12 of the best butterfly spots around the globe TM
naTUre’s
newts VUlTUres CroCodiles Pigs
secreTs the rise of the eagle how the us brought the MaJestiC bald eagle baCK froM the brinK
swimming wiTh
sharKs
awesome
gifTs you need this summeR!
CLOWNFISH getting up Close to these inCredible predators
and 10 oTher animals ThaT form UnUsUal friendshiPs
Killer whales
All about the ocean’s most feared predator
TalKing birds
How do birds mimic human speech?
secreT swimmers
6 animals you never knew made a splash
wildlife of a farm
How farms became wildlife habitats
23
things you didn’t know about the red panda ISSUE 47
PRINTED IN THE UK
£4.99
Digital Edition GreatDigitalMags.com
Welcome Have you ever seen an Egyptian plover bird inside a crocodile’s mouth and wondered why it was standing in the jaws of death? This is what’s known as a symbiotic relationship. Instead of eating the bird, the crocodile actually benefits from keeping the plover alive. This is because this courageous bird cleans the reptile’s teeth. Turn to page 12 to find out what other odd animal pairs can be found scratching each other’s backs in the wild. Just like humans, when animals aren’t making friends they are looking for ways to look good, normally to attract a mate. From intoxicating fragrances to finding the right outfit, we take a look at the unique ways in which animals like to dress to impress or lather up to fight off a rival on page 24. Also in this issue, learn all about killer whales, why birds can mimic human speech, and where to see butterflies around the globe. And if you’re feeling brave, we’ll go swimming with sharks! Enjoy the issue!
Zara Gaspar Editor
Editor’s picks Cat-like killers Have you ever heard of a genet or a civet? These cat-like species are carnivores that, like cats, also belong to the Feliformia order. But they’re not cats at all, instead belonging to the Viverridae family. Find out why they’re unique on page 44. The golden age of eagles This month, we’ve got another conservation success story for you. Turn to page 58 to discover why conservationist Dr Brian Watts says this is a “golden age” for bald eagles and find out how this majestic bird is making a comeback.
© Thinkstock
Meet the team…
Lauren Debono-Elliot
Charlie Ginger
Tim Hunt
Designer
Production Editor
Picture Editor
The very trusting plover will hop inside a crocodile’s mouth and clean its teeth! See some other unusual friendships on page 12.
Would you dive in with the sharks on page 46? I’d love to think I’d go swimming with a tiger shark, but I think I’ll admire them from afar.
Red pandas are pretty fascinating creatures! Head over to page 56 to learn about some of their most interesting qualities.
Follow us at…
@WorldAnimalsMag
Want to read the magazine online? Download the Future Folio app on the Apple store.
worldofanimalsmag
Find out how far the monarch butterfly migrates on page 36 Visit www.animalanswers.co.uk for Exclusive competitions Hilarious GIFs Upload your photos and win prizes!
3
Welcome to Issue 47 06 Amazing animals 12 Unlikely friendships
Clownfish and 10 of the oddest creature double acts found in the animal kingdom
58 Conserving bald eagles
64 An uncertain future Could Brexit have grave consequences for the great crested newt?
18 Talking birds
How do parrots and cockatoos mimic human speech?
24 Nature’s beauty secrets
We’re not the only ones who like to look good
30 Surprising swimmers
Six animals you never knew made a splash
36 Explore the Earth: Chasing butterflies The ultimate guide to seeing these winged wonders
44 Cat-like killers
From meerkats to mongooses, we meet some feisty little feline-like hunters
69 Lost forever: bubal hartebeest How this once revered antelope became extinct
70 All about orcas
Learn all about the ocean’s most feared predator
81 Bizarre: sarcastic fringehead The terrifying fish with a ferocious jaw
82 Wildlife of a farm Meet the wild inhabitants of farmlands
86 Remembering rhinos
Check out the winners of the Remembering Rhinos competition
46 Swimming with sharks
How to get up close to these incredible apex predators
88 Web slingers
Amazing spider skills
56 Red pandas
We have 23 red panda facts that will make you look at these critters differently
The IUCN red lIsT
Throughout World of Animals you will see symbols like the ones listed below. These are from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of animal species in the world. Here’s what they mean:
exTINCT exTINCT IN THe WILd CRITICALLy eNdANgeRed eNdANgeRed VULNeRABLe NeAR THReATeNed LeAST CoNCeRN
88 4
30
How the people of America saved this iconic bird
82
24
90 Keeping in touch
12
UNLIKELY
94 Readers’ Q&A
FRIENDSHIPS
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 36
96 Creature comforts
70 58
64
Enjoyed the issue? Subscribe now and save 25% Page 92
5
The amazing world of animals
6
This bluebell bulb and plant look gigantic in the paws of this tiny mouse, apparently offering up the flower as a gift Mice do not hibernate during the colder months, but nevertheless, it can feel like they suddenly appear when spring hits, motivated by the new growth of the season. In the wild, mice are typically herbivorous, snacking on grain and fruit from plants, but some species will eat meat.
© Solent News/REX/Shutterstock
The amazing world of animals
7
The amazing world of animals
© Andy Rouse/Nature Picture Library
An Alaskan grizzly bear looks a little embarrassed as it poses with a paw over its face One of the largest species of bear in North America, the grizzly bear (or North American brown bear) is an intimidating creature to come across. When subsisting on a diet of fatty wild salmon, grizzlies in Alaska and British Columbia can weigh up to a massive 600kg (1,322lb).
8
A common buzzard and a much larger buzzard engage in a short squabble over meat during a lean Bulgarian winter Common buzzards have a large range that covers most of Europe and extends into Asia. Buzzards don’t form flocks, so any interaction outside of mating can be fraught with danger. Scratching with talons scares an opponent away and asserts the dominance of the winning bird.
© Solent News/REX/Shutterstock
The amazing world of animals
9
The amazing world of animals
10
An inquisitive squirrel savours the scent of springtime in a Swedish back garden The red squirrel may be threatened in the UK and Ireland thanks to the arrival of the eastern grey squirrel from North America in the 1870s, but elsewhere in mainland Europe and Asia the species still thrives. They are most often found in coniferous woods where pine and spruce grow, eating seeds, nuts and berries.
© Solent News/REX/Shutterstock
The amazing world of animals
11
IT TAKES TWO
CLOWNFISH
AND 10 OTHER ANIMALS THAT FORM UNUSUAL FRIENDSHIPS Nature is filled with intriguing and unusual examples of interspecies friendship. Meet the animals who understand the benefits of working together Words Matt Ayres
Symbiosis
Species that rely on another species for their survival are described as symbiotic. There are three types of symbiosis Mutualism A relationship where both organisms benefit from their association. Example Honey bees feed on nectar from flowers, which helps the flowers reproduce through pollination.
12
Commensalism A relationship where one animal benefits and the other is unaffected. Example Cattle egrets choose to live alongside cows, which attract insects for the birds to feed on.
Parasitism A relationship where one animal benefits and the other is harmed. Example Fleas feed on the blood of mammals, which causes itching and can also spread disease.
It takes two
Clownfish Amphiprion ocellaris
Territory Indian and Pacific Ocean Diet Zooplankton and scraps lifespan 6-10 years Adult weight 250g (8.8oz) Conservation status
Not evaluated
© Alamy; Thinkstock
Class Actinopterygii
13
It takes two
Clownfish live in anemones and feed on their waste These vibrant fish have become immune to the anemone’s toxic sting, leading to multiple mutual benefits Clownfish have been icons of the coral reef since long before Pixar’s ocean-spanning animated epic Finding Nemo made them stars of the big screen. However, the film did shine a spotlight on one of this attractive orange fish’s most unique characteristics – its dependence on the sea anemone for survival. Sea anemones are predators that attach themselves to rocks and coral permanently, using their poisonous tentacles to paralyse fish foolhardy enough to swim too close. While this doesn’t sound like a particularly safe place to live for small swimming creatures, the clownfish has a trick for survival – it’s resistant to the anemone’s deadly sting. Over time, the clownfish has developed immunity to an anemone’s paralysing toxins. By making a home within the predator’s tentacles, the clownfish gains protection from larger fish, as well as food scraps left over from whenever the anemone ensnares its prey. In return, sea anemones gain a handy cleaning service in the form of hungry clownfish, who eagerly gobble up dead tentacles and leftover lunch before it goes stale. The clownfish also serve as live bait for other fish, tempting in other species until they’re close enough to be struck with the harpoon-like nematocysts on the ends of the anemone’s tentacles.
Benefits to clownfish:
Benefits to anemone:
• Provides a home • Protection from predators • Source of food
• Cleans and removes parasites • Fish waste provides nutrients • Fin movements help to circulate oxygen
14
The species Lysmata amboinensis is also known as the skunk cleaner shrimp
It takes two Lysmata amboinensis Class Malacostraca
Territory Indian and Pacific Ocean Diet Parasites and dead tissue lifespan 2-3 years Adult weight 6g (0.2oz) Conservation status
Not evaluated
Cleaner shrimps provide moray eels with a valuable cleaning service These resourceful crustaceans have come up with an ingenious way to win the respect of predatory fish Another example of underwater symbiosis can be observed in the unlikely alliance between cleaner shrimps and moray eels. Despite being a fierce-looking and notoriously successful coral reef predator, the moray is willing to sacrifice the occasional meal in return for a personal grooming service, courtesy of the entrepreneurial cleaner shrimp. These clever crustaceans have worked out the trick to surviving in one of the ocean’s most hotly contested ecosystems. By setting up designated ‘cleaning stations’ throughout the reef for large fish such as moray eels to take advantage of, the shrimp contributes to the welfare of its neighbours, whose dependence on regular cleaning results in an agreeable truce between predator and potential prey. Moray eels rarely succumb to eating the shrimp, and even allow the critters to crawl into their mouths for oral hygiene purposes. Some species of cleaner shrimp, such as the barber pole shrimp, advertise their services with bright colours and patterns – a telltale sign that other fish should avoid eating them if they want to continue enjoying the convenience of free preening. As well as avoiding an early death, the shrimp is paid for its cleaning duties in food such as algae and parasites, which would otherwise affect the health of their hosts.
Pistol shrimps use gobies as visual guides To overcome their poor eyesight pistol shrimps call upon a fellow ocean dweller Shrimps appear to be the masters of mutualism. The pistol shrimp is known for its partnership with the brightly-coloured gobies of the Indo-Pacific. Despite being famous as one of the loudest animals in the world (its powerful pincers slam together with enough force to create a sound exceeding 200 decibels), these scuttling seabed creatures are practically blind and therefore need a buddy to look out for them. The pistol shrimp has a habit of making its burrows in dangerously exposed lagoons and reef edges. This, combined with poor eyesight, means that it requires
help when it comes to staying safe in the predatorinfested ocean. Luckily, there’s a species of local fish that specialises in pistol shrimp protection: gobies. These fish act as watchmen, wildly flicking their tails to alert shrimps whenever a predator approaches. By maintaining close contact with a goby, the pistol shrimp benefits from the keen senses of its friend. In return, the goby is allowed to sleep in the pistol shrimp’s conveniently located burrow, as well as using the expertly excavated cubbyhole as a hiding place whenever its own enemies come looking for lunch.
© Yann Hubert/Biosphoto/FLPA; Thinsktock; RGB Ventures/SuperStock/Alamy
ClEAnEr shriMP
15
It takes two
Remoras rely on sharks for travel and protection
rEMorA Remora remora Class Actinopterygii
These skin-grabbing suckerfish are more than mere parasites If there was a prize for laziest animal in the ocean, it would have to go to the remora. These passive fish are often spotted hitching a ride on larger marine creatures, using their sucker-like front dorsal fins to latch onto sharks, whales, rays, turtles and other aquatic animals. You might wonder why predators as ferocious as sharks would put up with such cheeky hitchhikers, but closer inspection reveals that the remoras provide
a valuable service. Their suckering antics have the effect of sloughing off loose flakes of skin and harmful ectoparasites from the host animal, ridding them of ocean-based nasties. It’s not just transport that remoras are after. By associating themselves with marine giants, they gain immediate protection from smaller predators, as well as a plentiful supply of their favourite food: faeces. Delicious.
Crocodiles call on feathered dentists to keep their teeth clean nilE CroCoDilE Crocodylus niloticus Class Reptilia
These prehistoric predators invite smaller creatures to take care of their impressive mouths
Ever wondered how crocodiles clean their teeth? With such a large set of gnashers, these top-tier reptilian Territory Africa carnivores require more than just a toothbrush to Diet Fish, birds and mammals maintain good oral hygiene. lifespan 45-80 years Adult weight 225kg (496lb) Thankfully, there are local birds that love to peck Conservation status away the food between a crocodile’s pearly whites. When a croc needs its teeth taken care of, it lies still on the riverbank with its mouth wide open. This is an least coNcerN invitation for birds such as the Egyptian plover (fittingly nicknamed ‘the crocodile bird’) to swoop in and dine on morsels stuck between the crocodile’s sharp fangs. Like other animals that rely on smaller creatures for cleaning duties, the crocodile allows its feathered friends to explore the crevices of its mouth without fear of being eaten. After all, without the fearless birds that literally fly into the jaws of danger, the crocodile’s reputation as one of Africa’s most powerful predators could be compromised by tooth decay.
16
Unlike most other reptiles, Nile crocodiles will ferociously guard their nest from all threats
Territory Worldwide Diet Plankton, food scraps and faeces lifespan 2-5 years Adult weight 1.1kg (2.4lb) Conservation status
least coNcerN
Our close animal friends Humans have been teaming up with animals for millennia. Here are a few examples
Canine companions Dogs are an obvious example of mutualism between humans and animals. The domestic dog is thought to have evolved from wolves who understood the benefits of hunting alongside humans.
Oxpeckers dine on parasitic pests (but they aren’t so innocent themselves) As small birds living in a dangerous wilderness, oxpeckers rely on larger animals to get their food fix The open plains of the savannah are inhabited by all kinds of large, warm-blooded beasts, providing the cunning oxpecker with ample feeding opportunities. This vibrantly-billed bird is known to perch on the backs of ungulates such as antelopes and zebras. They appear to be doing their mammalian hosts a favour by eating the harmful
ticks on their bodies. But the oxpecker has a more sinister secret: it has a thirst for the blood of mammals, nipping at open wounds in order to satiate its vampirish habit. The jury is still out as to whether the birds should be considered mutualistic partners or parasitic pests.
fishing with a difference In Laguna, Brazil, local fishermen have developed a mutualistic relationship with bottlenose dolphins. The cetaceans help to herd schools of mullet, splashing their tails to show humans where to throw their nets.
Burrowing tarantulas use frogs to protect their eggs burrowing TArAnTulA
Xenesthis immanis
inside all of us A form of symbiosis takes place inside us every day. Human bodies depend on microorganisms, which aid the digestive system and prevent less friendly forms of bacteria from taking hold.
Arachnids and amphibians team up in a quest to take down egg-hunting ants and other dangerous pests
Class Arachnida
Spiders and frogs aren’t the likeliest of allies. The amphibians in your local pond are more likely to eat arachnids than make friends with them. In South America, it’s sometimes the spiders that eat the frogs – large species such as the burrowing tarantula regularly feast on small amphibians. But there’s one notable exception: burrowing tarantulas actively avoid
Territory Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador Diet Reptiles, birds, insects and small mammals lifespan 12-15 years (female) 3-4 (male) Adult weight N/A Conservation status
preying on dotted humming frogs. These frogs specialise in eating ants, which are one of the main predators of this spiders’ eggs. By keeping the frogs around, the tarantulas benefit from the frogs’ appetite for ants that might otherwise terrorise their nests. In return, the frogs get to live and also gain a powerful, eight-legged bodyguard. This unusual arrangement works well for both parties.
Not classified
©Thinkstock; cbpix/Alamy/Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH; Emanuele Biggi/FLPA; Getty/ Richard du Toit
The honey-hunting bird The honeyguide is an African bird with a talent for guiding humans to bees’ nests. As a reward, locals leave some honey behind for the hungry birds. This also acts as an incentive for the partnership to continue.
17
TALKING BIRDS Both fascinating and entertaining, birds that talk back can render us speechless with their skill. Meet the talkative birds that aren’t so bird-brained after all Words Hannah Westlake You might ask a bird one day, "Does Polly want a cracker?" and be shocked when you get a real answer rather than your own phrase parroted back to you. While you might not be surprised to hear the odd word or phrase spoken by a parrot that has been raised in the company of humans since it was a hatchling, but that assumption vastly underestimates the intelligence and curiosity of parrots and other species of talking birds. Parrots are perhaps the most well-known talkers of the avian world, often performing in front of crowds at zoo exhibitions and sometimes even on television. They rival dolphins and chimps in tests of intelligence and resourcefulness, but have the added ability of being able to mimic our speech and
18
even sounds from the world around us, from ringtones to car alarms. Corvids, included among them ravens, crows and jays, are also renowned for their spectacular speech skills when socialised and encouraged by their keepers. Some record-breaking birds have even wowed nations with demonstrations of their incredible vocabulary. Read on to discover which birds make the best conversational partners and find out just how their anatomy allows them to imitate human speech so accurately.
© Getty/Serega
Talking birds
19
Talking birds
How are birds able to talk? Birds may not have vocal cords, but that won’t stop those with something to say The science of avian vocalisations is subject to many studies and throws up many questions; not just how birds can manage to sound so human, but also why they choose to mimic their owners, keepers and sometimes even passing strangers. A bird's ability to speak originates in a part of their anatomy called the syrinx. Where we humans use the vibrations of our vocal cords (found in the larynx) to vocalise and our tongue and lips to shape words, birds – while they do have a larynx – have this extra syrinx structure in their throats, which is thought to be the source of their calls. To produce a sound, the walls of the syrinx, called medial tympaniform membranes, vibrate when air passes through. The sound of the bird's call is modulated by muscles, changing the tension of the membranes. The syrinx enables some species of bird (such as parrots and corvids) to mimic human speech. However, it is worth noting that not all birds have syrinxes and not all birds that have syrinxes will have the ability to talk. It is thought that the location of the syrinx (at the
base of the throat, where the trachea splits into the lungs), is instrumental in giving songbirds the ability to produce more than one sound at a time. The most talkative species of bird is the parrot – it's a social bird too, which is absolutely vital. Social animals need intelligence in order to cooperate and a way to communicate with each other. Flocking together provides safety in numbers out in the wild, but also requires communication so that important information about predators or food sources can be transmitted. A pet parrot kept in a domestic environment will see its human family as its flock since they are the only source of social interaction, and be eager to fit in with the social group. One way to fit in is to make the same vocalisations as the other members of the group. Positive reinforcement (i.e. giving treats when human speech is successfully mimicked, and ignoring undesired noises), helps the bird feel integrated into the flock.
“The syrinx’s location is instrumental in enabling songbirds to produce more than one sound at a time”
Parrot Parrots may do more than just repeat back words they’ve been taught The term ‘parrot’ covers a wide variety of species (approximately 393); some multicoloured and bold, some a little drab and flighty. They can be counted among the most intelligent birds. Studies of captive parrots have revealed incredible insights into their behaviour, from tool use and creative problem-solving to the ability to mimic other birds, artificial sounds and even human speech. As well as being superb mimics, hyacinth macaws are the largest species of parrot
20
Parrots do not necessarily make good pets because they may still behave as they would in the wild, chewing things and screeching and sometimes getting aggressive if not treated properly. Their intelligence means that they require an enormous amount of attention and stimulation to thrive in captivity or domestic situations. Parrots are social creatures and if one is kept alone, without the company of
other parrots, it needs a lot of social interaction to stay healthy, including being talked to. If a parrot is raised by humans that speak to it, it will pick up these words and repeat them. Some of the most intelligent parrots, such as the African grey, have been observed using words in context. Pet parrots that have escaped and rejoined a flock have even taught their companions human words.
Talking birds
African grey parrot The intelligent and well-spoken African grey parrot is a talking marvel stimulus and have demonstrated a large vocabulary and a surprising level of intelligence. They will whistle and click, but also imitate other sounds from their environment; anything from the ringing of a telephone to their owner’s laugh, and will even use swear words, something they are known to do quite regularly.
One famous African grey called N’kisi is thought to have had a vocabulary of approximately 950 words. What’s most incredible is that N’kisi used these words in context, often in complete sentences, and could approximate the correct tense of a verb. African greys demonstrate a level of intelligence also displayed by dolphins and chimpanzees.
“These birds can mimic a ringing phone, laughter and swear words” How the syrinx works
The syrinx allows some birds to sing and others to talk The bird inhales through its open bill and air flows down the windpipe, also known as the trachea.
The base of the trachea is split in two so air can be evenly distributed to each lung and processed for oxygen.
When the bird exhales, air flows through the syrinx, which is located at the base of the trachea where it forks.
The walls of the syrinx vibrate when air passes through and muscles contract to modulate the noise that’s produced. © Thinkstock; Stu Porter/Alamy
Probably one of the most intelligent birds in existence, the African grey parrot has long been a subject of scientific scrutiny. In the wild, African greys use different alert calls to signify different species approaching and they can also mimic the calls of several other species. Pet African grey parrots, however, are introduced to a variety of
21
Talking birds
Cockatoo Cockatoos are great talkers, but they might prefer energetically dancing to music instead of chatting
A U-shaped gap in the cockatoo’s lower beak gives these birds a powerful three-way bite
Cockatoos are parrots belonging to the Cacatuidae family and are found in Australia, the Philippines and New Guinea. Easily recognisable by their curved beaks and ostentatious crests, they make popular pets, including the smallest of the cockatoo species, the cockatiel, which is the secondmost popular pet bird after the budgerigar. This is despite wild populations sometimes being considered agricultural pests. The species is not the most adept of the talking birds, but still manages to mimic human speech fairly well. The yellowcrested cockatoo is a good talker and the long-billed corella can imitate speech very clearly. But unlike African grey parrots, which can communicate complex phrases in context, cockatoos are just imitating the noises that they hear around them. Social animals with an intense curiosity, cockatoos require a lot of attention when kept as pets. The internet hosts hundreds of videos of cockatoos ‘dancing’ to music, moving to the beat and raising their crests. Known as beat induction, this behaviour is rare among animals; no primates, except for humans, can move or clap to a beat. One famous cockatoo called Snowball would even adapt his dancing when the tempo changed.
“Social animals with an intense curiosity, these birds require a lot of attention”
Lyrebird
Raven
Mockingbird
The lyrebird is Australia’s world-renowned imitator of natural and artificial sounds
There is a lot more to this corvid’s vocabulary than “nevermore”
The northern mockingbird can have up to 200 songs in its repertoire
Lyrebirds sing throughout the year, though their singing is more intense during the breeding season, when they can sing for four hours a day. The lyrebird’s extravagant song can include snippets from almost any sound it hears, from car alarms and chainsaws to other birdsong and fragments of human speech.
The common raven has one of the biggest brains out of all bird species. They have been observed making tools to problem-solve and even building toys to play with. They can mimic other birds and are known to call wolves to carcasses that the birds can’t break open. Tame ravens can be taught to mimic human speech, too.
Famous for mimicking the sounds of other birds, as well as insects and amphibians, the mockingbird sings at great speed. While mockingbirds have the ability to mimic human speech (just a few words), it’s rare for them to do so because there is not much interaction between humans and wild mockingbirds.
22
Talking birds
Budgerigar or common pet parakeet
When Roman Emperor Augustus returned to Rome after the defeat of Mark Antony in 29 BCE, he bought a raven that had been trained to say, “Ave, Caesar Victor Imperator”. In case the battle in Egypt had gone the other way, the crafty trainer had prepared a backup raven that could readily recite, “Ave, Victor Imperator Antoni”.
The most popular avian companion in the world may be small, but it has a very big voice indeed The Australian budgerigar (commonly known as the budgie) is probably the most common species of parakeet and is in fact the third most popular pet in the world after dogs and cats. Tame budgies will whistle, sing and play with their human keepers. Both males and females will mimic words and make noises, but males tend to have a clearer pronunciation and are typically able to learn more words than females. A budgie’s vocabulary can range from a few dozen to a few hundred words. One particularly famous budgie by the name of Sparkie Williams is even in the Guinness Book Of Records as the most outstanding talking bird. Sparkie knew around 500 words and could recite eight nursery rhymes, and in his short lifetime (1954–1962) became a national celebrity in the UK, fronting an advertising campaign for bird seed, appearing on BBC radio and making a record that sold a whopping 20,000 copies.
Hill myna
Crow
Jay
The hill myna is a strong contender for the speech-mimicking crown
The common crow can be an uncommonly talented talker in the right environment
Jays can be coaxed into talking when in close contact with humans
The hill myna is a species of bird related to starlings and is native to India, southern China, Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines. They have a wide range of loud calls, but wild hill mynas don’t tend to mimic other birds or human words. Captive mynas, however, are almost as good at mimicking as the African grey parrot.
Crows, like their relatives from the Corvidae family, ravens, are highly intelligent, having been observed constructing and using tools. In their own language, they can warn other crows about ‘bad’ humans, but crows kept in captivity with high exposure to human language are able to mimic a few words of human speech.
Jays are the most colourful members of the Corvidae family. They have a variety of calls and can even mimic the cry of a hawk so well that it’s sometimes hard to tell where the call came from. Jays kept in captivity have been recorded mimicking human speech, including the blue jay and Eurasian jay.
© Alamy/Dave Watts; Arco Images GmbH; Thinkstock
In the wild, budgerigars are colonial birds, normally nesting in small flocks of a few couples
23
NATURE’S SECRETS Humans aren’t the only ones to smear themselves with gunk or adorn their bodies with trinkets Words Amy Grisdale
Chimps craft their own hats Like us, our closest relatives are concerned about their appearance Dutch primatologist Frans de Waal has observed wild chimpanzees placing miscellaneous items on their heads before parading their new style before the rest of the group. This has only been seen in females, and the scientist described their behaviour as “self-conscious”. There is no concrete explanation for this, but it’s likely to have something to do with attracting a mate. If not, another hypothesis is that the ape may be trying to raise its status. Another fashion trend has swept through chimp populations, again without any obvious reason. The apes at Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage in Zambia
24
became obsessed with wearing a stem of grass tucked into their ears. The chimps would search through the undergrowth for a stiff piece of vegetation, place it inside one of their ears and adjust the grass until it was comfortable. Eight of the 12 chimps in the troop participated, but only one from a neighbouring group joined in. Researchers don’t think it has anything to do with personal gain on the chimp’s behalf, and may be some kind of cultural tradition. Chimpanzees have a habit of copying one another’s behaviour, presumably because they want to keep up with the latest trends.
ACCESSORIES & CLOTHES
Nature’s beauty secrets
Just like their chimp cousins, bonobos have also been observed making hats, usually as a way to keep the rain off
Textiles of the chimp
Dead cockroaches
Broad leaves
Rat carcasses
© Cyril Ruoso/Minden Pictures/FLPA
The following items have all been documented to adorn the head of female chimpanzees
25
Nature’s beauty secrets
Decorator crabs design outfits This crustacean wears a technicolour dreamcoat to trick predators Just like an excited shopper with an armful of clothes, the decorator crab picks up items from the seabed to arrange on its shell. Its hard carapace is covered with Velcro-like bristles called setae that hook on to shreds of seaweed and small animals. Sponges and colourful anemones are favourites, and the toxins on the anemone’s tentacles are a bonus. This habit is particularly prominent in the smallest specimens who need to camouflage themselves more than the bigger crabs. Some marine invertebrates and ocean plants will settle on the crabs back even without encouragement from their host. As the crustacean grows, its shell remains the same size. When the time comes to vacate the exoskeleton, the skin inside loosens and the shell cracks. When the new shell forms, the crab picks the decorations off the old husk and recycles them by transferring them to its new home.
ACCESSORIES & CLOTHES “An assassin bug can cover itself with up to 20 dead ants. Without this armour, it’s ten times more likely to be attacked” Cuttlefish are cross-dressers
These squid-like molluscs change their appearance to ensure they snare a mate. When a male tries to impress a female, he changes colour on one side of his body. The edge facing the female is normal, but the male manipulates the side pointed away from her to display the colouration of another female. This means that an observing male will assume there are two females in front of him and won’t interrupt the courtship. This two-faced disguise requires serious brainpower, with the animal focusing on displaying a dappled brown colour on half of its body and stunning pulsating stripes on the other. This dynamic banding catches the eye of local ladies, and the bold male can even sneak in between a male-female pair that are about to mate. It’s a risky strategy that can lead to fights. It’s also not worth performing for more than one female at once. The male just can’t keep up the act in front of a larger audience. Cuttlefish display sophisticated social understanding by saving their best moves for such a specific context, which is testament to a high level of intelligence.
26
Assassin bugs wear dead ant backpacks
Native to eastern Africa, this bloodthirsty bug injects paralysing saliva into the bodies of its ant victims. It then pumps the unfortunate ant full of an enzyme that breaks down the soft tissue inside and sucks out the digested flesh through its straw-like proboscis. Once the ant is just an empty shell, the assassin bug turns the corpse into a crude form of protective armour. The predator uses a sticky excretion to bind the body to its back before moving on in search of more prey. One ant cape simply isn’t enough for this creature, though, and one assassin bug can cover itself with up to 20 dead ants at a time. Interestingly, even though the assassin bug feeds on a wide variety of insect prey, only the ant is chosen to be made into clothing. This behaviour masks the assassin bug’s scent, but mostly provides visual camouflage. One of their predators, the jumping spider, has a poor sense of smell but extremely keen eyesight. An assassin bug moving around without any ant armour is around ten times more likely to be attacked by an aggressive arachnid than one wearing some ant corpses. The heap of ant bodies acts like an invisibility cloak, and even if the dead insects draw a predator’s gaze, the assassin bug has a chance to escape while the ants serve as a handy distraction.
Nature’s beauty secrets
Lemurs stink up their tails Forget alluring smells – ring-tailed lemurs try to out-stink one another
FRAGRANCE
Like a classy lady dousing herself in perfume, lemurs manufacture their own scent from glands in their wrists and shoulders. Just like eau de toilette, the lemur’s wrist-based fragrance only hangs around for a few hours, so the primate has to reapply at every opportunity. However, the shoulder glands produce a thick, brown, toothpaste-like secretion that is much longer-lasting. Both of these scents are rubbed along the length of their fluffy ringed tail and are used to settle arguments between rivals. A stink fight begins when two male lemurs face one another in the battle for a female’s heart. The pair wave their tails around and attempt to flick as much of their stench towards one another. Stand-offs like this can last up to an hour, though they are usually resolved relatively quickly.
Elands soak their heads in urine The fluffy tuft on the face of the eland is called the hairbrush, and if a male really wants to stand out, he dips it into a puddle of urine. He selects his own waste to smother over his hairbrush, and this is a type of ‘honest signal’. The chemical composition gives other elands information about the quality of the antelope as a mate. It’s essentially an olfactory dating profile for females to judge a male on. Female elands don’t treat themselves to an ammonia facial, but instead the male gives her hind quarters a good sniff to check she’s as healthy on the inside as she looks from afar.
He performs a behaviour called a Flehmen response, where he traps particles of the female’s urine inside his nasal cavity to make a thorough assessment of her potential as a partner. Another honest signal eland bulls use is kneeclicking. Elands make snapping sounds with their knees by slipping the tendon over their carpal bone in the forelegs. The tendon acts like a string being plucked, and the pitch of the resulting sound changes as the eland grows larger. The sound communicates the size and quality of the male, prevents attacks from smaller males, and lets the females around know who to mate with.
© Thinkstock; NaturePL/Marko Masterl; Jurgen Freund
Is there any better way to attract a mate than the acrid scent of ammonia?
27
Nature’s beauty secrets
Hedgehogs slather themselves in spit Decorating their spiny quills is a high priority Known as ‘self-anointing’, these spiny critters create frothy saliva in their mouth to apply to their sharp quills. First, the hedgehog licks or chews an item of interest, like a bulb of wild garlic, to infuse the slobber with its flavour of choice. It then contorts and twists its body to cover the hard-to-reach corners. Items
that bring on this behaviour range from toad slime to faecal matter. There are a lot of theories that attempt to explain this phenomenon, but there isn’t a single accepted explanation. One possibility is that when a hedgehog comes across a smell they are fond of, the animal spreads
it over its bristles. It could also be a form of scent-based camouflage to hide the hedgehog in an unfamiliar environment or a way to introduce themself to a new smell. Another idea is that they spread their toxinimmune saliva over their quills as added protection from poisons they may encounter.
More fragrant anointing animals Hedgehogs aren’t the only species to create a chemical cloak for themselves Insect-based insect repellent Capuchin monkeys rub themselves with millipedes that contain two compounds that repel harmful insects like mosquitos. Goats wee on their own faces Males bend their body in such a way that their stream of urine hits their face. The scent of their urine attracts females. Bears use healing root paste North American brown bears smear osha root paste on wounds. It contains over 100 medicinal compounds.
Flamingos (sometimes) wear makeup But these birds don’t bother once they’ve got kids After a chick hatches, its parents’ bright pink plumage begins to fade. This was once thought to be a result of the Sun’s bleaching power, but has recently been discovered to be under the bird’s control. During the February mating season, flamingos coat their feathers with oil that is produced by a gland near the tail. This deepens their pink colour and keeps their coat looking salon-fresh. However, once the baby flamingos arrive this behaviour stops immediately and the mother has more important things to do. She doesn’t treat herself to an oil soak until her chicks leave the nest and she needs to find another partner.
“Flamingos coat their feathers with oil produced by a gland near their tail” 28
MAKEUP
Nature’s beauty secrets
Hippos wear sunblock These mammals pump out a miracle skin-saving potion Hippos are able to float around beneath the scorching African sun all day long without getting burnt. This is because they produce a red sweat that works as a very efficient sunscreen. Two pigments mix together to make a two-in-one sun cream and antibiotic that protects their thick skin from two major threats. Because this excretion is made of orange and red compounds, the ancient Greeks thought that hippos sweated out blood. Nowadays, we know that it’s a pair of amino acids that work together to heal skin wounds and protect against the Sun. It was noted a long time ago that hippos with albinism – the condition where an animal has no pigment whatsoever – were able to survive. This is highly unusual as wild albino animals rarely survive into adulthood because their white skin is easy for predators to spot. Young hippos without any colour would react badly to being in direct sunlight for day-long stretches, but this magic sweat protects adults no matter what. Hippos can spend up to 16 hours a day submerged in water to keep cool
Vultures dye their feathers A touch of blush is enough for this bone-eating bird Bearded vultures are famous for dyeing their clean, white feathers on the chest and shoulders with a red colour. It was once thought to be a coincidence that so many of the same species sported the same look, but in 1995 the birds were finally spotted purposely bathing in red iron-rich pools atop the Pyrenees. It’s unlikely that the vultures need camouflage as they are at the very top of the food chain, and their prey is always dead anyway. Instead it was
proposed that the rusty colour advertises the animal’s strength as it demonstrates their ability to seek out a rare iron oxide deposit. Another idea is that iron somehow kills the huge variety of bacteria these birds encounter when feeding. We do know that the bone-based diet of the bearded vulture doesn’t provide enough carotenoids – the same pigment that makes flamingos so pink – and the birds might be trying to make up for this shortage.
The bearded vulture is also known as lammergeier, German for ‘lamb-vulture’
© Brendon Cremer/Nature in Stock/FLPA; Thinkstock; Alamy
SKINCARE
29
secret swimmers Discover the animals familiar with the front crawl and breaststroke that you may be surprised to find yourself sharing the water with Words Amy Best
30
Secret swimmers
Despite their renowned lazy nature, sloths are incredible swimmers. Swimming is actually one of the few reasons they leave the comfort of a tree – relieving themselves is another. Classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN, male pygmy threetoed sloths will swim phenomenal distances in search of a mate.
© Suzi Eszterhas/Minden Pictures/FLPA
Slow and steady
31
Secret swimmers
© Alamy/Alex Mustard
The tide is high
32
On the sands of the aptly nicknamed Pig Beach in the Exuma district of the Bahamas, pigs are known not to fly, but swim. No one quite knows how these feral pigs found their way to this exotic location, but travellers from all over the world journey to Big Major Cay to swim among them.
Secret swimmers
Dytiscidae, derived from the Greek dytikos, meaning ‘able to dive’, are more commonly known as the predaceous diving beetles. They can be found propelling themselves into the streams of Europe and Asia, preying on small insects and even fish bigger than themselves. These little critters use their spiracles to breathe and stay underwater as long as possible in order to hunt and nest.
© NaturePL/John Abbott
Cannonball!
33
Secret swimmers
Head above water
© Arco Images GmbH/Alamy
The stereotype that cats are petrified of water may apply to our household companions, but it is certainly not true of their larger feline cousins. Unlike many other big cats in the Felidae family, tigers are competent swimmers that use the lakes and streams of Asia to cool off and escape the midday heat.
Making waves
© NaturePL/Aflo
In the animal kingdom, size should definitely not be an indicator as to whether or not a mammal has the capacity to swim. Surprisingly, an elephant’s massive body actually gives it the buoyancy that it needs to float easily. Their trunks even act like a snorkel to help them breathe normally and swim long distances.
34
Secret swimmers
Believe it or not, moose are naturally gifted swimmers, with even their calves knowing how to manoeuvre through water. Despite their bulk, they can swim around 9.7 kilometres per hour (six miles per hour) and completely submerge themselves for up to 30 seconds. They are almost as at home in the water as on land.
© Design Pics Inc/Alamy
Natural born swimmers
35
Explore the Earth
CHASING
s e i l f r e Butt From the buddleia in your back garden to the fir forests of Mexico, the world is filled with beautiful butterfly species just waiting to be visited Words Laura Mears
36
Travel expert
Tom Brereton is a monitoring and species ecologist at Butterfly Conservation and a Naturetrek wildlife holidays tour leader
Butterflies are regarded as good indicators of a healthy environment, and travelling to places rich in butterflies will mean that you will be spending time in some of the most unspoilt places left on our planet. I have three favourite places to go on holiday in search of butterflies. First, the amazing spectacle of 100 million or
so wintering monarchs roosting in a small area of forest in Mexico must be high on every nature lover’s ‘bucket list’. Second is beautiful Nepal in the Himalayas, which is likely to yield a remarkable variety of species, perhaps up to 200. Finally, there’s Armenia, a little-visited paradise for butterflies, especially for stunning blue and fritillary species.
Great hockeystick sailer Purple emperor These secretive butterflies can be found in the woodlands of southern England. They spend most of their time in the treetops, occasionally venturing down to the ground.
Endangered butterflies, like the striped sailer, can be challenging to track down, but there are always dozens of other species to discover.
Blue clipper With their striped green, blue and black wings, these energetic butterflies circle in groups above the trees of Southeast Asia.
Monarch A must-see for any butterfly fan. Each year, they make the astonishing journey from their summer homes in North America to their winter hideout in the fir trees of Mexico.
Amber phantom These stunning transparent butterflies are found in the darkest depths of the Amazon Rainforest and are most often seen emerging alone or in pairs as the Sun starts to set.
Travel guide
Madagascan sunset These spectacular Madagascan insects are actually moths, but with their bright wings and daytime flight habits, these unusual animals are worth adding to your list.
Queen Alexandra’s birdwing With a wingspan of up to 28cm (11in), this is the largest butterfly in the world. The females are brown but the males are brightly patterned.
When to go Exact timings vary by species, but most butterflies appear in the spring and summer, which is March to September in the Northern Hemisphere.
Where to travel You don’t have to travel far to see butterflies; many can be spotted in your own garden. Wherever you are, keep an eye out.
© Thinkstock; freevectormaps.com; Getty/ Phisitkiat Phutthithanasombat / EyeEm
Best weather Butterflies tend to shelter under leaves and in crevices during bad weather, so for the best chance of seeing them choose a warm, dry day.
What to take A good butterfly guidebook to help with those tricky identifications, a checklist to tick off your must-see insects, and a camera for close-up pictures.
What you’ll see There are approximately 20,000 different species of butterfly around the world; common and rare, large and small, bright and dull.
37
Explore the Earth
See the migration of the monarchs
These butterflies are famous for their incredible migration. Every year, they travel thousands of miles from Canada and the north of the United States to California and Mexico then back again on paper-thin wings. The most astonishing thing is that every single butterfly is finding their way south for the first time. Most monarch butterflies live for just a few weeks. During the summer, several generations will hatch, reproduce and die. But the last generation of the season is special. Born in late summer, these butterflies survive the winter by hibernating in the trees before migrating back up north in the spring. Beginning in the autumn, monarchs start to fly south en masse. During daylight hours, the tiny creatures take wing, and when they finally reach their destination they cluster in the trees in their thousands. The branches become so heavy that they sometimes collapse under the strain. During the autumn, the butterflies can be seen as far north as Point Pelee National Park in Ontario, Canada. But if you want to witness nature’s most impressive butterfly spectacle, you’ll need to travel further south between October and February to visit their winter refuges in the Monarch Groves of California or the Monarch Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.
Find the invisible butterfly
South America is home to a strange and beautiful butterfly with wings like delicate shards of glass – the glasswing. This unusual species is one of the only land animals to have evolved transparency as a means of camouflage, making them extremely challenging to find. They lack the scales that give other butterflies their iridescent colours, and in their place are microscopic nanostructures. These lumps and bumps are arranged seemingly at random, altering the way that light behaves when it hits their wings. Rather than bouncing off, it passes straight through.
38
As if invisibility wasn’t enough of a defence against predators, these butterflies are also poisonous. The edges of their transparent wings are lit up with a reddish warning colouration, alerting attackers that they contain toxic molecules called alkaloids. These are gathered from the leaves of the deadly nightshade plant in which the females lay their eggs. This species can travel many miles a day through the rainforests of South America. But you don’t have to go trekking into the trees to see them – these elusive insects can be found in the butterfly gardens of Costa Rica.
Top tips for photographing butterflies
Set up
To maximise your chances of snapping that flighty butterfly, set yourself up somewhere quiet and sunny among their favourite food.
In focus
Getting fast insects in focus is always going to be a challenge. Use sport mode if you have it and set your shutter to a fast speed.
Get close
Be fast
Don’t hesitate to press the shutter; butterflies move quickly. Turn on burst mode, capture several images, then choose the best one.
© Getty/ Danita Delimont; Alamy/Sabena Jane Blackbird
Capture all of that stunning detail by getting in close to your subject with a macro lens. Approach slowly and take your time.
Be patient
As with all wildlife photography, patience is the key to grabbing that stunning shot. Watch and wait and you might see something amazing.
39
Explore the Earth
Search for Europe’s elusive admiral
With a wingspan measuring up to nine centimetres (3.5 inches) across, the poplar admiral should be easy to spot. But despite having a wide range that encompasses France, Italy, Scandinavia and Greece, as well as parts of Asia, these winged insects are rarely ever seen. They prefer woodland habitats, setting up home in aspen forests. The deciduous trees have distinctive jagged leaves that turn bright yellow or red before they drop in the autumn. Poplar admirals overwinter as caterpillars, then when the summer comes they emerge from their cocoons to spend their days out of sight high up in the branches. The best times to spot them are early mornings in June and July when they venture down to the ground to drink the dew. If you’re lucky, you might even see one flying close to a wet road on your way to the forest.
Spot a poisonous rose in India
These butterflies might have a simple name, but their velvety black wings are anything but ordinary. They have a strange flight pattern, using their front wings for propulsion and their hind wings to steer. As they hover over flowers they flick their tails for balance. Their colouration is also unusual, with dusky pink spots around the margins of females’ wings and startling red patches on the males’. This isn’t just for show – common rose butterflies are poisonous. As caterpillars, they gorge themselves on plants that contain the toxin aristolochic acid, and the poison stays with them into adulthood. They also make a nasty-smelling liquid when frightened to help ward off predators. They are the national butterfly of Singapore but can be found across Asia during the warmer months. For the best chance to spot them, travel to India just after the monsoon rains in September.
40
Species to spot in the UK
Comma
These butterflies are easily identified thanks to a unique white mark in the shape of a comma on their underside. They emerge from hibernation in March.
Brimstone
It’s thought that the bright yellow colour of male brimstone butterflies is the reason that the word ‘butter-fly’ exists. Found from Yorkshire downwards, they appear in April and May and again in August.
Small skipper
These furry little butterflies are found in tall grass, sometimes sneaking into verges at the roadside. They are best spotted between June and August.
Meet Australia’s bird-sized butterfly Up to 60 per cent of Australia’s butterflies are found in and around the rainforests of north Queensland, and the Cairns birdwing is one to look out for. It is the largest species of butterfly in Australia, and the females can have a wingspan of an impressive 18 centimetres (seven inches), which is bigger than some birds! They are found on the northeast coast between the cities of Mackay and Cooktown; normally in the rainforest, but sometimes
venturing into people’s back gardens. They only live for a few weeks, so when the butterflies emerge from their leaf-like cocoons it’s a race to find a mate, and things can get competitive. They are most often seen in the summer and autumn between December and May. Each morning, the brightly coloured males will begin their patrols and, once they’ve found a female, mating can last for several days. They’ll sometimes even stand guard afterwards.
The females of this species are brown, but the males are a startling shade of blue. They can be seen in grassland over chalky soil from May to June and August to September.
Green hairstreak
When flying these butterflies look brown, but as soon as they land their incredible colours are revealed. They are most often seen between April and June.
41
© Thinkstock; Alamy/Keith J Smith./Thomas Marent/Minden Pictures
Adonis blue
Explore the Earth
Find the rare violet copper These endangered butterflies are extinct across much of their range but can still be spotted in isolated pockets of central Europe. They have flashes of violet on their coppercoloured wings and can occasionally be seen nestled among the pink flowers of the bistort plant in the French Pyrenees Mountains. They measure just over two centimetres (0.8 inches) across so can be a challenge to spot, but if you’re in the area between May and July, it’s worth keeping an eye out.
The UK’s biggest butterfly The swallowtail is the UK’s largest native butterfly; the females can reach nearly ten centimetres (four inches) across. However, they’re a rare sight, found only among the rivers and lakes of the Norfolk Broads. Their restricted distribution is down to their preference for milk parsley, a tall, marsh-loving plant with tiny white flowers. It’s the only plant that swallowtail caterpillars will eat, and is only found in Norfolk. For the best chance to see them, visit on a still day between May and July.
42
Chasing butterflies
Top tips for seeing butterflies
wiN
Get some practice
a copy of the colliNs Butterfly Guide
Before you race across the world, it’s worth getting to know your local species. Head to the garden or your local park and see if you can identify the butterflies you find.
by visiting www.animal answers.co.uk
Approach with caution Butterflies are easily spooked, so approach slowly and carefully. Be mindful of your shadow – if you suddenly plunge a butterfly into shade it’s likely to fly away.
Bring the butterflies to you If you really want to get up close and personal with butterflies, one of the best things you can do is to plant a garden. Try growing buddleia, lavender or perennial wallflowers.
Collins Butterfly Guide
Nature View Binoculars
Olloclip smartphone lens
Tilley Waxed Cotton Hat
There are thousands of species of butterfly throughout the world. Keep track of the butterflies you see out on your treks with this handy guidebook. £15.90 www.amazon.co.uk
A good pair of binoculars for spotting butterflies is the 8x42 Nature View, which is specially adapted to help you spot the world’s natural wonders. £149 www.wexphotographic.com
Sometimes timing and patience aren’t enough to get that perfect photo. Invest in a clip-on lens kit to boost your smartphone camera for those close-up butterfly shots. £99.99 www.olloclip.com
Moisture-resistant, durable, crushable and packable, this much loved design is easy to care for and will keep you comfortable in both sunshine and rain. £64.99 www.ellis-brigham.com
Who to travel with
Budget Greenwings
Family Iberian Wildlife Tours
Luxury Naturetrek
www.greenwings.co.uk
www.iberianwildlife.com
www.naturetrek.co.uk
Swallowtail weekend in Norfolk From £575 per person, you can enjoy a weekend searching for swallowtails with all meals, accomodation and local transport included. Price excludes flights.
A family wildlife holiday in the Picos de Europa Take your family on a trek through these stunning Spanish mountains in search of local wildlife. From ¤1,350 (£1,140) per adult and ¤1,010 (£854) per child excluding flights.
Butterflies of South Africa Led by a local expert, this tour is a chance to spot some of the 800 butterfly species of South Africa as well as big game animals including rhinos. From £2,995 per person including flights.
© NaturePL/Alex Hyde; Jussi Murtosaari; Thinkstock
Must-have items
43
CAT-LIKE S R E KILL They might not look much like cats, but these agile hunters share the same razorsharp teeth and lightening reflexes as the larger feline predators of the wild Cape grey mongoose Galarella pulverulenta
Otter civet Cynogale bennettii
This small South African mongoose species hunts during the day and is usually seen alone, except during mating season. It hunts small rodents and has short legs and a long, pointed muzzle.
Living near swamps and wetlands, this semi-aquatic civet can be found in Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. They have plenty of adaptations for water-based life, like closable nostrils and webbed feet.
This mongoose takes advantage of holes and burrows dug by other species to live in. The otter civet’s watery diet is made up of fish, molluscs and small mammals. When threatened, banded mongooses bunch together to seem bigger to predators.
Egyptian mongoose Herpestes ichneumon
Banded mongoose Mungos mungo
With shaggy grey fur, a pointed snout and a long, fluffy tail, the Egyptian mongoose is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa. They are able to hunt and eat venomous snakes thanks to their fast reflexes.
Living predominantly in arid central and eastern Africa, the small banded mongoose is the most social of its kind. Famous for unabashed attacks on snakes, these animals also feed on insects and plants.
African civet Civettictis civetta
The largest African viverridae, this civet lives in savannahs and forests of southern and central Africa. With a distinctive raccoon-like face and thick fur, a mane runs down the civet’s back that becomes erect when threatened. This is quite a vocal species, communicating with coughs, growls and even screams.
Meerkat Suricata suricatta
Famous for sitting on their back legs in groups, meerkats are native to African deserts and grasslands. They are very social, with groups reaching 50 individuals, known as a mob.
Mobs live in intricate underground tunnel systems that help keep them cool.
44
Thanks to its streamlined running gait, this mongoose is often mistaken for a reptile from afar.
Cat-like killers
Striped civet Fossa fosana
Another species unique to Madagascar, these civets fill the niche of a fox. They hunt small mammals at night and have few natural predators. They also store fat reserves for winter.
The taxonomic order Carnivora describes the members of the animal kingdom that (mostly) have sharp teeth for eating meat. This order has two suborders: the Caniformia (dog-like carnivores) and the Feliformia, the catlike carnivores. The true cats belong to the family Felidae, and then there are five other cat-like families that include the civets, genets, mongooses, meerkats and hyenas.
These civets are very shy, and their calls sound like crying.
These little-known cat-like carnivores are a very diverse bunch! Covering a wide geographical range and occupying many niches, some species live in trees, some dig burrows and a few are semi-aquatic! All of them have sharp claws for hunting and pointy carnassial teeth for tearing meat. However, not all animals classed as carnivores actually eat just meat – many are opportunistic omnivores.
Binturong Arctictis binturong
Also known as the ‘bearcat’, binturongs live in the trees and have very strong, muscular tails for gripping branches. They smell like buttered popcorn and are widespread across southern Asia.
Binturongs are able to turn their ankles 180º to climb headfirst down trees.
Sulawesi palm civet Macrogalidia musschenbroekii
Little is known about this small civet, endemic to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. It’s a rare and vulnerable species, threatened by habitat loss and population decline.
Although classified as a carnivore, this civet eats plenty of palm fruit.
Common genets have ringed tails and a pointed muzzle.
Common genet Genetta genetta
Found throughout Africa and parts of Spain and Portugal, these small, feline-like animals are opportunistic feeders, feasting on anything they can get their paws on, including rodents, insects and fruit.
Fossa Cryptoprocta ferox
The largest of the cat-like carnivores, the fossa lives only in Madagascar. It’s a solitary creature with retractable claws that lives both in the trees and on the ground.
Malay civet Viverra tangalunga
Also known as the Oriental civet, this critter lives on the Malay Peninsula and throughout islands in the region. Nocturnal and solitary, they catch prey by stalking and pouncing.
© Getty/DEA PICTURE LIBRARY
The fossa’s long tail helps it to balance in the treetops.
When threatened, these civets can secrete a pungent scent, like a skunk.
45
Swimming with
Forget everything you think the film Jaws taught you. Swimming with sharks is guaranteed to be a truly unforgettable and mesmerising experience, for all the right reasons! Here’s how and where to join the ocean’s most incredible predators underwater… Words Ella Carter Sharks are the top predators of nearly every kind of ocean ecosystem. They regulate the numbers of fish and other prey items in their environment, which in turn keeps everything else in delicate balance. Without them, the health of the ecosystem deteriorates rapidly. And yet, crucially important as they are, an estimated 100 million sharks are lost from our oceans every year thanks to illegal and unsustainable fishing.
46
No encounter with a wild animal in their natural habitat is ever 100 per cent safe. However, swimming with sharks is a very rewarding experience, and with some responsible research and education it shouldn’t be scary at all. Instead, you’ll feel exhilarated to see such majestic creatures underwater. You will likely connect with these animals on a whole other level and help to spread the word that they are in desperate need of our protection.
© Shutterstock
Swimming with sharks
47
Swimming with sharks
Into the blue UK charity The Shark Trust knows what makes a good shark dive and how to make the most of the experience “There’s just something about them underwater that’s so spectacular,” says Paul Cox, director of The Shark Trust, the UK charity dedicated to safeguarding the future of global shark populations through positive change. “It’s a wild animal of some size, so elegant and so at home – it makes you realise that you’re just visiting.” We caught up with Paul to ask about his own shark diving experiences and to get some top tips for swimming with these amazing beasts. First up: “Find an operator that you can rely on,” Cox advises. “Search for operators linked to conservation and research and that have got a good educational ethos. Those operators are going to be safeguarding the health and safety of both the swimmers and the animals.” It’s important to do your research first and
get to know the creatures you’re swimming with. “They have a right to be in that water and carry out their natural behaviour,” Cox says, “we must respect that. To the inexperienced, sharks can be unpredictable, and it’s important to understand how they behave and what that behaviour means.” As far as his own experiences are concerned, Cox’s first shark encounter was in Western Australia just off Ningaloo Reef. “A blacktip reef shark came up and started swimming around me, obviously quite interested in this clumsy, flappy thing on the surface!” Cox tells us. “Something just told me to keep my eyes on him – it was an amazing experience. Eventually he got bored and swam away; I guess the lesson from that is when you’re in the water
with an animal the best thing to do is to remain calm and keep your eyes on it. If the shark leaves, swim quickly and purposefully away.” But you don’t need to travel to tropical climes for an incredible shark encounter. There are some amazing species right here in UK waters. “In the UK, you have the WiSe (Wildlife Safe) accreditation scheme that operators sign up to, setting standards of good practice for working in and around wildlife,” Cox explains. But despite the appearance of some impressive species around the UK, one continues to elude Cox. “I still haven’t seen a basking shark! Not even from a boat!” For more information about the work of The Shark Trust visit their website at www.sharktrust.org.
Perfectly engineered These ancient predators are built for the kill
Shark skeletons are made of cartilage, not bone like mammals. Cartilage is light and durable for buoyancy and efficient swimming.
48
Sharks come in all sizes – the largest is the mighty whale shark, which can grow to a whopping 12.2 metres (40 feet) in length!
Sharks have a sixth sense: electroreception. Sensitive pits called the ampullae of Lorenzini in their nose detect electric fields in the water.
Sharks are older than dinosaurs! The first shark scales date back to the Silurian period – that’s around 443 million years ago!
Swimming with sharks Top tips for shark diving These fish need to be treated with respect. Here are some tips for safe shark dives • Wear dull colours and never wear jewellery. Sharks can be attracted to bright colours • Avoid diving at dawn or dusk – this is when sharks are likely to be most active as they are feeding • Swim quickly and purposefully. Don’t splash on the surface or thrash around • Some species may attack if followed, so never pursue a shark
“To the inexperienced, sharks can be unpredictable, and it’s important to understand how they behave and what that behaviour means”
© Shutterstock
• Do your research about the area, the species you may encounter and their behaviour
49
Swimming with sharks
Great white shark
The king with the teeth, this ocean leviathan is a sight to behold underwater
As the largest predatory fish on Earth, great whites have highly streamlined bodies and are superbly adapted for hunting underwater. Even their jaws are attached in such a way that they can thrust them forwards and create a partial vacuum to suck in prey! With acute chemosensory abilities, these fish can detect minute amounts of blood in water from up to five kilometres (3.1 miles) away. Their preferred food is seals thanks to their high fat content, and contrary to popular belief, us humans just don’t meet their nutritional needs. Due to their colossal size and strength, great whites can only be viewed underwater from the safety of a dive cage. Do your research to find an operator who clearly respects these creatures and promotes their conservation. Avoid those who chum irresponsibly and advertise these amazing creatures as mere ‘man-eaters’. How to see tHem where they live All the oceans of the world where to see them South Africa Best time of year June-September
Tiger shark
A large, striped hunter that isn’t fussy with its food!
The tiger shark is probably the largest predator that you can swim with without needing a diving cage. These sharks can reach over four metres (13.1 feet) long and they get their name from the dark, horizontal stripes that cross their backs, which are more prominent on juveniles. As solitary hunters, tiger sharks have a less than discerning palate, eating everything from sea snakes to, sadly, human rubbish. Their willingness to sample pretty much anything that floats their way has earned tiger sharks the nickname of the ‘wastebaskets of the sea’. To dive with these amazing fish, Tiger Beach is the place to go. It’s a shallow sandbank around 40 kilometres (25 miles) north of Grand Bahama Island. The water is crystalclear and it’s prime tiger shark habitat, where the sharks are reportedly quite used to the presence of divers. How to see tHem where they live All tropical and subtropical oceans where to see them Bahamas Best time of year Year-round
50
“Probably the largest predator it’s possible to swim with without a diving cage”
Swimming with sharks How to see tHem where they live Indian & Pacific Oceans where to see them Philippines Best time of year December-May
Cage diving While cage diving is a great way to see great whites, you need to be responsible in your selection of tour operator. Some may bait the sharks to encourage behaviour like mouth gaping and other aggressive moves, which may make great souvenir photos but ultimately interferes with their natural behaviour.
“During daylight these sharks are usually calm and can be found resting in coral crevices”
Whitetip reef shark These sharks are the guardians of the reef
Found cruising the coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific, the whitetip reef shark is easily identified by the white tip on its dorsal fin. They are medium-sized sharks, rarely reaching more than 1.6 metres (5.2 feet) in length.
Hunting at night, these sharks feast on bottom-dwelling critters like octopus and bony fish, using their amazing array of senses to find prey. With a dorsal fin set further back than on other species, these sharks can get
their heads into most nooks and crannies for efficient hunting. Thanks to their common presence on reefs, diving with whitetips is relatively easy. Any dive on an Indo-Pacific reef could yield a sighting.
How to see tHem where they live Atlantic & Pacific Oceans where to see them UK Best time of year May-October
Basking shark The basking shark is the UK’s largest fish, measuring up to 10 metres (33 feet) long! These giant sharks are filter feeders and they come to the UK every summer to feed on bounteous plankton blooming in our coastal waters. An awesome sight to behold underwater, basking sharks feed near the surface, meaning you can snorkel or dive next to these gentle giants as they filter between 1,500-2,000 cubic metres (1.52 million litres) of seawater per hour. They may not be predators, but don’t underestimate the strength of these beasts – be sure to keep your distance.
A wide, gaping mouth helps the basking shark funnel plankton-laden water over its gills
© Thinkstock; Alamy; Alex Mustard
These colossal filter feeders visit some UK coastlines every year!
51
Swimming with sharks
Hammerhead shark
With their distinctive body shapes and large schools, these sharks are captivating swimmers
There are nine species of hammerhead shark, the strange fish with mallet-shaped heads. The largest of the hammerhead sharks, the great hammerhead, grows up to six metres (19.7 feet) in length. Cruising tropical and temperate waters across the globe, these sharks have wide-set eyes that give them a larger field of vision and highly specialised sensory organs that allow them to sense more of the ocean around them.
Hammerheads mostly feed on stingrays, octopuses, crustaceans and fish that live on the sandy ocean floor. As well as other specialist functions, the shape of the hammerhead’s head helps it to excavate prey. Just a few hours offshore of the Galápagos will drop you in to – if you’re lucky – an entire school of the amazing scalloped hammerheads that glide by in formations of over 100 individuals.
All-ocean sharks A truly diverse group of animals, varying shark species inhabit all depths of the ocean
Sunlight Zone (epipelagic) 0-200m
thresher shark
megamouth shark How to see tHem where they live Atlantic, Indian & Pacific Oceans where to see them Galápagos Islands, Ecuador Best time of year December-May
mako shark
Twilight Zone (mesopelagic) 200-1,000m
Goblin shark
Greenland shark
Cookiecutter shark
Midnight Zone (bathypelagic) 1,000-4,000m
Frill shark
Lantern shark
Portuguese dogfish
LEFT It’s not known why the hammerheads gather in such large schools
52
“Cruising tropical oceans, these sharks have wideset eyes that give them a larger field of vision”
Swimming with sharks
Sand tiger sharks
How to see tHem where they live Tropical, Atlantic, Pacific & Indian Oceans where to see them Mexico Best time of year July-August
Despite a ferocious-looking mouth with huge, hooked teeth, these sharks can be some of the best diving buddies
A juvenile whale shark eats over 21kg (46.3Ib) of krill per day!
Whale shark
Sand tiger sharks are the only species of shark known to surface to gulp air, which they use for buoyancy. Multiple shipwrecks in the Atlantic off the coast of North Carolina host large numbers of these fish, lured to the wreckreefs thanks to the promise of food in the form of fish, skates and rays. They can be inquisitive, so stay calm and hold your nerve as they aren’t typically aggressive unless spooked or provoked. The sharks will often bite the wrecks to shed old teeth (a shark’s teeth are constantly replaced), which make an excellent souvenir.
The largest fish in our oceans, these gentle giants are an incredible sight as they feed at the surface
Reaching a colossal 12 metres (39.4 feet) long (and thought to grow even larger), whale sharks have long, tapered bodies patterned with light spots and a muscular tail, but their defining feature is a wide, gaping mouth. Like basking sharks, whale sharks are filter feeders. They migrate yearly to nutrient-rich feeding grounds and linger near the ocean surface where the sunlight
promotes large blooms of plankton. Similar to baleen whales, these sharks sieve out all of the copepods, larvae, fish eggs, krill, small fish and squid before swallowing! Seeing a whale shark in the water is an unreal experience. Ensure you’re on a very small tour of just a few people and when you’re in the water, relax and let the shark approach you. Never get in its way and don’t try to touch, stroke or ride it!
These sharks reach around 3m (9.8ft) in length and have rusty spots on their backs
How to see tHem where they live Temperate waters worldwide where to see them North Carolina, US Best time of year May-October
Bull sharks The shark with the bad reputation that deserves a second chance Stocky and muscular, these sharks are very burly beasts. They like shallow, murky water and thanks to their adapted kidneys, they can also survive prolonged periods in fresh
water. Unfortunately, it’s these types of habitats that can bring them into contact with humans, which can end in disaster. You can help to quash their reputation as ruthless
man-eaters by taking a (fully supervised) dive and witnessing these important apex predators underwater doing what they do best, undisturbed and unprovoked.
How to see tHem where they live Tropical oceans across the world where to see them Fiji Best time of year Year-round
© Alamy/Martin Strmiska; Rodrigo Friscione
Bull sharks get their name from their blunt snout and tendency to head-butt prey
53
Swimming with sharks
Oceanic white tip sharks
How to see tHem where they live Tropical and temperate oceans across the world where to see them Bahamas Best time of year April-May
These medium-sized sharks grow to around three metres (9.8 feet) long
Bigger and wider than the reef sharks of the same name, these ocean-going fish also have white tips to their dorsal fins. Mostly solitary, these sharks are scavengers and so will show an interest in anything floating on the surface that might be food. With this in mind, diving (as opposed to snorkelling) with these sharks is advised. Swim smoothly and calmly – white tips are a very curious species and will often investigate divers, so simply hang in the water and let them do their thing!
“While diving with thresher sharks keep your eye on their tail” Sharks in aquariums There are two sides to this story – what do you think? It’s a tricky subject; as large animals these predators absolutely belong in the ocean. However, appearing in aquariums allows all kinds of people to observe, connect with and love sharks, which helps raise awareness for their conservation.
Thresher sharks © Thinkstock; Alamy/Todd Winner; Doug Perrine
One of the more elusive sharks, it’s a wondrous sight to find one underwater! Characterised by their exceptionally long, scythe-like pointed tail, these sharks (of which there are three species) can reach over six metres (19.7 feet) in length. Thresher sharks live across the world’s oceans (apart from in Arctic and Antarctic waters) but are quite elusive and therefore hard to spot. Malapascua Island in the Philippines is one of the only places to dive with them. They are known to live away from shore, using their tale as a whip-like weapon to herd and stun fish. While diving with thresher sharks keep your distance and keep your eyes on their tail (as well as their teeth) at all times.
54
How to see tHem
The thresher shark’s huge tail accounts for 33 per cent of its body weight
where they live All the oceans of the world where to see them Philippines Best time of year Year-round
FEED YOUR MIND www.howitworksdaily.com
Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets TM
ON SALE NOW Da Vinci's Machines > Secret Superpowers > Freaks of Nature SCIENCE UP CLOSE
INSIDE GADGETS
COOLEST TECH
ILLUSTRATIONS
AMAZING FACTS
BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY
Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com Available on the following platforms
facebook.com/howitworks
twitter.com/@howitworksmag
23 Amazing facts Red pandas This fiery little panda has extra thumbs, rotating ankles and a fear of the heat
They have many other names Despite having quite a small geographic range, the red panda has a huge number of common names. Some of these names are inspired by the panda’s unusual colour, such as the red cat-bear, the fire fox and the bright panda. Other common names make reference to its visual similarity to other animals. Examples include the Himalayan raccoon and the fox bear. They are also sometimes called the cat bear because they clean their faces like cats.
There are two different types There are two subspecies of red panda. The western red panda lives in Nepal, northern India and Bhutan, while the Styan’s red panda lives in southern China and northern Myanmar, and is usually larger than its relative and has darker fur. Some are even brown instead of red.
They eat thousands of leaves Bamboo contains little nutrition and is hard to digest. This means that red pandas need to feed almost the entire time they are awake in order to sustain themselves. They need to consume around 20-30 per cent of their body weight every day to stay alive, which can be up to 20,000 leaves!
Their tails help them hide The six rings on red panda's tail are thought to help with camouflage. Their tails are also useful for balance as they move through the trees, but they aren't prehensile.
A red panda's life expectancy is ten years in the wild, and the oldest known captive individual was a male from Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands who lived for nearly 22 years. Populations of both types of red panda have been falling in recent years due to hunting and habitat loss. Recently re-classified as Endangered, it's thought only around 2,500 remain. Females have a home territory of about 2.6 square kilometres (one square mile), but males can defend a territory over twice that size.
They’re famous for standing tall If threatened, red pandas stand on their hind legs to appear larger. Futa, a male red panda who lived in Chiba Zoological Park in Japan, became famous in 2005 for being able to stand upright for over ten seconds. He even appeared in a soft drinks advert!
56
They use their tails as scarves Life can be extreme in the Himalayas, so red pandas are adapted to cope with low temperatures during the winter months. They have a thick double coat of fur that covers their entire body including the bottom of their feet, allowing them to stay warm even in snowy conditions. At night, they sleep up in the trees away from the snow, and wrap their thick bushy tails around themselves like a stripy scarf.
The first description of a red panda was published in 1825 by French zoologist Frédéric Cuvier, 48 years before the giant panda was recorded. Red pandas weigh between 5.4 and nine kilograms (12 to 20 pounds).
Their skulls are made for chewing
They turn their ankles backwards
It's thought the name ‘panda’ comes from the Nepalese word ‘ponya’, which means ‘bambooeating animal’. True to their name red pandas mainly eat bamboo, although they also feed on a variety of berries, nuts, roots, grasses and even small birds, rodents and eggs. Their skulls are adapted for chewing the leaves of bamboo plants, unlike the giant panda, which is able to crush the trunks and stems.
Red pandas spend much of their time high up in the tree tops and bamboo thickets, where they are relatively safe from predators such as snow leopards, and also able to forage for food. Red pandas come down to the ground regularly to move between plants, and are one of the few mammals that can rotate their ankles backwards to help control their descent. This makes them highly adept climbers, critical for reaching the food they need.
They have unusually dark eyes It’s thought that the distinctive markings on the red panda's face reflect light, which helps to keep it out of their eyes. Red pandas also have unusually dark eyes, which enables them to see well in low light, allowing them to move around the forest floor at dusk and dawn when changing trees in search of food.
Red pandas are incredibly sensitive to temperature changes, and can’t tolerate more than 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit) due to their thick coats. They can bleat like a lamb Red pandas have been recorded making several different types of call, including whistles, squeals and bleats. During the breeding season, males often make a twittering sound to attract mates. They build tree-top nests Most pregnant red pandas build nests out of vegetation inside hollow trees, although some give birth in caves or bamboo thickets. Litters are generally just two cubs, although they can have up to four babies at once. Cubs stay in their nest for the first few months, but are independent by around eight months old.
Male red pandas are solitary for the majority of the time, only coming into contact with others during the breeding season. Females also like to stay away from other adults, but often share territories with their offspring until the following breeding season, even once their babies become independent. Red pandas rely upon just two species of bamboo for most of their diet, so they are restricted to the temperate and subtropical forests where these are found. They overlap with giant panda territories in China, and live alongside other iconic species such as snow leopards and Himalayan black bears. Red pandas and giant pandas are both found in the Carnivora order, but aren’t very closely related. It’s thought to have been over 40 million years since they shared a common ancestor. Red pandas are more similar to raccoons.
They have an extra ‘thumb’
They are great escape artists
Red pandas and giant pandas both have a special extension of their wrist bone known as a ‘false thumb’. This is used to help grasp and strip bamboo, and also helps red pandas with climbing. DNA evidence shows that both species seem to have developed this feature independently, a process known as ‘convergent evolution’.
When a red panda broke out of its inclosure at Rotterdam Zoo in 1978, the event gave rise to a new psychological observation. Sadly, the escapee died, but this didn't stop over 100 people reporting sightings of it. It's thought that because people expected to see a red panda, they did. This is known as the Red Panda Effect.
© Thinkstock; Dreamstime
As bamboo grows quite densely, red pandas only need to move a few hundred feet per day.
57
Conserving bald eagle THE
Bald eagles are the national animal of the United States, but in the 1970s they almost disappeared. We take a look at what it took to bring them back from the brink Words Laura Mears
With a wingspan ranging from 1.8-2.4 metres (5.9-7.9 feet) and distinctive brown and white feathers, these iconic animals are a symbol of strength, independence and longevity in the United States. But a population that once numbered in the hundreds of thousands plummeted to fewer than 500 in the mid-20th century. Dr Bryan Watts, professor of Conservation Biology and director of the Center for Conservation Biology at Virginia Commonwealth University explains how these beautiful birds came face to face with extinction, and what it took to save them. “Bald eagles, like many other species high on the food chain, were pulled down by DDT and other persistent contaminants,” he tells us. “The population was in a demographic free fall.” Bald eagles are opportunistic predators. They hunt in and around water, taking down waterfowl and small mammals, and will also eat discarded carcasses or steal prey from other birds. With their strong beaks and sharp talons, they are both revered and feared, and in the 19th and 20th centuries they were considered a threat. Perceived as a danger to livestock, and even children, they were shot in their tens of thousands, both legally and illegally. Some were trapped, others were poisoned, and still more collided with buildings and power lines. “In many ways eagles had been in decline for decades, and DDT was the last straw,” Dr Watts explains. Dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) turns eagle eggshells into dust. Developed in the 1940s, the pesticide was liberally sprayed across the continent to control diseases spread by insects and to keep pests away from crops and trees. But the chemical leached into the soil and waterways and entered the food chain. It collected in earthworms and accumulated in the fatty tissues of fish. Though each only contained a tiny amount
58
© Design Pics Inc/Alamy
Bald eagle
59
Conserving the bald eagle of the poison, they were eaten by small predators, Haliaeetus leucocephalus which in turn were preyed Class Aves upon by larger predators. By the time the poison reached the top of the food chain, it had been Territory North America concentrated many times diet Fish, reptiles, sea birds over. Bald eagles can live and small mammals lifespan 20-30 years for decades, allowing the adult weight 2.9-6.4kg toxic chemical and its (6.5-14lb) breakdown products to Conservation Status slowly accumulate. DDT doesn’t kill birds directly, but it has disastrous LEAST CONCERN effects on reproduction. It affects the way that they process calcium – a vital component of eggshells – thinning the protective covering that keeps developing eaglets safe. The eggs of poisoned birds split open before the chicks have a chance to develop, and some eagles become unable to reproduce. “The single most important factor in turning things around was the banning of DDT and like compounds in 1972,” says Dr Watts. “Eagles were declining at a rate of 10 per cent per year prior to this, and increased by 8 per cent per year after. That act bent the curve upward.” A key trigger for this change was Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring. Published in 1962, it outlined the damage that pesticides like DDT were doing to the environment and to America’s iconic birds. A year later, when eagle Bald EaglE
numbers reached a record low, the public pushed the government to make a change. Bald eagles were already protected under federal law, but they needed further safeguards. In the 1940s, the US Government passed The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, banning the killing and trading of bald eagles and their eggs, nests and body parts. But drastic steps were required to reverse the population decline. DDT was banned almost entirely in 1972, and in 1978 bald eagles were listed as Endangered. “This allowed us to protect habitats and nesting birds,” explains Dr Watts. The eagles’ Endangered status stepped up the restrictions offered by the Protection Act, shoring up the ban on taking, harming or trading eagles, and putting in place measures to restore the species. The government worked together with states and private landowners to incentivise the management of existing eagle populations and conserve their habitat. Safety zones of up to 1.6 kilometres (one mile) were implemented around bald eagle nests, preventing logging and construction. Water quality was improved and reintroduction programmes began. Eagles were released into areas that had lost their native birds and the American public were educated about protecting their national animal. Slowly but surely, populations began to recover. In 2007, as the population neared 10,000, the US Fish and Wildlife Service were finally able to remove bald eagles from the list of Endangered and Threatened Species. “Ongoing protections under The Bald and Golden Eagle Act facilitate habitat protections and protection of nesting
Bald eagle in numbers 417 200 2 10,000 6.1 1978 PAIRS
metres The depth in metres of the largest recorded bald eagle nest.
The year the bald eagle was first declared Endangered in 43 of the 48 lower states.
The lowest number of breeding pairs ever recorded by scientists.
CM
An eagle’s average wingspan in centimetres.
“Bald eagles can dive at speeds of up to 160.9 kilometres per hour”
60
The average number of eggs a nesting eagle lays in a clutch.
The number of nesting eagles currently living in the lower 48 states of America.
35
days
The average number of days a bald eagle egg takes to hatch.
2007
The year the bald eagle was removed from the federal list of Endangered species.
A bald eagle is released back into the wild in Alaska
Bald eagle
Saving America’s eagles Public, private and governmental organisations are working together to safeguard bald eagles The US government Since the 1940s, the Bald Eagle and Golden Eagle Protection Act has prohibited people from taking, trading or killing bald eagles and their eggs. The ban extends to their feathers and nests.
© Dreamstime; Thinkstock; Design Pics Inc/Alamy Stock Photo
The Center for Conservation Biology The VaEagles team lead the restoration and management effort for bald eagles in the state of Virginia. The local population has climbed from 30 pairs to over 700 since the 1970s. alaska Raptor Center The centre treats and rehabilitates over 100 injured bald eagles every year, releasing as many as possible back into the wild. They also conduct research and work to educate the general public.
birds from disturbance. This has continued the ongoing recovery,” Dr Watts tells us. Though the birds are no longer protected as endangered species, the act still puts a heavy price on taking, selling or harming eagles, carrying a maximum penalty of a year-long prison sentence and a fine of $100,000 (£77,600). On top of this deterrent, work is ongoing to protect the eagles’ habitat, monitor their welfare, and rescue, rehabilitate and release injured birds. “The centre here continues to monitor the population, which allows agencies to enforce the law. Well beyond this role, we do most of the ecological and conservation research that feeds into policy and the development of management techniques,” Dr Watts explains. One such technique is tracking. Working with the US Department of Defence, the centre has been running one of the largest eagle tracking programmes in the world. Using GPS and GSM transmitters, they are monitoring the movements of over 70 bald eagles. At the start of the breeding season, the team also fly over Virginia in a Cessna 172 aircraft. From a vantage point 100 metres (328 feet) above the ground, they scour the trees for nests, recording each one on a map and checking for the presence of bald eagles and their eggs. A couple of months later, the aircraft returns to find out whether breeding has been successful. When surveys began in the 1950s, there were just a handful of nests. Today, there are over 1,000. But bald eagles aren’t out of the woods yet. “Lead is likely the most significant risk to eagles that has emerged in recent years. Eagles and some other raptors
Eagle adaptations Bald eagles are at the top of the food chain, and it’s not hard to see why Super storage Eagles have a pouch in their throat called a crop. It can hold nearly 1kg (2.2lb) of meat, allowing them to fill up on food every few days. Fearsome beak Like other raptors, bald eagles have a hooked beak adapted for tearing. The upper edge is scissorsharp and overlaps with the lower edge, slicing through prey with ease. Balanced diet Bald eagles love to eat fish, but they aren’t fussy when it comes to food. They’ll also take on ducks, gulls, geese, prairie dogs, raccoons and rabbits.
Vice-like grip A bald eagle can grip tentimes harder than a human. Once they’ve closed their talons, their tendons lock into place like a ratchet, preventing prey from getting free.
61
ABOVE A young bald eagle is weighed, measured and tagged by conservationists
are very sensitive to even small amounts of lead,” Dr Watts tells us. The toxic metal, like DDT, builds up in animals’ systems over time. Lead shot has been banned for the hunting of waterfowl since 1991, but it’s still used to kill deer, and is also found in fishing tackle, contaminating the waterways. “Deer hunting is widespread and when deer are shot the bullet appears to fragment and disperse throughout the carcass. Hunters dress the deer and discard the organs,” Dr Watts explains. “Eagles feeding on gut piles pick up small fragments and are sensitive to it. “In recent decades, as the population has recovered, we have seen lead become the single most significant factor for admittance of eagles to rehabilitation facilities. The problem could be eliminated by shifting to copper bullets or burying gut piles. This is an education and behavioral change problem.”
The Obama administration banned lead ammunition and fishing tackle on federal land in an attempt to protect wildlife from lead poisoning, but in March 2017 the Trump administration overturned the ban. Conservationists were understandably distressed by the decision, but Dr Watts remains positive. “Some hunting groups are changing their practices voluntarily,” he tells us. “I think that it sends the wrong conservation message, as do many of his policies, but we will have to see how much of an impact this has.” Despite the ongoing struggles for bald eagles in the wild, they are a real conservation success story. “The truth is that here in the Chesapeake Bay we have the largest population of eagles that we have likely had since colonial times. This is also true for osprey and for our large heron, the great blue heron. We have entered into a golden age of eagles. That is truly a testament to the two decisions that were made in the 1970s to ban DDT and to list eagles as Endangered.” Thanks to conservation efforts, bald eagles have made it back from the brink, and Dr Watts is keen to emphasise the role of the American people in rescuing their national bird. “One of the satisfying things about the recovery is that society made it happen. It’s the result of decisions the public made, and they should be proud of the outcome.”
Aerial daredevils, bald eagles have been observed grabbing each other’s feet and spinning towards the ground
American eagles
© freevectormaps.com; Alamy/John Hyde; NatPar Collection
Thanks to conservation efforts, bald eagles are found across North America
62
Key Winter Summer (breeding) Year round
LEARN TO INSPIRE www.dphotographer.co.uk
Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets
SOURC RE
VERY IS DE
E • FREE SU
E
WN DO LOA
ON SALE NOW > Bird photography > Artistic architecture > Creative portraits
LANDSCAPE TIPS
SHOOTING ADVICE
WILDLIFE PHOTOS
PORTRAIT GUIDES
CAMERA REVIEWS
BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY
Print edition available at www.imaginesubs.co.uk Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com Available on the following platforms
facebook.com/DigitalPhotographerUK
twitter.com/DPhotographer
AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE Great crested newts are currently protected by EU law, but could Brexit have grave consequences for this popular amphibian? Words Phil Morris
64
An uncertain future The UK has already started the formal process of leaving the European Union, and that could have grave consequences for one of the UK’s most loved amphibians. The great crested newt is currently protected by the EU Habitats Directive – European legislation that outlaws housing developments being built near newt habitats. As such, the great crested newt has become a Brexit symbol of EU red tape, and is now facing an uncertain future if the UK government decides to repeal the protective legislation. Numbers of newts have been dramatically decreasing for decades because of habitat destruction
– they are endangered across parts of Europe, and the plight of these amphibians looks set to hang in the balance of post-Brexit law makers. Stephen Trotter, director for England at The Wildlife Trusts, believes that the UK has “an international responsibility to look after great crested newts,” because the UK’s population of the species is relatively high. “All the scientific indications are that great crested newts are still rare and endangered at a European level,” says Trotter. “But in England in particular, there are places where numbers seem to be quite numerous at first glance, but
Below Newts have yellow- or orange-coloured undersides and are covered in large, black blotches that are unique to each individual
© Dreamstime
“European Union legislation currently outlaws the building of housing developments near newt habitats”
65
An uncertain future overall their population is highly threatened and vulnerable. All of the indications are that numbers haven’t recovered to any extent where you could even think about removing the protection.” And that is exactly what could happen, which would have very real consequences for great crested newts. Newts have become controversial because of the protection afforded to them under EU law and the restrictions placed on frustrated developers to ensure their ongoing survival. Brexit supporters say this protection has become emblematic of European red tape. George Osborne, the former chancellor, said the legislation placed “ridiculous costs on British business.” Agriculture minister George Eustice described it as “spirit crushing”. Calls for change have been getting louder and louder, from both politicians and developers, and Trotter agrees to some extent that change is necessary. “The way in Great crested newt Britain that we manage and Triturus cristatus class Amphibia license those populations – and we agree with developers – has been very bureaucratic, administrative territory The UK, central and and a bit of a nightmare. eastern Europe We will be the first people diet Tadpoles, young froglets, to say that there is a major worms, insect larvae and water snails opportunity to refresh and Lifespan Up to 14 years review the way the licensing adult weight N/A system works. The process conservation status is so bureaucratic that there are often holdups. We can understand developers’ LEAST CONCERN frustrations, as it can take
Newt habitats Where in the world can you find a newt? Newt populations are strong in the UK, but this amphibian can also be found across northern and central Europe and as far east as Russia. You won’t find newts near the warmer climates of the Mediterranean, though.
Key Current range
Female newts lay around 250 eggs during breeding season, positioning them on submerged aquatic plants
“We have got to make sure we don’t lose – deliberately or inadvertently – the protection for these species”
Stephen Trotter, director for England at The Wildlife Trusts
ages to get resolved. Yes, let’s have smarter legislation, but no protection is not an option from our perspective.” A new approach to conservation is being trialled by Woking Borough Council in Surrey. The new Natural England scheme, which is set to roll out to 150 local authorities in the next three years, looks to streamline the licensing process for housing developers. As part of the project, great crested newt habitat is enhanced or created prior to any development taking place, saving developers time and money, and making newt populations more healthy and resilient. On paper, this sounds like great news for newt colonies up and down the country, but The Wildlife Trusts remain
How can you tell a male from a female? There are some subtle differences between male and female newts
66
An uncertain future
spring awakening As winter turns to spring and the weather becomes warmer, great crested newts begin to emerge from hibernation. They will immediately make a short journey towards water, favouring a large, densely planted pond with no fish in it so they can avoid becoming hunted.
courtship The main purpose of heading to the pond is to breed. Male great crested newts will perform elaborate dances to woo female companions, who will then lay individual eggs on plant leaves. The female will then carefully wrap the eggs up in leaves in order to protect them.
Hatching At any time between three and four weeks later (it all depends on the weather) larvae will hatch from the eggs. These newt tadpoles are easily distinguishable from frog and toad species by the feathery gills around their heads, mottled appearance and a tiny filament at the end of their tails. Below These efficient hunters are willing to sit and wait for prey to pass, which can include spiders, slugs and earthworms
Hunting As summer approaches, adult newts will take advantage of the breeding season of frogs and toads to hunt for their tadpoles. During this time, the young newts are starting to grow front and back legs. When the young absorb their gills, it’s time for them to leave the pond.
winter months Great crested newts hibernate in the cold, dark winter months, seeking out protection under rocks, in compost heaps, inside burrows dug by mammals or even in the cracks of old walls. They will exploit milder weather to search for food, but they don’t head back to the pond until spring.
“Yes, let’s have smarter legislation, but no protection is not an option from our perspective” concerned. “We are very nervous about the way it might all work,” says Trotter. “The tests in Woking are unproven in our eyes because it’s relaxing some of the tests and some of the requirements without having first established that the new ways of working actually work. A lot of this will depend on having people who understand newts working with developers to make sure new habitats and ponds are designed and implemented in the right places and the right way to enhance the newt population. There’s a real fear that these expertise won’t be available to them.” The trial has understandably been greeted positively by housing developers across the UK. Ross Murray, president of the Country Land and Business Association said: “The initiative has the potential to transform habitat preservation for important species, while at the same time reducing costs and uncertainty for landowners considering development across England. We welcome
© Dreamstime; Thinkstock; Avalon/Photoshot License/Alamy ; Minden Pictures; Nature Photographers Ltd; Solvin Zankl; Joe Blossom
A year in the life of an adult great crested newt
Females are bigger than males, typically measuring 11-13cm (4.35.1in) long, while males average 11-12cm (4.3in-4.7in) in length.
Females also have a yellow-orange stripe along the edge of their tails, but no crest on their backs.
Newt larvae have feathery gills around their head, distinguishing them from frog and toad tadpoles
67
Under threat The great crested newt isn’t the only animal facing an uncertain future
The skin of a great crested newt is black or dark brown and has a rough, warty appearance
“Great crested newts can be found on land and in water. In fact, they spend most of the winter on land hibernating”
dormouse difficulties Due to habitat fragmentation the tiny common dormouse – the only UK mammal with a distinctive furry tail – has found itself protected by EU legislation.
a rodent in the red The red squirrel, which is in danger of being wiped out in mainland England and Wales, is protected by national law but not the European Habitats Directive.
avoiding otter devastation Otters are also currently protected by EU law, which ensures that planning authorities need to assess the impact growth has on these mammals.
68
the proactive way that Natural England has sought to address this problem.” The CEO of Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, Tony Gent, provided cautious optimism by suggesting that: “This new initiative provides an opportunity for real gains for great crested newts by improving the way the regulations are applied.” It’s clear that much is still unknown about Brexit and the effect it will have on great crested newts. In fact, Trotter tells us that he has the personal word of a government minister that not all environment protection for rare species will be removed. “We’re hoping it won’t be repealed; all indications are that it will go into the Great Repeal Act,” Trotter explains. “The government is saying to us at the moment that all the European protections we have will be transposed into British law, so we’re not expecting any changes imminently.” That’s certainly good news for the UK’s population of great crested newts, but the amphibian was mentioned eight times in a recent government housing white paper, and Prime Minister Theresa May has promised to remove unnecessary red tape. “There are risks attached to
Brexit,” Trotter admits. “We’ve got to make sure we don’t lose – deliberately or inadvertently – the protection for these key species. People weren’t voting to remove the environmental protections that we have in this country. The key question for us is that great crested newts deserve protection.” Despite the uncertainty, The Wildlife Trusts are busy ensuring that great crested newts continue to thrive. “We need to create more ponds, and more suitable grass and woodland habitats around those ponds so we can increase the number of newts,” says Trotter. Even when new housing developments are built, Trotter argues that creating green space around them should be a priority so that everyone can enjoy the benefits. “We’re really keen that children and people of all ages living in new housing developments will benefit from these green areas as well.” While Brexit could have dramatic consequences for great crested newts, plans are firmly in place to protect one of the UK’s most-loved amphibians. With general agreement from all sides that these newts must be preserved, there is good reason to be optimistic.
© Dreamstime; Thinkstock
a step back for bats? All bats across the EU are listed as ‘protected species of animal’. It is an offence to injure a bat, but also to recklessly damage or destroy its shelter.
L Bubal hartebeest ost fore v er
This proud-looking antelope stood tall above the African savannah for over 1,000 years before being cut down by invading armies of soldiers and sport hunters
Distinctive horns These curved outwards, with the tips pointing towards the back of the animal.
Ancient burial Bubal hartebeest skulls have been found during excavations of ancient Egyptian tombs.
Hunted for its coat Local tribes made cloaks from the skin and the meat could be turned into stew.
Algeria
Body colour The bubal’s hide is believed to have been pale brown or reddish in colour.
Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, grazing in grasslands and open forests. Its taxonomy is credited to the 18th century German biologist Peter Simon Pallas, although he doesn’t appear to have ever encountered a bubal in the wild. Colonels in the French colonial army that invaded Algeria in 1830 did see bubal and apparently massacred large numbers of them. Bubal would have been an easy target for hunters armed with rifles. Individuals were also killed by local people for their skin and meat. By the late 19th century, the bubal’s range had significantly contracted. In 1933, the bubal was declared off-limits to hunters from countries that were signatories to the London Convention. Even so, in 1945, American naturalist Francis Harper wrote in Extinct And Vanishing Mammals Of The Old World – a publication for the American Committee for International Wild Life Protection – that the bubal would go extinct.
Last seen… Date: 1950s Location: Algeria
There is confusion over where and when the last living specimen of bubal hartebeest died. According to a quote in Harper’s Extinct And Vanishing Mammals Of The Old World, the sole survivor was a female that died in Paris in 1923. Harper himself, however, declares that the bubal still existed in Morocco in 1925. The entry for the bubal in the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species, meanwhile, states that the last individual in North Africa was shot in Algeria between 1945 and 1954.
© freevectormaps.com; Alan Batley
It is always a tragedy when humans extirpate a species, but the loss feels especially great when it’s an animal that was revered by an ancient civilisation. A classic example is the bubal hartebeest, or bubal, which once roamed across North Africa. Historians believe that ancient Egyptians may have sacrificed the bubal, and it has been depicted in hieroglyphs from that period. Large herds were still being reported in its known range up until just a few centuries ago. Sadly, though, this elegant desert antelope’s long history seems to have been brought to a premature end by colonial ambitions and the negligence of 19th century European hunters. The bubal is one of eight subspecies of hartebeest. The common name of the species derives from the Dutch words ‘hert’ and ‘beest’, which translate as ‘deer beast’. Remains of the bubal, along with written or spoken accounts, indicate that it occurred in Egypt, Morocco,
“Historians believe ancient Egyptians revered the bubal”
69
All about orcas
70
All About
Forget the great white shark – this giant dolphin is the ocean’s most fearsome predator and it can live longer than the average human
Words Amy Grisdale
© Brandon Cole Marine Photography/Alamy
Orcas
71
All about orcas
Orca behaviour
Female-led societies The killer whale is all about female empowerment, and while males may be larger, females completely rule the roost
A glimpse inside the exceptional mind of the true ruler of the deep
Unlike many mammal species, where the big, strong male is in charge, orca pods are led by a mature female who decides where to go and coordinates each hunt. Her children and their offspring follow her obediently and remain by her side for life. Nobody demonstrates this more than Granny, an orca that lived to an estimated age of 105 off the coast of British Columbia. She led her family of 25 on journeys covering thousands of miles until her death in late 2016.
These animals communicate and coordinate to form unstoppable hunting teams, and the instinct to kill is strong from the very beginning. Adult orcas prolong the agony of their prey to allow juveniles to practise their techniques, which are learned by watching older whales in action. This is called observational learning and is a sign of immense brainpower. Calves learn to use every part of their body as a weapon, from their sharp teeth to their powerful tail. Not only do these animals have fantastic cognitive ability, their emotional intelligence could be beyond that of humans. The limbic system is the brain’s emotion centre and in orcas it is enlarged and more complex than in a human brain. The social cohesion shown by orcas is unmatched by any land mammal, and very few other animals remain with their family as long as killer whales do. This species has developed culture, and orca groups around the world behave and even look differently. At least nine distinct orca populations have been identified and each is specialised to feed on a specific diet. Resident orcas stay in the same place all year round and feed on fish. Alaskan orcas feast on salmon, whereas those around Russia prefer mackerel. In general, these resident whales have larger family groups than travellers and develop unique hunting strategies. Transient killer whales swim from place to place hunting mammals from seals to minke whales. This type of orca
“These animals have fantastic cognitive ability, and their emotional intelligence could be beyond that of humans”
Killer cooperation These intelligent hunters work in groups
Unseating seals
Carousel feeding
Beaching
Groups of orcas charge at ice floes to dislodge resting seals with a powerful wave. These animals are one of the most successful hunters on Earth, killing 95 per cent of the prey they set out to catch.
Pods herd migrating herrings into tight balls by flashing their white undersides and beaming out bursts of bubbles. Once the fish have been forced together, the orcas slap their tails on the surface to stun them.
Orcas off the coast of Argentina intentionally beach themselves to catch sea lion pups. This risky strategy is only possible when the tide is high and when rainfall is at a peak, so it only happens a few times a year.
72
Orcas A female orca launches herself on to the beach in an attempt to snatch a Patagonian sea lion
Diet and feeding While each subspecies has its own diet, most eat roughly the same amount of food
An average male orca eats 170kg (375lb) of food per day in the wild
That’s 4% of its body weight
Acrobatics
Long-distance travel
Spyhopping
Leaping out of the water is known as breaching, and it is a common behaviour in wild orcas. It may serve a communication function, dislodge skin parasites or help to remove dead skin cells, but nobody knows for sure.
These animals can travel up to 160 kilometres (100 miles) each day, often in straight ‘chorus lines’. There is little evidence to suggest that they migrate due to weather conditions, so this epic swimming is normally in search of food.
In order to visually observe their surroundings, orcas will pop up out of the water to take a look around. This behaviour is known as spyhopping, and alongside humpback whales, orcas are thought to be the most prolific exhibitors of it.
© Alamy/John Hyde/Design Pics Inc; The Art Agency/Peter Scott; Alamy/Hiroya Minakuchi/Minden Pictures
travels from the Arctic Circle to the equator in small but closely-bonded pods. Unfortunately, these animals develop extremely high concentrations of toxins in their blubber. This is a side-effect of eating other mammals, as pollutants accumulate in the fat of dolphins and porpoises and transfer through the food chain to the orca at the top. Offshore orca groups live in the open ocean and are genetically different to other killer whales. These are the smallest orcas in the Northern Hemisphere and evidence suggests that their teeth wear quickly because they feed on sharks and other thick-skinned fish. Every individual type has its own dialect and they do not mate outside of their own kind.
73
All about orcas Dorsal fin
Anatomy of the orca
Despite standing as high as 1.8 metres (six feet) tall, this fin is made of fibrous collagen and does not contain any bones.
Fine-tuned by more than 50 million years of evolution, the orca’s body is a machine designed to swim, hunt and kill. While this predator walked on land in a former life, the modern orca is perfectly adapted for the ocean. ORCA Orcinus orca
Eyepatch
Blowhole
Class Mammalia
Air leaves the orca’s lungs through the blowhole, which is controlled by strong muscle. It remains closed underwater through a reflex action, preventing it opening underwater.
Territory All the oceans of the world Diet Carnivore Lifespan 80 years – female average 60 years – male average Adult weight 5,400kg (11,905lb) Conservation Status
These white areas may help orcas find one another in the dark, or confuse prey that try to defend themselves by attacking their hunter’s eyes.
Melon All toothed whales have a patch of fat in the forehead. This concentrates the soundwaves that the orca beams out into the ocean in order to find food by echolocation.
DATA DEFICIENT
Phonic lips
Armed to the teeth The diet of an orca determines what its teeth look like. These are three examples
Though still not fully understood, these organs are responsible for producing the high-frequency clicks that bounce off prey, enabling the orca to see without using its eyes.
Gum line
Cross section
Teeth Sharp tooth of a fish-eating resident orca
Slightly eroded tooth of a mammaleating transient
Completely worn stump of a sharkeating offshore orca
JUVENILE
INFANCY Underwater birth Day 1 A baby orca emerges tail-first after 14-18 months of pregnancy. It knows how to swim and the mother pushes it to the surface to breathe.
74
Unlike most other mammals, orcas have only one type of tooth. They are all the same shape and size and are used for gripping prey rather than chewing it. They have between 40-56 teeth.
Toughen up Day 3 The calf’s dorsal fin and tail flukes begin to stiffen after three days of being soft and supple.
Fade to white 1 year After around a year the patches on the calf’s face lose their yelloworange hue.
50:50 chance 1 year Only around half of orca calves survive their first year. This means that only the very strongest live to pass on their genes.
No more milk 1-2 years Once the orca stops nursing it won’t usually drink again. All their liquid is found inside the prey they eat.
Life skills develop 2 years By this age, the mother has taught her calf every survival trick she knows and it begins to hunt for itself.
Orcas
Legs Hidden beneath the skin are two tiny sets of leg bones. These are left over from when the ancestor of the orca walked on land as a four-legged carnivore.
White belly As a carnivore, an orca relies on its light underside blending in with the bright sky above and the black back being indistinguishable from the dark sea depths.
“The teeth of orcas that hunt sharks and other thick-skinned prey wear down quite quickly” Male or female? You can instantly recognise an adult orca’s sex by looking at its dorsal fin. Males’ fins are very straight and around 1.8 metres (six feet) in length, whereas females’ fins are around half that size and more curved. Nobody is sure why this difference exists.
Hidden hands
Closest family
Closely related to the orca are…
Eye Each eye moves independently of the other, allowing the orca to look in two different directions at once. Their eyesight is excellent both above and below the water, though they are only able to see limited colour.
MATURITY Maturity 6 years Orcas reach maturity between six and ten years of age, meaning they can reproduce.
Close bond 6-13 years Even after hitting sexual maturity (which varies for males and females) young orcas stay with their family.
Menopause 40 years approx. Females survive long after they stop being able to reproduce in order to lead the pod and help raise their grandchildren.
Old age 100+ years Although females tend to live to around 80, some have been documented to live over 100 years.
Bottlenose dolphin As members of the dolphin family, these animals share an enormous amount of traits. They have a similar skeleton and configuration of organs. However, bottlenoses are less than half the orca’s size and have a beak, which orcas lack.
Pilot whale Orcas and pilot whales are both part of the blackfish group, a nickname for the large, dark-skinned dolphins found throughout the world’s oceans. Like orcas, pilot whales are very social and develop strong bonds with their family.
Hippo The closest land relative of all whales and dolphins is the hippo, the semiaquatic herbivore found throughout central Africa. They share common ancestors, though their lineage diverged approximately 50 million years ago.
© The Art Agency/Peter Scott; Flip Nicklin/Minden Pictures/FLPA
The pectoral fins contain five long ‘fingers’, similar to a human hand. Orcas don’t have the same dexterity as us, but instead use their boned flippers to remain stable while swimming.
75
All about orcas
Mating and reproduction Orca breeding is a tricky business, and relations in the deep seas are more complex than you might think As mammals that live in water, orcas have had to develop a method of reproduction suitable for submersion. A male’s genitals are tucked away inside the body to keep the orca streamlined when swimming. There is a long slit on the lower belly where the reproductive organ is concealed, and the one-metre (3.3 foot) appendage only emerges when it’s time to mate. Females also have a genital slit, and on either side are two tiny mammary slits from which calves suckle. The baby orca rolls its tongue into a straw and inserts it into the slit, so it is able to drink the rich milk without it mixing with the seawater. Orcas have multiple partners throughout the year and have no specific mating season, but there is a spike in breeding during the summer months. Pregnancy lasts a minimum of 14
months, though captive orcas have experienced gestation periods of up to a year and a half. Pregnancies are spaced out every three to ten years and only one calf is produced each time. There is only one record of surviving orca twins because the mother’s body is only designed for growing one baby at a time. A newborn calf is more than two metres (6.6 feet) long and weighs around 120-160 kilograms (265-353 pounds) and the mother delivers 50 per cent fat milk to her baby around the clock. Over the months the fat content drops to around 28 per cent as the baby’s needs change, and in as little as a year the calf is ready to eat solid food. Most mammal species die after getting too old to reproduce, but the orca is one of the few exceptions. Female killer whales go through the menopause and can live for decades after
their fertile years are behind them. The role of the female goes beyond producing babies, and orcas can live as long – if not longer – after the menopause than before it. While there is a great deal of controversy about orcas being kept in captivity, aquariums have uncovered a lot of previously unknown information about killer whale reproduction. Whether these discoveries fully apply to wild killer whales is yet to be determined, as they are elusive and unpredictable as a species. Many differences between wild and captive whales have been identified. For instance, males can reach maturity up to five years faster in captivity. This is probably due to a lack of competition, as wild orcas are only able to breed after demonstrating their strength as a mate to a fertile female.
“The role of females goes beyond producing babies, and they can live for many years after the menopause”
Orcas around the world We all recognise a killer whale, but seeing different subspecies side by side highlights just how different they can be
Pack ice orca Specialising in snatching seals, this subspecies has a yellow-grey hue due to a build-up of tiny plankton.
76
Resident orca The forward-slanted dorsal fin gives this orca away, and it feeds almost exclusively on bony fish like salmon.
Subantarctic orca Easily identified by its tiny white eye patch, this polar predator is known to steal fish from long-line fisheries.
Transient orca One of the largest and fiercest of the killer whales, this beast feasts on sea lions and the calves of large whales.
Orcas The first few weeks of life
What you’ll see All whales have a specific surfacing sequence, and these are the typical behaviours visible above the ocean
© NaturePL/Rebecca Robinson; Alamy/Anthony Pierce
Baby orcas don’t stray far from their mother’s side in the early days. Their skin bears birth folds and their fins are soft and pliable for a days after birth. The calf swims alongside or just above its mother, who gently nudges her newborn to the surface to help it take its first few breaths. The bond between mother and baby is unbreakable, and if the two become separated they emit frantic distress calls to find one another again. When reunited, the pair exchange chirps and whistles, staying in constant communication at all times. Captive orcas that have had their calves taken away react with extreme aggression and quickly become depressed.
77
All about orcas
The habitat of the orca Whether it’s an Icelandic lagoon or the Bay of Biscay, orcas thrive in waters around the world For every ocean habitat there is an orca perfectly designed to make the most of the ecosystem. Killer whales don’t stray too far from the surface as they need to come up regularly to breathe. They can dive to depths of at least 100 metres (328 feet), staying in the upper portion of the ocean through which sunlight is able to penetrate. Many orcas spend most of their time on the move, in constant pursuit of prey. Orcas in the North Atlantic follow herring into the freezing fjords of northern Norway in deepest winter, then move on when the fish stocks deplete a few months later. Resident orcas around New Zealand stay put and hunt stingray in the warm, shallow water. Orcas are somewhat
unique in that they are able to live all over the world in oceans of any temperature. They are called a ‘cosmopolitan’ species because of their wandering nature and global distribution. Various attempts have been made to estimate worldwide orca populations since the 1970s, but there simply isn’t enough data to get an accurate number. Whale researchers estimate that orcas spend up to 95 per cent of their time submerged and therefore are a notoriously hard species to study in the wild. Orcas are split into subspecies around the world and many of these small groups are in serious danger of collapse. Scottish orcas may soon disappear, with several factors contributing to this state of emergency.
Pollution is a major problem. Plastic waste and dissolved pollutants like pesticides, heavy metals and oil byproducts threaten the lives of all ocean creatures. Plastic bags mimic floating jellyfish, and degrading synthetics release toxins into the seawater. Pollutants build up in the lowest animals in the food chain and accumulate in apex predators like the orca. Thankfully, laws and attitudes are changing. While orcas were once seen as a pest by fishermen, they are now regarded as an indicator of ocean quality and people are realising they are not in competition with whales for fish. Charities all over the world campaign for orca rights, and research is ongoing to secure the killer whale’s future.
Environmental factors It’s not easy being at the top of the marine food chain, and orcas face danger on a daily basis
Changing climate Orcas at the poles rely on hunting animals on ice floes, but as the Earth heats up, pack ice is beginning to disappear. This will reduce their ability to hunt for the prey they need. Prey abundance Many fish species that orcas prey on are being removed from the seas faster than they can reproduce, and species such as bluefin tuna are in danger of extinction. Pollution Waste materials and excess noise disrupt natural orca behaviour and can even be fatal. Plastics, oil and submarine activity pose a real danger for wild whales. Tourism Many countries that offer whale watching don’t have laws in place to protect the animals. When taking a whale watching trip, check if there are any restrictions in place.
Orcas and humans The history of these two species is a troubled one. Norwegian fishermen used to shoot orcas on sight in the late 1970s, believing the whales ate an enormous amount of precious herring. It wasn’t until 1992 that public opinion in Norway changed after footage was shown on TV of orcas nibbling on single fish rather than taking whole shoals at a time. Perhaps the most famous talking point regarding humans and orcas is the issue of captivity. The first wild-caught orca was captured in 1961 on behalf of California’s Marineland of
78
the Pacific. This female whale died after only two days in a tank. As the 1960s progressed, more orcas were captured and the American public became fascinated with these beautiful creatures that seemed so docile and friendly. With time, global perception of this practice has changed somewhat and with the release of the orca documentary Blackfish in 2013, public approval of keeping orcas is at an all-time low. Laws in the US have been changed to outlaw wild capture and captive breeding, and it seems that it will soon become a thing of the past.
Orcas Nearest neighbours Orcas share the sea with millions of creatures, and few are safe from their deadly hunting instinct
Humpback whale Baby humpbacks are often attacked by groups of orcas, but the whales are wreaking revenge by sabotaging killer whales’ hunting efforts. Humpbacks protect other whales and even seals from orcas, but nobody is sure why.
Gentoo penguin Antarctic orcas pick off exhausted penguins after long fishing trips. The whales don’t even eat the whole bird, but instead slice off the breast meat and leave the chewy parts in the water.
Patagonian sea lion Found along the coasts of Argentina, Chile and Peru, these are the sea lions that orcas beach themselves to hunt. Adults can grow to 2.5 metres (8.2 feet) and weigh 350 kilograms (771.6 pounds), so orcas target young pups.
Weddell seal These noisy true seals are perfectly adapted for life on the ice, herding fish towards the frozen surface with air bubbles. However, between hungry leopard seals and lurking orcas, Weddell seals have to remain alert.
© NaturePL/Tony Wu; Christopher Swann/Biosphoto/FLPA
Above An orca in hot pursuit of a bottlenose dolphin
79
All about orcas The fight to save the world’s whales Director of Campaign Whale, Andy Ottaway, gives us an insight into the status of whales around the world Can you tell us a little bit about what Campaign Whale does? Campaign Whale is dedicated to protecting all whales, dolphins and porpoises. We helped secure the global ban on commercial whaling that has saved many species from extinction. We also oppose whales and dolphins in captivity and played a pivotal role in the campaign to close dolphin shows in the UK. Today, there are no captive orcas or dolphins anywhere in the UK. We also work to counter the many growing threats that whales and dolphins face, from climate change to toxic pollution and ship strikes. Is whaling even legal? Commercial whaling was banned indefinitely in 1986 by the International Whaling Commission (IWC). Unfortunately, defiant whaling nations like Iceland, Norway and Japan have found legal loopholes to continue whaling and they still kill large numbers – around 1,500 whales between them every year. However, small whales and dolphins, like orcas, are not protected under this ban and are killed in huge numbers every year. Which species are most affected by human activity like whaling and fishing? Small cetaceans; the smaller whale species like beaked and bottlenose whales, pilot whales, orcas, narwhals, belugas, dolphins and porpoises all suffer from hunting, toxic pollution and entanglement in fishing gear. While
commercial overfishing reduces their food supply, fishermens’ nets are the biggest killer. Around 300,000 whales and dolphins are entangled in nets each year – that’s a whale or dolphin dying every two minutes! Toxic pollution is also a massive threat to whales and dolphins as it concentrates in their bodies through the food chain. Why do you think whaling is still going on? Whaling continues because some people make a lot of money from killing whales and dolphins for meat. Others argue that whaling is traditional and a cultural right that provides free food. But the dangerous levels of toxic pollutants in whale and dolphin meat and blubber pose a serious risk to people’s health, and this is why they should not be eaten. What would happen if whaling restrictions were lifted? While the current whaling ban is far from perfect, it is all we have to protect most large whales from commercial hunting, and it has prevented many species, like the blue whale, from being completely wiped out. But sadly, the ban does not protect the vast majority of whale species that are threatened and still hunted. This is why Campaign Whale wants to see the whaling ban extended to all species of whales and dolphins and the IWC transformed into an international organisation for the protection of all whales around the world. Would there be any negative impact if whaling was abolished worldwide? Some whalers argue that whales are a threat to commercial fish stocks, but this is nonsense. It is human overfishing that is the problem. Many whales prey on fish that eat commercially valuable fish, and in any case, commercial whaling has devastated global whale
stocks by over 95 per cent. Whales reproduce so slowly it will take many decades for populations to recover to pre-whaling levels, if at all. It is human activities like overfishing that threaten the oceans, not the whales. What positive impacts do healthy whale populations have on the planet? Whales and dolphins have inhabited the oceans for some 50 million years. Recent research suggests they play a huge role in the ocean by recycling and spreading nutrients for the plankton that supports the entire marine food chain. In fact, large numbers of whales are vital for a healthy marine ecosystem, so saving the whales really will help save the planet! Whales are also worth far more alive than dead. Millions of people go whale watching every year, generating billions for local economies. What can our readers do to help? Whales and dolphins are in trouble and desperately need our help. Please write to the government asking them to do more to protect whales and dolphins and stop whaling. Please visit our website www.campaign-whale.org to learn more about our campaigns. You can also join our special ‘whale-saver’s’ scheme and buy our special merchandise. It all helps to fund the vital work we do.
“Around 300,000 whales and dolphins die entangled in nets each year – that’s one every two minutes!”
SAVE THE PILOT WHALES! SAVE WHALES! In the the Faroe Islands around In around 1,000 1,000pilot pilotwhales whalesare areslaughtered slaughteredfor for human consumption consumption every human every year. year. The Thekilling killinggoes goeson oneven eventhough thoughthe the whales are contaminated with toxic pollutants that pose a serious whales are contaminated with toxic pollutants that pose a serious threat to to the the whales threat whales and and the the people peopleeating eatingthe themeat meatand andblubber. blubber.
Please help us us stop stop this this cruel crueltradition! tradition! Please support support our Please our campaign campaign to to save savethe thepilot pilotwhales, whales,and andallallwhales whales and dolphins around the world, by making a donation to and dolphins around the world, by making a donation toour ourcampaign campaign fund. You You can can also fund. also join join our our special special ‘Whale ‘WhaleSavers’ Savers’scheme schemefor forjust just £20 per year. You will receive a special certificate, enamel badge £20 per year. You will receive a special certificate, enamel badgeand and campaign updates. campaign updates.
You can can join join online online at: at: www.campaign-whale.org www.campaign-whale.org You Alternatively, send send a a cheque cheque payable Alternatively, payable to to ‘Campaign ‘CampaignWhale’ Whale’to: to: Campaign Whale, Whale, PO PO Box Box 179, Campaign 179, Newhaven, Newhaven, East EastSussex, Sussex,BN9 BN91BJ 1BJ
80
Email:
[email protected] | Tel: 01273 515416 Email:
[email protected] | Tel: 01273 515416
Bizarre! The terrifying fish with an explosive jaw and a ferocious temper Despite its small size, the sarcastic fringehead is unflinchingly territorial and will defend its habitat from predators and opponents far larger than itself ABOVE Subsisting on an omnivorous diet, these fish consume around 13-14 times their body weight per year
They have fleshtearing teeth While ‘sarcastic fringehead’ may seem like a comical name, sarcastic in this context means ‘flesh tearing’, so named because of the many razor-sharp teeth that sit inside its mouth. Fringehead refers to the wavy barbs known as cirri which line the head of Neoclinus blanchardi.
They are ferocious fathers The sarcastic fringehead breeding season lasts from January through to August. During this time, the females will lay their eggs inside the burrows of male fringeheads, who will then fertilise them. The female then leaves the male, who will remain with the eggs to aggressively defend them from predators and other fringeheads encroaching on his territory.
SARCASTIC FRINGEHEAD Neoclinus blanchardi
They have explosive mouths
Class Actinopterygii
Territory Eastern Pacific Diet Mostly crustaceans, small fish and squid eggs Lifespan 6 years Adult weight 160g (5.6oz) Conservation Status
Despite only growing to around 30 centimetres (12 inches), these fish take no prisoners. When threatened, they flex their huge mouths, which, when open, can measure up to half their body size. By flashing the vibrant warning colours inside – usually shades of red, green and yellow – they can scare off predators.
These fish are ambush predators, and will hide in their burrows waiting for small fish, squid or crustaceans to pass by. They are mostly dark brown in colour, meaning their heads go unnoticed as unsuspecting prey approaches. Once in range, the sarcastic fringehead will burst into action, opening its colossal jaws and securing its prey with its razor-sharp teeth.
They’re not afraid to Human trash is fight mouth-to-mouth their treasure When duelling, two sarcastic fringeheads will throw open their enormous jaws and battle it out mouth-to-mouth. This violent exchange will reveal which fish is the largest, but will usually result in the smaller fish retreating. However, if the loser doesn’t relent, the dominant fish will lash out, using its teeth as a weapon. Sarcastic fringeheads are often close neighbours, so these battles to establish dominance are not uncommon.
Sarcastic fringeheads live inside empty snail shells or clam burrows, and are notorious for fearlessly charging at anything that approaches their home. They are also known to occupy cans, soda bottles and other hollow pieces of humanmade waste. In the ‘beer-bottle field’ of Santa Monica Bay off the coast of California, the ocean floor is rife with sarcastic fringeheads battling it out to protect their bottles.
81
© Getty/Cesare Naldi
They’re ambush predators
LEAST CONCERN
The wildlife of a farm Whether they are growing crops or raising livestock, our farms are home to lots of wildlife, some of which is now under threat Words David Crookes For many centuries, humans have cleared and cultivated vast areas of countryside in order to grow crops and provide grazing land for livestock to aid in the production of food. The result has been a rural patchwork of fields, peppered with bushy hedgerows, reed-lined ponds, wetlands and surrounding trees – marginal areas that are typically home to many species of mammals, birds, amphibians and insects. Farmland habitat is vitally important for biodiversity, yet the type of wildlife found on
82
farmlands is very much dependent upon the environment. There are crofting and horticultural areas, as well as grasslands and arable fields that are home to grasshoppers, beetles and spiders. Lowland heaths form a habitat for birds and reptiles including snakes, while traditional orchards provide a feast for all kinds of mammals, birds, bats and insects. Wild animals can prove very useful in managing pest populations. What’s more, most will live alongside domesticated animals without causing any problems.
The wildlife of a farm Why farmlands are important Ellie Brodie is a senior policy manager at The Wildlife Trusts, which consists of 47 local groups across the UK, Isle of Man and Alderney. It aims to inspire people about the natural world and it cares for more than 2,300 nature reserves. You can find out more at www.wildlifetrusts.org
© NaturePL/Adam Burton
Farms can provide fantastic homes for wildlife: sparrows like to feed on the insects found in hedgerows; hares like pasture and arable fields; barn owls patrol the rough, grassy edges of fields searching for voles; and wild flowers bloom in traditionallymanaged hay meadows. Unfortunately, over the last 50 years, 56 per cent of species have declined, and 15 per cent are at risk of disappearing from our shores altogether. Intensive management of agricultural land causes problems for wildlife, and as three-quarters of the UK’s land is farmed, it’s really important that farmers are helped to rise to the challenge of helping nature recover. Traditional farming methods and organic and wildlife-friendly farming schemes all help wild animals and plants to thrive in the countryside.
83
The wildlife of a farm
Food production versus wildlife? With farming claiming 40 per cent of the world's land surface, there has been a growing drive by conservationists to protect wildlife habitats. Those supporting sustainable farming are keen to protect hedgerows, ponds, woodland and field margins amid fears that some species – including the cuckoo and curlew – are disappearing from the countryside. There is also a worry that more land will be needed for agricultural production as the global human population continues to rise. The loss of hedgerows as farmers
Skylark
continue to move away from traditional practices is already having a negative impact on hedgehogs and butterflies, while badgers, frogs and insects are affected when lowland meadows are turned over to agriculture. The rise of monoculture farming (that is, the growing of a single crop) impacts the diversity of plant species and, in turn, the range of wildlife that can be supported. It is why efforts are being made to replant hedgerows and sow wildflowers, and why farmers are being encouraged to use less fertiliser and pesticides.
Pig Pigs are highly intelligent and social animals, capable of outsmarting their rivals and using 20 different vocalisations in order to communicate with one another. They are no slouches either, able to run at around 17.7 kph (11mph), which equates to a seven-minute mile. After a long day foraging for food, it’s believed pigs dream once they’ve fallen asleep.
Marbled white butterfly
Sheep
Brown hare After a period of decline due to grasslands being converted to arable farming, the number of brown hares is said to be on the increase. They enjoy the open country and graze on cereals, herbs and young grasses during the night. They use their large eyes and keen ears to alert them to distant predators.
84
The wildlife of a farm The key benefits of indoor farming The need to feed a rising human population means alternative, controlled methods are being explored. Vertical farming produces food in stacked layers and often uses artificial lighting or metal reflectors, meaning plants can grow faster, boosting yields. By using less space, more land is left free for wildlife.
Natural pest control
Farming for pollinators
Instead of pesticides, some farmers turn to natural means. Ladybugs, for example, will eat aphids, spider mites, whiteflies and other insects harmful to crops. Green lacewings control mealybugs and immature scales, while the fungi nosema locustae keeps a check on grasshoppers and crickets. Biopesticides are less toxic and more targeted.
Bees are natural crop pollinators and they will thrive in habitats that contain flowers to forage in, enough nesting sites and a lack of pesticides. Although some crops – such as corn, wheat and rice – are wind or self-pollinating, bees are vital for growing cauliflower, cabbage, peppers, oranges, lemons and many other tasty foods.
Barn owl Intensive agriculture has affected birds such as the partridge and barn owl, but some farmers are providing habitats to allow them to thrive. Known for their long, eerie screech, barn owls prey on voles, which can cause serious damage to plant health. They have acute hearing and their talons can accurately penetrate grass.
Cow Raised on farms for dairy and meat, cows are impressive specimens. The average dairy cow weighs 544kg (1,200Ib) and can consume around 45kg (100Ib) of feed per day. They possess nearly 360-degree panoramic vision and are able to hear lower and higher frequencies better than humans. These grazers move their jaws approximately 40,000 times per day!
Stoat These fast, solitary predators can move at up to 32kph (20mph) and can kill prey much larger than themselves, storing excess food for later consumption. Typically found around the hedgerows and ditches of lowland farms and in woodlands, they are known for stealing the eggs of chickens.
Badger
Field vole
© The Art Agency/Sandra Doyle
Chickens
Harvest mouse With their tiny bodies and long, naked tails, harvest mice are able to perform acrobatic feats as they make their way through woodlands, hedgerows and reed beds. They can make complex, golfball-sized nests between grass and rush stalks and grip on to vegetation with their hind feet, making light work of their environment.
85
Wildlife photography
Remembering Rhinos The winners of the Remembering Rhinos photo contest highlight just how incredible these gentle giants are There were over 1,000 entries into the Remembering Rhinos photo contest from all over the world and they included images of white, black and greater one-horned rhinos. 100 finalists were eventually whittled down to ten winners and 11 images. All of the winning images will appear in the Remembering Rhinos books, which will be published on 30 October 2017 with all proceeds going to protecting rhinos via The Born Free Foundation. Organiser Margot Raggett said: “We were absolutely delighted with the quality of the images entered into the Remembering Rhinos competition and that made selecting the winners a tough job! But we are thrilled with the chosen images, and knowing how they will complement the images we already had donated from the pros, we’re quietly confident of producing another stunning book.” Books (including a reprint of the sold-out Remembering Elephants) are now available to pre-order by going to www.buyrememberingbooks.com. They are £45 each plus postage. Photographer - Gurcharan Roopra Species - White rhino Location - Solio, Kenya Photographer - Chris Grech Species - White rhino Location - Hlane Royal National Park, Swaziland
Photographer - Jonas Stenqvist Species - Greater one-horned rhino Location - Kaziranga National Park, India
Photographer - Vladimir Cech Jr Species - Greater one-horned rhino Location - Kaziranga National Park, India
86
Photographer - Pete Oxford Species - White rhino Location - South Africa
Photographer - Mike Muizebelt Species - Black rhino Location - Okaukuejo, Etosha National Park, Namibia
Photographer - Willem Dekker Species - Black rhino Location - Namibia
Photographer - Nick Newman Species - Black rhino Location - Limpopo, South Africa
Photographer - Tom Way Species - Black rhino Location - Maasai Mara, Kenya
Photographer - Rob Cottle Species - Southern white rhino Location - Timbavati, South Africa
Photographer - Vladimir Cech Jr Species - Greater one-horned rhino Location - Kaziranga National Park, India
87
Web slingers House spider
Spiders aren’t just eight-legged freaks – they’re talented engineers that produce some of the most amazing structures found in nature
Words Matt Ayres
We don’t really swallow spiders in our sleep Thankfully, the rumour that humans swallow spiders as they sleep is false. The hoax was originally circulated as an experiment to see how quickly false news spreads.
Mexican fireleg tarantula
They are the architects of the natural world Webs are incredible feats of engineering. A typical orb web begins with a single silk strand stretched between two surfaces, which the spider then strengthens until it can support the entire web. This is followed by a Y-shaped anchor for the web, around which the spider creates a series of spoke-like radii. Next come auxiliary threads, which provide a reference for the spider to lay down its final spiral of sticky, insect-catching thread.
Spider webs have inspired many human inventions As well as being light and flexible, spider webs are incredibly strong; relative to weight, the natural silk a spider produces is as strong as steel. This winning combination of strength and stretchiness makes spider silk an attractive material for use in inventions. It would be impractical to harvest real spider silk for commercial use, but synthetic versions have been used to make products ranging from body armour to medical devices and airbags.
88
Tarantulas use hair as a defence mechanism Body hair serves an important purpose in tarantulas. Many species use their sharp hairs as projectiles, which embed into a predator’s eyes, giving the spider a chance to escape.
Web slingers Spiders are essential for insect control
Spiders can spin many types of silk
Whatever your view on spiders, it’s undeniable that our lives would be worse off without these important arachnids. As the top invertebrate predators in most ecosystems, we rely on spiders to control populations of insects that would otherwise ravage fields of crops, causing widespread famine and food shortages around the world. Spiders also play an intregral part in slowing down the spread of disease, eating malaria-carrying mosquitoes before they have a chance to infect humans.
When you spot a spider web glistening in the sunshine you’re actually looking at several different types of silk, each produced by the spider for different purposes. Some threads help to make the web more flexible, while others help to protect the structure from harmful fungi and bacteria. The spider stores its silk in its body as liquid and uses telescopic organs called spinnerets to produce its web-building threads. False black widow
Jumping spider
Not all spiders are solitary creatures Single spiders lurking in their webs may be common, but some spiders live sociable lives, building communal webs to catch more insects than they could alone.
Spider venom could be used in medicine
The colourful peacock spider is famous for its booty-shaking dance moves. The males flaunt vibrant patterns on their abdomens and perform elaborate routines to impress females.
Recent research shows that compounds found in spider venom possess painkilling properties. Scientists are therefore considering it as a potential replacement to drugs in the treatment of conditions such as arthritis.
Spider silk is used for more than just webs While all spiders produce silk, not all spiders build webs. Jumping spiders use their threads to create draglines behind them in the air, controlling their speed and allowing them to land safely. Others create silky balloons and glide through the sky, riding the air currents and sometimes travelling hundreds of kilometres at a time. One species, the diving bell spider, uses its silk to survive underwater, attaching itself to aquatic plants and collecting air bubbles inside its web that allow it to remain safely submerged.
Funnel weaver
© NaturePL/Dimitris Poursanidis/Marc Pihet/Alex Hyde/Chris Mattison
Peacock spiders dance for their mates
89
Keeping in touch We asked you what you thought about the last issue and you said:
Contact us at… @WorldAnimalsMag worldofanimalsmag
Superpower dogs update When you’re a young pup with a keen sense of smell, there are plenty of things to tempt the nose. This month, we look into how Cat and Halo work together to make sure distractions aren’t an issue during search and rescue work
“Brilliant monthly magazine, article about oryx is inspiring” @MagicalWildlife I love the animal anatomies in each magazine giving an extensive look into each animal’s biology
@MagicalWildlife Our daughter is going to love this month magazine! She will be very happy to find it when she gets home from school.
@blotie75
“This is why I LOVE this magazine because it always has awesome info in it about snails! My fav!” @Jade Sanchez Melton
“I love ‘sea birds’” David Ashley
Win a copy of the magazine before it goes on sale! Get in touch and tell us which is your favourite feature and why, and you could be a lucky winner!
90
Distraction training Halo’s handler, Cat Labrada, explains how she ensures Halo stays focused on locating survivors Halo is a ‘live-find’ canine, which means that her job is to sniff out live human scent only and alert her handler. All of her training is aimed at simulating a real disaster environment, and included in such disaster zones would be a great many interesting smells. It’s essential that Halo ignores all of these and concentrates on her job. So how does this distraction training begin? “It’s exposure and reward for doing nothing when she sees it,” Cat tells us. “We do that with food, with clothes, with stuffed animals or toys
that you might find in a house. When she’s working and she comes across these things we train her to ignore them and move on.” Training starts early on to make sure Halo learns from the beginning. “You start off on the ground, hiding things in the bark barrels. I put her on a long lead and then open things up to show her. For example, if she alerts on food, you can open it up and show her that it’s food and she’s not getting a reward for food.” Here are just a few of the things that Halo needs to ignore…
Tennis balls Even superheroes have an Achilles heel. “At the moment, tennis balls are her kryptonite!” Cat exclaims after discovering Halo’s weakness on a filming trip to Texas. “I need to work on it in training – it’s because we play with them at home. It’s not the food, the clothes, the cadaver that distracts her – it’s the balls!”
Clothes Once again, the smells from clothing can be very enticing to dogs, whose sense of smell is 40-times greater than ours. Cat says: “The dogs learn they’re not supposed to care about certain things, but there’s always different scents of food, of garbage, of faeces or urine or different amounts of clothing.”
Remains It’s a macabre subject, but it’s important for Halo to ignore human remains. “We introduce it early on just so we know how the dogs will react,” Cat explains. “Halo was interested initially, but now she knows not to worry about it.” Recently, Halo was introduced to her first whole cadaver. “She sniffed it and moved on.”
Food Food distraction avoidance is something that needs constant training. “Even though you teach them to ignore a food smell, there are so many different types,” Cat says. “Like pizza versus eggs, or doughnuts versus chicken. There are so many things to constantly involve in training to continually help them learn!”
Animal antics this month
Wildlife journeys Photo Editor, Tim Hunt, tells us about the diversity of wildlife in Costa Rica I finally got my chance to visit Costa Rica after a long time reading about the amazing wildlife you can encounter there. On our first night, I was awoken by scuttling crabs in the air vents of our hotel. They were appropriately called Halloween crabs as they were orange and purple. We travelled to the Osa Peninsula in the south and the climate became noticeably hotter and a lot more humid. Exploring the rainforest at night was a real experience. As we shone torchlight around us everything twinkled from the reflection in the eyes of nocturnal creatures. The sounds from frogs and insects filled the night air. During the day, we took a boat trip, which gave us good sightings of cayman and giant kingfishers. We even saw the amazing basilisk lizard, which can run across water. There is so much to see – I will certainly have to visit again soon.
Reader photos
Important news we’ve followed this month. Email your stories to
[email protected]
New narwhal discovery For years, scientists have debated what the narwhal’s horn is used for; whether it acts as a weapon or as a sensor for echolocation. But new footage from WWF Canada has shown that at least one use is to stun their prey.
Tell us about one of your wildlife holidays by emailing your story and photos to animals@ animalanswers .co.uk
Alfredo Helou
New fines for feeding seagulls East Devon District Council has issued a Public Space Protection Order that means anyone caught feeding seagulls, or businesses not disposing of food correctly, may be fined £80 on the spot. The aim of the fine is to reduce aggressive seagull behaviour, which is encouraged by the presence of food.
Largest seizure of pangolin scales
Kynn Muldrew This is a photo I took on my recent trip to South America. I went out for a morning walk at Easter and something caught my eye – I saw this hummingbird fluttering around a bush of flowers. I loved the position of the bird; just about to eat but still deciding which flower to explore first! This was taken in Buenos Aires, Argentina. William Ashworth, aged 5 This was taken at Manual Antonio on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. This basilisk, or Jesus Christ lizard, was hanging out by the hotel pool.
We love hearing from readers, whether it’s receiving letters, emails, photos, drawings or even feedback. Get in touch and you could be featured in the magazine too!
© Thinkstock; Tim Hunt
Early in May, Kuala Lumpur Airport seized a record amount of pangolin scales worth $2 million. Shipped from Ghana and Congo, the 712kg (1,569.7Ib) load is estimated to add up to 1,400 pangolins killed.
91
TM
Subscription offer
£4.99
£3.75 per issue
Subscribe and save 25%
*
Every issue, delivered straight to your door Never miss an issue
Delivered to your home
Get the biggest savings
13 issues a year, and you’ll be sure to get every single one
Free delivery of every issue, direct to your doorstep
Get your favourite magazine for less by ordering direct
What our readers are saying about us… “World of Animals is a great way to explore the rich diversity of life on earth and to understand its plights and predicaments.” Chris Packham, Naturalist and Broadcaster
“Beautiful photos, insightful articles and very informative columns.... a marvellous publication that made me appreciate the animal kingdom even more.” Stephen Parry via email
“World of Animals is an outstanding monthly publication that any animal lover will be absolutely thrilled with.” Donald Lloyd Gayman via Facebook
TM
Subscription offer
Pick the subscription that’s right for you mOST fLExIBLE
GREAT vALuE
Subscribe and save 25%
One year subscription
4 Automatic renewal – never miss an issue 4 Pay by Direct Debit
4 Great offers, available world-wide 4 One payment, by card or cheque
Recurring payment of 22.50 every six issues, saving 25% on the retail price
A simple one-off payment ensures you never miss an issue for one full year. That’s 13 issues, direct to your doorstep
Instruction to your Bank or Building Society to pay by Direct Debit
Name of bank
Originator’s reference 5 0 1 8 8 4
UK £51.90 (saving 20% on the retail price) Europe £67.50
USA £67.50
Rest of the world £75
Pay by card or cheque Address of bank
Pay by Credit or Debit card Mastercard
Visa Card number
Postcode
Account Name
Amex
Expiry date Account no
Sort Code
Please pay Imagine Publishing Limited Direct Debits from the account detailed in this instruction subject to the safeguards assured by the Direct Debit guarantee. I understand that this instruction may remain with Imagine Publishing Limited and, if so, details will be passed on electronically to my Bank/Building Society. Banks & Building Societies may not accept Direct Debit instructions for some types of account
Signature
Date
Pay by Cheque
I enclose a cheque for
£
Made payable to Imagine Publishing Ltd
Signature
Date
Your information Name
Address
Telephone number
Mobile number
Email address Postcode Please tick if you do not wish to receive any promotional material from Imagine Publishing Ltd n By post n By telephone n By email
Please tick if you do not wish to receive any promotional material from other companies n By post n By telephone n Please tick if you DO wish to receive such information by email
Please post this form to
World of Animals Subscriptions, 800 Guillat Avenue, Kent Science Park, Sittingbourne, Kent ME9 8GU
Order securely online www.imaginesubs.co.uk/animals Enter the promo code PS17 to get these great offers
Speak to one of our friendly customer service team Call 0844 848 8410
These offers will expire on 31 August 2017
Please quote code PS17 Calls cost 7p per minute plus your telephone company’s access charge
*This offer entitles new uK Direct Debit subscribers to pay only £22.50 every 6 issues. Offer code PS17 must be quoted to receive this special subscription price. New subscriptions will start from the next available issue. Details of the Direct Debit guarantee are available on request. Subscribers can cancel this subscription at any time. This offer expires 31 August 2017.
Animal answers
Xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Send your animal questions to us at:
[email protected] Scalloped hammerheads are just one of several ocean creatures that have proved they can take the heat
Is it good to brush your cat or not? Grooming is an essential part of cat care. However, how often you brush your feline will vary depending on factors like fur length and how well your cat grooms itself. Every owner should keep a brush and a comb close to hand. Regular grooming (i.e. every few days) prevents matts from forming, removes debris like mud or tangled-up seeds, and even reduces the likelihood of hairballs. It’s also the perfect opportunity to check for pests like fleas and ticks, or more serious issues such as cuts or lumps beneath the cat’s fur. Bathing, on the other hand, is a different matter. Most cats can find bath time very traumatic and, in the majority of cases, it’s unnecessary stress. You should only really bathe a cat if advised by a vet as part of a treatment plan, or in extreme circumstances – say, if they’re covered in something toxic like paint. BelOW Some cats love it, some cats hate it – but should owners be brushing their pets at all?
Are there any animals that live inside volcanoes? While no known life form could survive inside a magma-filled volcano on land, it’s different underwater. A surprising amount of sealife has been discovered merrily going about its business in the super-hot, CO2-saturated calderas of submarine volcanoes. In 2015, scientists sent a camera 45 metres (147.6 feet) into the crater of Kavachi in the Solomon Islands, one of the most turbulent volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean. It was our first
peek into this extreme environment, as divers have never been able to venture close enough due to the heat. During the expedition, several animals were recorded, including a sixgill stingray, jellyfish and even two shark species. Of course, dormant and extinct volcanoes above sea level are a whole other matter. Volcanic soil is extremely fertile, supporting a wide variety of flora, which subsequently attracts an equally diverse range of fauna.
Which is the heaviest flying bird? The kori bustard is the world’s heaviest flying bird, with some weighing in at an impressive 19 kilograms (41.9 pounds). It doesn’t fly often, preferring to spend most of its life with two feet firmly on the ground, but if it’s in danger it will take to the air. Its favoured approach for take off involves running into the wind, picking up speed like an aircraft on a runway, and using powerful strokes of its wings to generate lift. The birds only stay in the air for a short period of time, coming back down to Earth once they’ve reached a safe spot.
Follow us at... 94
@WorldAnimalsMag
worldofanimalsmag
Animal answers
Do all animals sleep? It’s no secret that we humans love our sleep. Without it, brain function rapidly degenerates, and we’re not the only ones this affects. From fruit flies to fruit bats, creatures across the animal kingdom take time out of their day to switch off. But sleep is a bit of an enigma; we don’t fully understand why it happens, and whether all animals need to sleep is not yet known.
Sleep is defined as a temporary state of immobility and reduced responsiveness. This is in contrast to a coma (which is not temporary), or resting (where we’re still mobile and responsive). Nematode worms, cockroaches, honeybees and zebrafish all show signs of sleep. Even dolphins catch some ZZZs underwater, putting just half of their brain
to sleep and keeping the other half active so that they can continue to breathe and move. One of the only animals that has been reported to go without sleep is the bullfrog. More experiments are needed to definitively say that they don’t snooze, but they seem to be an exception in an otherwise very sleepy animal kingdom.
Carnivores spend more time sleeping than herbivores
Dolphin sleep Time 1
Time 2
© Thinkstock; Dreamstime
Right Asleep Electrical activity revealed that dolphins sleep with one side of their brain at a time
Left Awake
What’s the difference between an armadillo and a pangolin? While at a glance you could be forgiven for thinking that armadillos and pangolins are relatives, they’re not. For a start, they belong to different orders: armadillos to the Cingulata and pangolins to the Pholidota. They also live in different parts of the world, the former restricted to the
Americas, and the latter to Africa and parts of Southeast Asia. That said, both animals have evolved a number of similar traits to suit their environments and lifestyles, including armour plating, sharp claws and long snouts for rooting out their preferred food of bugs.
Pangolin vs. armadillo Side by side, how do these armoured mammals compare? Armadillo armour is comprised of bony plates interspersed by bands of skin, which offer a degree of flexibility.
Pangolin armour consists of overlapping scales made of keratin – the same material as our fingernails – and are sometimes likened to the exterior of a pinecone.
Both animals have poor eyesight, so rely heavily on their sense of smell to find food and avoid predators.
Long claws are used for making burrows and digging up prey, such as grubs and larvae.
The pangolin uses its strong claws to break into the tough nests of ants and termites.
Q.How much do grizzly bears need to eat to survive? Find out at…
animalanswers.co.uk
Summer gifts
Squirrel away happy memories Picnic season is upon us. Be sure to bring the Kissing Squirrels picnic blanket with you. Cotton-topped and waterproof backed, this will be a staple for those outdoor feasts.
Summer bling Turn heads with this adorable sterling silver piece from Regal Rose to add a bit of animal-loving glam to your summer wardrobe. Great for any summer birthday parties coming up.
anorakonline.co.uk, £36
regalrose.co.uk, £22
Lap of luxury With the Sunnylife Inflatable Flamingo Drinks Holder you won’t have to leave the pool to fetch your drinks – your not so feathered friend will keep them handy for you while you relax.
johnlewis.com, £14.50
Bee happy Summer is the perfect time to get out in your garden and spot birds, bees and butterflies. This easy to use seed bomb is jam-packed with flowers to attract animals to your backyard.
Chilling with the fishies Entertain your guests with these ‘swim and tonic’ ice cube trays from Lakeland. Whatever you’re drinking, these ice cubes are sure to invoke some amusement.
lakeland.co.uk, £6.99
kabloom.co.uk, £3.60
comforts Sipping on sunshine When those long, hot summer evenings roll in, be sure to raise this stylish safari tumbler and toast to the (hopefully) hot summer ahead.
johnlewis.com, £4
Colourful insects and beautiful wildlife, what would summer be without an array of animalthemed treats and titbits? It’s a jungle out there When kids ask for a story, why not reach for Thames & Hudson’s latest release The Book Of Beasts by Yuval Zommer. Feed their imagination with facts on the biggest and best wild animals around.
Hydrating fun The HyrdoSqueeze ball from Chuckit! is a great playmate for pooches who love the sunshine. Designed with an absorbent core and fluorescent outer layer, the ball will keep them hydrated while they play.
thameshudson.co.uk, £12.95
vetsend.co.uk, £6.99
It’s a shark’s life When the little ones are finished in the sea or the pool, wrap them up warm in this super soft shark poncho towel and carry on the fun all afternoon.
houseoffraser.co.uk, £24.95
Taste of the wild Unleash your inner party animal! Children and adults alike will go wild for these fun D.I.Y cups and straws – perfect for those summer barbecues and friendly gatherings.
notonthehighstreet.com, £9
96
Tote-ally beachin’ Cath Kidston’s summer range features this cute lobster tote bag, perfect for storing your sunnies, your sun cream and your towel so you’re set for a day on the beach.
cathkidston.com, £35
Next issue Explore even more amazing animals in World of Animals Issue 48
PLuS hedgehogs cATERPILLARS porpoises RED PANDAS bears
Future Publishing Limited Richmond House, 33 Richmond Hill Bournemouth, Dorset, BH2 6EZ
Editorial Editor Zara Gaspar
[email protected] 01202 586220
Designer Lauren Debono-Elliot Production Editor Charlie Ginger Editor in Chief James Hoare Senior Art Editor Duncan Crook Contributors Matt Ayres, Amy Best, Ella Carter, Kirsty Cathrine, David Crookes, Amy Grisdale, Rachael Funnell, Tanita Matthews, Laura Mears, Adam Millward, Philip Morris, Michael Simpson, Hannah Westlake Cover images Alamy, Thinkstock Photography Alamy, Dreamstime, FLPA, Getty, Nature PL, Thinkstock, The Art Agency, Peter Scott, Sandra Doyle, Shutterstock All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected Advertising Media packs are available on request Commercial Director Clare Dove
[email protected] Regional Advertising Director Mark Wright
[email protected] Advertising Manager Toni Cole
[email protected] 01225 687368 Media Sales Executive Jim Henderson
[email protected] 01225 687125 International World of Animals is available for licensing. Contact the International department to discuss partnership opportunities International Licensing Director Matt Ellis
[email protected] Print subscriptions & back issues Web www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Email
[email protected] Tel 0344 848 2852 International +44 (0) 344 848 2852 Head of subscriptions Sharon Todd Circulation Circulation Director Darren Pearce 01202 586200 Production Head of Production US & UK Mark Constance Production Project Manager Clare Scott Advertising Production Manager Joanne Crosby Digital Editions Controller Jason Hudson Production Manager Vivienne Calvert Management Finance & Operations Director Marco Peroni Creative Director Aaron Asadi Art & Design Director Ross Andrews
ON SALE 6 juLY
Printed by Wyndeham Peterborough, Storey’s Bar Road, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, PE1 5YS Distributed by Marketforce, 5 Churchill Place, Canary Wharf, London, E14 5HU www.marketforce.co.uk Tel: 0203 787 9060
FIGHT CLUB WE LOOK AT SOME FEROcIOuS ANIMAL BATTLES
We are committed to only using magazine paper which is derived from responsibly managed, certified forestry and chlorine-free manufacture. The paper in this magazine was sourced and produced from sustainable managed forests, conforming to strict environmental and socioeconomic standards. The manufacturing paper mill holds full FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certification and accreditation Disclaimer All contents © 2017 Future Publishing Limited or published under licence. All rights reserved. No part of this magazine may be used, stored, transmitted or reproduced in any way without the prior written permission of the publisher. Future Publishing Limited (company number 2008885) is registered in England and Wales. Registered office: Quay House, The Ambury, Bath BA1 1UA. All information contained in this publication is for information only and is, as far as we are aware, correct at the time of going to press. Future cannot accept any responsibility for errors or inaccuracies in such information. You are advised to contact manufacturers and retailers directly with regard to the price of products/ services referred to in this publication. Apps and websites mentioned in this publication are not under our control. We are not responsible for their contents or any other changes or updates to them. This magazine is fully independent and not affiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein. If you submit material to us, you warrant that you own the material and/ or have the necessary rights/permissions to supply the material and you automatically grant Future and its licensees a licence to publish your submission in whole or in part in any/all issues and/or editions of publications, in any format published worldwide and on associated websites, social media channels and associated products. Any material you submit is sent at your own risk and, although every care is taken, neither Future nor its employees, agents, subcontractors or licensees shall be liable for loss or damage. We assume all unsolicited material is for publication unless otherwise stated, and reserve the right to edit, amend, adapt all submissions.
© Thinkstock
ISSN 2053-7727
BEE AMAZED
98
LIVING FOSSILS
MAN’S BEST FRIEND
9000
9012
