, females make eye contact with males and then run a short distance away. If this fails, females will simply lie down in front of the male, who usually eventually gets the message.

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© Alamy, Corbis, Thinkstock

The only veggie sea mammal

Meet the family

Butterflies With about 20,000 different species, butterflies are incredibly diverse. Take a look at some of the most unique and beautiful members of this family

Peacock

Playing the intimidation game

The colourful patterns on this butterfly’s wings may look beautiful to us, but to some of the insect’s predators it’s terrifying. Any animal that tries to tackle the peacock butterfly head-on will come face to face with what looks like a bird of prey. The peacock’s eye-like circles on its hind wings, together with PEACOCK BUTTERFLY its body that resembles a beak, Aglais io are enough to confuse or scare Class Insecta away other birds. The underside of their wings is dark and similar to those of the dead leaf butterfly, which keeps them camouflaged Territory Europe and Asia when they need to hide. Diet Nectar Lifespan Up to 1 year Peacocks may encounter Adult weight Less than rodents while looking 1g/0.04oz for somewhere to Conservation Status hibernate. They scare these creatures off by rubbing their NOT EVALUATED wings together to make a hissing sound like a snake.

White dragontail

In addition to their distinctive tail-like hind wings, parts of the white dragontail’s front wings are transparent. This is because they don’t contain colour scales, so light passes straight through

The fancy dresser WHITE DRAGONTAIL Lamproptera curius Class Insecta

Territory South and southeast Asia Diet Nectar Lifespan Six weeks Adult weight Less than 1g/0.04oz Conservation Status

NOT EVALUATED

The white dragontail is found throughout southern and south-east Asia, from India to Indonesia. These small black and white butterflies have elongated hind wings, which are as long as their front wings are wide. Dragontails have a different flight pattern to the other members of the butterfly family. When viewed in slow motion, the movement as they beat their front wings seems to ripple down through to the tips of their hind wings, like a flag in the breeze. They also tend to hover before settling on plants or puddles, which – combined with their narrow ‘tails’ – means they look similar to dragonflies when in flight, giving them their common name.

Brimstone Sleeping beauty

It’s thought that the word butterfly was originally inspired by the butter-coloured wings of the male brimstone. Males have yellow-green wings while females sport pale green wings that can almost look white. Brimstones are the only members of the Pieridae family that hibernate in their adult form. The brimstones’ leaf-shaped wings keep them camouflaged as they spend the winter months resting in foliage. Their wings make such convincing leaves, complete with a pattern of veins, that other insects sometimes land on them. Brimstones have a long proboscis, enabling them to sip nectar from flowers that are out of reach of other butterflies. They are also fast fliers, changing direction quickly to dodge hungry birds.

BRIMSTONE

Gonepteryx rhamni Class Insecta

Territory Europe, north Africa and Asia Diet Nectar Lifespan Up to 13 months Adult weight Less than 1g/0.04oz Conservation Status

NOT EVALUATED

The brimstone’s wings are the same shape and colour as leaves. They are also speckled with dark spots

26

Butterflies Morpho peleides Class Insecta

Blue morpho found flying f the

Territory Mexico, Central and South America Diet Fermented fruit juices Lifespan 3-4 months Adult weight Less than 2g/0.07oz Conservation Status

mechanism as they seem to randomly appear and disappear s they fly. Blue morphos also d tion by making caterpillars,

NOT EVALUATED

Dead leaf butterflies have slightly different patterns depending on which season they live in. Those from the rainy season tend to be darker

The dazzling and almost metallic shade of the blue morpho’s upper wings is created by thousands and thousands of microscopic scales. These are very effective at reflecting blue light

When this butterfly’s wings are open, they display a beautiful mixture of navy and bright blue or purple scales, with striking orange and black stripes. However, the undersides look exactly like shrivelled dead leaves, hence their name. Like the brimstone they also have patterns to resemble leaf veins, but they take their camouflage further by also mimicking the leaf discolourations caused by fungi or lichens. If they are targeted by a predator while mid-flight, dead leafs will suddenly drop into the nearest spot of foliage, close their wings and stay very still so they are perfectly hidden. For this reason, they live in dense forests so they can quickly and easily find somewhere to hide whenever they feel threatened.

Papilio memnon Class Insecta

Territory South-east Asia Diet Nectar Lifespan 1 month Adult weight Not known Conservation Status

NOT EVALUATED

DEAD LEAF

Kallima inachus Class Insecta

Territory Tropical forests of Asia Diet Tree sap, fermented fruit juices Lifespan Up to 7 weeks Adult weight Less than 1g/0.04oz Conservation Status

NOT EVALUATED

Great Mormons have a variety of different wing shapes and patterns to look like other butterfly species. The females are particularly diverse, with over 20 different forms known

1 4

2 1. Queen Alexandra’s birdwing Biggest This is the world’s I?OECPQ @RQQCOȰV species, with a massive wingspan that can reach 25 centimetres (ten inches) across!

3. Skipper Fastest Members of the Hesperiidae D?JGIV QFCV ?OC QFC D?PQCPQ ȰGCOP LD QFC @RQQCOȰV PRMCOD?JGIV 1LJC species can dart at up to 60 kilometres  JGICP MCO FLRO

2. Western pygmy blue 1J?IICPQ 5GQFă?ăQGKVă wingspan of less than two centimetres, the TCPQCOKăMVEJVă blue is the smallest @RQQCOȰăVăPMCAGCPăGK QFCăTLOIB

4. Monarch Longest migration +LK?OAF @RQQCOȰGCP escape the cold winters of northern 31 @V JGEO?QGKE south to sunnier AIGJCP 2FC OLRKB trip covers an incredible 5,000km  JGICP

Not a butterfly

Dead leaf

Camouflage connoisseurs

GREAT MOR

3

The brilliant blue jewels of the rainforest

Madagascan sunset moth Chrysiridia rhipheus The Madagascan sunset moth is easily confused for a butterfly because of its vibrant multicoloured wings, and the fact it’s diurnal rather than nocturnal. When it was first described by scientists, it was placed in the same group as swallowtail butterflies. Like the blue morpho, they also eat toxic plants while they’re caterpillars so they eventually become poisonous to other animals.

Great Mormon The great pretenders

These large butterflies usually live in the forest clearings of south-east Asia, but some have even been found in the Himalayas, flying at altitudes of over 2,000 metres (6,562 feet). Their eggs, which they lay on leaves, look like bird droppings so they aren’t targeted by predators. Adult great mormons mimic the patterns and colours of other butterfly species. By resembling a butterfly that is toxic or tastes horrible, other animals won’t risk eating them. Male great Mormons are often found mud-puddling. This is when butterflies congregate in puddles to drink. The fluids contain important nutrients that they can’t get from nectar alone.

©Thinkstock

BLUE MORPHO

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Spotters’ guide

Iberian Lynx This cat is rare and exceptionally camouflaged, but this guide can help you find this elusive beauty Once widespread over Spain, Portugal and France, one of Europe’s only native carnivores now resides only in the mountains of south-west Spain. Iberian lynx are critically endangered, but they are not impossible to spot if you know what you’re looking for. The best time of year to look for lynx is either in mating season between December and January, or between March and May when females begin to raise their cubs. Sightings are reported throughout they year, but visitors making a special lynx excursion should stick to the spring to be in with the best chance of a sighting. There are two hotspots at either end of the Sierra Morena mountain range – Doñana National Park in the southwest and Sierra de Andujar National Park in the centre of Spain. Both parks have restricted areas to protect the endangered lynx, but some of the park is

open to visitors and Doñana even has an Iberian lynx breeding centre. Lynx tend to live in scrubland and forests, so watching an open patch of land from a high viewing point is a good way to start. If you don’t want an official guide then feel free to ask the local people who might know the best spots. The very best way to get a sighting of a lifetime is to get help from the experts. Many different companies offer lynx-spotting tours and have consistent sightings from year to year. These guides know every inch of the area and are your best hope to catch a glimpse of a lynx. On a summer wildlife trip wear cool, neutral clothing and supportive footwear, but wrap up for winter trips. Remember – a lynx can spot a mouse from 75 metres (250 feet) away, so it will be able to see you. Keep quiet and still, and if a lynx appears make sure you enjoy the view.

Get out and see them Find an Iberian lynx spotting trip Wise Birding

www.wisebirding.co.uk +44 7973 483227 Trips run from December to March, and they give a percentage of their profits towards conservation. Wild Wolf Experience

www.wildwolfexperience.com +34 620 351514 With accommodation in the national park, this full board trip even takes visitors on a night drive. Responsible Travel

www.responsibletravel.com +44 1273 823700 Travel in style with an expert guide with a 100 per cent lynx sighting success rate.

IBERIAN LYNX Lynx pardinus

Class Mammalia

AITO

www.aito.com +44 1946 841495 AITO offer combined wolf and lynx tours, so you can spot two iconic predators in one trip. Naturetrek

Territory Fragmented areas across Spain and Portugal Diet Rabbits, deer and ducks Lifespan 13 years Adult weight 11 kg/25 lbs Conservation Status

www.naturetrek.co.uk +44 1962 733051 Experienced local guides drive visitors in 4x4 vehicles – food and accommodation are included.

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CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Iberian lynx Quick questions with a lynx tour guide Chris Townend has been lynx-spotting for years and takes visitors on trips to spot this elusive feline What are the chances of seeing a up-to-date information and local lynx in the wild? knowledge, which in turn should Patience and scanning lynx habitat increase your chances of a sighting. using binoculars or telescope is the key to success. I recommend a Can spotters expect a close four-night stay and if you search the encounter with a lynx? right habitat you have an excellent In my experience, Iberian lynx chance. To date, all of my visits can sometimes be inquisitive about between December and February crowds of lynx watchers. There have been successful; you just need have also been occasions where some good weather, local knowledge animals have walked within just and a little luck. a few metres of me, completely unperturbed by my presence. A When is the best time of year to spot normal encounter would be to see a lynx? an animal in a telescope between a Between December and January is few hundred metres and a kilometre the best time to try and see Iberian away. Sightings from inside a lynx. This is when males tend to vehicle while driving slowly in known be more visible as they patrol their territories are also quite common territories in the hope of finding a and can oen be very close. female to mate with. They tend to be more vocal at this time of year, which What should lynx spotters wear, and can be very helpful when trying to what equipment should they take? locate an animal. Wearing neutral-coloured clothing and remaining very quiet and still Can you find lynx on your own are the usual rules for all or should you seek help from a wildlife watching. Despite being specialist? in Spain, weather can get very Unescorted Iberian lynx sightings are cold in winter, so wrap up warm possible if you are an experienced for December trips. A telescope wildlife watcher and have some and binoculars are essential as local knowledge. I would say Iberian lynx can blend in with their it’s worth using a guide to have surroundings incredibly well.

“Lynx have walked within metres of me, completely unperturbed by my presence” Where you can see them The Iberian lynx is one of the most endangered species of cat on the planet, but there are still regular sightings across Spain and Portugal

Spain

©Corbis

Portugal

Sightings are rare, but magical experiences for those lucky enough

29

IN

F THE

BUR ESE PYTHON The giant snake dominates a habitat on the opposite side of the globe to its natural home Words Amy Grisdale After decades of whispered rumours about giant snakes on the loose in the Florida Everglades national park, the state’s inhabitants’ worst fears were realised during the Eighties as confirmed sightings of giant snakes began to pour in. The fearsome Burmese python, one of the largest snakes in the world, had begun to make itself at home in the Everglades after escaping or even being purposely released

BURMESE PYTHON Python bivittatus Class Reptilia

Territory South-east Asia, Invaded Florida’s Everglades Diet Rodents, birds, reptiles Lifespan 20-25 years Adult weight 90kg/198lbs Conservation Status

VULNERABLE

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from captivity. Its silent slithering, perfect camouflage and fondness for inaccessible habitats makes this invasive species difficult to spot, let alone catch. This incredible predator is now breeding rapidly and as numbers grow is wreaking havoc in the ecosystem of southern Florida, but the risk to the inhabitants and visitors to the Everglades might not be as high as the media has implied.

Why the python rules the Everglades: a Q&A with the expert With over 20 years experience researching the deadly snake species, Dr Robert Reed discusses why the Burmese python population in Florida is booming, and how a once non-feared predator has become the talking point for many Everglades locals Robert N Reed, PhD Chief of the invasive species branch, United States Geological Survey www.usgs.gov

How long have exotic snakes lived in Florida for? There are certainly records going back to the first Burmese python sighting in 1979. It’s hard to tell if that was just an individual that escaped from captivity, or part of an established population. Colleagues of mine estimated that Burmese pythons have been in the Everglades since the mid-Eighties, or maybe even before then.

How were the first pythons released into the wild? We know the ultimate reason is that the US imported at least 300,000 Burmese pythons [from demand from an increasing pet trade] over a 30-year period and then had a whole lot more of them bred in captivity. With [such high] numbers like that, the odds of something getting out are pretty high.

What makes Burmese pythons so successful in Florida? The Everglades habitat in particular appears to be an ideal habitat for them. It’s seasonally flooded and they do very well when they’re swimming, and it has a wide range of potential prey. Within a year they grow far too big for even the largest of hawks to go anywhere near them. You’re now talking about a big predator that stays with her eggs until they hatch, which almost certainly increases their success overall.

What do they eat in the everglades? We’ve conducted necropsies on about 1,000 or so pythons removed from the Everglades and stomach contents include everything from tiny little wrens up to white-tailed deer and alligators that are about up to six-feet long. We know that they are eating a lot of native species and we know we’re only getting a small proportion of what’s actually out there. It does seem that the areas with pythons there, and where the pythons have been present the longest have very few native mammals.

What is being done to control the invasive python population? There’s a range of research projects that are ongoing that will hopefully increase the rate of removal. We have done some trap testing – we have traps that catch pythons, but they don’t catch very many. We could use water samples to detect python DNA, or we could potentially develop pheromone attractants that will pull in snakes during the breeding season, or we could put radio transmitters in male snakes and track them to large females during the breeding season and then remove those females.

Are fewer pythons being removed from the Everglades as time goes on? There was a cold snap in January 2010 that did kill some pythons, but it also [deterred] amateur python hunters [from] going out. We had much less search effort, so we had fewer pythons coming in. The number of pythons removed from the Everglades National Park in 2014 is already double what it was in 2013 and that’s before the end of the year. This year has been a banner year for reproduction. We are catching dozens and dozens of hatchling pythons, and a colleague sampling over

the last year removed over 125 pythons from just one 15-kilometre stretch of road.

Do they make good pets? They are attractive snakes, but I’m not going to come out and say that they are good pets. I can understand the attraction people have for these amazing animals because I share that passion. People tend to underestimate what’s going to be needed when they buy a baby python, which might be only 25 to 50 centimetres (10 to 20 inches) when it hatches, but within three years it could be over three metres (10 feet). At that point people can get tired of the animal and want to sell it, give it away or there is the possibility that they’ll release it into the ecosystem.

Are Burmese pythons dangerous? There are a lot of people that think any python is potentially deadly. The risk they pose is very low, but not absent. There is a possibility that if you have [either] a very large snake or potentially a small person that there could be a fatal attack, but as compared to most other risks in south Florida, it’s pretty low. You’ve got a greater chance of being killed by lightning or being stung to death by honey bees.

“Within a year they grow far too big for even the largest of hawks to go anywhere near them” Burmese python myths It’s the biggest snake in the world Although the Burmese python is very large, there are several much bigger snake species around. The green anaconda has a maximum length of 8.5 metres (28 feet), but the longest snake ever recorded was a reticulated python measuring in at a whopping ten metres (33 feet). They are venomous Pythons use constriction to suffocate prey rather than immobilising with venom. A bite would be a defensive action, and it would be extremely unlikely to prove fatal.

31

Burmese python

Burmese python vs American alligator Two giant reptiles are battling it out for the title of the top predator of the Everglades, but is the invading Burmese python a match for the resident American alligator? You decide…

Camouflage

Alligators are masters of imitation, and like the python, most prey won’t notice until it’s too late. With eyes and nostrils on top of its head, the alligator can stay hidden. The python evades detection thanks to grassy undergrowth.

Hunting

Both the alligator and the python lie in wait, eat anything that crosses their path and strike fast. They are not in competition for food, as alligators in the Everglades eat fish, while the python opts for mammals and birds, but both are known to eat the other.

Reproduction

Both of the big reptiles of the Everglades breed only once a year, but the Burmese python lays double the number of eggs than the alligator, and stays with them to ensure each hatchling survives. The python is certainly more efficient at reproducing.

Habitat

While the alligator lives and hunts in water, it can venture onto land if it wants to. The Burmese python hunts on land and makes occasional visits into water. Both can stay submerged for a whopping 30 minutes and move on land at roughly equal speeds.

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The creature’s native habitat The Burmese python is native to southeast Asia, and there it feeds on any animal that crosses its path. This python can live for months on end without a meal, and when they do feed the intestine triples in size to accommodate an animal that outweighs the snake itself. Female pythons can lay up to 100 eggs at a time, and then they incubate those eggs to ensure every single one hatches. There is even evidence to suggest that females can lay eggs even when

isolated from males, although it is still unclear how. Despite its amazing adaptations for survival, the Burmese python is listed as vulnerable and is in decline in its home range. Furthermore, in some areas the number of pythons have plummeted by 80 per cent within a decade. This same python has populated the Everglades national park in Florida, and is incredibly successful in this foreign habitat 13,000 kilometres (8,000 miles) from its natural home. As the Burmese python is not a fussy eater, the birds, mammals and even the reptiles of the Everglades have all become part of the snake’s staple diet.

©Alamy, Hendrik Gheerardyn

“The risk to the inhabitants and visitors to the Everglades might not be as high as the media has implied”

All about horses

34

Horses

All About

Ho ses

These majestic animals have lived alongside humans for thousands of years, and in many parts of the world large populations roam free in the wilderness Words Laura Mears

35

All about horses

Battle of the males

Stallions must protect their mares and foals from rival males if they want to ensure that their genes are passed on

As the days start to get longer in the spring, the mares come into heat; turning restless and seeking the attention of the stallion. He is able to mate with any of the mares in his band, but during the breeding season he is often challenged by outsider males. Confrontations are not always physical, and usually begin with a standoff, with both parties using a combination of aggressive posturing and loud snorts to assert their dominance. Fighting is less common, but when males do clash it can be dramatic. They kick, bite and rear up on their hind legs. Fights are rarely fatal, and the weaker eventually backs down. Once the stallion has secured his position as dominant male he is able to mate, and begins by nudging the mare to check that she is able to stand firmly and bear his weight. If the mating is successful pregnancy will last for 11 months and the foal will be born in the warm weather, giving it time to grow and develop before the cold winter. The mare is vulnerable as she gives birth, and will often wait until the cover of night to deliver her young. She lies on her side, and the stallion stands guard, with a second female sometimes present to assist with the birth. After the foal is born, the mother remains on her side for around 20 minutes, before standing to lick her newborn. She begins at the head, helping to remove any membranes and ensuring that the foal’s hair is clean and dry. This is a critical bonding period, and the foal and mare learn to recognise one another by scent, sight and sound. When male foals (colts) mature at the age of two, they are driven away from the herd by the stallion. They join a bachelor herd and remain in the company of other young males until they are strong enough to set up their own family. The female foals are protected from young males by the stallion until they reach the age of three, at which time they are free to join another male and have foals.

Life in the herd Horses live in close bands, with a stallion and a lead mare at the head of the family Yearling

As they grow, foals spend more and more time away from their mothers, integrating with the other members of the group, and playing together to practice the skills they will need as adults

The first few weeks of life Foals learn to stand within the hour, and almost immediately begin to feed. By the time they are 90 minutes old, they are able to run, albeit with an unsteady gait. Foals feed a few times every hour for the first few weeks, roaming close to their mother for companionship and protection. By the time they are two weeks old, they are ready to start eating grass, but they continue to suckle for as long as possible.

Young foal

The youngest members of the herd are still unsteady on their feet, and remain close to their mothers for protection, nutrition and companionship.

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Horses Stallion

Each band usually only has room for one adult male. Occasionally, the stallion will allow one of his adolescent sons to remain with the group to assist with protecting the females, but for the most part, colts are driven away when they reach maturity. The stallion defends his females fiercely, and when challenged by another male, he uses a combination of aggressive posturing and loud vocalisations to intimidate his opponent.

Lead mare

The oldest and most experienced mare leads the group. She has the most knowledge of the local area, and is able to guide her family to the best places to find food and water at any given time of year. Her experience is invaluable to the group, and she is allowed to eat and drink first, helping to maintain her strength in hard times.

Nursing

Foals are able to eat grass when they are just a few weeks old, but it is nutrient poor and they continue to nurse frequently as they grow.

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All about horses

Survival of a horse herd

Horses in the wild live together in small groups, taking advantage of safety in numbers

Horses are large, nomadic herbivores and spend their lives travelling across the land in search of food and water. In the wild, they live in small, close-knit groups called bands, consisting of one stallion and up to 8 mares and their foals. The oldest and most experienced female guides the group. She is known as the lead mare, and is responsible for taking her companions in search of water and fresh grazing. With years of accumulated knowledge about the local environment, she is invaluable to the family, and lower-ranking females do not challenge her authority even as she becomes older and weaker. They often travel in procession, with the lead mare at the front, and her subordinates in line behind her. The stallion brings up the rear of the band as they move, keeping a watchful eye for danger. He has overall authority over the females, and if

they step out of line, he is quick to chase them back into the group. The band can travel several miles every day in search of food, and their range often overlaps with the territory of other horses, so the stallion must be on the lookout for rival males. Adult males without mares of their own live in bachelor herds, and the stallion must protect his females from unwanted attention. He makes his presence known by piling his dung into to mounds known as ‘stud piles’, leaving his scent behind as a warning to other stallions in the area. It is not only other males that pose a danger; depending on their location, there may also be predators lurking in their environment. In North America, the biggest threats are bears and mountain lions, while in Europe, the major horse predator is the grey wolf.

Horses are biologically programmed to move rapidly in response to any perceived threat, and they are extremely sensitive to movement in their environment. They have almost 360-degree vision, and can point each eye in a different direction, allowing a panoramic view of their surroundings. Their hearing is also well developed, and each ear can swivel independently through 180 degrees, allowing them to accurately pinpoint the location of incoming sounds. They are very sociable animals, and use group tactics to keep a lookout for danger. They can recognise the direction another horse’s ears are facing, using the cue to track potential threats in the area. They also communicate with one another vocally, whinnying to rally the group, or screaming to alert the others to danger.

Head up By holding their heads up, horses are able to use both eyes together, giving them three-dimensional stereoscopic vision, and allowing them to accurately judge distance when making jumps

Horses groundroll to get clean, relieve pain, reach an itch or for pleasure

Leading the group A fleeing group of horses is guided to safety by the lead mare, with the stallion bringing up the rear. He encourages the rest of the herd to run by lowering his head and flattening his ears in a manoeuvre known as ‘snaking’

“The oldest and most experienced female guides the group, and she is responsible for her companions” 38

Horses

Flight When threatened, horses enter an adrenaline-fuelled fight or flight response. For some threats, the stallion stays behind, kicking and biting at the aggressor, but their main defence is to run

Top speed Horses can travel at a top speed of around 43 miles per hour (70 km/h)

Stiff legs When fleeing, horses stiffen their hindquarters, making it more difficult for a predator to take hold

Diet and feeding

Horses are grazing animals, preferring to feed on grass Gallop When horses travel at full speed, they transition into a gait known as a gallop. Each of their feet strikes the floor in turn, and they can cover one to two miles at full speed

85% of their diet consists of grasses and forbs.

An average male horse

eats 2.5kg/5.5lbs of food per day

That’s 1-2% of its body weight

Occasionally they supplement their diet with forage and shrubs.

39

All about horses Nuchal ligament

Inside a horse

This fibrous tissue attaches to the skull and extends down, finishing between the shoulder blades, supporting the weight of the head and allowing it to be raised and lowered for grazing.

Horses are prey animals and have evolved for flight. They are extremely sensitive to changes in their environment and their unusual leg anatomy enables them to move rapidly in response to danger

Lungs

Horses breathe only through their noses, and when running, they time breaths with steps, using the force of their diaphragm to inhale and exhale.

HORSE

Equus ferus caballus Class Mammalia

Trachea

Territory Europe, Asia, Australasia, North and South America, Africa Diet Herbivore Lifespan 25-30 years Adult weight 400-720kg (880-1,587lb) Conservation Status

Oesophagus

Heart

NOT EVALUATED

A horse’s heart pumps around one litre of blood with each beat. Cannon bone

Pastern bones

Stomach

dible

Incisors

A horse’s stomach can hold around nine litres of food and water.

Coffin bone

Molars Hoof wall

Canine

Guess the age of the horse

The age and sex of a horse can be estimated by looking at the wear on its front teeth. Permanent teeth start to appear at the age of two, and gradually become smoother until the horse reaches the age of 11.

Frog

One finger

Horses stand on the bones of just one finger, and through the course of evolution the remaining digits have gradually been lost.

Standing on tiptoe

A horse’s hoof is equivalent to our fingernail. By standing on tiptoe, the length of the leg is extended, allowing the horse to take much longer strides.

JUVENILE

INFANCY Birth 0 months Foals are most oen born during the spring and summer, and within an hour they are on their feet.

40

Staying with mum 0-1 year Foals remain close to their mother for the first few weeks, suckling several times an hour.

Yearlings 1 year When foals pass their first birthday, the females become known as fillies, and the males as colts.

MATURITY Leaving home 2 years By the time they are two, the young horses have reached their adult size. Males are oen driven from the herd by the stallion.

Bachelor 4 years When colts reach four they mature and become bachelors, joining a herd of other males while they search for a harem.

Mare 4 years When a filly has her first foal she becomes known as a mare. Females reproduce yearly, and gestation lasts for 11 months.

Two-colour vision

Horses are red-green colourblind, and see the world in shades of yellow, blue and grey. They also have a blind spot right in front of their faces.

Mesentery

The intestines are suspended from the top of the abdomen by a thin sheet of tissue known as the mesentery, which also supplies blood to the digestive tract. Small intestine

Spleen

Prehensile lip

The upper lip of a horse is extremely sensitive, and can be used like a hand for touching and grasping. They use it to curl grass inwards towards their teeth.

How the horse moves Horses have four gaits: walk, trot, canter and gallop. When walking, horses move each of their feet in turn. When trotting, they move diagonal legs together. When cantering, one foreleg is moved, then the opposite diagonal pair and then the last hindleg. And when galloping, the horse periodically has all four feet off the ground, landing on each one in turn.

Colon

Caecum

First section of the large intestine is long and capable of holding around 30 litres of partially digested food. Here, bacteria ferment the mixture, helping to convert indigestible cellulose into fatty acids that can be absorbed.

Closest family Closely related to the horse are…

Lead mare 4+ years The oldest and most experienced female in the group is mainly responsible for leading her herd to food and water.

Stallion 7+ years When a male establishes his own herd he becomes known as a stallion. He is the head of the family and has mating rights to all of his females.

Old age 10+ years As male horses age, they become less able to defend their mares from rival stallions. Eventually they are driven out of the group.

Zebra There are three living species of zebra: the Plains zebras, the Grevy’s zebras, and the Hartmann’s zebras. Plains zebras are the most numerous in the world, and like horses, the females live in small harems, led by a single stallion.

African wild ass These tough little animals are the wild species from which the domestic donkey was bred 6,000 years ago. They are desertdwellers, and have an amazing capacity for conserving water, needing to drink water only once every three days.

South American tapir Horses, zebras, and asses belong to a group of animals known as the oddtoed ungulates, which also includes rhinos and tapirs. Unlike horses, tapirs are solitary animals, preferring to forage alone.

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All about horses

Ruling the American plains Around 10,000 years ago, prehistoric horses in the Americas died out, and the populations in Europe and Asia started to decline. Of these prehistoric animals, only three subspecies survived into modern times: the Tarpan, Przewalski’s horse (pronounced shuh-VALskee) and the domestic horse. The last Tarpan died in the 1800s, and Przewalski’s horse became extinct in the wild during World War II. Although the species have been reintroduced into their native habitat in Mongolia, they remain endangered. All of the ‘wild’ horses that roam across the rest of the globe, from the mustangs of North America, to the Namib Desert horses, are descended from the domestic horse. Their ancestor originated around 160,000 years ago in a part of the world that is now Ukraine, Russia and Kazakhstan, and they were first domesticated by humans around 6,000 years ago. Since then, we have taken horses across the globe, and in many places these domestic animals have returned to the wild to set up feral herds. The biggest population of feral horses can be found in Australia. They arrived in the country in 1788 with the First Fleet; 11 ships that carried prisoners from Great Britain to Australia. Within 20 years, there were reports that some of the animals had escaped, and since that time, feral horses have ranged free across the continent. Today, there are an estimated 400,000 animals

42

living across the central and northern regions of the country. The horses in Australia have adapted to a variety of environments, from dry plains to tropical grasslands and temperate forests. They have few predators, and are threatened only in times of drought, where lack of adequate water and increased number of bush fires limit their survival. It is estimated that the population size will continue to grow by 20 per cent year on year if it is left unchecked. The feral horses of North America, the mustangs, are also doing well. The Spanish introduced them to the continent in the 1500s, and animals gradually escaped or were set free to roam across the continent. Horses can benefit their local ecosystem, distributing seeds, enlarging water holes. However, they trample and compact the ground, eroding the landscape, dirtying water sources and making it hard for plants to grow. Heavy grazing can dramatically alter the local fauna, killing off native plants and spreading unwanted weeds, and the horses compete with native animals and livestock for space and food. In both America and Australia, horse numbers are carefully managed and feral populations are kept in check by frequent horse drives, which bring the animals in to pens where they are vaccinated and adopted. Thanks to their domestic roots, these amazing animals can even be trained to accept a rider.

Horses

Domestication

Horses have had a long and close relationship with human and the first record of our interaction dates back to Palaeolithic cave art drawn in 30,000 BCE. At that time, it is thought that humans hunted horses for meat. Horses were domesticated around 4,000-3,500 BCE, and have since been used for a variety of purposes. Humans have used selective breeding to modify the traits of domestic horses to suit their needs. Draft horses were selected for their strength, hunting horses for their stamina and warhorses for their calm temperament. Until steam power was invented in the 1800s, horses were the fastest way to travel, and even today, domestic horses are still used for work in many countries. People also race and show their animals for pleasure and entertainment. It is our relationship with horses that has allowed them to spread across the world, either as working animals, as pets or as feral herds living in the wild. Without humans, there would be no horses living in America and Australia today, and without horses we would not be where we are as a species either.

Nearest neighbours Horses can be found in many different habitats and share their homes with a range of animals

Mountain lion The most well known free-ranging horses are the Mustangs of North America. They live alongside some dangerous predators, including the mountain lion, also known as the cougar or puma.

Environmental factors The main threats to the survival of horses in the wild Overpopulation Horses have few natural predators, and in many areas numbers are on the rise. If populations are le to get out of control, individual health can suffer. Drought During times of drought, the sick, old and young are at risk. Without adequate water, some horses succumb to dehydration and others struggle to find enough food. Competition for grazing Feral horses are not native to their local environments, and compete with local wildlife for food and water. Horses are adaptable, and oen win over at the end of the day.

Asian elephant In Northern India, there is a population of feral horses le aer WWII. Here, they coexist with Asian elephants. Smaller than their African cousins, but still weighing an enormous 2.25 – 5.5 tonnes (2,000-5,000kg).

Bush fires and forest fires In hot, dry areas, warm weather can lead to fires that race through the dry vegetation. Enormous swathes of land can be damaged, leaving nothing for the horses to eat.

Iberian wolf In Portugal there are two populations of feral horse, the Sorraia and the Garrano, and they share their home with a grey wolf. These feisty animals use co-operative hunting tactics to take down large prey.

© Alamy; Thinkstock; Dreamstime

Black footed rock wallaby In Australia, the Brumby share their environment with kangaroos and wallabies. The black-footed rock wallaby inhabits steep, rocky regions in the Northern Territory and compete for food with the horses.

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Endangered

Sumatran orangutan SUMATRAN ORANGUTAN Pongo abelii

Class Mammalia

Territory Island of Sumatra, Indonesia Diet Fruit, insects, bird eggs, bark, occasionally slow loris Lifespan 40-55 years Adult weight 60kg / 130lbs Conservation Status

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

These apes are some of our closest living relatives, sharing around 97% of our DNA. 100 years ago, there were an estimated 85,000 orangutans on the island of Sumatra, but as vast areas of forest were destroyed to make way for agricultural land, numbers have dropped to around 7,000. Conservation projects are racing to protect the last of these intelligent apes.

The causes of extinction Logging

Sumatran orangutans are treedwelling apes, dependent upon their forest home for survival. Extensive logging across Sumatra has devastated the species, and plans for a road to the north of the island will jeopardise the remaining forest.

Pet Trade

Orangutans are very popular as pets, and despite their protected status, they are still removed from the wild by poachers. These intelligent animals spend up to eight years raising their young, and when females are killed for their offspring, it seriously harms the future of the species.

Forest fires

Indonesia is the world’s biggest palm oil producer, and in some parts of Sumatra, forest fires are used to make space for palm plantations. As the fires rage uncontrolled through the forest, they destroy orangutan habitat, and kill any animals too slow to move out of the way.

What you can do WWW.SUMATRANORANGUTAN.ORG Take a look at the Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, who are working to protect the remaining habitat and its inhabitants through a combination of research, campaigns, reintroduction programs, and public education.

46

Sumatran orangutan Decreasing numbers Numbers of Sumatran Orangutans have decreased by around 91% in the last century

“Sumatran orangutans share around 97% of our DNA”

Total today

Total in 1900

7,350

85,000

Estimated total animal population in Sumatran

Estimated total animal population 100 years ago

What is being done to help? The Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Program are working on several projects to protect the remaining orangutan populations

Drones Orangutan habitat is difficult to access, and the apes spend the vast majority of their time in the trees. In order to observe them, the team at Conservation Drones Asia use remote controlled aircra with built in cameras that don’t disturb the apes.

Conservation

The decreasing habitat

Territory in 1900 Territory in 2014

Confiscation Pet orangutans are still illegally captured from the wild, and there is an ongoing effort to return these animals to their homes. To protect wild orangutans, the confiscated pets are quarantined and monitored for illness, before being rehabilitated at specialist centres. Once they are ready to return to the wild, they are released into safe areas away from the main wild populations.

Rehabilitation Sumatra Java

Orangutans must be reintroduced into the wild gradually. Those taken for the pet trade oen know little about how to survive on their own. These intelligent animals learn by watching, so staff at the rehabilitation centres hold food up to their mouths, or even eat it themselves, to demonstrate which items are safe to eat.

© Corbis

Hawaii

Sumatran orangutans used to inhabit the entire Indonesian island of Sumatra, and even parts of Java, but their range is now fragmented, and just a few thousand animals remain in isolated areas to the north.

Most of the remaining orangutans are found in a protected area of the island, known as the Leuser Ecosystem, but for other populations, habitat is still under threat. Campaigns are underway to protect the Batang Toru area, which houses an important population of wild orangutans, and researchers have a permanent monitoring station in the forest.

47

Nature’s greatest architects

48

BEAVERS NATURE’S GREATEST

ARCHITECTS Rarely can a rodent be accredited with such landscapeshaping achievements as the humble beaver Words Ella Carter-Sutton The Eurasian beaver is one of the world’s biggest rodents. There are very few beaver families left in the UK, and most can be found in areas of France, Germany, Norway and Russia. These cute-looking critters make their homes in woodlands with flowing streams, and through a series of amazing construction projects and hard work they transform these ecosystems into wooded wetlands to suit their semi-aquatic lifestyle. As total herbivores, beavers like to munch on tree bark and aquatic vegetation. They use their colossal front teeth to gnaw at the base of trees to cut down the timber that they need to build their dams and lodges. To ensure nothing is wasted the beavers will nibble off the tasty bark before dragging the log through specially built woodland canals for use on the dam. An adult beaver can move its body weight in timber, but when it’s floated on the water, it’s

even easier to shift. Dams are amazing structures of beaver engineering. Made of timber, mud, boulders and all other kinds of woodland mulch, a dam is a beaver’s life’s work. They constantly plug any leaks to keep the dam sturdy, often locating a tiny breach simply by listening for the telltale trickle of water. A whole beaver family can live comfortably in the specially built lodge. Protected by underwater entrances and a moat, the beavers can get out for food even when the whole pond is iced over in winter. Beavers don’t hibernate, and their winter food store is an ingenious underwater ‘fridge’ full of vegetation collected during autumn. Beaver parents are monogamous, and give birth to three to four babies, known as kits, in spring. Often, the yearlings from the previous litter will still be living at home when the new arrivals are born, making the lodge one full family household.

49

Nature’s greatest architects

How beavers build a lodge Beavers use intelligence, teamwork and incredibly adapted bodies and minds to build homes fit for a king Source the materials The foundations of the lodge are built from all kinds of materials available, like rocks, mud, bark, grass, leaves and timber.

Build the foundations Beavers start construction by shoving twigs, sticks, rubble and mud into the silt that lies at the bottom of the pool in their spot.

Await optimum conditions Constant attention and repairs ensure that the pond quickly fills up, and once the depth reaches 1.2m or deeper, creation begins!

What beavers use to build Equipped with the best tools in the business, beavers make use of some very handy adaptations to construct their impressive homes

Underwater proofing The beaver’s nostrils and ears ‘close’ underwater and flaps of skin found behind the front teeth allow it to swim and carry sticks in its mouth without the risk of drowning.

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Long, sharp teeth The beaver is known for its huge set of front teeth set in powerful jaws. These teeth grow continuously and are kept sharp by the beaver’s penchant for gnawing wood.

Thick fur coat Beavers produce a slick waterproofing oil that they comb through their super-thick fur, providing a snug dry coat that’s great for building work in all seasons.

Clever eyes Although the beaver’s eyesight isn’t perfect, they have an amazing third eyelid that is clear, allowing them to see underwater and protect their eyes at the same time.

Large, flat tail The beaver’s tail provides thrust when they are in the water and balance on land when mending dams and building lodges. It’s long, flat and scaley.

Strong, webbed feet The back feet are webbed, which provides an efficient method of swimming. These are tipped with strong claws that provide grip on slippery logs and branches.

Busy mammals with the power to change whole ecosystems The work of the beaver also changes the plants and animals that live in the surrounding areas It’s thought that beavers are second only to humans when it comes to having an impact on their environment. Beavers prefer to cut down specific types of trees to use in their construction projects and for food. And so over time, the forests around the beaver pond will change. Small shrubs and saplings will overtake the land that was once colonised by tall trees. This new vegetation will bring with it other species that prefer to eat it, and so this shift travels up the food chain as more animals and plants take advantage of the new ecosystem.

Behind the dam, the pond created by the beavers is still, slow-moving water. Aquatic species such as fish and amphibians that prefer the still water of the pond will move in, again changing the whole makeup of the pond’s biodiversity. The dam not only holds back water, it holds all the silt and mud washed down with the stream. This acts as a nutrient store, and so when the dam eventually breaks, it sends a huge spill of nutrient-laden sediment out across the land. This provides a rich, fertile base for colonisation of yet more plants and animals.

Add to the framework Once a solid foundation is built, the beavers will then set about adding more and more sticks, twigs, logs and plant matter to the dome.

Apply some weatherproofing Once the structure is complete, it’s time to add a thick layer of mud. Just like the Bronze Age wattle and daub method of weatherproofing.

ABOVE As herbivores, beavers like nothing more than feasting on aquatic vegetation

Beavers by numbers

15

MINUTES the maximum amount of time a beaver can stay underwater

3

tons

Finishing touches Beavers will line their chambers with reeds and comfy bedding for sleeping and raising baby kits. It makes for a very snug home.

Add the front door Now the lodge is ready for the beavers to begin the interior work. To begin this, they start with the entrances.

the amount of raw materials it takes to build a lodge the size of a double garage

850

METRES

the world’s largest beaver dam, built in northern Canada by North American beavers can be seen from space!

5

mph the fastest swimming speed for an average adult beaver

1.8

Carve out the interior Once the underwater entrances are in, the beavers hollow out the part of the domed lodge structure that is above the water level.

METRES

the average height of a beaver dam. Behind this, the water depth is 1.2-1.8m and the dam’s thickness is 1.5m or more

51

Nature’s greatest architect

Saving us from floods

Beavers, as ecosystem engineers, have a profound effect on the environment, and sometimes, that can affect humans and other animals

Where beavers build dams that create large ponds, carve channels into woodland and build lodges, this has a knock-on effect on the way water flows. In an area before beavers moved in, a stream would flow directly from A to B. When beavers set up shop, the dam holds the water back and the flow is slowed dramatically. In-flowing water is also diverted through numerous beaver-made channels, introduced into areas of woodland that would otherwise not be reached. The water is gradually released as a result of beaver activity, instead of being free to cascade down the valleys in flash floods with the onset of heavy rains. All of this keeps much more water upstream and on higher

ground, and prevents the prevalence of flooding further down the river where it may affect human activity. It’s estimated that an ecosystem can hold up to 40 times the volume of water than prior to beaver colonisation. Dams limit the flow of water further down the valley. In turn, this also dampens the effects of erosion.

ABOVE The average height of a beaver dam is 1.8 metres, but the highest on record stands at an incredible 850 metres!

EURASIAN BEAVER Castor fiber

Class Mammalia

Territory Europe, Scandinavia, central Russia Diet Wood and aquatic plants Lifespan 7-8 years Adult weight 13-35kg/2977lbs Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

How do beavers help stop flooding? Dr Carol Johnston discusses the amazing impact beavers have had on North America

Why do beavers build? Beavers build to create habitat. They are semi-aquatic mammals and they are good at swimming underwater and when they are in water they’re pretty invincible. They aren’t subject to predation because they swim so quickly and so they build a dam – the dam creates a pond. Within the pond they’re pretty safe from predators like wolves.

How do beavers help the environment? In the western US, beavers have been promoted as a technique for managing water sheds, for keeping the water cleaner, for reducing erosion and promoting sedimentation – keeping the sediment on the land rather than washing it down into reservoirs. They also affect

52

nitrogen. When nitrogen is in the form of nitrate it can be a water pollutant that would promote eutrophication and grow some algae. In beaver ponds there are anaerobic soils – oxygen-free soils – and by having those oxygenfree soils it converts nitrates into gaseous nitrogen, keeping it out of the water. The water table would be farther from the surface of the land so there would be fewer oxygen-free zones to provide denitrification.

Do they have much impact on landscapes? In the US some wetlands were created by beavers along with many changes in the landscape. One of the main effects is instead of having just solid forest, we now have a mosaic of ponds, wetlands from drained beaver ponds, wet meadows from drained beaver ponds. At Voyageurs National Park, trapping has not been allowed since 1975 so we have had a glimpse at what beavers’ influence would be on a landscape because there’s been a lack of human intervention. They have impounded about 13 per cent of the land in that park and that’s a pretty big percentage. They have also eaten in little bath tub rings

around their pond, they’ve eaten out the Aspen, their preferred tree species, and affected another 12-13 per cent of the landscape that way. So about a quarter of the landscape was affected by beavers in total.

Do any other animals benefit from beavers’ builds? It’s a much more diverse kind of landscape and now areas [where they’ve built] have more aquatic species like ducks and frogs, whereas before it was just forest animals… Beavers build a dam which creates a pond, because in water they’re pretty invincible. Because of beaver activity, instead of having solid forest, the US landscape now has a mosaic of ponds, wetlands, wet meadows and rings of altered vegetation. We have a much more diverse landscape… more aquatic species of ducks and frogs and things that are really using the water bodies, even larger mammals. For example, moose use beaver ponds. Female moose that have recently given birth use pond areas as a place to raise calves. Also, a number of upland species like deer make use of beaver ponds and beaver meadows as habitats.

© Alamy, Corbis, The Art Agency; Sandra Doyle

Carol Johnston Professor at South Dakota State university Having studied beavers for more than 30 years, Dr Carol Johnston is a leading expert on beaver activity

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Wildlife of Asian mangroves

54

Wildlife of the Asian mangroves These coastal swamps are full of peculiar animals, from fish in trees to birds that walk on water Words Amy Grisdale The forests on the edges of the oceans are strongholds for a dazzling array of animals, from fish that can live in trees to birds that walk on water. More than 50 species of mangrove tree grow where no other plants possibly could – the brackish waters of sheltered coastlines or river deltas. There are 40 million acres of mangrove forests protecting coastlines from erosion across the globe and 30 per-cent of these are in south-east Asia, where mangrove trees are thought to have originated 70 million years ago.

Mangrove trees are adapted for growth in mud with little oxygen and are anchored with long roots that defend against changing tides. These roots can even absorb oxygen from air at low tide. Specialised root cells help control levels of salt uptake, and absorbed salt crystals are stored by the leaves, which are routinely shed to expel built-up waste. These aquatic forests serve as breeding grounds for fish and crustaceans and an important food source for mammals and birds. They are arguably some of the most important habitats on Earth.

55

Wildlife of Asian mangroves Langur

Egret

Ruddy kingfisher The enormous stock of fish supports fishing and wading birds, from egrets and kingfishers to eagles. Well camouflaged and quick to strike, these birds are the true masters of hunting the mangrove forests and will spend hours poised still until an unsuspecting fish swims towards them. Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin Green turtle

Asian short-clawed otter

Chestnut rail

Barnacles

Lemon shark Lemon sharks are ocean dwellers that begin life in mangrove estuaries. These swampy areas are nursery grounds for young sharks that find solace between the splayed prop-roots of mangrove trees. These animal-rich areas are perfect for vulnerable young sharks that need to grow and learn to hunt.

Lyretail anthias

Water dwellers Beneath the crystal clear surface, colourful fish swarm to breed in the briny water sheltered by the spider-like mangrove roots. These cushion the blow of the tide for nurseries of young fish that will grow up to live on nearby coral reefs. The thick mud is home to burrowing creatures, sought out by crabs and other creatures. Barnacles carried inland by the tide seek shelter by binding to roots and clean the water by feeding on dissolved nutrients. The flurry of fish in mangrove forests attracts larger animals like the ferocious lemon shark, whose diet is composed of bony fish like gobies that thrive in these brackish waters. Banded sea snakes glide silently through the water and lie in wait for passing animals, staying submerged for up to half an hour. The biggest underwater predator of a mangrove forest is the saltwater crocodile that despite their six metre (20

foot) size can conceal themselves beneath the rippling waves. Mangroves see the hatching of newborn crocodiles that ride on their mother’s back until their swimming skills are up to scratch, and once they start fending for themselves the shady roots of mangroves become the perfect hiding place. Even the water’s surface is brimming with life, from ants that can balance on the top of the ocean to leaping pink Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins on the prowl for a meal. They scan the swamp by listening for the echo of the clicks they emit and can even see creatures buried beneath the claylike mud the mangroves are anchored in. Asian short-clawed otters make use of mangrove forests and feed on the enormous variety of fish and crabs that scuttle along the seabed.

“Newborn crocodiles ride on their mother’s back until their swimming skills are up to scratch” 56

Star animals of Asian mangroves

Proboscis monkey This monkey lives almost exclusively in mangrove and estuarine areas and can be seen wading and swimming in the water. The famous protruding nose helps enhance the vocalizations they make but is only possessed by males that can grow to double the size of females.

Snakehead fish

Brahminy kite eagle

Not only can the snakehead fish walk, but it can breathe. They are known to rest on low branches and gulp air to escape underwater predators.

Tiger Royal Bengal tigers are known to stalk mangrove forests and take advantage of the shelter and vast sources of food the forests provide. Certain tiger populations rely on these trees and as some mangrove areas shrink, the fate of the tiger begins to be called into question. Mud crab

Brahminy kite eagle This white-headed eagle nests in the highest trees in mangrove forests while hunting and scavenging, often stealing food from other birds.

Saltwater crocodile

Langur

Snakehead fish

Mudskipper

Gobies

Banded sea snake

Male fiddler crabs are weighed down by a single large claw that they wave around in a display to attract females. Asymmetry in nature is rare, but the claw helps cool the crab down during it’s mating dance on the beach, and the largest claws attract the most female fiddlers.

Between the trees LEFT The incredible roots of the mangrove tree can control salt uptake

The glittering array of life beneath the land attracts a whole host of fishing predators, the most colourful being the ruddy kingfisher. This ruby-red beauty is a skilled fish stalker and plucks out prey with its sharp beak in one swoop. It dives with the utmost precision after watching from a branch high above. Herons and egrets wade in the shallow waters in search of fish and marine worms buried in the soft sediment, though they are wary of lurking crocodiles that may be silently approaching. Chestnut rails hop between lily pads on the water’s surface and feed on darting fish spooked by the bird’s movement. Crabs scuttle along the shores of mangrove forests and provide a food source for monkeys with strong teeth for crunching through shells, often while taking a swim to forage for shellfish. Mangroves are home to fish that defy the laws of nature by leaving the water. Mudskippers hug the shoreline and flit between shallow puddles with their hand-like fins. They are adapted to live mostly on land by filling their gills with

These monkeys live in families and are specialist leaf-eaters that have adapted to process salty mangroves in their multichambered stomachs.

water, but can also absorb oxygen from the surrounding air through their skin. The fierce snakehead fish can stay out of water for three days at a time and grow to over a metre (three feet) in length. Big cats are frequent visitors to mangrove shores, either to hunt or simply cool off in the water. Tigers blend in between the trees and pounce on bizarre proboscis monkeys foraging in the shallows of mangrove swamps. Eagles wait high in the trees for the opportunity to dive in for a meal, and can even take off with young crocodiles between their talons. The treetops and waterways of mangrove forests are alive with animals, and without the survival ability of the tough trees these coastal areas of south-east Asia would be bare.

See it for yourself

WWW.LANGKAWIMANGROVETOURS.COM

This tour covers the Kilim nature park and the islands of the Langkawi archipelago, taking visitors to see mangrove wildlife and even offering kayak tours.

© Alamy, Thinkstock; Dreamstime; The Art Agency

Fiddler crab

57

Amazing migrations

58

AMAZING

MIGRATIONS Discover the journeys made by nature’s most dedicated wanderers Words Amy Grisdale

Christmas Island closes when crabs migrate

Every year 120 million crabs make the nine kilometre (six mile) trek from the heart of the island’s rainforest to the shoreline, causing extensive road closures. Once they reach the beach the crabs mate and release their fertilised eggs into the ocean before heading back to the forest. Newly hatched crabs follow in their parents’ footsteps only a month later in the annual ‘red tide’ that wreaks even more havoc on the roads of Christmas Island.

59

Amazing migrations

Zebras have had the same route for 15,000 years Zebra migration begins on the banks of the Chobe river in Namibia, where they graze throughout the dry season. Once the wet season begins they move south to Botswana taking an arrow-straight path covering more than 480 kilometres (300 miles). These zebras have been taking this epic journey for 15,000 years, although it was halted briefly after 1968 when fences were put up as part of human settlements.

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Migrations Flamingos can cover 370 miles a night Some flamingos in higher-altitude habitats migrate to escape the frost while those in areas suffering from drought seek deep water. They tend to fly at night to hide from predators and can cover distances of 600 kilometres (370 miles) in a night. Flocks congregate in their new grounds and continue foraging, and participate in their iconic breeding rituals.

Adélie penguins start with a jump-off These tiny penguins are not only the smallest penguins living in Antarctica, they migrate further than any other Antarctic animal 17,600 kilometres (11,000 miles). They breed further south than any other penguin, and after three months of raising newborns they begin their march north. This trip requires a lot of food, so while they’re on their way they eat as much as possible.

61

Amazing migrations

Wildebeest migration is the seventh wonder of the world The longest migration of any land mammal is taken by the wildebeest of the Serengeti, travelling 3,000 kilometres (1,800 miles) every year. They are constantly on the move in search of grass, and herds are made up of over a million wildebeest. After the birth of up to 500,000 calves in February, herds begin their circular path of the Serengeti across plains and even through rivers. Once the annual circle is complete, wildebeest then start all over again.

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Atlantic rays travel in their millions

© Corbis, Rex Features, Thinkstock

Schools of rays over two metres (six feet) across migrate 1,125 kilometres (700 miles) in groups of thousands, congregating in enormous groups to mate. Areas including Chesapeake Bay in the USA, see millions of rays arrive almost overnight even though the rays swim at half the walking speed of a human.

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20 Amazing facts Golden eagles

One of the biggest and most fearless birds alive today, this eagle is more intelligent than you might think

They can dive at almost 200 miles per hour

Scientists have clocked golden eagles speeding towards the ground at nearly 320 kilometres (200 miles) per hour. When soaring high, it’s important to be able to reach prey on the ground in the blink of eye. The birds fly towards land with their eyes on the target and talons ready to grasp. They can land clumsily, but at such speed, who can blame them?

Changing direction with wingtips The feathers at the very tips of a golden eagle’s wings are spaced out similarly to human fingers. Manipulating the position of these outer feathers helps the bird make sharp turns during flight or when beginning a steep dive, acting as natural rudders in the air.

Golden eagles rarely make noise other than mating calls, but they sometimes emit soft whistles while flying. Unlike many birds of prey that have bare feet, the legs of a golden eagle are feathered all the way down to the toes.

A golden eagle’s nest or eyrie can be two metres (six feet) in diameter, made of grass and twigs to camouflage and protect the chick from predators. Eagles often bulk out nests with bones, and found human objects.

On occasions, golden eagles run on the ground with their wings extended in pursuit of prey rather than flying.

They break shells by dropping them In tropical areas golden eagles have managed to figure out the best way to hunt tortoises, which are protected by their tough shells. Aer grabbing an unlucky tortoise, an eagle will rise up and let it fall to the ground, breaking open the shell and leaving the meat ready to eat.

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Females outweigh males Unlike many animal species, female golden eagles are larger than males - weighing up to six kilograms (13 pounds) compared with the male’s three kilograms (seven pounds). This is because females are responsible for laying eggs, meaning they need as much nutrition as possible to produce healthy chicks.

Golden eagles Just like an owl, a golden eagle can rotate its neck to see 360 degrees around. Its neck only twists 270 degrees, but in both directions. An average golden eagle has 7000 feathers, which all together weigh only 600 grams (1.3 pounds).

Golden eagles are very clean and bathe in fresh water very frequently. They also need to drink a lot, which is why they roost close to fresh water. Golden eagles have been known to dive-bomb humans wearing red. Captive eagles reportedly get excited by red objects, and blood has the same effect. Eagles seem to confuse red objects for the fresh blood of prey.

They work together to hunt Golden eagles have been spotted using teamwork to trap prey. One bird holds the attention of a prey animal while the other sneaks up behind it. If prey is in the air, eagles will approach it in pairs to minimise chances of escape. These kinds of hunting strategies make golden eagles one of the best airborne hunters on Earth.

They hunt fullygrown deer

Golden eagles are some of the biggest birds on the planet and when it comes to hunting they have no fear. They catch adult deer, wild dogs and farmers even report golden eagles killing their livestock. Rather than fly away with the entire animal, these eagles strip away as much meat as possible before a scavenger comes for the carcass. When the eagle is finished, there’s rarely much meat left.

With its sharp vision, a golden eagle can spot prey over a mile (1.6 kilometres) away, though prey that stays still has a good chance of escape.

Eagles mate for life, returning to their nest site every year. Once the chicks have left the nest, pairs still live and hunt together. If one of the pair is lost, the other eagle will seek a new mate.

They have incredible vision A human retina has 200,000 light-sensitive cells per millimetre (500 million per square inch), whereas an eagle retina has one million light-sensitive cells per millimetre (250 billion per square inch). This means that a golden eagle’s vision is five times sharper than a human’s, although it’s fairly poor at night.

Eagles play catch Courtship involves Eagles have been seen playing an aerial display with sticks or dead prey while flying. A lone eagle will fly up high with their toy and drop it before chasing after it and catching it in mid air. Groups of eagles throw items to one another to sharpen their skills or even to pass time if they aren’t hungry. Games like this are especially important for young eagles to learn survival skills.

When partnering up, golden eagles perform a ritual in the air known as ‘sky dancing’. Each eagle can perform over 20 death-defying dives and spinning loops to impress a mate. Pairs then perform intricate swoops and dives together, locking talons and spiralling towards the ground with their wings spread wide, until releasing one another and soaring back upwards.

© Rex Features, Alamy, Thinkstock,

Golden eagles rely heavily on smell to detect their prey, especially at night when their excellent vision doesn’t work as well.

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Panther

MYSTERIES OF THE

P

R

Stealthier and more successful hunters, the black cats of the world have reaped benefits from a genetic mutation Words Laura Mears

Silently stalking prey in the dead of night, black panthers are among the most fearsome felines on Earth, with some of the strongest bites of all time. Their silky black fur is a result of melanism – a genetic condition creating the opposite of an albino animal. Unlike living without pigment, a panther’s dark fur doesn’t make it more recognisable. In fact, studies have shown that black panthers are better at sneaking up on prey, and some monkeys will ignore a big cat without its characteristic markings.

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With canine teeth measuring seven centimetres (three inches), this black beauty is the ultimate hunter of tropical jungles and will stop at nothing to kill. Panthers can swim, climb, pounce and bite to bring down prey, and hunt alone. Black panthers live in Africa and South America, where they are dark-furred forms of leopards and jaguars respectively. Their common ancestor moved from Africa across the Atlantic around 10 million years ago, and found a jungle full of monkeys to chase in South America.

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Mysteries of the Panther The black fur of the panther (here, a black leopard) has given it a sizeable hunting advantage

LEOPARD

Panthera pardus Class Mammalia

Territory Africa and Asia Diet Carnivore Lifespan 25 years (captivity) Adult weight Up to 64kg/140lb Conservation Status

NEAR THREATENED

What is a panther?

The term, 'black panther' does not refer to any one species of animal, and in different parts of the world, black panthers are different animals entirely The word ‘panther’ can be used to describe any of the four largest species in the Panthera genus - a closely related group of animals otherwise known as the big cats, which includes (in descending order of size), tigers, lions, leopards, and jaguars. Of these, only leopards and jaguars are known to have a black (or ‘melanistic’) colour

variant, and both are commonly referred to as ‘black panthers’. There are reports of pseudo-melanistic lions and tigers, with abnormally dark colouring, but they are incredibly rare, and are usually a combination of black, grey, and brown. True black panthers of these species have never been scientifically documented.

Leopard Panthera pardus The gene responsible for melanism in leopards is recessive, meaning that an individual requires two

faulty copies in order to have black fur. The trait is uncommon in brightly lit areas and the majority of leopards living in Africa and Asia are the classic tawny fur colour, with black rosettes and spots.

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Jaguar Panthera onca Black jaguars have a different mutation to black leopards, and the trait is dominantly inherited; only one copy of the gene is required for a jaguar to be born with black fur. These animals have a fault in the gene involved in the production of the dark pigment, melanin, majorly increasing the amount deposited in each hair as it grows.

Florida panther Puma concolor In some parts of the world cats known as ‘panthers’ aren’t in fact members of the Panthera genus. A North American rare subspecies of cougar called the Florida panther is brown and grey. A black variant is rumoured, but not confirmed.

Panther

Why are panthers black? A genetic mutation known as melanism gives big cats in the wild the advantage Leopards are ambush predators, and use their spotted camouflage to hide in dappled shade, but in some parts of the world, their fur is almost pitch black. If you look closely, you can still see their spotted markings, but a genetic mutation increases the amount of pigment in their hairs, allowing these rare cats to blend effortlessly with the dark shadows of the forest. This black variant is known as melanism, and is the result of a single genetic mutation. The colour of leopard fur is controlled by two genes involved in the production of pigments known as melanins. One gene switches on production of dark coloured eumelanin, and the other switches on the production of reddish pheomelanin. In black leopards, the gene that turns on the production of pheomelanin is

damaged, permanently turning production of reddish pigments ‘off’, and tipping melanin production over to the darker eumelanin, resulting in fur that is almost completely black. The dark pigment is also deposited in the iris, giving black leopards their characteristic ambercoloured eyes. Melanism is not unique to leopards; 11 species of wild cats are known to have this pigment abnormality in their populations, and unconfirmed sightings have been reported for a further nine. The trait is thought to have evolved at least five times separate times in wild cats; an indication that it might give the animals some advantage in their natural habita other species also have melanistic varia domestic cats, to squirrels, snakes, and

Thanks to their amazing colouration, black leopards have been popular in captivity, and have been bred for their beautiful coats. This has lead to health and fertility problems, and also a change in temperament, leading some leopard mothers to abandon their aggressive melanistic cubs in captivity. However, in the wild, this natural genetic abnormality has proved a significant survival advantage in some areas, and in some isolated pockets of the population, particularly in parts of Asia, melanistic leopards are have become common than their lightcoloured counterparts.

“In some isolated pockets of the population, melanistic leopards are now more common than their light-coloured counterparts” These baby panthers are leopard cubs who have inherited the gene for melanism - their markings remain visible despite their dark fur

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Mysteries of the Panther Europe

North America

Habitat range

Central America Black jaguars roam in fragmented areas of Central America and are even spotted as far north as California, New Mexico and Arizona. Once common in these areas, the range of the jaguar has shrunk to half its former size, but sightings still occur in the USA today.

Black leopard Black jaguar

Subtleties that separate jaguars and leopards

Spot size Leopard spots are arranged into tight rosettes on their back and sides, with plain spots on their heads, tails and legs. Jaguars have much larger rosettes.

© Getty, Alamy, Rex Features, Thinkstock

Head size Leopards kill their prey by crushing the windpipe, but jaguars kill by crushing the skull. As a result their heads are larger, and their jaw muscles stronger.

Body size Jaguars are stocky and muscular, with an obvious curve to their back. Leopards are the smallest of the big cats, and are much leaner, with long bodies, and relatively short legs.

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Africa

Habitat adaptability Jaguars live in an area of 8.7 million square kilometres (3.4 million square miles), from the swamps of the rainforest to dry desert plains. Doing well in water, up trees and dusty open areas helps jaguars cover such a vast patch of land and makes it one of the continent’s best predators.

From a common ancestor around 10 million years ago, leopards and jaguars are now spread across continents. Early jaguars may have crossed the Atlantic by accident.

Jaguar Vs leopard

Ethiopian Highlands In mountains of central and northern Ethiopia, up to 1 in 5 leopards are black. The environment is dense forest, and dark colours may help the big cats to blend in to their surroundings.

South America Jaguars need jungle The largest population of jaguars is in Amazonian Brazil and no further as the cat needs jungle cover. It once roamed as far south as Argentina, but as humans populations rose the largest cat in the Americas began to retreat between the trees.

Aberdare Range, Kenya Black leopards are rare in most parts of Kenya, but higher numbers can be found in the mountains. It is possible that there is a thermal advantage to having a black coat at high altitudes, allowing the leopards to absorb more heat from the Sun.

Panther Southern India The Indian leopard is most oen spotted, but coat colour varies throughout its range, and in drier areas, fur tends to be lighter. There are melanistic leopards in southern India, but they are rare, and tend to stay in tropical forests.

The advantages of melanism Asia Malay peninsula A recent camera trap study in the forests at the tip of the Malaysian peninsula revealed that every leopard in the area is melanistic, and the local people, the Orang Asli, have reportedly never seen a spotted leopard, despite knowing every animal in the forest.

Melanism in wild cats is relatively common, and is thought to have evolved on at least five separate occasions, suggesting that this genetic mutation gives these stealthy predators an advantage in the wild. Hunting leopards rely on camouflage to remain hidden, and fur colour can have a major influence on their success. In drier areas, leopards tend to be light in colour. In snow, their fur can be greyish, and in dark tropical forests, black leopards are more common.

However, camouflage is not the only advantage of melanism. Genetic abnormalities that affect coat colour can have some unusual effects elsewhere in the body, and there is evidence that melanism in leopards might have a protective effect on the immune system. Receptors involved in melanin production also play a role in the entry of dangerous viruses into cells, and animals with the black colour variant may have some protection against disease.

Melanism in other animals

Black rat snake Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta Melanism occurs in several species of snake. Reptiles are cold blooded, and dark skin can decrease the time it takes them to get to the right temperature. However, it does make them more obvious than their camouflaged companions, and whether it has any appreciable advantage in the wild is debated.

Black wolf Canis lupus Black wolves are a melanistic colour variant of North American grey wolves. It is thought that the gene for black fur may have entered the wild population due to inbreeding with domestic dogs, but the dark colour seems to be allowing wolves to survive better due to improved camouflage in forest environments.

Black squirrel Sciurus carolinensis Some grey squirrels have a mutation that means that instead of producing normal hairs (with a combination of grey, brown and white stripes), the hairs that cover their bodies are pure black in colour. Squirrels that have one copy of this gene are brown-black in colour, and animals with two copies are black.

“This genetic mutation actually gives these stealthy predators an advantage in the wild” 73

ELEPHANT

FAMILY

74

Elephants

TIES

Elephant bonds are unlike any in the animal kingdom. Their incredible relationships transcend generations and pass on traditions Words Amy Grisdale

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Elephant family ties

Unbreakable relationships How elephants form some of the strongest bonds in the animal kingdom from birth

Elephants are some of the most intelligent creatures on Earth and build complex relationships. These gentle giants show emotion and form bonds with their friends and family that cannot be broken or forgotten. Elephant communication can take the form of spoken sounds, simple touches or even vibrations caused by stamping. Behaviour that might seem random to an observer helps to maintain life-long bonds within elephant societies. Elephants can recognise and distinguish between others and each has an individual personality. They can even recognise themselves in a mirror, an indication of extreme intelligence and a level of self-awareness that only a handful of animals possess. Along with apes and dolphins, elephants have emotion cells in their brains that generate social emotions like compassion, embarrassment and even humour. Animals with such astonishing intelligence develop close-knit societies and hierarchies to avoid conflict and in doing so form unbreakable bonds with their family members that continue even after death. The bond between a baby elephant and its mother could be among the closest relationships on the planet and it begins to form before the calf is born. Elephants have the longest pregnancies of any animal at 22 months,

ABOVE A young elephant clings to its mother’s tail for guidance when walking

ABOVE During the suckling period, mother and child are inseparable and behave as one

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so by the time the calf takes its very first breath the mother has been caring for her baby for nearly two years. Mothers help their calves to stand minutes after birth, and the pair are inseparable for five years or more. During the suckling period, calves and mothers behave in unison while the mother constantly caresses and reassures her baby with her trunk, all the time making soft, soothing noises. Calves walk under their mother in their early days, her bulk protecting the baby’s young skin from the sun. The mother washes the calf and teaches it how to deal with life’s problems, and isn’t afraid to discipline her calf if it disobeys her. When walking long distances, a calf grips its mother’s tail firmly with its trunk, but the mother will let the baby walk in front when tackling a steep hill. She often resorts to pushing her calf up tough inclines, and will sometimes even carry her precious offspring over obstacles. Elephant mothers defend their young aggressively if necessary, demonstrating their power if challenged. New elephants are viewed with suspicion but related females can play with, protect and even suckle calves of other females. The first bond an elephant makes not only lasts a lifetime, but also teaches it to bond with others.

AFRICAN ELEPHANT Loxodonta africana Class Mammalia

Territory East, west and south Africa Diet Grasses and leaves Lifespan Up to 60 years Adult weight 5500 kg / 12,125 lbs Conservation Status

VULNERABLE

Elephants

Secrets of a matriarchal society Why sisterhood in elephant communities is so important Elephants live in female-dominated societies where groups are made of adult females and their dependent offspring. Males leave their mother in their teenage years but females stay with their family forever, forming part of the group and taking their place in the hierarchy. This order of dominance reduces competition between family members, keeping stress at a minimum and making life easier. Groups of closely associated family groups are termed ‘bond groups’ by elephant researchers, and the relationships in these groups are incredibly strong. After being apart, members of extended families perform

energetic greeting ceremonies to convey how excited they are to see one another. Bonds between females extend to allowing one another to care for their young and baby sitting is prevalent in elephant families. If a calf is orphaned it will be adopted by a relative, or if a calf is found alone an unrelated female will begin to care for it. This alone demonstrates how emotionally intelligent elephants are and how their empathy extends to taking on an extra mouth to feed. Females communicate vocally to strengthen bonds. Rumbles are the most common sounds elephants make and these noises are thought

to communicate emotion. Elephants are able to detect the specific emotion being conveyed through the tone of the caller’s voice. They also communicate through play throughout life, so even the oldest elephants play with objects they find, play-fight and even chase one another. This helps young elephants develop skills needed in later life, as well as helping adults sustain bonds within the group. An elephant’s most prized commodity is energy, and social bonding is so important that they are willing to use their vital energy for it.

Migration memory Elephants can travel over 80 kilometres (50 miles) in a single day, which is the equivalent of running back-to-back marathons. The longest ranging elephants are in Mali, making an annual journey of 32,000 kilometres (20,000 miles), which is a long way to go if you can’t remember the way.

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Elephant family ties

Elephants never forget From crossing roads at the same safe spots, to forming long-term social bonds, memory is one of the elephants’ greatest weapon The relationships elephants build in their lives are long lasting, and elephants that have been separated for longer than 20 years remember one another and are happy to be reunited. Even those that only meet briefly can form long-term links that can be remembered over an entire lifetime. Strange elephants are immediately noticed by groups, who are able to adopt defensive positions in case the newcomer is hostile. As elephants age their memories improve and at the age of 60, the dominant

female has the most memory power within the group. The ability to form long-term memory is an important part of maintaining social bonds, and they even bond to their home ranges. Living in the hot African plains can be tough, and in dry years remembering the locations of extra watering holes is a huge survival advantage. Elephants don’t travel randomly, their movement is purposeful and they tend to stick to direct pathways from memory. Researchers have even noted that elephants

consistently cross roads at the same safe places. If access to a regular patch of food becomes blocked, elephants can remember alternate routes and recognise the physical features of a destination from an unfamiliar position. The secret to never forgetting lies in the elephant’s enormous five kilogram (11 pound) brain, specifically the hippocampus. This is where all memory is processed and relative to its body size, an elephant has a bigger memory centre than a human.

The infamous memory of an elephant helps them remember where to find food and water

Missing lost friends

© Alamy, Corbis, Rex Features, Thinkstock

Elephants can tell the bones of their kind from others and grieve openly Very few animals mourn their dead, and elephants pay more attention to their dead than any other. An elephant might first try to help their lost companion to its feet, but when this fails they do not try again. Elephants understand what death means, and although elephant graveyards do not exist, these animals truly seem to mourn. Elephants become noticeably agitated when they discover a body, and they spend a significant time standing over or even caressing fallen friends. They will

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even go as far as guarding the body from lions or vultures looking to scavenge some fresh meat. As sad as it is, this behaviour really is incredible. Scientists wanting to learn more about this phenomenon presented wild elephants with several skulls from different species. The elephants dismissed the skulls of other animals and spent a lot of time inspecting the skull of their own kind, demonstrating that the bonds they form in life really do continue after death.

An elephant’s capacity for grief is further indication of their strong bonds

Although elephants live by a matriarchal hierarchy, males still come to blows

Male roles in a female-run society

The expert view on males from solitary living, aggression and having more fun than the females Caitlin O’Connell Dr O’Connell is an elephant expert and (quite literally) wrote the book on male elephant bonding. With a PhD in ecology, she studies elephants in their natural habitat, observing them visiting the watering hole, the centre of activity.

Before now, how did researchers think male elephants behaved? “Males were thought to be solitary, but other researchers suggested some of them might be loosely associated. We thought sometimes there might be bonded buddies, like smaller bulls following around an older bull or helping to feed an elderly bull, but it was not an accident that these highly associated males would come into the watering hole in groups.”

How did you start learning about male bonding behaviour? “Most vocalisations came from the females, but they were really night visitors. We spent a lot of time during the day watching the bulls while waiting for the females to arrive, and it didn’t take long to realise that the males were incredibly social. We were fascinated with how they had their own rituals that hadn’t been talked about before.”

What kind of patterns did you start to see in elephant bull interactions? “In the wet season their groups were smaller than the dry season. It seems that male elephants form large groups with dominance hierarchies to minimise conflict over resources. If there’s a lot of water available they can drink anywhere, but in extremely dry years there was a lot more order to the groups.”

Is forming a hierarchy a fair way to divide up resources? “It’s not a matter of fairness, it’s a way that social animals have figured out how to minimise conflict. If there was more aggression, low ranking elephants would be afraid to even try to get anything. If they know where they stand in the group they know they’ll get something eventually.”

Why aren’t males welcome in the family groups when they reach their teenage years? “If young males continue to live with their family there is a chance they could mate with their relatives, so the apple should spread further from the tree, so to speak. They roam a lot and move far away trying to find their new home range, but it’s better for the population that young bulls move away.”

Do males forget the bonds they make in early life? “It’s a very difficult time for a male aged 12 to 15. They want independence but stay attached to the family. The male and his family say goodbye, but it seems that the male ultimately doesn’t want to be alone. They immediately search for older males, forming groups. Some older bulls are receptive and some are not interested.”

Do males ever grow out of wanting to make bonds with others? “They don’t grow out of bonding but younger bulls appear to need it more. They don’t seem to bond less, because they have very strong relationships. They’re just less tactile as they get older, as if they don’t need that physical reaffirmation. They are incredibly bonded because they are always together.”

Are there any differences between male and female groups? “Elephant bulls seem to have a lot more fun than females. The females come to the water hole and are all business – they drink and leave. Males spend hours interacting with each other and subtle social politics come out. Older bulls tend to interact more with young bulls around so it seems like a good thing for everyone.”

How do you recognise different personalities in bull elephants? “By measuring their characters and behaviour over the years. If every time one elephant comes to the watering hole and he’s very social, you can differentiate between him and one who slaps the others with his trunk, pushing everyone around. There are big soies, bullies and diplomats – those characters come through clearly.”

How does a dominant male maintain his social bonds? “It’s fascinating to see the choices made by a dominant bull elephant. He could be aggressive to the point where he just raised his head for the others to back down, but was also very social. When he decided to leave, he would gently push the younger bulls as if to say “Come on, it’s time to go.”, like a dominant female would.”

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They have been immortalised in an animated Disney film, but Madagascar's endemic wildlife will astound you far more in real-life than through any movie magic Words David Crookes

Lying 400 kilometres (250 miles) off the lower eastern coast of Africa, the Republic of Madagascar is the world's fourth largest island after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo. It is a beautiful haven of lush rainforests to the east, desert to the south and tropical dry forests to the west and north. And with 4,800 kilometres (3,000 miles) of coastline and a steep mountain range, all teaming with wonderful creatures, some found only on this island, it has come to be a nature-lover's paradise. Madagascar began to form 160 million years ago when it split from the African mainland in what was then Gondwana, the more southerly of the world's two ancient continents. Around 72 million years later, it broke away

Africa

Madagascar

80

from India too, allowing the animals and plants that lived in this part of the world to evolve in isolation. Over time, the island has become informally known as the world's eighth continent and, today, it is home to a host of endemic wildlife and flora. Humans first stepped foot on Madagascar 2,000 years ago but clearing land for living space and dry rice cultivation has since had a negative impact. The island has become home to a number of endangered animals but conservation efforts are helping to protect this rich, biodiverse, living laboratory. As a result, it should long remain an exotic and important location for some of the world's most unique and rare animals.

The real animals of Madagascar

The Madagascar day gecko has sticky feet that cling to any surface

It is not uncommon to see gecko skin in Madagascar since they shed it at regular intervals

The Madagascar day gecko is a species of lizard that can be found living in the trees of the island's rainforests. Bright or light green in colour and, as the name suggests, mainly active in the day, their flattened, sticky toe pads with 5,000 tiny fine hairs per square millimetre cling to tree bark while enabling them to scurry across any surface with the greatest of ease. The largest day gecko is the phelsuma grandis, or giant day gecko, which is found mainly in the north and north west of Madagascar and can measure anything up to 30.5

centimetres (12 inches). The phelsuma madagascariensis is smaller and more predominant in the east but it is still impressive in size, with a length of up to 22 centimetres (8.7 inches). As with all geckos, neither have eyelids and so they keep the membrane of their eyes clean by licking them often. They also feed on fruit, nectar and insects, finding a plentiful supply amid the thick forest leaves. There are dozens more species of gecko in Madagascar. Leaf-tail geckos, for instance, are endemic to the island and their greenish-brown colouring helps them to blend into tree bark. The odd-looking spearpoint leaf-tail geckos are nocturnal and are found on Madagascar's outlying Nosy Bé island. The paroedura malgoka is abundant on calcareous rock. All of them socially interact using chirping sounds and, thanks to their love of the warmth, they are often found in people's homes.

The narrow-striped mongoose can crack eggs open to get nutrients The narrow-striped mongoose – called boky-boky in Malagasy – is a small, endemic carnivore inhabiting the trees and ground of the dry, deciduous Madagascan forests. It is almost squirrel-like in appearance, but it is actually part of the same family as meerkats. It gets its English name because of the slim stripes that run over its back and sides. The animal is active during the day when it feeds on insects and their larvae. But during Madagascar's hot, wet season that runs from November to April, this cunning creature widens its dietary scope: it will take bird eggs in its paws, lay on its side and throw it against something hard to crack it open. It will also feast on

reptiles and invertebrates. As a social animal, the narrow-striped mongoose lives in families of up to eight animals, headed by the female. During the wet season, the narrow-striped mongoose protects itself from the elements in the holes of fallen and standing trees but otherwise it sleeps in ground burrows. Like many Madagascan animals, its main threat comes from its rapid habit loss through deforestation but it is also threatened, according to the IUCN, by the non-native carnivores there.

NARROW-STRIPED MONGOOSE

Mungotictis decemlineata Class Mammalia

Territory Madagascar Diet Insects, bird eggs, small animals Lifespan Unknown Adult weight 780g/1.7lbs Conservation Status

The narrow-striped mongoose uses scent glands on its neck and head for marking territories

VULNERABLE

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The real animals of Madagascar

Blue couas are cuckoos with a very particular colour

Endemic to the north-western and eastern forests and mangroves of Madagascar, this beautiful bird partly derives its name from its unique colouring – a dark blue plumage with a small, oval patch of blue-coloured skin around its bills and eyes – as well as the onomatopoeia of its call; a series of short, evenly spaced notes. While research into the colour is in its infancy, most blue birds are that colour because they have ‘U’ type vision – meaning they can see ultraviolet light. The ability to see UV light means that blue feathers contrast a lot with the environment, and blue birds seek mates that contrast most with the environment.

Larger than most other cuckoos, averaging a length of up to 50 centimetres (20 inches), it feasts on insects, small reptiles and, unusually for cuckoos, some fruit. It lays single, white-coloured eggs in nests that it builds itself out of twigs and leaves, deep within the protective camouflage of the island’s dense bushes and trees. As with the other nine species of coua that coexist in Madagascar (they include the running coua, giant coua, red-breasted coua and crested coua), the blue coua is able to grip on to branches both thick and thin using its large feet, its reversible third toe giving it a firm hold. Not that spotting resting blue couas is common: they are usually seen in graceful flight.

“The more intense the blue, the better quality they are as a mate” BLUE COUA

Coua caerulea Class Aves

Territory Madagascar Diet Insects, small reptiles, fruits Lifespan 8 to 23 years Adult weight 268g/10oz Conservation Status As one of ten coua species in Madagascar, this one is remarkable for its blue colouring

LEAST CONCERN

Lemurs arrived in Madagascar on rafts of vegetation millions of years ago

Despite their climbing prowess, ring-tailed lemurs spend a third of their time on the ground

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Lemurs have become Madagascar's most iconic animals, having arrived on the island from the African mainland some 60 million years ago. It is believed that these primitive primates made their way across the water on rafts of vegetation, a fortunate occurrence since it prevented them from being driven to extinction by the growing dominance of the African monkey population. In the process, they have filled the ecological

niche of monkeys, woodpeckers and squirrels on the island. They have also learned to adapt to Madagascar's landscape, diversifying to such a degree that there are 101 currently identified lemur species. The lemurs are agile, social creatures with flexible toes and fingers that they use to fling themselves around. And yet, despite their cute looks and importance as a flagship species, experts say lemurs are the world's most threatened mammal group. A staggering 90 species are in danger of extinction.

Fossas are Madagascar's largest predators

Critters of Madagascar There are more than 5,800 invertebrate species on the island of Madagascar

Carnivorous cat-like fossas are typically found among the trees in the tropical rainforests of Madagascar. Aggressive and feared, they are at the top of the food chain and highly distinctive with long, slender bodies covered with brown, black or red fur. They have strong, muscular limbs and their rounded heads, while resembling a mongoose, are more akin to cats. These solitary animals prey mainly on quick-reacting lemurs and so they have adapted into agile creatures that are able to use their extra long, monkey-esque tails to balance and leap among the branches in stubborn, lightning-fast pursuit. Fossas can also use their acute, curved, retractable claws to grip, enabling them to nimbly make their way, head-first down tree trunks to get their paws on ground-based prey. Fossas have a strange mating system. A female will sit within a tree and attract males below her. She will mate with them over the course of a week, after which she will leave and allow another female to take her place. Fossas give birth in December or January in secluded spots to blind and helpless litters of up to six. Bizarrely, the female's genitals come to resemble the male’s but only between the age of eight and 18 months, a process named transient genital masculinisation.

FOSSA

Cryptoprocta ferox

Caerostris darwini Darwin's bark spider is a newly identified species but its impact is immense. The females are able to spin webs that are as wide as 24 metres (79 feet).

Class Mammalia

Territory Madagascar Diet Lemurs and other small to medium-sized animals Lifespan 15 years Adult weight 12kg/26.5lbs Conservation Status

Fossas can make their way through trees with ease and at great speed

VULNERABLE

Argema mittrei As one of the largest silk moths in the world, male Comet moth not only has a wingspan of 20 centimetres (eight inches) but an incredible 15-cm (six-inch) tail too.

BROOKESIA CHAMELEON

Brookesia micra Class Reptilia

By sitting the Brookesia micra on a match-head, you get a sense of its incredible tiny form

Territory Madagascar Diet Tiny insects Lifespan Unknown Adult weight Negligible Conservation Status

Elliptorhina javanica Called hissing cockroaches, these wingless c – some of which have red pronotums – get their name from their ability to expel air through their spiracles (pores).

NOT EVALUATED

All of Madagascar's 30 endemic species of Brookesia chameleons are small. But one in particular, the Brookesia micra is unbelievably tiny – growing to a length of just 29 millimetres (one inch). When it was discovered by keeneyed researchers in 2012, it made headlines across the world, especially given that it was pictured standing on the head of a match. Scientists say the micra, which lives on a tiny islet off the coast of Madagascar, is representative of island dwarfism where species become smaller to adapt to restricted habitats. During the day, these bulging-eyed

reptiles scour the ground for tiny insects to eat, rocking back and forth as they move and using their tongue to snap at prey. At night, they climb ten centimetres (four inches) into low-lying branches where they remain incredibly still so as not to attract attention! They also, like the rest of Madagascar's chameleons (the island is home to half of the world's 150 chameleon species) have the truly remarkable ability to change colour. This has positive benefits: colour-changing enables the animals to regulate their temperature or communicate with other chameleons.

Phromnia rosea The crimson wings of a flatid bug are so large that they cover their entire body, but as nymphs they are covered in waxy white curls to repel predators.

©Alamy, Corbis, Thinkstock

The tiny Brookesia chameleon can sit on a match head

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nimal answers

Send your animal questions to us at:

As these seals age, their skin changes from white fur to grey

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Why are seal pups white? Lydia Handsley The pups of grey seals are white because their species evolved during the last ice age and the white fur would have helped the vulnerable pups blend in with the surrounding snow. Grey seals are thought to have originated in the Arctic more than 20 million years ago but it is still unknown whether their closest relatives are bears or the otter family. More than half of the Earth’s grey seals live along the coast of the UK which, unlike the Arctic, are not covered in snow. In winter grey seals haul out of the sea to breed, and though the fluffy white pups stick out to human observers, they would be safely hidden by the north pole snow.

How big are the world’s largest bird eggs? Sophie Maxey Ostriches lay the biggest eggs of any living bird at 15 centimetres (six inches) long, but the biggest eggs in history were laid by the now extinct elephant bird. Their eggs were 35 centimetres (13 inches) long with a nine litre (two gallon) capacity, containing the equivalent of 180 chicken eggs. The elephant bird stood three metres (10 feet) tall and was a herbivore native to Madagascar. The last sighting of an elephant bird was in 1649 and by 1700 it was declared officially extinct. Elephant bird egg

Ostrich egg

The ostrich may lay the biggest eggs of any bird today, but it can’t beat the eggs of the elephant bird

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Chicken egg 35cm

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Animal answers

How fast can a woodpecker peck? Ann Bruce A woodpecker pecks a tree at a speed of seven metres per second, which is 24 kilometres (15 miles) per hour. It can tap a tree up to 20 times per second in search of insects, to establish its territory or to create a new nest area. It is remarkable that woodpeckers can repeatedly beat their heads against trees at such speed without getting hurt, and the secret to their success is in the skull. The woodpecker’s body

has evolved to absorb the force of impact with a unique bone that is anchored to its strong beak. This bone wraps around the entire skull and holds the brain firmly in place, stopping it from becoming damaged. The high impact zones at the front and back of the skull have tiny collections of bones that form a spongy mesh. This cushioning is distributed unevenly so that there is more protection at the areas that need it the most.

Which land mammal has the thickest fur? Abigail Birch Chinchillas have 20,000 hairs per square centimetre (one eighth of an inch square), giving them the densest fur of any land mammal. Chinchillas bathe in dust to remove dirt and oils from their fur, and shed hair throughout the year. Chinchillas need thick fur to protect against fungal infection and parasites, and if their coat becomes infested they will chew their fur to relieve the itching.

There is a mammal with more densely packed fur than the chinchilla, but it doesn’t live on land. The sea otter has 165,000 hairs per square centimetre (one eighth of an inch square), making its fur completely waterproof. The sea otter never needs to visit land throughout its entire life because it never needs to dry out. Even when completely submerged, a sea otter’s skin stays bone dry beneath its incredibly dense fur.

Chinchillas have a dedicated beauty regime to keep their fur in good condition

What’s this reptile I found in my garden?

The remarkable fur of the sea otter means it can stay in water indefinitely

Pete Ellis It’s a slow worm, and it’s completely harmless. They are common throughout Europe and Asia and despite having no legs slow worms are lizards, not snakes. These legless lizards are a frequent sight in suburban gardens but as they are so easily confusable with snakes, many people have trouble identifying them. Male and female slow worms also have different colouration, which can make identification even harder. Females are brown with a copper coloured back and

with dark stripes down their sides, whereas males tend to lack these stripes. The main differences between snakes and lizards, besides legs, are subtle but easy to spot if you know what to look for. Lizards have eyelids holes, but sn

Q.Ho many species o tiger are th

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Do all species have males and

Which animals live in the rainforest? James Camm

Amazon bamboo rat Harpy eagle One of the largest birds of prey on the planet, the harpy eagle hunts monkeys, sloths and even deer. They have been known to emit a high pitched ‘wheee’ scream to communicate.

Keel-billed toucan The toucan lives in small groups, which are known to all squeeze into the same tree hole to roost. During the day they travel while feeding on fruit, lizard and frogs.

Brown spider monkey

Emergent layer The tallest trees emerge from the canopy and are flooded with sunlight. This is where eagles nest and scan for prey.

hat t rds. all duce e the need ly tic them of the n here NA r.

Canopy This is the rainforest’s roof, which is always full of animals. Sloths, tree frogs and snakes live in the sunlit canopy.

such , but duce if tion.

The beauty of a hummingbird doesn’t stop it from being hunted

Does anything hunt hummingbirds? Simon Maycock Hummingbirds may be a beautiful specimen in the bird world, but they still provide an important food source for a wide range of animals from hawks to the praying mantis. There are more than 350 species of hummingbird distributed across North and South America, and they are hunted by a wide variety of predators. Domestic and feral cats regularly hunt hummingbirds that choose to live near human settlements, as do predatory birds like the sharp-skinned hawk. Hummingbirds, despite weighing a very small two grams (0.07 ounces) have in fact been known to fight back against an invading hawk and manage to successfully fend them off. On the other hand, the smaller birds can be eaten by creatures as small as bees, praying mantises, frogs and even spiders when hummingbirds find themselves entangled in webs while they try to harvest silk to use in their nests. Hummingbird eggs are a favourite food of squirrels, crows and lizards, which can make the nest a dangerous place to be. However, the mother bird will defend the nest aggressively to ward predators away.

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Brown-throated sloth Sloths are leaf-eaters that feed from over 50 different plants. Their coarse hair attracts algae and despite sleeping up to 18 hours a day sloths are excellent climbers and swimmers.

Red-eyed tree frog Its famous bright colours are part of this frog’s defence. A predator may hesitate when it sees the fluorescent colour. Emerald tree boa Understory Leaves of the understory grow large to soak up as much sun as possible, and these leaves become the home and camouflage for frogs and lizards.

Leafcutter ant

Brown agouti Jaguar The jaguar is built for power rather than speed and hunts by pouncing on unsuspecting prey then piercing its skull.

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Forest floor The rainforest floor sheltered by the canopy, so fallen leaves decay quickly and fertilise the soil ready for more trees to grow.

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Animal answers Do animals have fingerprints?

The fishing cat is far more ferocious than it looks, with a fearsome bite

Matt Sterry Primates, koalas and some possums have fingerprints that can be compared to those of humans. Koala fingerprints are almost identical to human prints, even under a microscope, and it’s thought that the ridges in their fingers help them grip tree branches. While only a few animals have fingerprints, many species have unique patterns or traits that can be used to tell them apart. Dogs and pigs have individual nose prints, while every tiger has slightly different stripes. The dorsal fins and tail flukes of dolphins and whales become unique as the animal ages and their fins get damaged through normal wear and tear, which helps researchers easily identify individual animals. Computer soware has even been designed to tell the difference between dorsal fins of bottlenose dolphins, helping scientists track their movements and feeding habits.

Which big cat has the most powerful bite? Scott Mitchell The cat with the strongest bite force is the Asian fishing cat, which has a bite force rating of 2.1. Bite force is measured against the animal’s weight, so although the jaguar is commonly thought of as the strongest, the fishing cat’s bite is stronger in relation to its size. As the name suggests, the fishing cat feeds near water, hunting

Wombat’s won’t waste energy on unnecessary tasks

fish and shellfish, and even washing meat from the land animals it catches. It hunts rodents, rabbits and young cows, leading a solitary life, aside from the annual mating season. The fishing cat probably developed its bite to crush shells or grip fast-swimming fish. With no natural predators, the fishing cat is one of the world’s best predators.

How do wombats behave?

Robin Wragg Wombats are extremely well adapted to digging and living underground so they construct extensive tunnel systems. Some are solitary but others live in large burrow colonies. They eat several varieties of grass to maintain their 10 per-cent body fat and to wear down their ever-growing teeth. They conserve energy by budgeting their activity into short chunks, and resting during rainstorms. Wombats compete with the grey kangaroo for resources as they share the same habitat and their diets overlap by 90 per-ce Their main predators are eagles dingoes, but they remain safe in their burrows during the day.

“Wombats compete with the grey kangaroo for resources”

Q. Why do giraffes have patches?

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Wildlife photography is a popular hobby for many animal enthusiasts as it is a great way to record the behaviour and personalities of the fascinating creatures around you. Plus, as animals can be rather quick, it also allows you to get a clear snapshot of their movements that may have otherwise passed you by in a blur. However, the often unpredictable and wary nature of animals means that they are notoriously tricky to photograph. That’s why it’s important to remember the three ‘P’s of wildlife photography; planning, preparation and patience. Our five essential tips will show you how to plan and prepare to capture your best-ever animal images, including the essential kit you’ll need and best camera settings for the job. Then it is up to you to put in the time and wait for your subject to come into view. Wildlife photography is often more of a marathon than a sprint, but that’s what makes it so rewarding. The time and effort you put in is worth it in the end when you get the perfect shot of the wonderful creature in front of your lens.

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Wildlife photography Set up your camera The best camera settings for taking sharp shots of wildlife

Pick a shooting mode Switch your camera to shutter priority mode (S or Tv on the mode dial), and set a shutter speed of 1/250sec or faster to freeze your subject in the frame and produce a blur-free shot. Alternatively, use an action scene mode.

Adjust the sensitivity If you’re shooting in bright conditions, keep your ISO low to avoid grainy shots. However, if the lighting is poor, use a higher value to increase the sensitivity of your camera’s sensor to light, which will make for brighter shots.

Shoot a burst To increase your chances of capturing the perfect shot, switch your camera to burst or continuous shooting mode. This will take a series of shots whilst you hold down the shutter, so you can then pick the best from the bunch.

1. Know your kit Pack up your kit bag with the essential items you’ll need whilst out in the field If you’ve ever seen a professional wildlife photographer, then you have probably noticed them carrying around an enormous and expensive looking lens and a bag full of even pricier kit. However, you don’t need to spend your life savings in order to take fantastic wildlife shots. If you’re just starting out, an affordable camera with a long zoom lens is ideal for getting close-ups without disturbing the creatures in the distance. In fact, many compacts now come with impressive zoom lenses. To help you get even closer to your subjects without disturbing them, you could also secure your camera to a tripod. You can then use a remote shutter release to take the shot from a distance, without needing to be

anywhere near your camera. Tripods aren’t just useful for shooting remotely though, as they will also help to keep your camera and long lens steady, preventing the camera shake common with long focal lengths and keeping your photos perfectly sharp. When it comes to choosing a remote shutter release, there are models to suit all budgets. Wired remotes are often cheaper, but will only let you shoot from the distance that the wire allows. Other remotes work by sending a radio or infrared signal to your camera, so have a greater range and you can even get models that will automatically take a shot when the animal travels through an infrared beam.

Focus the shot To keep fast moving subjects in focus, use continuous shooting mode (AI Servo on Canon cameras and AF-C on Nikon). Your camera will continually refocus as your subject moves, so they will be sharp when you fire the shutter.

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Wildlife photography

2. Do your research Discover the traits and habits of your subject to help you plan your shoot Before you even pick up your camera, it is best to find out as much as you can about the animal you are hoping to photograph. That way, you can carefully plan your shoot and increase your chances of getting an incredible photo. Firstly, find out about the animal’s habitat, so you know where to find them, then research their habits. Feeding time is often the best time of day to track most species down, as this is usually when animals are at their most active. Find out when and where they hunt for food and get set up in the prime location ahead of time. Learning what they like to eat will also mean that you might be able to entice the animal into view with their favourite snack, but make sure you leave out anything that could harm them or the other animals in the area. When you’re out and about, keep your eyes and ears open for vital clues as to the whereabouts of your subject. Look out for tracks in mud or snow, and listen for noises that you can follow straight to them. If you’re just starting out in wildlife photography, then your local zoo or nature reserve is a great place to practice your skills as you are guaranteed to spot a subject for your shots. Once you’re a little more confident in your abilities, you can then venture out into the wild to take photographs of the creatures in their natural surroundings.

3. Control your lighting Once you’ve found your subject, make sure the lighting it just right for your photos Good lighting is essential for all forms of photography, but when it comes to photographing animals, you may not have much control over the lighting available. Many species of animal are most active at dawn or dusk, and these times of day just so happen to provide perfect lighting for photography. In the early morning and late evening, the sun is low and casts a soft, golden light across the scene. This is perfect for avoiding harsh shadows caused by bright sunlight. When shooting around midday, cloudy or overcast days are best, diffusing the sunlight for a soft effect. If you are photographing a nocturnal animal, you won’t be able to avoid shooting in the dark. Don’t be tempted to fire your flash to illuminate your subject, as it will most likely startle and scare the animal away. To capture a bright photo at night, set up a continuous light, such as an outdoor lamp or powerful torch and then wait patiently for your subject.

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4. Stay undetected Keep quiet and still to avoid disturbing your subject and scaring them away from your camera Unfortunately, animals are typically quite camera-shy and are likely to run away if they detect you and your camera nearby. For the best chance at taking an incredible shot, keep as still and quiet as possible in their presence. Look for long grass or trees that you can hide behind, or look for a bird hide that will conceal you from view. When dressing for your shoot, avoid wearing bright clothes that will make you stand out, instead sticking to green and brown tones if you can. You could even buy a camouflaged cover for your camera. It is best to get set up well before you are expecting your subject to appear, so you can avoid sudden movements when they are nearby. Be sure to keep as quiet as possible, and switch any beeps and sounds on your camera and phone off so as not to draw attention to yourself. Setting up your camera on a tripod and shooting remotely will help you stay undetected, as you’ll be able to leave you camera in position and then hide. If your camera has built-in Wi-Fi then you should be able to download an app on your phone that enables you to control your camera remotely.

Must-have photography kit Useful accessories for photographers of all skill levels Telephoto lens Sigma 70-300mm f4-5.6 DG MACRO £170/$169 www.sigmaimaging-uk.com

5. Compose for impact Top framing advice for creating spectacular and engaging wildlife images that have the ‘wow factor’ When you’re busy tracking down your subject, staying undetected, and worrying about lighting and camera settings, it can be easy to forget about the composition of your images. However, don’t be tempted to just point, shoot and hope for the best. When photographing animals, it is usually best to shoot from their eye-level for a more naturallooking image. If you can, capture your subject looking directly at your lens, as the resulting image will be instantly more engaging. To ensure that your subject is the main attraction in your photo, try to shoot from an

angle that avoids capturing any distractions in the background. Plain foliage makes an ideal backdrop, but if distractions cannot be avoided, zoom in to crop them out of the frame. Filling the frame with your subject will also make for a more intimate photo, but there are some instances when it is best to leave some space. For example, if your subject is in motion, leave some room in front of them in your photo so that you don’t cut off their path and lead the viewer’s eye out of the frame. However, don’t worry too much if you don’t get your composition quite right in camera, as you can always crop it later using editing software.

Tripod Giottos Silk Road YTL9838 £125/approx $200 www.giottos-tripods.co.uk

Remote shutter release Phottix XS Wired Remote £20/$24 www.phottix.co.uk

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Squirrel among the leaves

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Your animals Rockin’ robin Becky Brown

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LIFE IN THE WOLF PACK

ISSN 2053-7727

20 THINGS YOU NEVER THE DEADLIEST BIRDS OF PREY ON EARTH KNEW ABOUT LIONS 97

Bizarre! Males dance to impress Males compete to determine who is the strongest by first striking menacing poses, then performing dance-like rhythmic motions. Successful males approach the female and continue the body movement, waving their tails and rubbing the female. She briefly joins in before mating begins.

BUSH VIPER

Atheris squamigera Class Reptilia

Territory West and central Africa Diet Rodents, birds and lizards Lifespan 20 years Adult weight 5kg/10lbs Conservation Status

NOT EVALUATED

The venomous bush viper has razor-sharp scales that can hiss With acute senses and a taste for blood, this snake is not to be messed with. They come in a variety of different colours but should only be looked at, not touched

Most snakes lay soft-shelled eggs that baby snakes eventually hatch from, but that isn’t quick enough for the deadly bush viper. This snake can give birth to live young, and sometimes a bush viper’s clutch reaches 11 miniature killers that are immediately let loose in the pitch-dark jungle.

98

It hisses with its scales

Some bush vipers can produce eerie hissing sounds simply by rubbing their scales together as an added defence against predators. If the fluorescent colour of this snake’s scales aren’t enough to put a predator off, the hissing created by rasping the spiny scales is likely to do the trick.

It has sharp vision

Rather than rely on detecting heat with its tongue like most other snakes and lizards, a bush viper uses its senses of sight, smell and touch to locate its prey. This gives it the utmost precision when delivering a fatal strike and ensures prey can’t scuttle away before the viper eats.

It kills in seconds

With some of the deadliest venom around, bush vipers are some of the most lethal animals in Africa’s rainforests. Their venom rapidly poisons the blood of its prey and some species of bush viper can strike in a fraction of a second, not letting go until the prey stops struggling.

© Corbis

It doesn’t lay eggs

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