How It Works. World of Animals - Issue 17 2015

8 OF THE CRAZIEST CREATURES YOU WON’T BELIEVE EXIST! From the makers of

GIANT FACTS

ABOUT PANDAS

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WILD DOGS VS HYENAS FEROCIOUS PREDATORS FIGHTING FOR TOP DOG STATUS THE REAL ROADRUNNER

How this speedy bird compares to its cartoon counterpart

MEET THE MEGAHERBIVORE Feisty and intelligent – uncover the real lives of hippos

PLUS SEA PIG DUMBO OCTOPUS SAKI MONKEY SEA BUTTERFLY YETI CRAB

FROZ HERO

AMAZING SURVIVA SECRETS OF ARCTIC HAR

ISSUE 17

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An underwater butterfly that swims with its feet? A duck-billed, egglaying mammal with a sixth sense? Yes, the animal kingdom really is that bizarre! We take you through some of the craziest creatures on earth on page 72, while we gaze in wonder at the rainforest’s most amazing animals on page 12. It’s not just the rainforest where you can find some of the most incredible creatures on Earth – meet the cougar, digging its claws into Hollywood and roaming Californian neighbourhoods, proving how adaptable animals really are (page 64). And if surviving the bright lights of Hollywood isn’t a big enough challenge, what about the arctic hare, thriving in the harsh conditions of the tundra? Its incredible secrets are revealed on page 80. Meanwhile, we’re loving your photos – we’ve published some of the best ones so far on page 94. Please keep them coming! Send them to [email protected] for a chance they’ll appear in the next issue. We’ve even got some wildlife photography tips from the experts in the field on page 90 to help you capture that perfect shot. Enjoy the issue!

Charis Webster Editor

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Welcome to issue17 06 Amazing animals

12 Rainforest wonders Meet the millions of species that live in tropical forests across the globe

22 Hyena Vs wild dog

Discover which carnivore rules the savannah

24 Wildlife of broadleaf forests

Unearth the ecosystem in your back garden

28 Honeypot ants

You won’t believe how these ants prepare for winter

30 All about hippos

Discover the secrets of one of the most dangerous animals on the planet

40 Shoreline animals

Take a trip to see wildlife of the shores of the world

46 Roadrunner

Track down the elusive bird that can outsmart almost anything

50 Asiatic lion

58 Paradise Wildlife Park

Discover the wildlife haven in the heart of Hertfordshire

62 18 incredible seal facts

Amaze yourself with things you never knew about these marine mammals

64 Double lives of cougars

Learn about the cat that sneaks into towns while the neighbourhood sleeps

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70 See wild rhinos

Your very own guide to the best place to see rhinos in their natural habitat

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72 World’s weirdest animals

Marvel at the oddest animals to ever walk the Earth

80 Frozen heroes

Burrow through the snow into the world of the arctic hare

98 Lost forever

Meet the Hawaiian honeycreeper that hasn’t been seen since the 1960s

Meet this endangered hunter before it’s too late

52 20 giant facts about pandas

Peer into the secret lives of the most elusive bears on Earth

THE IUCN RED LIST

Throughout World of Animals you will see symbols like the ones you see here. These are from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of animal species in the world. Here’s what they mean:

EXTINCT EXTINCT IN THE WILD CRITICALLY ENDANGERED ENDANGERED VULNERABLE NEAR THREATENED LEAST CONCERN

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64

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84 Readers’ Q & A

page 60

12

90 Wildlife

WONDERS OF THE

RAINFOREST

photography on a budget

THE AMAZING WILDLIFE OF A UNIQUE HABITAT 22

94 Your amazing

animal photos

72 62

40

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The amazing world of animals

Two young baboons fight in a shallow stream in Kruger national park © Dreamstime

These two monkeys bare their teeth while battling, although they are really only playing. Animals learn vital skills needed in later life from playing as a youngster.

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© Rex Features

The amazing world of animals

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The amazing world of animals

Ants form a bridge to help a struggling member of their colony © Thinkstock

A group of ants stretch out to help a friend in need, turning them into a living bridge. Ant colonies work together in incredible ways like this, to gather food and survive.

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The amazing world of animals

Emperor penguins supervise their giant communal baby crèche © Rex Features

Penguin parents know about safety in numbers, and so keep their precious babies in a protective huddle. Surrounding mothers keep their eyes on the fluffy chicks, as well as scanning the horizon for predators.

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The amazing world of animals

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The amazing world of animals

Aer clambering out of the water, this frog hops aboard a nearby snail for a ride. Despite the snail’s slow-moving nature, the frog held tight and travelled with its new friend.

© Rex Features

This cheeky Indonesian frog hitches a (rather slow) ride on a snail

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TOHF

The world's tropical rainforests are teeming with the most wonderful animals i i i Words David Crookes

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Rainforest

The rainforests that surround the Congo river basin on the west coast of Africa are home to critically endangered cross-river gorillas, chimpanzees and an array forest elephants.

Tropical rainforests spread across the world, and are forests that fall along the line of the equator. They’re seasonally flooded with 250-450cm rainfall per year.

AFRIC

SOUTHEAST ASIA & OCEANIA

SOUTH AMERICA

The most famous rainforest is the Amazon, home to a plethora of animals, including as many as three million species of insect, like this Dryas iulia butterfly.

The countless islands of south-east Asia are covered

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LAND The tropical rainforest is home to the magnificent jaguar: its number one predator Prowling over an area of nine million square kilometers (three million square miles), the jaguar is the number one predator of the Amazon rainforest. Able to live high in the mountains, along jagged coasts and in dense thicket, this cat is built to take down prey of any size. Its dappled fur makes it almost invisible through the vegetation, and its eight centimetre (three inch) canines slice through animal flesh and can even pierce bone. Built for power rather than speed, jaguars silently stalk prey before pouncing. Jaguars have been known to kill and eat caiman, which can reach weights of up to 400 kilograms (880 pounds). The powerful jaws deliver a force of 140 kilograms per square centimetre (2,000 pounds per square inch), and each front paw is fitted with five dagger-sharp claws. A jaguar will stop at nothing to get its kill, feasting on over 85 different rainforest species. Jaguars are ferocious predators that will attack any prey they can find

JAGUAR

Panthera onca Class Mammalia

Territory South and central America Diet Small mammals, reptiles Lifespan 15 years Adult weight 50-100kg / 110-220lbs Conservation Status

NEAR THREATENED

The southern cassowary is solitary and fiercely territorial

The female Southern Cassowary is the second heaviest bird in the world behind the ostrich

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Although it is a bird, it cannot fly. It can be found in dense rainforest between the Australian cities of Townsville and Cooktown in Queensland where it has gained a reputation as a guardian; a keystone species which disperses the seeds of more than 150 plants. These solitary, secretive and territorial birds are distinctive with bare blue skin on their heads and necks, red skin on the back of the neck and a flourishing plume of black feathers covering their body. They have sharp 10 centimetre (4 inch) hind claws and can stretch tall while

hissing loudly and ruffling their feathers to ward away intruders. They can also furiously kick out, run at 50 kilometres per hour (31 miles per hour) and have a reputation as the most dangerous bird. It feeds on a diet of fallen fruit and fungi, and even though some of its meals contain toxins, it lives for between 30 and 40 years in the wild thanks to a digestive system that has adapted to deal with such poisons. That said, rainforest clearance, predation by dogs and pigs, and traffic accidents has, sadly, seen numbers fall to as few as 2,500.

The rainforest’s gaboon viper has the longest retractable fangs of any snake Found in the rainforests of sub-Saharan Africa, the slow-moving yet venomous Gaboon viper produces a high volume of venom which it can sink into the flesh of prey using retractable fangs that measure, on average, four centimetres (1.6 inches) in length – the longest of any snake. The snake itself can grow to 1.8 metres (six feet) and yet, because of its rectangle-and-triangle blotchy brown, black and cream patterning, it can easily hide among the leaves of the forest floor.

As well as camouflaging against predators, this nocturnal creature can use its hiding position to ambush rodents, frogs, lizards and birds, holding them tightly with its fangs until death – something unique among vipers which usually let go. If it feels threatened, it will coil or stay very still, hissing at a predator as a last resort before rapidly striking using its heavy body should it need to, the fangs being brought down via muscles within the skull to land a blow.

The actual venom isn't hugely toxic – but the quantity of the poison injected makes it deadly

SIAMANG GIBBON

Symphalangus syndactylus Class Mammalia

Territory Indonesia and Singapore Diet Plant matter Lifespan Up to 40 years Adult weight 10-14kg /XXX Conservation Status

ENDANGERED

Siamang gibbons swing a mile a day through the epic forest Swinging around the Malaysian and Indonesian rainforests at up to 1.6 kilometres (one mile) each day, the Siamang puts its long arms to great use. While it is the largest of the gibbon species, it is still small and lightweight. It grows to an average of 90 centimetres (three feet) and weighs around 11 kilograms (24 pounds). That allows it to be rather acrobatic during its daylight hunts for food and water. At night, it sleeps in a fork between branches. The Siamang's senses are similar to our own as are its hands, with four fingers and a smaller opposable thumb. When it swings, it can move up to three metres (10 feet) with each movement. Unlike humans, its feet have an opposable big toe which allows the gibbon to grab and carry items with their feet. The Siamang is the only gibbon to have webbing between its second and third toes.

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Wonders of the rainforest

MILLION SPECIES

…of plants and animals inhabit the world’s rainforests, relying on each other in i redible ways

Species of the rainforest A whopping 95% of the rainforest’s species are invertebrates, from the ferocious horned rhinoceros beetle to the beautiful blue morpho butterfly. INVERTEBRATES FISH MAMMALS REPTILES BIRDS AMPHIBIANS

Capybara: world’s biggest rodent These enormous mammals are completely herbivorous and live in very close-knit families. They spend their lives close to water on the banks of the Amazon.

Piranha Lurking in the Amazon river, piranhas shear flesh from bone with razor-sharp teeth. Their bloodthirsty reputation isn’t quite deserved, as they mostly feast on abandoned animal carcasses.

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Cross river gorilla By selectively picking out plants to eat, gorillas make sure the rainforest plants stay diverse. Their leavings then help fertilise the ground, enriching the soil and helping the plants to grow.

Spotted-tail quoll Hiding in communal underground dens during the day, these nocturnal carnivores strike at night. They specialise in meat, hunting rabbits, birds and other small mammals.

Spider monkeys These primates fight before mating, oen tumbling around and growling at one another.

Water, air or land? The majority of animals here live in water

WATER

AIR

LAND

56% of tropical rainforest animals live in the water, 26% in the air and 18% on land. Water-based animals thrive because of seasonal flooding, and nutrient-enriched rain water support thousands of species. The pie chart excludes insects (which, if added to the mix would make up a whopping 90% of the overall figure!)

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AIR The great hornbill’s piercing squawk can be heard half a mile away The great hornbill is the largest of all of the Asian hornbill species, with a wingspan of some 1.52 metres (5ft) and a length which extends to a maximum of 1.3 metres (4.3 feet). It lives high in the canopy of the rainforests of China, India and parts of South East Asia and it is easily distinguished thanks to a bright yellow and black casque (a horny growth) which rests on top of its beak and forehead and which begins to develop a year after birth. As it slowly flies long distances above the trees, it can be heard more than 800 metres (0.5 miles) away, thanks to the loud thumping noise which is made when the bird flaps its wings. It also has an incredibly loud and distinctive honking call which experts believe is amplified by the casque. This noise becomes louder at the start

of the breeding season. Later, the female great hornbill - which mostly feeds on fruit but will also eat insects, small reptiles and mammals - will nest within the cavities of the forest's older, larger tree trunks. After laying her eggs in this hole, she will gather mud, debris and faeces and use it to seal the nest opening, leaving just enough of a gap for her mate to be able to pass regurgitated food five times a day to both herself and her chicks, each of which hatch following a month of incubation.

GREAT HORNBILL Buceros bicornis Class Aves

Territory India, Bangladesh and Thailand Diet Fruit Lifespan Up to 50 years Adult weight 2-4kg / 5-9lbs Conservation Status

NEAR THREATENED

The Amazon rainforest’s largest butterfly is the 8-inch blue morpho With a wingspan of up to eight inches, the blue morpho is one of the Amazon rainforest's largest butterflies. It flies high in the thick jungle of the rainforest canopy, following a flight pattern that is distinctively bouncy thanks to the body-to-wing size ratio of the insect. The male butterfly has bright blue, black-edged wings that are brown on the underside and with large number of eyespots. It tends to come out in greater numbers during bright sunlight but its behaviour helps it to survive predation. As its flies, the light reflects off the top of its wings in such a way as to turn its from bright blue to a duller brown, the effect of which is to make it appear as if it is vanishing and then reappearing. This illusion, which is caused by the reflective nano-sized patterns of microscopic holes, is made stronger due to the brown underside which serves to put predators such as birds, frogs and lizards off their stride.

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Rainforest Rare animals of the rainforest

Greater bamboo lemur With fewer than 500 in the rainforest of Madagascar, the greater bamboo lemur is the largest of the bamboo lemur species and it is hallmarked by its white ear tu s. Its survival depends on the abundance of giant bamboo trees.

Colugos are the rainforest’s gliding mammal Although it is not closely related to the lemur, people have nevertheless referred to the colugo as a flying lemur because of the pair's uncanny resemblance and the latter's ability to glide up to 60 metres (200 feet) as it moves from tree to tree in the Asian rainforests. The colugo is well adapted for gliding. This solitary animal uses a thin membrane known as patagium which extends from its body to its limbs and which also exists as webbing in the spaces between its fingers and toes. As it glides, the wings span up to 70 centimetres (27 inches) and offers as huge a surface

Brown-headed spider monkey This creature with its curious fruit-only diet enjoys the jungle canopies of the Central and South American rainforests. Action is underway to protect the 50 known breeding pairs still in the wild with fears the species may become extinct.

Sumatran orangutan Now confined to the north of the island of Sumatra, the Sumatran orangutan, with its long facial hair, number just 7,300 – down from the 230,000 which the WWF say roamed in the wild 100 years ago.

Pygmy three-toed sloth Found only on a five square kilometre island off the coast of Panama, the pygmy three-toed sloth – happy in the trees and the water – is critically endangered due to continued deforestation of tropical rainforests.

area as possible. While the colugo flies, it keeps its head up, watching out for any obstacles. The colugo has good night vision but it also has incredible depth perception and this lets it come to rest on trees with an almost effortless ease. This trick is learned from birth, as the young cling on while their mothers glide in search of food.

“The bill acts to keep the bird cool, in a similar way to the large ears of an African elephant” Toucans use their beaks to regulate their temperature Toucan's most distinguishing feature is its long, brightly coloured bill, although it is also very noisy with a varied repertoire of calls. In 2009, a study published in the journal Science found the bill acts to keep the bird cool, in a similar way to the large ears of an African elephant. According to the study's leader Professor Glenn Tattersall, the toucan's bill acts like a thermal radiator, allowing the bird to conserve or release heat. It's a multi-purpose bill. Made from the protein keratin, its colours act as camouflage and its 19 centimetre (7.5 inch) length is handy when reaching for fruit and for eggs. The bill's sharp edge can be used for squashing the bird's food. Some experts suggest the beak is also used to attract potential mates.

A toucan will look for tree hollows made by other birds such as woodpeckers

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WATER Amazonian manatees are the world's smallest species Often called a sea cow, the manatee is a gentle animal which eases its 340 kilogram (750 pounds) body through fresh water in the Amazon basin using its two flippers and a flattened tail. It communicates with other manatees via a series of sounds which can be heard most starkly between the mother and her young – which are born underwater – as well as during play and reproduction. During the wet season, the manatee takes advantage of fresh vegetation, feeding on aquatic plants and consuming up to eight per cent of its own body weight each day. As it eats, food is stored in its fat reserves beneath its layer of thick skin in preparation for leaner times of the year. Its teeth are also worn down. To resolve this latter problem, the manatee's teeth are constantly replaced, with older molars moving from the back of the jaw to the front and new ones replacing them at the rear. The manatee also has strong breathing abilities. When it is active – either swimming or searching for food - it surfaces for air every four minutes or so, breathing through its nostrils into its pair of lungs. When it is at rest, this social, nocturnal herbivore is able to remain underwater for up to 15 minutes.

The arrau turtle is the largest in South America The Arrau, or giant South American turtle, can be found in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. It spends most of its time in the water, living within groups and leaving only to bask and lay its eggs. It can lay as many as 150 eggs in a communal nest used by large numbers of turtles during the dry season. When the eggs hatch, the babies immediately head for the water but awaiting predators ensure just five per cent of them reach the feeding grounds – one of the reasons why so many

eggs are laid. The turtles grow up to 90 centimetres (35 inches) in length and they weigh up to 60 kilograms (130 pounds), making them the largest in South America. Interestingly, in the latter half of 2014, Richard Vogt, a researcher at the National Institute of Amazonian Research in Manaus, Brazil, says his team discovered evidence that the turtles “talk” to each other. He found the adults communicated back and forth with hatchlings and that this helped the young to migrate to the right location.

“Interestingly Richard Vogt, says his team discovered evidence that the turtles“talk”to each other” 20

Rainforest AMAZONIAN MANATEE Trichechus inunguis Class Mammalia

Four weirdest animals

Platypuses and echidnas are the only two mammals which lay eggs

Territory Brazil, Peru and Ecuador Diet Marine plants Lifespan 10-12 years Adult weight 450kg / 990lbs Conservation Status

VULNERABLE

Manatees also live in the rainforest regions of Florida, the Caribbean, Africa and Asia

Duck-billed platypus have a sixth sense It is such an unusual animal that when one was shown to naturalist George Shaw in 1799, he wrote that it was “impossible not to entertain some doubts as to the genuine nature of the animal.” It is easy to see why: the platypus has an incredible sixth sense much like sharks – electroreception. They can detect the electrical field that gets generated when their prey contracts its muscles. They do this via electroreceptors within the skin of their bills. Furthermore, the platypus has a tail like a beaver, a body and fur like an otter and a bill

and feet like a duck. But it very much exists, powering its 38 centimetre (15 inch) body through the waters of the tropical rainforests of coastal Queensland. The platypus is actually a carnivore, and it’s able to eat its own body weight in food over 24 hours. It can spend around half that time hunting underwater. Using its bill, it searches for food from within the mud at the bottom of streams and rivers. Food is stored in a cheek pouch behind the bill and it is mashed up using gravel from the waterbed once the creature resurfaces.

Satanic leaf tailed gecko This demonic critter has a tail that appears to have little chunks taken out of it, giving it the appearance of a rotting leaf. Found in its Madagascan rainforest habitat at night, it sees off prey with a peek of its open mouth.

Rhinoceros hornbill This bird is one of the largest in the rainforests of Asia. It has a yellow upwardly curving casque on top of its beak which amplifies its calls but also makes it look as if it is double-billed.

Basilisk lizards can walk on water There is a reason why the semi-aquatic green basilisk lizard is called the Jesus Christ lizard: it has the ability to run across water. Although it spends most of its time 20 metres (66 feet) high in the trees of the tropical rainforests of Central America, when it feels threatened it will drop down into nearby water. Rather than sink, these nervous lizards can sprint on two legs for up to 4.5 metres (14.8 feet) at a

speed of 1.5 metres per second (5 feet/second). Only then, as gravity does its job, will the lizard submerge and swim. It can stay underwater for 30 minutes. It is able to perform this feat due to having large feet and flattened toe pads that have skin which spread when it touches the water. By quickly moving its legs, small air pockets are formed between the skin and the water, keeping the creature afloat.

Okapi It looks like a zebra with stripes on its rear legs and rump but the Okapi is actually related to the giraffe. It lives in the rainforests of the Congo in Africa where it eats shoots, fruit, fungi and leaves.

© Alamy, NPL, FLPA, Thinkstock

Green basilisk lizards are, as its name suggests, green albeit with white, grey or blue markings on the body

Proboscis monkey From the rainforests of Borneo, the proboscis monkey has a rather long nose that hangs over its mouth. Experts believe that the longer the nose of a male, the more attractive it becomes to a female.

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Head to head

Wild dogs These predators are locked in a struggle for the top spot on the dusty African plains

Ears The large, rounded ears help an African wild dog listen out for long-distance calls of other dogs as well as regulating its body temperature by allowing heat loss.

African wild dog Strength (9/10)

African wild dogs can bring down the same animals as hyenas, despite being much smaller. They can take down single animals alone.

Hunting (9/10)

They are some of the most successful predators on Earth with their endurance, speed and teamwork, finding success in 80 per cent of their chases. Vocalisation Communicating through more different types of bark than almost any other dog, African wild dogs have at least 11 different call types including twitters, rumbles and begging cries.

Size (5/10)

The largest canids in Africa, but are outweighed by many other predators and even lose their meals to hyena packs.

Speed (8/10)

Would they ever meet? The distribution of these predators overlaps, meaning that they interact regularly. As hyenas are larger, there are many reported cases of African wild dogs losing their prey to passing hyenas. Hyena territory African wild dog territory

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AFRICA

Camouflage An African wild dog’s patched fur breaks up its outline, making it difficult for both prey and larger predators to tell where one dog ends and the next begins.

Able to run at sustained speeds of almost 75km/h (45mph), African wild dogs chase their prey to the point of exhaustion.

Brains (7/10)

Like other dogs, African wild dogs are highly intelligent, even capable of working out how to free one another when trapped.

Bite force (10/10)

The highest bite force quota of all carnivores, even when taking their small size into account.

vs hyenas Fur The coarse fur of a hyena camouflages it from larger predators and its prey as the element of surprise is vital for a hyena to hunt speedy animals.

Hyena Strength (8/10)

Able to take down enormous wildebeest, hyenas are extremely strong, but usually hunt in packs to tackle the biggest animals.

Hunting (7/10)

While clans can contain as many as 80 hyenas, smaller hunting packs of two to five are enough to secure a kill.

Vision Hunting mostly at night, hyenas have great night vision to keep track of prey. This sharp sight teams up with finely tuned hearing to ensure prey has no chance of escape.

Teeth Hyenas are capable of cracking bones with their teeth and can crunch up almost every part of an animal carcass including the hair, bones and teeth.

Size (6/10)

Hyenas are no larger than golden retrievers. Most other African carnivores are much larger, even killing hyenas if given the chance.

Speed (6/10)

A hyena’s top running speed is 60km/h (37mph). That’s half the pace of a cheetah, but equal to a sprinting impala.

Brains (8/10)

When hunting, one hyena enters the herd to confuse the prey, while the others attack the slower runners from behind.

Bite force (7/10)

So strong that a single bite can disembowel prey while it’s still running away.

“So strong that a single bite can disembowel prey while it’s still running” 23

Wildlife of broadleaf forests

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The wildlife of broadleaf forests Words Amy Grisdale

Shedding their leaves through all four seasons, broadleaf forests attract a plethora of wildlife, from fallow deer and badgers to the smallest bats in the world Defined by colossal oaks and other towering broadleaf trees, these forests are also known as deciduous, and they’re strongholds for wildlife between the poles and the tropics. Battered by torrential rain, gale-force winds and blazing sun, the forests adapt as the seasons change. Unlike tropical forests, life here is centred around the ground, from scuttling woodlice to majestic deer. In autumn the leaves fall, which is the trees’ preparation for winter. It’s a vital stage in the woodland ecosystem, with each year’s leaf fall providing nutrients to the forest floor. When the temperature drops during winter the trees are dormant and many of the animals enter hibernation, ready to awaken in spring. When the winter frost begins to thaw the forest starts to bloom once again. This is the time of growth throughout broadleaf woodlands after being frozen in time during the winter. New saplings shoot up from the ground and moss

creeps up tree trunks, while animals feed on the flourishing vegetation. Up to 150 centimetres (60 inches) of rain quench the woodland’s thirst every year, peaking in spring when the leaves begin to reappear. The summer brings warm temperatures of 24 degrees Celsius (75 degrees Fahrenheit) while sporadic rain continues to fall. This is when the days are longest and the animals are most active, feeding on the plentiful selection of food the forest offers. As the seasons roll on, autumn soon returns to complete the annual cycle. Every single plant and animal in this perfectly crafted ecosystem has a role to play, whether it’s keeping the rodent population under control or feeding families of fallow deer. As each year passes the forest is enriched, supporting the new life that has sprouted while it prepares to grow even more.

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Wildlife of broadleaf forests

Creatures of the forest The vast woodland that covers temperate areas is home to animals from wriggling worms to carnivorous badgers

Brambling

Fallow deer

These grazers thrive in broadleaf forests, their dappled fur providing added camouflage. Males shed their palmshaped antlers in April and grow again in time for the autumn rut, when males compete for access to females.

Red fox

With their rotating ears and incredible hearing threshold, foxes are perfectly adapted for pinpointing the location of rustling prey beneath leaf litter. Once the animal is in the fox’s sights, it’s all over in one precise pounce.

European badger

Invertebrates Burying beetle

Sheetweb spider

Woodland invertebrates play a pivotal role in the ecosystem. By feeding on fallen leaves, rotting wood and animal waste, they help recycle nutrients in the ecosystem. Invertebrates form the base of the food chain, upon which the other animals rely. The creatures that burrow in the soil are a food source for the birds and mammals that live between the trees.

These predators feed on a mixture of fruit, insects and small mammals, but their favourite food of all is the simple earthworm. They have elongated claws to rummage through soil and teeth designed to snip worms in half.

Millipede Woodlouse

Earthworm

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“Invertebrates form the base of the food chain, upon which the other animals rely”

Eagle owl

Green woodpecker

Grey squirrel

Pipistrelle bat

One of the smallest bats in the world, the common pipistrelle relies on echolocation to hunt in the darkness. The bat emits a sound, and when it hears the echo it can determine what the environment looks like, including where prey is hiding.

Oak woodland is where grey squirrels thrive, unlike red squirrels that prefer pine forests. One of the few forest mammals that are active during the day, squirrels are on a constant mission to gather food and chase suitable mates.

The impressive 2m (6ft) wingspan gives the Eurasian eagle owl the power to swoop down on prey as large as a fully grown fox. These top predators feed on anything from scuttling mice to fellow owls.

Woodland visitors Non-native animals can thrive in this environment

Introduced animals like rabbits, grey squirrels and even parakeets survive in temperate forests despite coming from the other side of the globe. Rabbits were first introduced to the UK by Romans 2,000 years ago.

Since then, they have become a food source for birds of prey and threatened species like the Scottish wildcat. Predatory beetles introduced by forestry commissions protect the woodlands by feasting on bark-eating insects. Wild boar

Common pheasant

Pine marten

Fallen leaves

European rabbit

European hedgehog

Fat dormouse

Small mammals

Rodents, hedgehogs and rabbits are common throughout broadleaf woodland and are crucial members of the food chain. While keeping the insect populations under control, they feed the forest’s predators and move the soil around. Burrowing through the undergrowth churns the earth and exposes it to the air, helping nutrients and bacteria grow in the soil.

Tunnels and burrows

Underground burrows are ideal homes for hibernating and nocturnal mammals, and even serve as drainage after heavy rain. Animals use burrows as hiding places from predators, often adopting abandoned burrows for short periods before moving on to a safer space.

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© Alamy, Sol90

The annual leaf fall leaves a deep layer of organic waste on the forest floor. Bacteria and invertebrates break this down, and the waste they leave is a natural fertiliser for the soil. This supports new plant life and helps feed the rest of the forest.

You wouldn’t believe

How honeypot ants feed HONEYPOT ANT

Myrmecocystus mexicanus Class Insecta

Territory North and Central America Diet Nectar Lifespan Up to 9 years Adult weight 5mg (0.0002oz) Conservation Status

NOT EVALUATED

These insects stockpile food inside the bodies of their friends to get the colony through tough times Storing food for the winter is a problem that most animals face, but honeypot ants have found a way to preserve enough nectar to feed their entire colony through the dry months. Worker ants become living larders, giving the other ants access to fresh nectar until they can collect more when spring arrives. By feeding workers until they bloat, they create supplies of winter fuel safe from decay and hidden from predators. The stretched skin of the ant can’t shrink back to its former shape, so these workers are replaced by new ants each year.

ABOVE Worker honeypot ants being used as living food stores, while other ants feed on their abdomen’s contents

01 Gather nectar

In every ant colony, there are several different types of ant to perform different tasks. Forager ants collect flower nectar and bring it back to the colony. This nectar is fed to specialised worker ants called repletes. These ants stay underground awaiting further feeding.

04 Request a meal

“They’ve found a way to preserve enough nectar to feed their entire colony” 03 Store for winter

© Ardea; The Art Agency; Sandra Doyle

When the abdomen is completely full of sweet nectar, the repletes climb to the roof of the burrow and cling on with their jaws. These ants stay in place until approached by another member of the colony.

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02 Fatten up

As it is fed more and more nectar, the replete’s abdomen begins to become engorged. Their swelling body becomes a nectar store as they are being fed more than needed, and they don’t expend any energy by moving around.

When hungry, ants approach these swollen repletes and stroke their antennae. This is a signal for the replete to regurgitate a small amount of nectar for them to eat or move to another part of the burrow.

All about hippos

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All About

pos

These African megaherbivores are related to whales and spend most of their time in the water, but at night they sneak out onto dry land to feast Words Laura Mears

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All about hippos

A mother’s bond Hippo pods can be dangerous places for youngsters, but the bond between a mother and her calf is strong Female hippos congregate in large groups during the day, and are dominated by a single male, known as a bull. He fights to establish his patch along the waterways, and is free to mate with any of the females in his territory. Hippos do not have a set time for mating, but breeding occurs more often in the dry season, allowing calves to be born during the abundant times of the wet season the following year. The dominant male approaches females from behind, and uses a specially adapted organ in his nose to sniff for pheromones in their urine. These signal when they are coming into heat. The technique even works underwater. Courtship is aggressive, and once the bull has found a receptive female, he isolates her from the rest of the herd, chasing her deeper into the water in preparation for mating. She

sometimes resists, responding with aggression, and sparring with him using her jaws. He continues to pursue her until she submits. For the duration of the mating, she remains submerged, only surfacing with her nostrils to breathe. If the pairing is successful, pregnancy lasts for around 240 days. The female will give birth to just one offspring the following year. In the days leading-up to the birth, the female hippo removes herself from the rest of the group, and walks away towards shallower water, or even up on to the land. Here, she will be safe from the males back in the river. Hippo calves are born feet first, sometimes straight into the water. Their ears and nostrils automatically close to prevent water from entering. They nurse underwater, suckling beneath the surface as their mothers shelter from the sun.

“Hippo calves are vulnerable to attack by predators and rival male hippos. Their mothers are fiercely protective”

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The mother and calf form a close bond; remaining together for a few weeks before returning to the group, interactting beneath the water, cleaning each other, and nuzzling. Hippo calves are vulnerable to attack by predators and rival male hippos. Their mothers are fiercely protective. They can tear a crocodile to shreds, and won’t hesitate to ram threatening male hippos if they come too close. Even the father plays a role in defending his young. By a month old, the calves begin to venture out of the water to graze, and by the time they are five months old, they are eating significant quantities of grass. They are weaned before they reach their first birthday, but even at this age, predators still pose a threat, and juvenile hippos tend to remain close to their mothers for several years as they mature to adult size.

Hippos Vulnerable

Adult hippos have no predators other than humans, but calves are vulnerable to attack by crocodiles, lions, and hyenas.

Discipline

The female hippo teaches her calf using a series of nudges and bites to discourage bad behaviour.

Imprinting

The bond between mother and calf is vital for survival back in the herd, and for the first few weeks, the calf gets to know her by sight, sound, and smell.

Life in a hippo pod

Female hippos retreat to dry land or shallow water to give birth, away from the crowded waterways. They are extremely defensive as they prepare to give birth, and during this period pose a serious threat to humans, becoming aggressive and agitated if they feel at all threatened. Newborn hippo calves can weigh up to 55kg (121lb), the same weight as an adult woman, but are incredibly vulnerable. The pair spend around 2 weeks alone together, giving the calf time to imprint. Their bond is extremely strong, and the female spends time nuzzling and scraping her calf to establish a connection.

Older offspring

A single dominant male takes charge of a group of females and their calves

Female hippos are often followed by several of their offspring, all at different stages of development. The older juveniles have been weaned, but stick around for protection from predators.

Dominant bull

A single male is in charge of the group. He fights to defend their territory, ensuring that the females have a place to bathe, and preventing other males from harming his calves.

The first few weeks of life

Lactating mother

Female hippos are violently protective of their own young, and will fight when threatened. Despite this, they’re tolerant of other calves and will allow the offspring of other females to come close, and even to nurse, particularly during times of drought.

Harem of females

Hippos live together in groups consisting of several females and their young. They are not particularly sociable, but they tolerate one another well, and communicate beneath the water using low frequency sounds.

Nursing below water

Hippos can close their nostrils and ears under water, and hold their breath for up to 2 minutes. They’re even able to nurse from their mother below the surface. The pair have a close bond, but are often separated at night when the adults leave the water to forage for food.

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All about hippos

Kings of land and water

Hippos might look serene in the water, but they are dangerous and aggressive

Hippos are amphibious animals, adapted to spend part of their lives in water, and part of their lives on land. They have no sweat glands, but in the heat of the African sun their skin loses fluid rapidly, and they use the cooling rivers as a refuge. In a stretch of river, there can be 33 hippos for every 100 metres of shoreline, Each hippo measures up to 5 metres (16.6 feet) in length, so space is at a premium. and water a precious resource. Male hippos fight for the best bathing spots. Like their close relatives, the whales, hippos communicate underwater, and dominant males bellow below the surface, asserting their presence for a mile in all directions. At the surface, they open their mouths wide, yawning to show off their fearsome teeth, and at the boundaries

of their territory, the males participate in dung-showering rituals, spraying dung over the weaker bulls. These aggressive shows are not enough to deter a would-be attacker, and the bulls engage in combat. Male hippos weigh over a tonne, and their fights are far from elegant. If an outsider threatens their territory, dominant males spar with mouths open, locking jaws in displays of strength. Their canines are sharp and dangerous, and as they lash out, they inflict deep wounds to the back, head, and neck. Space in the water is hard fought, but hippos do not spend their entire lives submerged, and each night they venture out on to land. As darkness falls, they clamber up the sloping banks, heading out into the grasses to forage for food.

Diet and feeding

Around 90% of their diet consists of grasses

Despite spending their days in the water, hippos only eat plants that grow on land

That’s 1.5% of its body weight An average male hippo eats 20-40kg/

55-88lbs of food per day

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Occasionally they supplement their diet with leaves, bark and fruits

They have a relatively sedentary lifestyles and require less food than you might imagine, spending only around 5 hours every night feeding. Their front teeth are primarily used for digging and fighting, so they use their lips to crop the grass. They are agile out of the water and can reach speeds of over 30 kilometres per hour (18.5 miles per hour) when threatened. They follow the same routes in and out of the water day after day. Their large bodies carve vast tracks in the landscape, known as ‘hippo paths’. They are not territorial on land, but the hippos pile their dung into tall mounds known as middens. The middens can be up to a metre (3.3 feet) deep, are refreshed daily as the hippos pass. These signals are thought to be trail markers, helping the hippos to find their way.

Hippos

“Their front teeth are used for digging and fighting, so they use their lips to crop the grass”

Power struggle Hippo fights are messy, with combatants landing painful strikes to the mouth, back and rump of their opponent. They leave deep wounds in the skin, and some hippos even lose their tails in the fray.

Heavyweight wrestling Hippos are enormous animals, and when they fight, they use the full force of their bodyweight to wrestle their opponent into submission.

Lethal teeth Hippos have four knife-sharp canines, and a bite force of almost one tonne. Despite their thick skin, these teeth can inflict terrible wounds.

Ruling the river Bull hippos fight for dominance to secure the best locations in the water Competition for space in the water really steps up during the dry season when the riverbeds are parched and the females become receptive to mating. Males spar to establish dominance and to ensure that they have access to what little water remains.

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All about hippos

Inside a hippo

Large lungs

Hippos are adapted for life in the water, but they are not completely at home in lakes and rivers. Their enormous lungs can hold enough air for five minutes below the surface, but they do not float and they cannot swim

Hippos have lungs similar in appearance to those of a whale. They can take deep breaths, and are able to stay underwater for five minutes at a time.

Skull

Black rhinos have short skulls compared to white rhinos, and a more obvious forehead ridge.

COMMON HIPPO

Hippopotamus amphibius Class Mammalia

Territory Sub-Saharan Africa Diet Herbivore Lifespan 35-50 years Adult weight 1,475 kg (3,250 lb) Conservation Status

VULNERABLE

Incisors for digging

Whale-like larynx

Hippos communicate underwater, and have a voice-box similar to that of a whale, adapted for transmitting low frequency sounds through liquid.

Large heart

Molars for chewing

Column-like legs

Canine tusks

The fierce-looking front teeth of a hippo are not used for feeding; these long tools are weapons. They grow continually, grinding past each other to form razor-sharp edges. Four toes 150-degree gape

JUVENILE

INFANCY Birth 0 months Hippo infants are born feet first on land or in shallow water, and weigh between 25 and 55 kilograms (22-121 pounds)

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Imprinting 0-2 weeks The calf and its mother remain isolated from the group for the first two weeks and form a close bond

Staying hidden 2 weeks – 8 months Calves drink milk for the first eight months of their lives, and spend most of their time in the water

Getting some practice 7 months Juvenile males begin practicing dominance displays, yawning and sparring with each other

MATURITY Sub-adulthood 8 months – 3 years Young hippos stay with their mother for several years, relying on her protection

Puberty 3-7 years Female hippos go through puberty at around the age of three, and by four they are oen pregnant with their first calf

Thick skin

Chambered stomach

Hippo stomachs are divided into chambers, slowing digestion and allowing bacteria to ferment their food. They can hold 2 days worth of grass at a time, weighing over 100 kilograms (220 pounds).

The skin on the back of a hippo is around 5cm (2in) thick, providing much needed protection during territorial fights. It makes up around 18% of the hippo’s bodyweight. Large vertebrae

“Blood sweat”

Mucous glands produce an oily liquid that turns red on contact with air and dries to form a protective barrier. It has antibiotic properties, helping to prevent infection.

How the hippo moves Despite spending their days submerged in water, hippos do not float and cannot swim. They walk along the bottom of the river on tiptoe, moving gracefully through the water, and can even trot and gallop below the surface. Solid bones in their limbs prevent them from floating back up.

Short large intestine

Water is reabsorbed through the large intestine, but in a hippo, this part of the digestive system is relatively short.

Closest family Closely related to the hippo are…

Little fat

They might look fat, but hippos do not need insulation; their bodies are barrel-shaped bodies because of their enormous digestive systems.

Solid bones

Normally, limb bones are hollow and filled with bone marrow, but in a hippo, they are solid. This allows them to sink to the bottom of the water.

Establishing dominance 20 years Males mature around the same time as females, but cannot reproduce until they hold a territory

Continuing to reproduce Up to 40 years Female hippos produce a calf once every two years, taking a break every other year to raise their newborn

Old age 40-50 years As they near the end of their lives, male hippos become less able to hold on to their territories, and must give way to younger, stronger bulls

Pygmy hippo They are just half the size of their relatives. They are found in West Africa, and live nocturnal, solitary lifestyles,and are difficult to study. According to local folklore, they carry diamonds in their mouths, lighting up the forest at night.

Pigs Hippos are descended from pig-like ancestors known as anthracotheres. They became extinct around 2.5 million years ago. Modern pigs and hippos have similar body shape, and share the same ridges on their molar teeth.

Whales DNA evidence shows that in fact, the closest living relatives of hippos are whales. Although they live in the sea now, whales are descended from an ancestor that once lived on land, and they share a remarkable number of features with modern hippos.

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All about hippos

A hippo’s habitat The thick skin of a hippopotamus is prone to cracking in the scorching heat of the sun, and in order to survive, hippos must have access to water. They cannot swim, so they need slow moving water with gently sloping banks, allowing them to climb out easily at the sides, and they require firm lake or riverbeds, so that they can walk along the bottom and rest with their noses above the water. They also need access to nearby grazing. There are thought to be over 100,000 common hippos living wild in Africa, spanning 29 different countries, but their range is becoming increasingly fragmented. The largest population of all is found in Zambia, in Southern Africa, totalling around 40,000 animals. Hippos were once found along the river Nile in Egypt, and there are records of these large herbivores in the area during the times

of the Roman Empire, but by the Renaissance in the 1700s, the species was in decline. They have no natural predators, but were hunted by humans because they trampled crops and capsized boats, and they became locally extinct in 1800s. These large animals rely on water for their survival, and in areas where humans and hippos coexist there can be competition for this precious resource. Water is diverted for use in farms and irrigation systems, and habitat loss is forcing hippos and humans into direct conflict. A single hippo can provide hundreds of kilograms of meat for hungry families, and in some places they are hunted for food. This is more common in areas where there is civil war, and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the population dropped by 95% over the course of an 8-year period of unrest.

“A single hippo can provide hundreds of kilograms of meat for hungry families”

During the dry season, hippos bathe in mud to keep cool

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Another cause of hippo decline is the ivory trade. The trade in elephant ivory was banned in 1989, and since then the number of hippos killed has risen dramatically. The canine teeth of hippos can grow to 60 centimetres (24 inches) in length, and contain a softer form of ivory. In the first two years following the elephant ivory ban, the amount of hippo ivory exported from Africa rose by 530 percent, and in 2002, 5,000 kilograms (11,000 pounds) of hippo teeth were exported from Uganda alone. Although the population is currently doing reasonably well, the numbers are dropping, and hippos were listed as vulnerable on the IUCN red list in 2006. Breeding adults are slowly being removed from the population, and the downstream effects will become evident in future generations, with the population facing a very real threat in the next few decades.

Hippos

Hippos and humans

Hippos are often thought of as gentle giants, but beneath their serene exterior lurks an animal with a dangerous temperament. Hippos and humans both rely on water to survive, and in areas where the two species meet there is often conflict. They are responsible for 3,000 deaths every year, that’s more than any other African animal, including lions, leopards, hyenas, and elephants. Hippos do not seek out conflict with humans, they only attack when they feel threatened, and the increase in attacks has probably more to do with the fact that they are now living in closer proximity to humans as we expand across the continent. Hippos have enormous appetites, and during their nocturnal foraging missions, can completely devastate farms, trampling the crops and grazing on produce. Farmers in some countries are able to apply for permits to cull offending animals, but there is sometimes abuse of the system, and animals are also hunted for meat, skins, and ivory. Hippos, though graceful underwater, are not particularly agile on land, and farms can be easily protected by low fences or ditches. They now mainly reside in protected areas and national parks where their interaction with humans is limited.

Nearest neighbours Hippos interact with several other species in their local environment

Nile crocodile Nile crocodiles are predators, and in many areas they live alongside hippos. Despite their fearsome teeth, hippos are dominant over the reptiles, and will drive them out of the water to secure the best positions; even killing them if they feel threatened.

Common sandpiper These wading birds are found across Europe during the summer, but during the winter, they migrate to Africa. They feed on aquatic organisms, including insect larvae, and crustaceans, and hippos provide the perfect buffet table.

Garra fish These fish feed on the wounds of hippos, helping to clean their skin and prevent infection. A related species, garra rufa, are now commonly used in ‘fish pedicures’ in spas across Europe, Asia and North America.

Environmental factors Habitat loss Over time, the expansion of human settlements has gradually eroded hippo habitat, diverting water for use in agriculture, and converting grasslands to roads and towns.

Ivory trade Aer the ban on the trade in elephant ivory, poachers looked for other sources of this valuable resource in Africa. Hippos are now targeted for their teeth.

Hunting A single hippo can provide over one tonne (2204 pounds) of meat. The are sometimes hunted for food. It is much more common in war-torn countries, where food can be scarce.

Drought Hippos rely on water for survival, and the dry season is always a challenge. Their habitat is shrinking, as human settlements close in. Testing times are even more of a threat.

Tsetse fly These might look like houseflies, but they are some of the most dangerous animals in Africa. The tsetse fly transmits the parasite that causes sleeping sickness. The flies gain most of their meals from pigs and hippos.

© Alamy, Corbis, FLPA, Thinkstock, Geoffrey M. Attardo, The Art Agency; Peter Scott

Hippos are facing population decline brought on by habitat loss and hunting

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CREATURES OF THE

The world’s shallow waters are teeming with life, from giant crabs to jellyfish that grow their own food Words Amy Grisdale

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Creatures of the shoreline Sea turtle The only sea turtles to eat a diet of only plant matter, green turtles have bills adapted to slice through sea grass. Shallow waters are warm and light, perfect growing conditions for marine plants, and this is where green turtles are usually found. Unlike most turtle species, however, green turtles occasionally leave the ocean to bask in the sunlight.

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Creatures of the shoreline

Upside-down jellyfish

Roseate spoonbill These pink birds sweep through the sediment by shaking their heads from side to side while making deep, guttural noises. When they disturb the sand they look out for animals darting away that the bird can eat. Spoonbills eat fish, marine invertebrates and amphibians they find in the sand. When mating season starts, spoonbill pairs exchange nesting materials, dance in unison and clap their bills together.

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Floating in shallow waters around mud flats and mangroves, the upside-down jellyfish grows its own food. Its tentacles are covered with algae that photosynthesises, so it needs to be exposed to sunlight. The jellyfish swims on its back to cultivate this vital algae.

Creatures of the shoreline Coconut crab

The largest land crabs on the planet can lift weights of 28 kilograms (62 pounds). That’s the equivalent of a human being able to lift a horse. Their claws are also strong enough to break open coconut shells. These crabs are so well adapted to life on land that they can actually drown in deep water, but they need to live on shores to release their larvae into the ocean.

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Creatures of the shoreline Blue sea star

This marine invertebrate reproduces without a partner, creating identical copies of its own DNA. The larvae an adult produces take two years to reach maturity. Sea stars move around using tiny tentacles called tube feet, which also contain chemical receptors to help it sniff out food. These animals are predators and will attack other invertebrates they come across.

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Creatures of the shoreline

Killer whale Sea lions on the shore are not safe from hungry killer whales. The biggest member of the dolphin family swims toward the beach at top speed to launch itself up the shore to pluck an unsuspecting sea lion from its resting place.

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THE FASTEST BIRD IN THE WEST Immortalised in animated form by Warner Brothers, real-life roadrunners are no less impressive than their cartoon counterpart Words Rick Jones

As far as birds go, the greater roadrunner owns the plains of its native Baja California peninsula. Darting amongst the rugged chaparral, the ‘chaparral cock’, as it is known locally, is a fearsomely efficient predator, revered by native American tribesmen for its strength and courage. That legendary courage is displayed on a daily basis, when dealing with their favoured, often venomous prey. Lizards, and scorpions.

Even rattlesnakes make up a large part of a its diet. This handy habit of eating usuallyfeared creatures led to many legends amongst American and Mexican desert dwelling tribes. To obtain their necessary nourishment, roadrunners have the need for speed. Roadrunners have been reported clocking speeds of 42 kilometres per hour (26 miles per hour), making them the fastest flight-capable bird on Earth.

‘Rear-steer’ rudder arrangement Just like their far-flying cuckoo cousins, roadrunners use their long slender tails as a ‘rudder’ to aid direction changing and balance. However, roadrunners rely on this whilst dashing between boulders, literally at breakneck speeds.

The roadrunner lives in the Baja California peninsula

GREATER ROADRUNNER Geococcyx californianus Class Aves

Territory Desert and scrubland plains Diet Reptiles, invertebrates, fruits and seeds Lifespan Up to 7 years Adult weight 221 to 538g (7.8 to 19oz) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

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Roadrunner

“Roadrunners are fantastically adapted to life as a desert marathoner”

Ante up, head down The faster the roadrunner gets, the more perpendicular it’s body will become with the ground. Normally, the wings are firmly tucked to the body, but when escaping danger, it may extend the wings to fly.

Race-ready respiration/radiation Roadrunners have super-efficient lungs with typical bird breathing (air sacs) that prevent used air mixing with fresh. To shed excess heat, they flutter their throats, cooling the blood-rich skin of the ‘gular pouch’.

Running in the family? All leg, no breast Predictably, most of the roadrunner’s body weight is in it’s proportionately massive leg muscles. The breast, or ‘flight muscles’ are small, and roadrunners are fairly weak fliers. As runners, they possess both speed, and extraordinary endurance.

As long as 110 million years ago, what appears to be an entirely unrelated bird was leaving decidedly roadrunner like tracks across what is now Shandong province, China. Roadrunners – like all cuckoos – are zygodactyls, meaning that their feet are arranged with two toes facing forward and two toes facing backward. This is typically an adaptation seen in tree-dwelling (aboreal) birds – and chameleons. Although it is obviously no hindrance to our otherwise race-ready roadrunner, the fact that it has evolved twice in running (cursorial) birds – and, in the case of the ancient Chinese Shandongornipes muxiai, didn’t ‘make the cut’ of natural selection – has scientists a little puzzled. Despite having evolutionarily ‘old-fashioned’ feet, roadrunners are otherwise fantastically adapted to life as a desert marathoner. They can obtain most – if not all –of the water they need from their food. To avoid excessive urination, should the sodium levels in a roadrunner’s blood become excessive, they can ‘dry-cry’ salt crystals from a special nasal gland just below each eye. During cold desert nights, roadrunners drop into a state hypothermia to sleep, exposing the black skin under their dorsal feathers upon waking, to reabsorb energy from the sun.

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The fastest bird in the west

Legendary hunter The roadrunner has several nicknames, including ‘snakekiller’ and ‘ground cuckoo’. All are equally fitting, as they are indeed in fact cuckoos – members of the subfamily Neomorphinae or New World ground cuckoos. Whilst most cuckoos are famous for ruthlessly exploiting other bird species – ousting their eggs and laying their own in the unfortunate victims’ nest – roadrunners raise their own young, and show their own ruthless nature in other ways, such as dispatching even the deadliest of snakes. A roadrunner confronted with a snake will use its strong beak to grab the unfortunate reptile’s tail, and repeatedly ‘whip’ the snake with

a lightning-fast motion, smashing the head into the nearest rocky outcrop or suitably hard patch of floor. When the snake stops moving, the roadrunner will take the bloodied head, and begin to swallow. If the snake is too big, the bird may run around for several days with sections of the snake hanging out of its beak, spaghettistyle, gradually swallowing more as it digests its serpent victim. Other prey includes usually-noxious horned lizards, swallowed head first to avoid spikes, and even hummingbirds, which are snatched from the air and swallowed, without the roadrunner breaking its stride.

Wile E Coyote and The Road Runner

© Alamy, Dreamstime, Rex Features

Surprisingly, real-life roadrunners can’t create a ‘beep beep’ sound at all, instead making a variety of cooing and clattering vocalisations – and one shriek which is said to mimic the ‘yip’ bark of a coyote. On the subject of coyotes, although Warner Brothers’ hapless anti-hero Wile E Coyote may never catch our roadrunner’s animated avatar, real-life coyotes can run at speeds of over 64 kilometres per hour (40 miles per hour) – almost twice as fast as any roadrunner. Roadrunners are an important prey item for these truly wily wolf-like canines, and dramatic chases do oen ensue. Sadly, they never involve acme-branded giant slingshots!

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Endangered

Asiatic lion ASIATIC LION

Panthera leo persica Class Mammalia

Territory Gir Forests, India Diet Antelope, deer, goats Lifespan 14-18 years Adult weight 200-275kg (440-606lb) Conservation Status

ENDANGERED

Asiatic lions once roamed across Asia, Southern Europe and the Middle East, but hunting and drought during the 19th Century left these big cats close to extinction. They are now restricted to a tiny forest region of the Gujarat State in India, but thanks to 50 years of conservation efforts, the population has been significantly boosted, and in 2010 there were just over 400 living in the wild. However, as they outgrow their refuge in the Gir Forest, they are increasingly coming into conflict with humans.

The causes of extinction Hunting and poaching

The original decline of Asiatic lions has been liked to the spread of firearms across Europe and Asia. The lions were hunted for sport until the practice was banned in the early 20th Century. Today, Asiatic lions are still stalked by poachers, and thanks to their restricted habitat, they are easy to find.

Accidental death

With little space in their forest reserves, the expanding population of Asiatic lions is being forced to move into inhabited areas. In such close proximity to humans, they face a new set of challenges; the lions are involved in road and rail accidents, fall into open wells, and are sometimes even killed by frightened farmers.

Drought

Drought was a major contributor to the original decline of the Asiatic lion population, and today, the problem is compounded by human activity. Illegal mining operations in the Gujarat area have diverted the water supply, leaving the lions and their prey with little to drink. The thirsty animals are following the water and migrating away from the safety of the reserves.

What you can do 777:3,/2'3500/24˶53,)/.3 Check out the Lions 400 program at ZSL London Zoo, which aims to establish a breeding program for Asiatic lions, and to support rangers and veterinarians on the ground in India.

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Asiatic Lion

India

An interview with the expert: saving the Asiatic lion Dr Gitanjali Bhattacharya is the South and Central Asia programme manager at the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) The Asiatic lion population has recovered from the brink of extinction to 411 individuals (2010 census). They occupy remnant forest habitats in the two hill systems of Gir and Girnar, part of the Gir Conservation Area in Gujarat, India. With such a tiny population remaining in a small pocket of forest, they are particularly vulnerable to the threats of disease and potential conflict with humans.

Asiatic lions used to range from the Middle East to India, but are now restricted to the area in and around the Gir Forest, measuring just 20,000 square kilometres (12,400 square miles) Territory in 2015 Territory in 1800

Land of the Lions is part of Lions400, ZSL’s public fundraising campaign, which will also support ZSL’s international projects to protect wild Asiatic lions in the Gir Forest in India. Land of the Lions will open in spring 2016, and will provide state-of-the-art facilities for a breeding group of endangered Asiatic lions. Initial work on the new enclosure began in November 2014, and is expected to take 16 months to complete. At ZSL London Zoo more than one million people each year come into contact with Asiatic lions, including more than 100,000 school children.

Asiatic lions can be distinguished from their African cousins by their short manes; their ears are always visible through the fur

© FLPA

The decreasing habitat

The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is setting up a collaborative project with the Gujarat Forest Department and the Wildlife Institute of India focussing on strengthening patrol based monitoring and anti-poaching systems, strengthening captive breeding and wildlife health management as well as conservation education initiatives. We hope that by working together there will be improved monitoring and law enforcement by park personnel to keep an eye on the lions in the conservation area. ZSL has developed leading conservation technology that is currently either in use, or being tested in Africa and Asia, which we will work with the Gir Forest team to roll out. We will also carry out a vet exchange programme to train forest rangers and the Gir lion rescue team in the latest and best disease surveillance techniques and veterinary procedures.

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20 GIANT FACTS ABOUT

PANDAS They are big, cute and cuddly with a ferocious appetite for bamboo, but they are also intelligent, shrewd and surprisingly agile Words David Crookes

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GIANT PANDA

Ailuropoda melanoleuca Class Mammalia

CHINA

Territory Central China Diet Bamboo, plants, small animals Lifespan 20 years Adult weight 136kg (300lb) Conservation Status

ENDANGERED

Giant panda habitat

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20 giant facts about pandas

Pandas are skilled tree climbers While they have a reputation for sitting around eating bamboo, giant pandas are actually very agile creatures. Not only are they very capable swimmers, their paws are well-adapted for the climbing of trees, with retractable claws and furry undersides lending them a solid grip. Once among the branches, they tend to rest or sleep, but they will also keep a look out for predators – fear being one of the motivating factors for going up high. Panda cubs begin ascending trees when they are six months old and while the males become more reluctant to leave the ground as they grow older, females continue to use the trees during the breeding season. They stay within the trees to keep a distance from the males and wait until they are ovulating or ready to mate. Both genders have a head for heights, though; they can live as high as 3,962 metres (13,000 feet) above sea level to feed, according to National Geographic.

Bamboo is even less nutritious during the winter, so pandas must keep eating

Unlike other bears, they don’t hibernate Most bears sleep for months at a time during the winter when food becomes more scarce and their bodies seek protection from the cold. But giant pandas do not hibernate. Instead, they seek a good supply of bamboo in the warmer temperatures of the mountain’s lower reaches and munch their way through even the most freezing of winters. By doing this, they are able to ensure their survival. Giant pandas are unable to store enough fat to feed them through the winter so by constantly eating, they give their bodies the energy they need. It doesn’t help that bamboo has very little nutritional value, so the

giant pandas need to consume between 12 and 38 kilograms (26 and 84 pounds) of it each day in order to gain enough goodness. They typically spend between ten and 16 hours a day eating and much of the rest of the time sleeping it off. Bamboo

Rodents, insects, birds and fish

Nutrients absorbed from bamboo

Panda poo tea fetches over £130 per cup

Giant pandas usually head for the trees when they are frightened or ovulating

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In 2012, a Chinese businessman used panda faeces to grow tea, which he sold for a staggering £22,000 per 500 grams (one pound). The use of panda faeces has a more obvious benefit to ecology, though. Giant pandas live in the Yangtze Basin, one of the most biodiverse areas of the world, with mountains, fertile wetlands and dense forests that cover an area seven times the size of the United Kingdom. As they eat so much, the pandas have a frequent need to empty their bowels. Doing so, they spread seeds in their droppings and fertilise the land, encouraging vegetation to grow. This leads to a healthy, thriving habitat and aids the survival of the many rare and

endemic species that live there. In 2013, scientists discovered microbes in panda faeces which, said Ashli Brown, from the Mississippi State University, might be a “solution to the search for sustainable new sources of energy.”

Pandas

They have staring contests with opponents

With its head down, its ears look more like a second pair of eyes

Giant pandas are usually timid, shy and peaceful, but if another animal confronts them and they feel they cannot escape, they will engage in a sort of staring contest. By lowering their head and staring directly at their opponent, they send out an aggressive warning to stay away. While staring is a typical threat among many animals, experts are not entirely certain why giant pandas adopt this particular stance. One theory is that it makes their black ears look like an extra pair of eyes against their white fur and that it this gives the illusion of another panda standing behind them, thereby showing strength in numbers – if so, there’s no denying it’s a shrewd tactic for such a solitary animal. Giant pandas also have an specific way of showing submissiveness. They avert their heads from the animal in front of them and use their paws to hide their eye patches. Females adopt this position during mating too.

“There’s no denying it’s a shrewd tactic for such a solitary animal”

Pandas were the first animals to be protected by the WWF in China where they are viewed both as a national treasure and a symbol of peace. The giant panda has been the symbol of the WWF since its formation in 1961.

Referred to as pigeontoed because of the way they walk – their front paws turn inward – giant pandas tend to trek slowly, although they can reach 32km/h (20mph). The entire bottom of their feet touches the ground as they walk.

50 per cent more pandas in the world today, according to WWF

How rare are giant pandas?

1977 in the wild

1988 in the wild

2004 in the wild

= 100 giant pandas

2004 in captivity

When giant pandas mark their territory, they work out the location of the best supplies of bamboo. Their lack of energy means they do not compete for food, so it is rare to see two of them together in the wild unless they are breeding.

Since female pandas ovulate once a year in the spring, they have a slow breeding rate. They give birth to one or two young between 95 and 160 days after mating. The cubs stick with their mother for the first three years of their life.

Canny pandas have been known to fake pregnancy in breeding centres. In 2014, a giant panda called Ai Hin showed signs of being pregnant and even had a surge in hormones. But scientists believed she merely wanted a better room and treats.

Part of the wrist bone has developed into a thumb Giant pandas have five digits on their front paws. Four of these digits are made up of four bones and one of these – the thumb – is made up of three. But look more closely and you will see what looks like a sixth digit – an opposable thumb the animal uses when it grasps bamboo shoots. It’s a bit of a red herring, though, for this isn’t a true thumb. It is actually a single bone that has developed from the panda’s wrist and taken on the role of an opposable thumb. It is in the same position as a small bone called the radial sesamoid, which exists on other carnivores to reduce the chance of tendon sprain.

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Newborn pandas are 1/900th the size of their mum Panda mothers feed their newborns up to 14 times a day. 50 hours a week are dedicated to helping fatten up cubs, which are born at just bigger than a thousandth of the size of their mother. Panda cubs can only crawl aer four months of life, relying completely on their mother for survival.

A panda’s bite is stronger than a jaguar’s If push comes to shove, giant pandas can put up a fight. They are strong animals, weighing about 150 kilograms (331 pounds) and they can grow up to 1.9 metres (six feet) long, making them – in size alone – a considerable foe. They tend to swipe at an enemy or use their strong jaw muscles to bite down hard. They can cause much damage, as Danish and Australian biologists Per Christiansen and Stephen Wroe found when their team studied the bite power of dozens of animals. Their study calculated a score which took into consideration a creature’s size – a grade exceeding 100 was indicative of a bite greater than expected. By their calculations, a jaguar scored 119; the giant panda scored 151. There have been rare reports of agitated captive pandas attacking humans who get too close. A 15-year-old boy jumped into an enclosure at Beijing Zoo in 2007 and suffered excessive bite marks to his legs from a giant panda called Gu Gu.

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WWF volunteers are able to identify individual giant pandas by the bite marks the animals leave on undigested bamboo found in their dung. Like fingerprints, each bite mark is different, allowing experts to view each panda's range.

Giant pandas eat sitting upright in a similar manner to humans. This gives them balance, allows them to conserve energy and frees up their front paws so that they can grab at any bamboo within their reach.

When seeking protection and shelter on the ground, giant pandas make dens in stone caves and in old-growth forest habitats. Females seek hollowed-out logs in which they are able to safely raise their young.

Pandas Their eyespots go from circle to tear

Giant pandas have a great sense of smell and can decipher much from scent marks

When a panda is born, their eyespots are initially circular, but these change into teardrops as the animals grow. Scientists suggest the black eye colouration helps to make the giant panda appear more intimidating to any potential predators.

They’ve been around for 3 million years

Pandas produce unique bacteria to help digest bamboo

They communicate by scratching trees Giant pandas communicate with one another in many ways, one of which is scratching marks on trees thus indicating their presence. They will also communicate vocally, with a series of barks, growls, squeaks, chirps and moans. They make a friendly bleating noise too dissimilar to a lamb and their vocalizations are enhanced during the breeding season. The animals also use scent glands positioned beneath their tails to mark their territory on trees, carefully choosing those they feel are

Interaction between pandas is essential for cub development

Their stomachs are adapted to stop getting bamboo splinters When pandas eat, cellulose in the bamboo is broken down in the panda’s digestive tract by bacteria, which according to a study by scientists at the Chinese Academy of Science’s Institute of Zoology at Beijing in 2011, are usually found in the intestines of herbivores. Seven of these bacteria, the researchers discovered, are unique to pandas, but in order for this process to take place, the animals need a level of internal protection. The problem with bamboo wood is that it inevitably splinters, posing a potential danger to a panda’s internal organs. For this reason, a panda’s oesophagus has a thick protective mucus lining, which extends into its strong, muscular stomach, preventing the bamboo from cutting the animal’s insides and causing injuries.

more likely to hold the scent for the longest possible time. The strong smell informs other pandas of their sex, age, social status and reproductive condition, and it is so stinky that even humans can smell it. The pandas cannot afford to take a random approach to scent marking, though, because their poor diet means they need to conserve their energy so, before they commit, they also consider the range and the likelihood of others pandas detecting the scent.

© Alamy; FLPA; Thinkstock; Dreamstime

A skull of a pygmy giant panda dating back 2 million years was found in southern China. Scientists since concluded giant pandas could have evolved for as many as 3 million years and have lost their taste for meat in the process. According to research carried out by Jianzhi Zhang at the University of Michigan, pandas possess an inactive version of Tas1r1, a taste-receptor gene that exists in all other carnivores. It would explain why they turned to bamboo for the bulk of their diet.

Mums wake cubs up to play Play and interaction is extremely important for cub development. Not only do young pandas play with one another, but mother pandas will even wake their cub up simply to play. This play teaches juvenile pandas the essential skills to survive.

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Zoos of the world

Paradise Wildlife Park

The park is home to over 400 exotic animals, many of which are critically endangered species Set in 30 acres of Hertfordshire woodland, Paradise Wildlife Park is home to hundreds of exotic wild animals including; Amur tigers, monkeys, zebras, tapirs, red pandas and penguins. The family-run park has an array of interactive animal encounters and experiences. The first zoo in Europe to receive a double platinum award for funds raised for the EAZA Tiger Conservation Initiative, Paradise prides itself on funding conservation efforts worldwide. Paradise’s sister site and registered charity, the Wildlife Heritage Foundation (WHF) is home to the Big Cat

Pursuing a passion Yianna Cooling, head keeper “No two days are ever the same in zookeeping. It requires compassion to meet the physical and psychological needs of animals in our care and we ensure their welfare with our enthusiasm for what we do. It can be an emotional roller coaster of highs and lows, but not a day goes by when I don’t realise how lucky I am to have had the experiences I have had and to share my life and oen my home with these incredible creatures. I started working on an open farm when I was at school and my passion grew from there. I started bringing home waifs and strays that needed to be cared for or hand-reared. I went on to pursue a career in animal care. Time spent volunteering in animal collections and a wildlife rehabilitation centre in South Africa helped me to develop my hands-on experience in animal care. I then got a seasonal position at Paradise Wildlife Park and I have had some amazing experiences in zookeeping over the last ten years. My role progressed as my experience and the zoo has grown and developed, and although my role has become more managerial now I always keep very hands on with the animals.”

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Sanctuary, based in Kent. WHF is fully committed to being recognised and respected as the best breeding centre of endangered big cats within the European Species Breeding Programme. Paradise also has its own registered charity, Friends of Paradise Wildlife Park, run by a team of volunteers. Its events, stalls and donations support various worldwide conservation projects such as WHF, Wildlife Vets International and World Land Trust, to name a few. Come and discover the fun at Paradise and help support their amazing work.

Paradise Wildlife Park

See it for yourself WWW.PWPARK.COM Admission

Seasonal prices, adults from £17, children from £14. Under-twos go free.

How to get there

Paradise Wildlife Park is 32km (20mi) north of London, just off the A10 near to junction 25 of the M25. Simply follow the marked brown tourist signs.

“Paradise prides itself on funding conservation efforts worldwide”

WIN!

A family annual pass to Paradise worth £300!

Free entry 364 days of the year for two adults and two children, with unlimited use of the Woodland Railway and On Safari Adventure Golf! With incredible discounts on animal experiences and tours as well as discounts on animal adoptions and children parties, this really is a prize not to be missed.

Visit www.animalanswers.co.uk to enter

Spencer the cotton top tamarin A perfect ambassador for this critically endangered species, Spencer was born at the park in 2006 and now has successfully started her own breeding group for the European breeding programme.

Panja the snow leopard Panja came to Paradise Wildlife Park when he was just 20 months old. He is a lively and curious feline, loves playing hide and seek and is currently on the lookout for a new mate!

ABOVE Watch the red pandas munch bamboo and explore their enclosure

ABOVE The elusive ocelot is twice the size of a domestic cat

Sally the Chinese alligator Sally’s great personality and prehistoric looks makes her very unique. Sally is a key ambassador for Chinese alligators as they are one the most endangered reptiles on the planet.

© Paradise Wildlife Park

Tamara the tapir Tamara is our youngest tapir at Paradise Wildlife Park and the fourth successful calf born at the park. She loves her food and as you can see she isn’t the most graceful of eaters!

ABOVE You won’t be able to miss the noisy gibbons at the park

ABOVE The African penguins are always up to mischief

4 star animals of Paradise Wildlife

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18 Amazing facts Seals

From the gaseous blood of an elephant seal to their four-legged ancestors, this group of marine carnivores has a lot of secrets that we’re gradually uncovering The deepest-diving seals are elephant seals, reaching depths of 2,400m (7,835ft). That’s like swimming 50 lengths of an Olympic swimming pool without taking a single breath. Pups wait to be waterproof Most newborn seal pups are born with silky so white fur and spent their first four to six weeks of their lives on land. During this time, their layer of insulating blubber thickens and their baby fluff is replaced by waterproof fur.

Seals evolved in the Arctic from four-legged mammals around 30 million years ago. Their closest relatives on land are otters, dogs and bears. 62

Harbour seals have unique whiskers. They’re twisted in an asymmetric pattern which allows the animals to detect the trail of a fish 35 seconds after it has passed the seal.

Seals Seals can live for more than 45 years, with females typically having a longer life span than males. The southern elephant seal is the largest of all pinnipeds, weighing up to a massive 3,855kg (8,500lb). Crabeater seals are the most abundant seal species, with an estimated 75 million living on the planet.

Mothers produce 50 per cent fat milk Female seals produce milk that is 50 per cent fat to feed their newborns. By guzzling this fatty milk, seal pups are able to gain 2kg (5lb) every day until they are large enough to learn to hunt.

Seals blow bubbles

Getting the attention of a female is a challenge for male seals, and they use sounds to tell their neighbours that they are the best seal around. Rather than barking like a sea lion, seals make growling sounds to communicate about their quality as a mate and to warn other males away. Creating loud splashes by slapping the water’s surface and blowing bubbles while submerged also attract females to a prime male seal.

California sea lions are the fastest member of the family and are able to swim at 40km/h (25mph) in short ‘sprinting’ bursts. Seals have a higher hearing threshold than humans, meaning they can hear higher-pitched sounds than we can.

An elephant seal’s blood has an unusually high concentration of carbon-monoxide gas that could help control their buoyancy and protect their lungs. Monk seals are violent

With a combination of massive weight and the instinct to mate, male monk seals injure and even occasionally kill females when trying to mate with them. These seals mob females while their blood is surging with testosterone, unfortunately sometimes leaving the females injured or even killed.

There are 33 members of the pinniped family and these are split up into three groups; the true seals that include harp and leopard seals; the eared seal group with sea lions and fur seals; and walruses that make up the third group.

© Thinkstock, Dreamsitme

Elephant seals can hold their breath for two hours Weddell seals can hold their breath for 80 minutes, only surfacing when they spot a hole in the Antarctic ice above them. The true masters are elephant seals that can hold their breath for up to two hours while diving.

Ringed seals are the smallest Ringed seals are the smallest member of the family with body lengths of just over 1m (3), with the smallest weighing only 50kg (110lb). These are the most common seals in the Arctic and make up more than 60 per cent of a polar bear’s diet.

Female seals flock to the strongest male seals during mating season. These groups of females are called harems, and a single male seal gets to have his choice of up to 50 of these females in any given mating season.

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Double life of the cougar

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Built to withstand the unpredictable wilderness of the desert mountains, cougars make easy work of picking out urban prey Words Amy Grisdale The mountain forests, sheltered swamps and vast desert planes of North America are dominated by the ultimate wild cat. The cougar – also known as the mountain lion – is the most widespread native mammal in the entire Western Hemisphere and can survive in almost any environment. This tenacity has led the continent’s largest cat down from the hillsides to bustling cities to take advantage of the available prey and human leftovers. Sightings of urban cougars are steadily increasing. After spending their days at rest in remote rural areas, they descend the slopes toward the town. Predators will always sniff out the areas with the most prey, and urban areas are bursting with coyotes, rodents and raccoons. Cougars prowl through the night on the hunt, able to evade any obstacle that gets between them and their prey.

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Double life of the cougar

From day to night Prowling into towns on the hunt for food, the cougar will go to any lengths to survive

Up in the mountains The secluded hillsides shelter the mighty cougar from prying eyes during daylight hours. This is the cougar’s time to rest and raise their families. Though usually solitary, cougars pair up to mate and

cubs stay with their mothers for two years. Newborn kittens are sheltered in a den, but as they grow they become more and more independent. This idyllic landscape is the ideal place to raise a cougar family where the cubs are safe, and as they live at altitudes of up to 5,800 metres (19,000 feet), there is little danger from predators.

Agility

With the longest legs in proportion to their body of any other cat, cougars can jump more than 5m (18ft) in the air from standing. A horizontal jump can cover a distance of up to 12m (40ft).

Camouflage Terrain Rest NORTH AMERICAN COUGAR Puma concolor Class Mammalia

Territory North and South America Diet Deer, raccoons, porcupines Lifespan Up to 13 years Adult weight 60kg (130lb) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

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Active at dawn and dusk, cougars rest during for 30 to 55 per cent of the day. For safety, lone adult cougars choose to rest in trees or hidden high in the hills where they are unlikely to be disturbed.

The jagged peaks and extreme conditions in the mountains act as training grounds for growing cats. Cougars sharpen their endurance skills on a daily basis and only the fittest cats survive.

Kittens

These cats are almost invisible against the backdrop of mountain rocks and tall grasses.

Speckled cougar kittens blend into the environment perfectly, but lose their spots as they get older. Their mother teaches them to hunt before they leave her side to fend for themselves.

Cougar Cat about town When the sun sets cougars can make their way toward human settlements that are riddled with prey. Nocturnal mammals that feast on the remains left by humans occupy a niche without natural predators, and cougars have started to take advantage of that food source. Reports of cougar sightings from homes are

increasing, and these once-elusive cats are becoming regular visitors to urban areas. Equipped with the tools to survive the wind-battered cliffs and arid deserts, cougars are able to take the streets in their stride while the city slumbers. By dawn, cougars are able to make their way back to the wilderness.

Night vision

A cougar’s pupil can open three times wider than a human pupil, letting in three times the amount of light. This helps a cougar keep its eyes on its prey in low-light conditions.

In and out

Rather than spending the entire night in an urban area, cougars make short visits in and out of cities to stay safe from humans.

Boys in the hood

Though usually solitary animals, orphaned cougars that have not been able to learn how to hunt from their mother often team up to hunt in urban areas.

Speed

Cougars are able to run in bursts of speed up to 80km/h (50mph), which helps these cats catch nimble deer.

Hunting

Like many cats, cougars stalk their prey before striking. A cougar can spend over an hour following a single animal to capture, before sinking its teeth into the back of the prey’s neck.

67

Double life of the cougar

Why the cat’s in the city: an expert opinion Penny Maldonado is an ambassador for nature. Managing a fund led by a board of directors that includes founder Thomas Mangelsen and Dr Jane Goodall, her work focuses on cougar research and education to help conserve the big cats of North America Name: Penny Maldonado Role: Managing director of the Cougar Fund Website: www.cougarfund.org What’s the cougar’s role in the ecosystem? They are apex predators, which means they are at the top of the food chain. Other large carnivores like grizzly bears are omnivorous, but cougars can only eat meat. What they leave as carrion helps support other species such as rodents and coyotes, which dine on what’s left. Even where the carcasses rot there is an improvement in soil quality, so even the smallest invertebrates benefit from cougars. What leads a cougar to enter a town? It’s the drive to survive that leads them to enter unfamiliar territory. When young cats reach maturity they must find territory of their own. It’s called dispersal, and it’s often the reason cats end up in towns looking for food and shelter. It tends to be more common with orphaned kittens whose mothers have passed away. They are driven to eat but they haven’t had the

time with the mother to learn how to hunt wild deer effectively on their own. Young cats will compete for prime territory and the losers end up in inappropriate places. Maybe the quiet area away from the town has a big tomcat living there, so the young male that’s just had to leave its mother has to choose which habitat is the greatest danger. If it chooses to challenge the tomcat, it may get killed. That’s a real threat; inter-species [cougaron-cougar] competition can lead to cougars fighting to the death. The young male might take his chances in the town.

What does an urban area offer to a hungry cougar? Animals such as raccoons, which have become a fixture in urban areas, are a huge attractant. Cougars are opportunistic and if food like that is available, they will keep coming; they aren’t really picky about where their food comes from. They are very efficient hunters, they ambush prey and attack from behind. Cougars are more efficient killers than a pack of wolves. Do cougars have the tendency to stay hidden in the day but enter towns at night? That’s exactly what they do; they pop into town at night. Because they know they are in an area that isn’t really that hospitable they tend not to take deer. Dragging a deer away takes a lot of time, plus they have to spend time hiding it from others. So when they go into towns they just take small animals like raccoons, so it’s almost as if the cougars realise they can’t hang around to hunt the way they normally do. It shows an adaptation on the cougar’s part. It’s routine, it’s their job to survive.

BELOW Cougars have extraordinary leaping ability, and are among the planet’s most efficient hunters

“Cougars are more efficient killers than a pack of wolves” 68

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Spotters’ guide

Rhinos

BLACK RHINO Diceros bicornis Class Mammalia

Seeing rhinos in the wild is the ultimate wildlife sighting, and as pressure from poaching increases there’s no time like the present Rhinos are on the ‘must see’ list of animal spotters across the globe, and one of the best places to get the sighting of a lifetime is Ol Pejeta conservancy in Kenya. Rhinos are typically easier to spot during wet seasons, so it’s advisable to book a trip in either April or November. The conservancy is located in Laikipia, Kenya’s best Safari area, and even offers accommodation.

Rhino spotters can seek out sightings without help, but it’s strongly recommended to be accompanied by a ranger. Safari drives occur throughout each day, and visitors are even able to roam the plains in their own vehicle. Ol Pejeta offers guided bush walks, with an armed ranger accompanying walkers on a once-in-a-lifetime wildlife experience.

Territory Eastern and southern Africa Diet Herbivore Lifespan 35-50 years Adult weight 800-1400kg / 1760-3080lbs Conservation Status

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

“Visitors are even able to roam the plains in their own vehicle”

Save rhinos now www.olpejetaconservancy.org 10% of World of Animals’ profits will now help fight poaching

World of Animals is working with Ol Pejeta, east Africa’s largest black rhino sanctuary, raising awareness of poaching. The conservancy is dedicated to securing habitats for conservation and the not-forprofit organisation looks aer over 100 rhinos. You can follow the campaign online at: www.animalanswers.co.uk. You’ll also find a Donate page to directly fund the fight against poaching before it’s too late and these animals are lost forever.

Africa Nairobi Angola

Mozambique

Namibia Cape Town

Where you can see rhinos The rhinos herald over much of southern Africa, from the plains of Kenya across to the Namibia

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Polar bears Advice from Ol Pejeta Stephen Elimlim is part of the Ol Pejeta wildlife team and works closely with both the animals and visitors to the conservancy. When is the best time to see rhinos? Rhinos are best seen in the morning and evening hours. Aside from dawn and dusk, if spotters are able to go on a night game drive they have extremely high chances of seeing rhinos. Look out at watering holes and ponds, as well as areas with cleared grounds and good cover. What you can expect to see at certain times of year? During the rainy season, you can expect to spot rhinos with relative ease. Tracking is best done during this season as their footprints are easy to see. During the dry season it can be fairly difficult to spot rhinos. Their home range increases as they move over large distances in search of water. Is any specialist help needed to see wild rhinos? In the dry season, it’s best to be accompanied by someone who knows the habitat well such as a ranger or an experienced tour guide. If spotters are on foot it is highly recommended that they’re accompanied by an experienced armed guide. What should spotters wear? Spotters are advised to dress in colours that blend in with the environment. As such, brown, khaki, camouflage coloured clothes are most suitable. What equipment do rhino spotters need to take? Rhino spotters are advised to carry a pair of binoculars, a camera, a GPS unit (necessary for navigation and to mark locations) and writing material in order to help collect data or record any special observations. Are there any special techniques needed to best see them? Spotters are advised to make sure that they’re walking up-wind. Down-wind means a rhino can then easily pick up your scent from as far as a kilometre (0.62 miles) away and retreat. Are rhinos dangerous? Rhinos can be dangerous if they feel threatened. Spotters should walk very quietly and avoid any sudden movements or loud activity and avoid coming into a rhino’s direct line of vision. If a rhino seems startled, they are advised to stand absolutely still and wait for the instructions of the ranger or the person in charge of the group.

Essential kit

For serious spotters, it’s worth investing in a good pair of binoculars. Zeiss offer a range of binoculars specifically designed for watching wildlife. These VICTORY HT premium binoculars offer up to more than 95% light transmission and, thanks to revolutionary technology, exceptional brightness, contrast and amazing detail.

© Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Thinkstock,

Ol Pejeta allow visitors to drive in their own vehicles.

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WORLD’S

D R E I S E WANIMALS T The natural world is full of strange and wonderful creatures. Meet 12 of the world’s most bizarre Words Laura Mears

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WHITE FACED SAKI MONKEY

Pithecia pithecia Class Mammalia

Territory Venezuela, Guianas, Brazil Diet Fruit, small mammals, honey Lifespan 14 years Adult weight 2kg (4.4lb) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

White-faced saki monkeys wear perfume to attract mates These peculiar-looking monkeys mate for life, and couples often perform duets to strengthen their bond. Males rub themselves with the bark of fruit trees so they’re covered with the scent. The males even discover what their female’s favourite food is, and rub up on that particular tree! This excites the females, and the fruity scent encourages female monkeys to mate. White-faced saki monkeys are so-named because of the ring of white fur around their heads, but only the males have this striking colouration. The females have different coat colours, a phenomenon known as sexual dimorphism. When white-

faced saki monkeys are born, the two sexes look very similar, but by the time they reach maturity at the age of three or four, their appearance has drastically changed. The males have long black fur, with a tufty halo of white or yellow-orange that circles their faces, while the females have shorter speckled grey-brown coats, with two white or yellow lines linking their eyes to their noses. They live in the Amazon basin and spend the majority of their time in the trees, rarely coming down to the ground. They use their tails for balance and gather water that has collected in tree hollows using their hands.

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World’s weirdest animals

Star-nosed moles have 22 feelers for a nose These odd-looking moles live in the swamps and marshes of North America. They cannot see well, but they are guided by their incredible noses, using a total of 22 hairless feelers to probe their environment. They can touch 12 separate objects every second, and if something feels good to eat, it takes just milliseconds for them to respond. This amazing talent allows the moles to feel their way through muddy water in search of food, and it is thought that they might even be able to detect electrical activity given off by fish as they move. Their velvety fur resists dirt and their feet act as paddles, both for tunnelling and for swimming. They build their burrows in the waterlogged soil near to rivers and streams, inhabiting marshes, swamps and wet meadowland, and often include one or more underwater entrances. They sleep above the waterline, in nests lined with leaves and straw. These resistant little animals don’t hibernate, so during the winter they happily burrow through the snow, and swim in the icy water. They have enormous tails, which swell to around four times their normal size during the autumn and the winter, storing fat for the leaner months.

“They can touch 12 separate objects every second”

Sea pigs are found 6,000 metres below the surface

These deep-sea creatures, known as Scotoplanes, are a type of sea cucumber, and are found in their hundreds on the seafloor. The sea pig has tube feet, which are powered by hydraulics, and they use them as they crawl along the bottom of the sea, hoovering up debris.

Yeti crabs live in the deep sea and are covered with hair First seen in 2005, these hairy crabs live in the deepest parts of the Pacific Ocean, hiding in rocks in water warmed by hydrothermal vents. The crabs were observed holding their hairy arms over the vents; it’s possible they could be ‘farming’ microorganisms trapped in their hairs.

“[They] were seen holding their hairy arms over the vents” 74

WHY SEA PIGS HAVE EVOLVED Dr Christopher Mah, researcher at the Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian Institution “Sea pigs have adaptations for feeding in the deepest depths of the ocean. When observed by, they are oen positioned in a direction facing into the water current where their favourite food, any slimy goo that dris down to the sea bottom. They can then use the feeding tentacles around their mouth to pick up the fine slime for their meal.

World’s weirdest animals STAR NOSED MOLE Condylura cristata Class Mammalia

Territory Northeastern United States and southeastern Canada Diet Aquatic invertebrates, fish, earthworms Lifespan 3-4 years Adult weight 40-85g (1.413oz) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

Orchid mantises are masters of disguise Orchid mantises are deadly predators and masters of disguise. Like other members of the praying mantis family, they are carnivorous, and thanks to their relatively large size, are capable of catching a variety of insect prey, and even some small lizards. As hatchlings, orchid mantises look like little red ants, but as they mature they grow to closely resemble flowers, both in colouration and in shape. This is a form of animal mimicry. There are many reasons that an insect might evolve to mimic a plant species, some use it for camouflage to protect themselves from predators, while others use it so that they can sneak up on their prey. The adult mantises are white or pink in colour and have petal-shaped sections on their legs. Not only do they look like orchid flowers, they also absorb ultraviolet light – a trick that flowering plants commonly use to attract pollinators to their petals. Orchid mantises are aggressive mimics, and it is thought that they use their clever disguise to attract pollinating insects, who mistakenly think that they might be able to get a tasty meal of nectar.

ORCHID MANTIS

Hymenopus coronatus Class Insecta

Territory Southeast Asia Diet Flying insects, small lizards, fruit Lifespan 8 months Adult weight 3-15g (0.10.53oz) Conservation Status

NOT EVALUATED

Dumbo octopuses have ear-like fins Named after the popular Disney elephant, the ‘ears’ on these deep sea octopuses are actually fins. They hover just above the sea floor, using these large flaps for gentle propulsion. They are also able to walk along the ground using their tentacles, and if they need to move faster, they can contract their bodies to zip forward.

Orchid mantises mimic flowers to lure in unsuspecting prey

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World’s weirdest animals

Tufted deer have vampire fangs despite being herbivores Tufted deer get their name from long tufty fur on their foreheads, but what makes them truly unusual are their fangs. They have large upper canine teeth that grow out of their mouths like tusks, and in the males, these can reach 2.5 centimetres (one inch) in length. Despite their vampire-like appearance, tufted deer are herbivores, and eat mainly grasses, leaves and fruit. Their fangs are instead used for fighting. Tufted deer have smaller antlers than other deer species; often completely hidden inside their tufted fur, and instead of going head-to-head with other males, they use their long teeth in the fight for a mate.

BELOW Few creatures on Earth can flap their wings as fast as the hummingbird hawk-moth

Hummingbird hawk-moths beat their wings 80 times per second Like their namesake, these incredible moths use rapid wing movements to hover at flower openings. They are easily mistaken for true hummingbirds, but are smaller than their feathered counterparts, with a wingspan of around 5.5 centimetres (2.2 inches). They beat their wings at a rate of around 70 to 80 times every second, producing a distinctive humming noise, and they use an extremely long proboscis to reach the nectar hidden within the

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long tubular blooms of flowering plants such as honeysuckle. Hummingbird hawk-moths are native to North Africa and southern Europe, but they are also found in more northerly parts of the world, including Britain. They used to migrate just for the summer, but rising temperatures have enabled the moths to stay all year round. They hibernate in warm, dry crevices and caterpillars have been spotted in southern England during the spring.

World’s weirdest animals

The sea butterfly flies with its feet Sea butterflies are actually tiny sea snails. There are 80 different species, divided by their shell types. Unlike snails on land, sea butterflies have heartshaped feet, and they use them to ‘fly’ through the water. They live in the open water and can swim at a quick 45 centimetres (17.7 inches) per second. During the night they stay low in the water, but when daylight comes, they travel around 1,000 metres (3,280 feet) up the water column to feed. They produce sticky mucus nets, trapping microscopic plankton. They then use tiny cilia on their feet to waft the mucus toward their mouths, sucking in the net using several rows of tiny teeth. Sea butterflies form a vital part of the food chain and are eaten by a variety of other organisms, from SEA BUTTERFLY slug-like sea angels, to fish Thecosomata and even whales, but the Class Gastropoda rising level of carbon dioxide threatens their survival. When the gas dissolves in the sea, it increases Territory Worldwide Diet Phytoplankton, the acidity of the water, zooplankton, other sea which makes it difficult butterflies for the sea butterflies to Lifespan 2 years Adult weight Unknown make their shells. Though Conservation Status invisible to the naked eye, their disappearance would have huge knock-on effects NOT EVALUATED further down the food chain.

Heart-shaped foot The classic snail foot is modified to form a pair of wing-like fins.

Glass-like shell A calcium carbonate shell protects the body of the sea butterfly, but is vulnerable to acid.

EXPLAINING THE SEA BUTTERFLY EFFECT Dr Gareth Lawson, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Feeding apparatus Sea butterflies catch their prey in a mucus net, and gather it toward their mouths using their jaws and a toothed tongue known as a radula.

A string of eggs Fertilised eggs shed into the water forming jelly-like masses.

Male and female Sea butterflies are hermaphrodites, starting life as males and then becoming female, producing eggs.

“The sea butterflies, more formally known as pteropods (ie “winged foot”), are a group of planktonic snails found throughout the world’s oceans. The sea butterflies form delicate and translucent calcium carbonate shells, which make them particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification: as the ocean absorbs more CO2 its acidity rises and the amount of carbonate decreases. Sea butterflies are important to marine ecosystems as prey for a number of predators, including commercial fishes, seabirds and whales, but the exact consequences of ocean acidification to the sea butterflies and the animals that rely on them as food remain unclear and constitute an active area of research.”

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World’s weirdest animals

Babirusas’ curled teeth grow through their snouts These bizarre members of the pig family are found only on the Indonesian islands and are easily recognised by their incredible teeth. Their upper canines, instead of growing into their mouths, grow upward through their snout, curling backward to form two spiralling growths that resemble horns.

They eat rocks Babirusa are omnivores and will eat almost anything, from roots to small mammals, but the most unusual part of their diet is soil and rocks, crunched up to release the sodium salts inside

‘Babirusa’ means pig-deer In the national language of Indonesia, Malay, ‘babirusa’ means pig-deer. Though they are members of the pig family, their incredible tusks reminded people of antlers

There are three living species There are three distinct known living species of babirusa on the Indonesian islands, separated by differences in size, colour, hairiness and the shape of their tusks

BELOW Ancient sea lampreys predate even the dinosaurs

Blood-sucking sea lampreys have been around for over 300 million years

“They attach to their prey by suction, break through scales and drink blood” 78

Pink fairy armadillos bury themselves in seconds Pink or lesser fairy armadillos are the smallest members of the armadillo family, weighing in at less than 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds). They measure just 12.5 to 15 centimetres (five to six inches) in length, small enough to fit in the palm of your hand. Their front feet are large and paddle-like, and they are great diggers, able to bury themselves completely in just a few seconds. Living underground, they prefer to dig their burrows in extremely dry soil near to ant nests, providing an easy food source when they venture out at night.

© FLPA, Corbis, Alamy, NPL

These eel-like creatures are primitive jawless fish, and have been around for over 300 million years. They have one nostril and two eyes, and they breathe through two sets of seven circular gill pores, positioned along either side of their head, earning them the nickname ‘nine-eyed eels’. Their skeletons are made from cartilage, and their circular mouthparts are ringed with sharp teeth. They attach to their prey by suction, break through scales and drink blood! Their tongues are rough and file-like, and they are able to break through the protective scales using a rasping action, allowing them to drink blood and other fluids.

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FROZEN HEROES Arctic hares evolved not just to survive, but thrive further north than any of their longeared, fleet-footed relatives Words Rick Jones The polar territories that make up the northernmost reaches of America and Europe have long been synonymous with harsh existences. Characterised by their arctic tundra biome – vast swathes of treeless, wind-scorched soil that remains permanently frozen down to almost a metre below the surface. Life there revolves around finding food, and avoiding becoming food in turn, whilst doing so. Unsurprisingly, biodiversity (variety of natural life) in the arctic tundra is low. Whilst many animals migrate to the regions in the summer months – often taking advantage of the remoteness and lack of

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predators to breed and raise their young – a few species of animals do spend their entire lives on the frigid plains. As you can imagine, such inhospitable conditions quickly weed out any unsuitable traits, and for animals who famously live fast and die young the result is a species that is evolved to take full advantage of the few benefits to be had from living almost at the end of the Earth. From behaviours to bodily dimensions, the arctic hare stands apart from its cousins. Even the closely related (and seemingly similarly adapted) snowshoe hare requires forest cover to survive.

Arctic hare

ARCTIC HARE Lepus arcticus

Class Mammalia

Territory The North American Tundra: Alaska, Canada, Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Greenland. Diet Woody plants, lichens, occasional carrion Lifespan Circa 5 years Adult weight Up to 7 kg (15 lbs) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

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Arctic hare

Born to survive

Colour camouflage Unlike the white colouration of the mother, newborn rabbits, or kittens, are dark brown. This acts as camouflage against the dark rocks.

The differences between hares and rabbits start at the very beginning Arctic hares are amongst the largest of the Lagomorphs – the family that is comprised of rabbits, hares and pikas. Hares and rabbits are closely related and visually very similar, although hares tend to be taller, longer-limbed and larger overall. The differentiation between hares and rabbits is how their young enter the world. Whilst rabbits give birth to helpless, blind kits, mother hares deliver their leverets in shallow depressions in the ground, with their eyes fully open, and capable of running and fending for themselves. Although hares don’t burrow to make nests, the arctic hare has formidable claws capable of burrowing through hard-packed snow to reach its favourite (and staple) food – a shrub known as ‘arctic willow’. The hares use their strong incisors, molars and jaw muscles to gnaw the bark and pith, which they digest using a remarkable system known as hindgut fermentation. Bacteria and enzymes in a special stomach organ called the caecum break down the undigestible cellulose into sugar. What’s left after this process is excreted as soft pellets, which the hare then re-eats to extract every last nutrient. This renders any plant in the sparse arctic tundra as potential hare-food.

Feed the family Mothers leave their young to find food, but return regularly to suckle their babies for eight or nine weeks.

Learning to survive Le alone aer only three days, baby hares quickly learn to defend against predators by hiding or freezing in their tracks.

Built to run As adorable as they are, they’re just as highly rated as a snack for many predators, hence an evolved body prepared to evade Being mid-sized and muscular makes arctic hares a handy helping of precious protein to carnivores eking a living in the frozen high north. Wolves, despite being able to tackle much larger animals than the arctic hare, are especially reliant on arctic hares – even using them to teach their cubs how to hunt. Snowy owls are known as Harfang des neige in French – Harfang taken from the old Saxon word meaning ‘harecatcher’. Gyrfalcons often use arctic

hare bones and fur to strengthen their nests. As a result, hares have a body that’s evolved to evade – built for the chase. Powerful hind legs push the animal into the air. The front legs, spine, shoulders and even the skull – which has a unique jointed section, unseen in other mammals – absorb the shock of landing, and are flexible enough for the hare to effectively change direction whilst running at speeds between 30 and 40 miles per hour.

“Hares have a body that’s evolved to evade – built for the chaser” Arctic adaptations

Evolved to exploit the tundra’s few benefits, arctic hares combine camouflage with amped-up senses, speed and that oh-so-important insulation Coats for all seasons Changes in sunlight trigger hormonal responses, causing hares to moult. Thick white winter coats give way to short brown/ grey summertime pelage. In the Canadian high north, however, arctic hares stay white year-round.

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Super senses Arctic hares are a source of protein for many predators. However, they don’t make it easy. Constantly sniffing, listening and scanning with side-mounted eyes allowing wide-angle vision, a startled hare can take off at up to 40mph.

Adapted to the arctic Arctic hares are superbly protected from the permafrost by padded furry feet and a double layered coat, that traps warm air next to the skin. To prevent heat transfer into the air, their ears are much smaller than other hares’.

Arctic hare

Strange habits of an arctic hare Visually, you can tell arctic hares apart from similar species by their short ears, but some of their behaviours are polar-opposite than expected, too.

They tunnel in snow

Although other hares don’t tend to burrow, arctic hares will tunnel into snow drifts, as well as digging themselves underneath fresh snow on plains to get to recently covered

They have boxing matches

suggested that these groups are formed to keep warm, they actually only rarely ‘huddle’, and mostly maintain a small personal space – perhaps to allow rapid escape should a predator arrive.

It’s commonly believed that male hares box for access to females. In reality, females battle males that are giving them unwanted attention. A female hare only allows a male to mate with her if

plants and lichens. Here, they are mostly obscured from predators, although arctic foxes sometimes detect them and ‘pounce’ through to their tunnels.

When an arctic hare smells or hears a possible threat, it will rear up onto its back legs, using its excellent vision to scan the flat, open tundra. This great view is

They often spy-hop

he proves that he’s the strongest, fastest hare around. A female hare runs from males, forcing them to chase her. When there’s only one male left in the running, he’s the one she breeds with.

enhanced by long eyelashes that filter out glare. If needs be, the hare can stay in this ‘kangaroo position’ whilst hopping away at close to top speed.

© Alamy, FLPA, Hendrik Gheerardyn, Jeffery J. Nichols

They gather in groups

Although largely solitary, arctic hares can be observed in groups – reportedly sometimes numbering hundreds. Some stand watch, whilst others arrange themselves in a group formation. Whilst it is often

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nimal answers

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Do animals have accents? Nathan Warnes Animals that communicate vocally develop accents in the same way humans do. Young animals learn how to communicate from their parents and adopt their patterns of speech, and members of the same species that live in different areas learn to vocalize the same information with different accents. This was first noticed in captive and farm animals, with cows in different regions of the same country making different ‘moo’ sounds. Once researchers started studying wild animal

Do squirrels remember where they hide nuts?

accents, they found that many animal species communicate differently according to where they live. Parrots have different regional dialects, and scientists think this is why they evolved the ability to mimic sounds. Communicating with others in their own dialect increased their chances of being allowed to mate, and so the best mimics were the ones to pass on their genes to the next generation. Accents have been closely studied in whales, animals that rely on sound to communicate,

navigate and hunt. Deep-diving sperm whales spend much of their time in water too deep for light to reach, and so communicating with sound is the key to their survival. These whales produce sequences of clicks from muscles inside the blowhole, and it has been discovered that individual whales pronounce these clicks differently. The content of the messages are the same, but each whale has its own accent, and this helps whales recognise one another and choose which members of their pod to spend time with.

Squirrels hide their nuts for up to 60 days

Chris Higham Both red and grey squirrels can remember locations of hidden nuts for at least 20 days, possibly up to 62 days. To embed the position of a stash of food in their brain, squirrels stand up and look around and scan their surroundings. It is fair to say that although squirrels do remember where their food is stored, many trees grow from buried seeds le by these burrowing mammals. This is a role that squirrels play in their ecosystem, and help disperse seeds in the same way bees pollinate flowers.

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Animal answers Do four-legged animals have four knees?

Do all animals have two eyes?

Frank Thompson Although many animals walk on all fours, they only have two knee joints. These joints are in the rear two limbs, whereas the front limbs are technically arms. The joints in these front limbs are elbows as opposed to knees. Mammals began to evolve from four legged reptiles 285 million years ago, and the earliest mammals are thought to have been weasel-like mammals that were nocturnal. As time progressed and mammals became more adapted for movement, the inward bending knees complimenting the outward bending elbows. These two joint types were the key to mammal movement.

Martyn Stainer Two eyes are usually enough for animals to get a good view of their surroundings, but some animals have more than two eyes. Prey animals such as rabbits and deer have eyes placed on either side of their head, giving them a wide field of vision to look out for predators. Carnivores like big cats and bears have eyes that face forwards to focus on looking for prey. Lizards and their scaly tuatara relatives have a third eye on the top of their heads. This is called the parietal

eye and although it doesn’t have the same capabilities as a normal eye, it is sensitive to light. The eye takes in light and prompts the brain to produce the sleep chemical melatonin when it gets dark. Some invertebrates have more than two eyes, like spiders have eight and praying mantises have five. Scallops have up to 100 eyes arranged at the edges of the shell to look out for approaching predators. If the scallop detects an incoming threat it can swim away by clapping the two halves of its shell together.

Scallops look out for predators and swim away when spooked

Up to 100 tiny eyes look out for danger in all directions

Some mammals do in fact have multiple knee joints

Why don't birds have teeth?

Matt Lee Birds have the necessary genes to grow teeth, but they never develop because they no longer need them. They have a shared mutation that suppresses the growth of teeth as a result of their ancient ancestors gradually losing them over time. Birds are decedents of dinosaurs, many of which were feathered rather than scaly. Most of the surviving reptiles evolved into modern birds. Toothed birds existed until between two and three million years ago but became extinct at the beginning of the last ice age. Modern bird beaks are versatile and avian digestive systems are well adapted for breaking down food without the aid of teeth. The roof of a bird’s mouth is covered with backwards-pointing spines that help grip food and move it in the right direction towards the stomach. Some birds, like geese, have serrated beaks to slice through tough vegetation. Baby birds break out of their shells with a hardened cap on their beaks called an egg tooth, which falls off a few days aer hatching.

Pelagornis, the toothed bird that lived five million years ago

“Birds break out of their shells with a hardened cap on their beaks”

Q. Do cows fart methane?

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Animal answers [email protected] How much do animals invest in their offspring? Alex Kelly Different species dedicate various time to raising young depending on the threats their environment offer and

how advanced their newborns are. Parental investment varies from none whatsoever to forming lifelong relationships.

Some animals don’t take care of their young at all because it would make them vulnerable to predators. Frogs lay their eggs in or near water, then the spawn fend for themselves. They tend to lay a lot to ensure some survive.

Solitary animals care for their young for their first few months of life. Cubs are born helpless and would die without care. In cheetahs, this care is given exclusively by the mother and the father has no involvement at all.

Elephants and other herbivores tend to have offspring that is developed enough to walk within hours of birth. This means that young have a fighting chance of escape if a predator approaches. The young stay close for care.

Apes like bonobos and chimps live in complex societies and invest heavily in their newborns. At first, baby bonobos cling to their mother’s back while she goes about her business. This way, the mother can keep her baby safe.

The mother feeds, protects and teaches her cubs how to hunt while they are under her care. When the cubs are between 15 and 17 months old they are able to strike out on their own and leave their mother permanently.

Elephants reach maturity between 10 to 12 years. During this time they form close bonds with their family as well as learning survival skills. Once mature, young males aren’t allowed to stay to avoid inbreeding.

Bonobos stagger their reproduction so that they have one baby every four to five years. Babies suckle from their mothers throughout this entire period and are only weaned when the female is ready to conceive again.

Male elephants leave the group but females stay with their mothers. Groups consist of generations of females, their investment extends to siblings and grandchildren.

Young bonobos receive maternal care until they are 15 years old, and at this stage they are sexually mature. To avoid interbreeding, some members leave to form their own groups.

What's this I found on the beach? Jenny Rhodes This is a cuttlefish bone. Cuttlefish are related to octopus and squid and when they die, the bones tend to wash up on beaches. They have eight tentacles, produce ink and are able to change their colour just like their relatives. Adult cuttlefish are known to die aer breeding, and the so flesh is usually stripped away by other sea creatures leaving only the bone. This buoyant bone is an internal shell made from calcium carbonate that is divided into miniscule chambers. Cuttlefish use it as a buoyancy device that can be emptied or filled with gas at will.

“Cuttlefish use it as a buoyancy device that can be emptied or filled with gas at will”

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The cuttlefish are related to the octopus and squid

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Dolphins never truly sleep to stay aware of predators

When do animals sleep? Nathaniel Curtis Different animals sleep at different times, and some sleep around the clock. When an animal sleeps is determined by how it evolved, either sneaking around in the dark to avoid predators, or trying to avoid competing with animals that are active at other times of the day. Nocturnal animals include mice, bats and foxes. Prey species like mice evolved to wake up when the sun has gone down to hide from predators. Many carnivores are nocturnal as well, but

darkness makes it more challenging to locate prey. Bats evolved to live at night to compete with competition from birds that eat similar insect prey. Animals that are awake during daylight hours are called diurnal including squirrels. Some of these animals need light to find their food sources, like monkeys that feed on fruit and some have adapted to live in daylight to avoid nocturnal predators. Some animals only come out during dawn and dusk, and these are called

crepuscular. This time of day offers a balance where it’s light enough for the animal to see but reduces the risk of being spotted by a predator. Koalas sleep up to 22 hours per day to digest tough eucalyptus leaves, but some species are never fully asleep. Dolphins have no set time to sleep, but sleep in short bursts throughout the day. By shutting down half of their brain at a time, dolphins can get the vital rest they need while still being alert enough to escape approaching predators

Why do b bend back Francesca Baker Although it looks like bi backwards, the joint in t leg isn’t a knee at all. Th the top of the leg where the body and is hidden by The joint in the middle th the ankle. The lower half actually the entire foot, an on its toes.

The knee is at the very top of the leg.

This backward bending joint is the ankle.

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Animal answers [email protected] How different are zebras and horses?

Horses can afford to have smaller ears than zebras because

Jackie Kasperek

The black and white stripes arose because Zebras live in hot climates. Black and white stripes keep insects at bay, help the zebra lose heat and provide camouflage from predators.

The upright mane of a zebra may make the animal appear larger, therefore making it more difficult for predators to take a fatal swipe. The mane could also promote heat loss.

Zebra tails are solid rather than just hanging hair. Both zebras and horses use tail movements for communication, giving others information about their mental state with their tails.

Although they share a common ancestor, horses evolved to survive in the temperate climates of Europe whereas zebras evolved to live in Africa. This process began around five million years ago.

Unlike horses zebra’s legs is to the length o makes the zeb the animal bal at high speeds

Do fish drink?

Sarah Whitehead Fish take in water constantly to get oxygen; they essentially breathe water rather than air. The water they guzzle is processed in their gills in both salty and fresh water. Fish in salt water work to excrete as much salt as possible to stop it building up, and freshwater fish have to hold on to the salt in to stay alive. Water enters the mouth and is forced over the gills. These fringed fibres are packed with blood vessels that absorb oxygen from the passing water. This oxygen can then be pumped around the body. Water travels across membranes to areas of low concentration, so oceanic fish lose water through their skin and gills. Sea water is roughly three to four per-cent salt, so fish that live in the sea rely on their kidneys working overtime to remove salt from their systems. Freshwater fish have the opposite problem, wanting to retain enough salt in their bodies to stay alive. Their kidneys keep salt from being excreted and their gills lack the salt-removing cells that saltwater fish rely on. Sharks, rays and skates are an exception, and take in water directly through their gills rather than through the mouth. Salt is balanced by urea in the shark’s body, and a gland in the digestive system deals with salt.

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Fish essentially breathe water rather than air

Many insects communicate using vibrations

Anne Parkinson Insects exchange information visually, acoustically or even through vibrations depending on their species. From bees that communicate by dancing, to cockroaches that hiss, the 950,000 species of insect have each evolved their own way of conversing. Types of visual communication range from the colourful patterns on butterfly wings to the glowing rear ends of fireflies. This light warns predators not to eat the poisonous insect, and serves as a beacon to attract mates. Males take flight and send regular sequences of flashes, then watch out for

How good is a dog’s hearing? Dave Stone The saying goes that dogs hear sounds 10 times louder than humans can, but in reality it’s closer to four times louder. They can also hear higher pitched sounds than us. Wolves are the ancestors of domestic dogs, and wild wolves rely on hearing sounds over long distances. Loud sounds like sirens or fireworks don’t exist in nature, so dog hearing evolved without the risk of hearing damage. Dog ears are also designed to amplify sounds with their curved shape, and the ears are controlled by at least 18 muscles to help detect distant sounds. Humans can hear sounds with frequencies from 20 hertz to 20 kilohertz. Frequency is commonly known at pitch, and 20 kilohertz is around the frequency of a rat squeaking. Dogs are able to hear sounds with frequencies of up to 60 kilohertz, which is up to three times as high as sounds humans can hear.

replies from grounded females. Every species has a specific signaling pattern where each firefly glows for the same length of time at exact intervals to help find a perfect partner. Some communication is made up of sounds, like the Madagascan hissing cockroach. These wingless insects perform long-distance hissing songs to attract partners, and males hiss sharply to mark their territory. Treehoppers send messages through vibrations. While clinging to plant stems, females produce buzzing pulses for males to follow. The closest treehopper to an

approaching predator creates a warning signal that spreads throughout the group of insects on the plant. Similarly, termites create waves of warning vibrations by banging their heads on the ground up to 11 times a second. Each vibration signal travels a distance of 40 centimentres (15 inches), starting a chain reaction throughout the whole colony. The most bizarre form of insect communication is called trophallaxis, which is essentially vomiting into another insect’s mouth. Bees and wasps exchange information this way, from messages about the status of the queen to details of new sources of nectar.

“Dog ears are also designed to amplify sounds with their curved shape”

© Thinkstock, Dreamstime

How do insects communicate?

Q.Do mamm sing?

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Wildlife photography

Photograph wildlife on a budget High-end kit will set you back a fair amount, but you can still capture stunning wildlife shots without it. We show you how…

Tip 1

Get the essentials

Your kit doesn’t have to have a high price tag to be effective The most important thing for great shots is a decent camera body. However, there are plenty of affordable DSLRs out there, such as the Canon EOS 1200D (RRP £400/$550) or Nikon D3300 (RRP £490/$500), but you’ll get a significant saving if you go down the second-hand route. Re-sellers like Camera Jungle and London Camera Exchange do great deals for higher-end, but affordable, kit. The second key accessory is a tripod to stop camera shake. The best for stability can be pricey, however, you can make a more affordable tripod

sturdier with a few tricks. Try hanging a bag from the hook on the centre column to help weigh it down, and set up on more solid ground. Extend the centre column last as this is less robust. Beanbags also make for a great budget way to keep your camera stable and even propping your camera on a fence or wall can help to reduce shake. You’ll want a long lens to be able to zoom in, but this can make prices fly up. Here we show you how you can use your kit lens, a tripod and remote release to physically get closer to the action.

Shoot remotely To avoid buying a long lens, set up and capture while standing back Input the settings Get your camera’s settings ready before you put it on a tripod, taking a test shot first to check the exposure is right. Try setting it to Shutter Priority mode and a fast shutter speed to freeze the animal’s movement. Mount on a tripod To be able to leave your camera set up on its own and walk away from it, you’ll need to put it on a tripod. Make sure it’s secure and at roughly the right height for the animal you are photographing.

For extra stability, only extend the centre column if you have to

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Use a remote A wireless remote is useful as there will be no cord and you can stand away from your camera and let animals approach it without alerting them to your presence. Be patient and when they come into range, press the remote to start taking photos.

Bridge cameras can pack huge optics into small frames and they are very affordable

Tip 2

Zoom in

Discover some affordable ways to get longer focal lengths

You want to stand back so you don’t disturb the animals, but you also want close-ups with beautiful blurry backgrounds (caused by wide apertures). Ideally a lens with a focal length above 300mm is needed with a constant f2.8 aperture, but these are hugely expensive. You can get affordable zooms in the range of 70300mm with a variable aperture, but when zoomed in you’ll only be able to get apertures around f5.6 or narrower. This isn’t a huge problem, it just means your backgrounds won’t be quite as blurry. Another affordable option is to use a bridge camera. These come with huge focal lengths such as the Canon SX50’s 50x optical zoom (RRP £450/$430); this length would set you back thousands of pounds in lenses. With a DSLR there is a way to extend the length of more affordable lenses. You can use a teleconverter. These are mounted in between the camera’s sensor and your existing lens to extend its effective focal length, sold for around £100.

Common problems

Tip 3

Use your smartphone Avoid the cost of new kit altogether by getting more from your phone snaps There are some easy ways you can improve your phone snaps using a few tricks. First of all, if your phone has the option, set it to burst mode. This will take a series of shots while you press the shutter to make sure you don’t miss the moment. Also think about your focusing; tap to focus over the eyes, as this is the key part to keep sharp. Another helpful trick is to pre-focus – tap on an area you know the animal is likely to move into,

then take the shot when they get there. IT takes patience, but it will make for some excellent shots. Most phone’s flash settings are set to automatically go off, so make sure it’s turned off so you don’t startle the animal. Don’t forget to use your phone’s gridlines to help you compose; leave the animal space to move into in order to convey action and position them where the lines intersect for a stronger shot.

Tap to focus on the animal and set to a Sports scene mode if possible to keep up with the rapid movements

You’re spoilt for choice There’s so much kit on offer, if you want to invest your money wisely it’s worth doing your research first. Check out the reviews on websites and in magazines like our sister title Digital Photographer (www. dphotographer.co.uk) to get the full picture and try out the kit in store if you can first.

There’s too much to carry If you don’t want to carry a bulky tripod with you but still want to support your camera, a monopod may be the answer. It has one leg instead of three, stopping the up and down movement from camera shake, but it folds down small and you can move more easily with it.

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Wildlife photography Tip 4

Keep warm, dry and undetected Protection for your kit and yourself need not cost a lot of money One of the things people don’t consider is the expense of keeping yourself and your kit warm, dry and disguised. You don’t want the animal to spot you, so the pros use a pop up hide. To avoid this cost, there are some steps you can take to keep their attention away from you. Wear tones that will blend in to the surroundings, avoiding bright colours. Also if you need to get in a bit closer, don’t approach directly or make any sudden movements. Not wearing

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perfumes and keeping quiet can make the difference between getting a fantastic close-up or getting a shot of them running away. A cheap plastic ground cover to lie on will keep you low and out of sight while also keeping you dry. To protect your kit, instead of buying an expensive case, simply wrap it in a plastic bag as a good alternative. If coming in from the cold, keep your camera in a plastic bag as it adjusts to the temperature to avoid condensation.

Quick tip! Avoid using your camera’s digital zoom if you want to retain quality If your camera comes with a digital zoom, don’t be tempted to use it to get in closer to the action. Essentially all it does is crop into one portion of the frame, downgrading the quality of the final capture. Your phone’s zoom is likely to be entirely digital, so avoid it altogether. You can always crop in aer if you then decide you want to make the animal fill more of its frame.

Wildlife photography Essential kit on a budget

Camera body A good camera body like the Canon EOS 1200D (RRP £400/$550) need not cost a fortune, as beginner models like this are capable of great quality. This 18MP camera can shoot at 1/4000sec to freeze action and has a wide variety of compatible telephoto lenses.

Telephoto lens There are affordable zoom lenses on the market, such as this compact Sigma 70-300mm f4-5.6 APO lens (RRP £170/$144) that’s compatible with Canon, Nikon, Pentax and Sony cameras. It’s compact and can also be zoomed out for wider environment shots. Affordable tripod There are plenty of affordable tripods around, like this Velbon EX 630 (RRP £57/ approx $86) that can hold up to 5kg of kit and extends to a height of 168cm. It also comes with a 3-way pan and tilt head built in which can be turned to portrait mode. Super handy for keeping your camera still on all terrains.

“Not wearing perfumes and keeping quiet can make the difference”

Sturdy bag To keep your kit safe and dry you’ll need a camera bag that’s portable. The Tamrac Jazz 81 (RRP £35/approx $53) will hold a camera body and kit lens plus 2-3 extra lenses and the foam padded back will ensure it’s comfortable for longer shoots. It will protect your camera from an adverse weather you encounter.

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DEADLIEST FROGS ON EARTH

ISSN 2053-7727

INCREDIBLE HOW TO SPOT DOLPHINS IN THE WILD ANIMAL FAMILIES 97

akialoa

The insect-eating bird that was wiped out by plague spread by mosquitos, shrinking habitat and bad weather Bea Curv crev third

98

There has been no confirmed sighting after this, despite extensive searches. The factors that drove the greater akialoa to extinction were a mixture of disease, habitat loss and climate change. The swellings and sores that collectors observed are most likely to have been a strain of avian malaria transmitted by mosquitoes. Birds living at higher elevations would have been further from the low-dwelling insects, but not entirely safe. Deforestation caused akialoa habitat to shrink, meaning competition for food and space between birds increased. Evidence suggests that hurricane damage accelerated their disappearance, and the population continued to dwindle until none were left at all.

feet and parasites” Last seen… Date: 12 April 1969 Location: Alakai Swamp, Hawaii From 1900 onward, the searches for the greater akialoa grew steadily less successful. A few expeditions came across small akialoa groups, and during most of these searches birds were collected for study. The last sighting was of a single bird along the Pihei Trail in the Alakai Swamp in 1969, despite intensive searching until 1975.

© Alan Batley Illustration; freevectormaps.com

C gr sp sp classed as critically endangered. This family of birds is a product of adaptive radiation, which is the process of new varieties of the same species forming very quickly. This usually happens when new food sources open up, and some birds adapt to take advantage of the new niche. The greater akialoa specialised in nectar and insects, and the impressive beak was an adaptation to access nooks other birds couldn’t. Ornithologists collected akialoa specimens from the wild, and in 1890 birds were found with sores, swollen feet and parasites. By 1901, none were sighted below an elevation of 1,050 metres (3,450 feet). Few sightings were reported over the following few decades with several search parties

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