How It Works. World of Animals - Issue 51 2017

WI N!

A ZOOKEEPER FOR A DAY EXPERIENCE TM

8

AMAZING ANIMAL EYES IN

PLUS

SEA URCHINS DRAGONS WOLVES TOADS

Discover the threatened inhabitants D o this beautiful Indonesian island of

THE TRUTH ABOUT THE…

HOW TO LIVE ALONGSIDE AMERICA’S MOUNTAIN LION

C N AN ALS COU T? WORLD’S LARGEST TORTOISE LOCKING ISSUE 51

BEETLES ON THE BRINK

MEET THE PUFFERS U S

GREAT GREA GRE AT MIGRATIONS A O S GRAT

PRINTED IN THE UK

£4.99

Digital Edition GreatDigitalMags.com

Welcome Welcome to issue 51 of World of Animals magazine! After 50 issues, we decided to start giving some of our pages a bit of a refresh and we wanted to start with our welcome page. Our team works hard to produce the best magazine possible for our readers, but we are all in fact true animal lovers so we thought we’d highlight this and show you a bit more about us with a little help from Liquorice the cat, Bear the hamster, Dotty the cocker spaniel, and Bernie the horse. Over the next few issues you’ll see some more changes. Please do let us know if you have any feedback so we can ensure we improve the magazine wherever possible. We’ve got another jam-packed issue for this month. Go in search of the elusive mountain lion on page 18, discover the record-holding birds that make epic journeys (page 78) and learn all about the work being done to protect the tansy beetle. Enjoy!

Zara Gaspar Editor

Editor’s picks Beetles on the brink When we talk about conservation, we tend to think of species like the rhino, but even the little creatures on our doorstep need our help. Find out how the tansy beetle is surviving in Yorkshire thanks to the help of conservationists. Improving animal welfare It is always great to hear when a country changes a law or puts a policy in place to ensure the protection of an animal. Find out which parts of the world are doing their bit to ensure animal welfare is improving on page 64.

© Getty; Thinkstock; The Deep

Meet the team…

Lauren Debono-Elliot

Charlie Ginger

Victoria Williams

Designer

Production Editor

Staff Writer

Always amused by my hamster eagerly stuffing her pouches with food, I was keen to know how much can really fit in there! (pg 40)

The intelligence of some animals is astounding, but can they really add and subtract? Head to page 12 for some animal arithmetic.

From tapirs to tigers, Sumatra is blessed with an incredible range of wildlife. Prepare to meet the animals that call it home (pg 34).

Follow us at…

@WorldAnimalsMag

Want to read the magazine online? Download the Future Folio app on the Apple store.

worldofanimalsmag

Find out how to spot deer during the rut on page 50 Visit www.animalanswers.co.uk for Exclusive competitions Hilarious GIFs Upload your photos and win prizes!

3

Welcome to Issue 51 06 Amazing animals 12 Can animals count? Find out which species can do the maths

Prowling the Americas with the mountain lion

Discover the secrets of the world’s largest tortoise

26 Meet the pufferfish Get to know this incredible family of fish

28 Hidden dragons They may not breathe fire, but these dragon-named species are just as fierce

34 Wildlife of Sumatra Discover some of the world’s rarest fauna on this Indonesian island

40 You wouldn’t believe… How hamsters store food

Meredith Todd tells us all about her Zoo Academy experience at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo

42 Explore the Earth: Ethiopia Discover how Africa’s oldest independent country is beginning to step out of the shadow’s of the continent’s more familiar safari destinations

50 Locking antlers Find out the best places to see deer during rutting season

THE IUCN RED LIST Throughout World of Animals you will see symbols like the ones listed below. These are from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation n status of animal species in the world. Here’s what they mean:

EXTINCT EXTINCT IN THE WILD CRITICALLY ENDANGERED ENDANGERED VULNERABLE

4

64 Leading the way in animal welfare Find out which countries are leading the way in the fight to improve animal protection

66 Beetles on the brink What’s being done to save the tansy beetle?

72 What is a sea urchin? Everything you ever wanted to know about these peculiar, spiny sea creatures

78 Great migrations

41 Special report

LEAST CONCERN

Learn all about animal eyes and why they are so different to each other

54 All about the Galápagos tortoise

18 Ghost cat

NEAR THREATENED

52 The eyes have it

54

Record-holding birds that really go the distance when it comes to flight

87 Bizarre: Surinam toad The leaf-like toad with young that really get under its skin

28

34

90 Life on white Wildlife photography, without the distracting background

18

94 Readers’ Q&A 9

26 6

50

96 Lost forever: lesser bilby Find out how this nocturnal marsupial was driven to extinction

40

72

Enjoyed the issue? 64

S Subscribe now and get a free gift worth £25

Page 88

5

The amazing world of animals

6

© Akihiro Asami/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock

The amazing world of animals

With eyes perhaps bigger than its stomach, a hungry heron attempts to consume its slippery prey as it tries to escape becoming dinner While it’s quite a lot fresher than the frogs legs us humans may be used to, it is certainly more of a chore for the grey heron to consume this amphibious appetiser. With no option of table service, this predatory bird feeds in shallow waters throughout Europe, Asia and parts of Africa, swallowing fish, mammals, insects and amphibians with its large bill.

7

© Samuel Cox/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock

The amazing world of animals

A female Cape giraffe uses a string of spit to ward off an unwelcome red-billed oxpecker in search of ticks to feast on A passerine bird native to the savannahs of sub-Saharan Africa, the oxpecker eats insects while perching on its larger grassland dwellers. While the bold-beaked peckers can eat around 100 blood-filled ticks or 12,000 larvae a day, they turn on the very animals they feast off by picking at any bloodied wounds to get their fill of nutrients.

8

© Thierry Rossier/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock

The amazing world of animals

This quartet of hatchlings was snapped in the middle of a noisy band practice while mum and dad were out of the nest These baby long-tailed tits are definitely heard but not seen (except for in this rare photograph), as they regularly use their calls to notify their parents and family members of impending danger and also to remind them that they are hungry. Flocks consists of three to about 20 birds, who will all work to build nests and then protect and feed the young.

9

© Cheng Chang/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock

The amazing world of animals

10

This large hippopotamus looks like it’s making quite the splash as it makes a run for it following a fight with a rival Despite the fact that this mammal is mostly a herbivore, you certainly wouldn’t want to get in its way — especially when it is charging or running. Found in sub-Saharan Africa, hippos aren’t that great at making friends and oen find themselves getting into scraps over everything from food to mates to who rules the river.

The amazing world of animals

11

THE SKILL THAT

COUNTS Being g able to count is an incredibly y useful skill,, a d it turns and r out u it’s itt s a far a more m r c common mm n talent a n among m n animals i a than a w we realised a s Words d Kirsty s Cathrine t e

Chicks can count better than toddlers Even v newborn e chicks can a count u up p to five v Chickens h s are often f thought o to o be rather a lacking acking c in n intelligence, g but it seems s they t might i actually c b be a lott smarter e than n we give v them hem e credit e for. for Several a studies have e found d that hat a even n tiny chicks c are a able e to count u up to o five. One O experiment p n even n discovered v that hat a they y are able b to add and d subtract a small a numbers umberss of objects u e hidden d behind b screens s s and n reliably nd b pick k the larger a number. number u Overall, newborn b chicks h are e actually a able e to o outperform p r human h toddlers e in many m y

12

intelligence n n tests. Given e that chickss leave the h nestt after only o a couple c of dayss and are a independent n w within a few weeks, e they h need e to o be able b to learn e and adapt p very quickly y in n order to find d food and a evade a predators. e s It’s also thought t h that they t may m have v a basic s understanding n a of physics. y As forr the sensible e saying,, ‘Don’tt count your o chickens c b before they they’re re e hatched hatched’, e it isn’t s clear a if adult u chickens c can a actually u count o their h own n eggs. gg

The skill that counts BELOW Researchers challenged 12 lions to pull a rope in order to release a treat. 11 successfully worked out the solution

Lions avoid prides with more members Judging another group’s size is a useful strategy For lions, living in groups (prides) allows the individuals to join together to rear cubs communally and hunt larger prey. Another advantage is the ability to defend territory from other lions. One single lion group can roam an area of over 259 square kilometres (100 square miles), although boundaries often change over time.

As lions are well known for aggressive behaviour, such as infanticide, the size of a group can be very important. It’s therefore not too surprising that lions are able to count the number of members in other groups they encounter. If a pride comes across another group that is smaller than their own they are much more likely to attack it.

Bees can judge distance Honeybeess live in large hives containing one queen bee,, a few hundred fertile male drones, and tens of thousands ousa ds of sterile female worker bees. The entire colony neeeds to work together in order to survive, and so communiccation between individuals is very important. All speciees of honeybees have been found to use abstract laanguage, such as waggle dancing, to direct other beess to fly in a particular direction. The length of dance directly correlates with the distance at which thee flowers o e s can be found. Other bees are then able to accurately pinpoint how far to travel.

© Idamini/Alamy; Thinkstock; Getty/Manoj Shah

Knowing g where to get the best nectar saves time

13

T The skilll tthat hat counts counts u s

6obins taȈ] up their food stores Stealing food from the biggest hoard can be vital for survival

Male New Zealand robins are usually very devoted to their mates and will often go out of their way to cater to their partner’s dietary preferences. When the females are sitting on eggs, males will happily bring them food several times an hour. However, in the harsh winter months food becomes very scarce, and even the most dedicated partners often hide food from each other. Researchers have found that female robins watch their partners hiding food in tree stumps. They count which cache has the highest number of prey items and raid that particular one when the male’s away. In return, the males are able to calculate which of their stores contains the most food and spend a disproportionate amount of time trying to defend these from other robins (including their mates). Tests found that the robins could easily identify between stores of similar sizes, such as one with four grubs and one with seven.

Guppies prefer to stick together Being part of a larger group can help guppies stay safe Guppies are small tropical fish, generally only a few centimetres long. Due to their size they make ideal prey for a huge range of birds and larger fish. So it is an advantage for them to try and stick together in groups to confuse predators and provide safety in numbers. Larger groups can also help the guppies look for food more successfully. Guppies are able to estimate the number u of o fish in i a group o and d actively e choose h to o join the t biggest g one. n Newborn w guppies g upp are a also o able to t count n up p to o four and c correctly choose o between t ffood piles l of different d sizes.

14

“Female robins count which cache contains the most and then raid it”

The skill that counts

Wolves can count better than dogs Unlike their domestic cousins, wolves can count their prey

© Thinkstock; Getty/Tom Brakefield

Wolves hunt in packs and can take hours to chase down prey such as deer and bison. As hunting requires such a huge investment in both time and energy, it is important that they can quickly assess if it’s worthwhile chasing any particular herd of prey. A larger herd is more likely to contain weak, old or young animals, so being able to judge the size of a herd is very beneficial. Researchers have found that wolves are able to distinguish between different numbers of food items, even when the total was hidden from view. This shows that they were counting the individual items, not just judging which pile looked bigger. The ability to count is thought to help them decide where to hunt based upon the number of prey animals in any particular area. Strangely enough, when the same experiment was carried out with domestic dogs, they were unable to perform better than if they were just picking at random. Hundreds of years of domestication have made our canine companions totally reliant on us for food. There’s no need for dogs to count when dinner is provided regularly by humans.

Gre] parrots can do simple sums These clever birds are capable of some impressive avian arithmetic Grey parrots are known to be particularly intelligent, and they can perform as well as a four-year-old child in some tests. Despite not having true vocal cords they are able to produce sounds that mimic human speech. This means that they can learn how to say numbers, which makes it easier to test their ability to count.

A grey parrot called Alex was taught to recognise numbers up to eight and learnt to add up sets of objects to reach this number. Sadly he died at a young age, and the researchers working with him felt they had only touched the surface of his mathematical potential.

RIGHT African grey parrots are thought to possess the mental and emotional skills of a five-year-old human

The skill that counts

Chimpanzees can count and do sums Being able to count helps chimpanzees choose the best groups to join and places to eat Chimpanzees are one of our closest relatives (only the bonobo is thought to share slightly more DNA with us), so it’s not too surprising that they are very intelligent. Among other skills, chimps can use tools, be taught to recognise human words and use sign language, are able to follow complex instructions, and can learn new skills from each other. In fact, they are thought to show roughly the same level of understanding as a three- to five-year-old child. Chimpanzees also have a phenomenal ability to memorise sequences, with a recent study showing that they can often do this faster than humans. When it comes to counting, it has been found that chimpanzees can distinguish between small and large

numbers. Some captive chimpanzees have also been taught to recognise Arabic numbers and to use these to add and subtract small amounts when trained using a reward-based system. It is thought that chimpanzees use their counting skills in a wide variety of ways in the wild. They spend their time in small parties of five to ten individuals as part of larger communities of up to a couple of hundred. Meat is an important part of their diet, and hunting success increases with the number of male chimpanzees in a party, so being able to count is useful in determining which party to join. Counting might also help chimpanzees decide which areas and trees to forage in by focusing on places with the highest amounts of food.

“Studies have found that chimpanzees memorise sequences better than us”

16

The skill that counts

Coots count their eggs Knowing when a clutch is big enough is a helpful skill

The horse that couldn’t reaȈ] count after aȈ Despite being the most famous counting animal, Clever Hans was actually a con In the 1890s, a horse known as Clever Hans was supposedly taught to count by his owner Wilhelm von Osten. Wilhelm, a retired teacher, taught Hans to add, subtract, use fractions and tell the time. Hans’ skills were so impressive that he was taken on a tour of Germany, thrilling audiences with his counting abilities. When Wilhelm asked him a question, Hans would tap his hoof repeatedly to count out his answer. However, all wasn’t as it seemed. Hans was in fact responding to visual cues from his owner that were imperceptible to humans. Even so, he continued to be a public sensation for a long time. So can horses really count? Research suggests they can count small numbers. In one study, horses always picked the bucket with the most apples.

Ants count steps Desert ants count steps like a pedometer Desert ants live in very barren landscapes, so navigation can be rather challenging. Despite this they seem to have an uncanny knack of being able to always take the most direct route home. This is very important, as temperatures can get so high that the ants are only able to survive for a few minutes outside their nests. It was once assumed that they used the position of the Sun or stars to work out how to return to their nests, but researchers discovered they were also able to do this even without these cues. Aer many experiments it turned out that the ants are actually able to count the number of steps they have taken in any particular direction. They then use trigonometry to work out which angle they need to walk home in, using polarised light to keep their bearing right.

that aren’t theirs. If the parasitic eggs look different from their own they push them to the edge of the nest so they are less likely to stay warm and hatch. They then carry on laying more eggs of their own. But if they can’t tell the difference between the imposter eggs and their own ones they stop laying eggs as soon as they have a big enough clutch in total. This difference in behaviour implies they can count how many eggs they have in their nest and lay more or stop laying accordingly.

BELOW Evidence suggests that ants are capable of learning from previous experiences

© Thinkstock; Getty/Anup Shah; NaturePL/Jurgen Freund

American coots oen live in quite high densities and have large clutches of up to ten eggs. This means that there is a lot of competition for food, and the youngest birds in any one clutch oen starve. To try and mitigate this, females will oen lay their last few eggs in other coot nests. Some birds will even bypass creating their own nest at all and lay all their eggs in host nests. Researchers found that the females seem to be able to keep track of how many eggs they have in their nest in total and oen reject ones

17

In the American wilderness you might catch a glimpse of a ghost — the silent pad of a paw, the careful flick of a black-tipped tail, the flash of an amber eye. But would you know a mountain lion if you saw one? Words Laura Mears

Ghost cat range Mountain lions are found across the Americas in the snow-covered landscape of Canada, the swamps of Florida, the mountain peaks of the Andes, and the forests of South America. They once lived in the east of the United States but they were driven back by European settlers.

18

Resident Possibly resident

19

©freevectormaps;; Alamy/ SuperStock

The mystery of the ghost cat From the snowy wilds of Canada, along the western Puma concolor coast, through the deserts Class Mammalia of Central America, in the cloud and rainforests of Brazil and on the slopes of the Andes, mountain lions Territory North, Central and are on the prowl. South America Diet Deer, pigs, rodents, When they’re together armadillos, racoons and fish they communicate in a Lifespan Up to 20 years series of purrs, chirps, Adult weight 29-100kg (63.9-220.5lb) growls and whistles, but for Conservation status the most part they traverse the landscape alone, padding silently through LEAST CONCERN the wilderness. They’ll hear you coming before you hear them. America’s ghost cats can detect ultrasonic frequencies, which equates to over 20,000 Hz. They’ll likely see you coming first, too, especially in low light. They have wide-angle vision, and their eyes are adapted to see movement and contrast rather than detail and colour, helping them to rapidly pick out prey in the dark. And they’re skilled ambush hunters. Mountain lions have the longest back legs of any cat when compared to their body size. They have flexible spines, long tails and large paws, giving them unmatched agility on uneven ground, and they can leap the equivalent of a two-storey building in one bound. They hunt using stealth and rapid bursts of speed, jumping up into a tree or out from under cover in a matter of moments. And they are adapted to thrive on almost any kind of prey, taking anything from an insect to a bighorn sheep to a coyote or even a moose. They’re known as ‘ghost cats’ because they’re notoriously difficult to spot, but these elusive animals have many names. The Inca called them ‘puma’, the Guarani Indians, ‘cougar’, and the Spanish settlers, gato monte, ‘cat of the mountain’. Today, we know them as mountain lions, but they’re a far cry from their African cousins. MOUNTAIN LION

The kings and queens of the savannahs have enlarged vocal folds and an elastic hyoid: a horseshoe-shaped bone in the throat that enables them to roar. They live in vast prides and they spend their days out in the open for all to see. Mountain lions are more closely related to small wild cats known as jaguarundi. These small felines live a solitary, secret life and they cannot roar. In warmer climates, the mountain lion’s fur is darker and in cooler places it fades out to a greyish hue that blends better with the environment. They slip quietly through the undergrowth, carefully placing their front paws and then stepping in their own footprints with their back feet to avoid revealing their position with the snap of a twig as they prowl across a territory that can stretch to around 350 square kilometres (135.1 square miles) for females and 760 square kilometres (293.4 square miles) for males. They patrol their range all day, zigzagging in search of food, or trekking the perimeter to defend their homes. To warn other mountain lions away, the cats scrape at the ground, creating scratched troughs and mounds of earth and debris marked with their scent, scat and urine. Males do their best to avoid one another, with violent encounters ending in bloodshed, but females overlap their ranges with several other cats, ensuring that they have the best chance to mate when the time comes, marking their scent on rocks and trees. Mountain lions in the Northern Hemisphere often breed between December and March, timing the majority of births for the warm season, but they can have cubs all year round. The male plays no part in raising his young, so it falls to the female to raise the next generation. Her pregnancy lasts between 82 and 96 days, and when the cubs arrive they weigh less than 500 grams (17.6 ounces), sometimes as little as 226 grams (eight ounces). They are blind for around ten days and their ears are folded over, but to keep her strength up the female must leave them alone to hunt. To keep the cubs concealed she may move dens several times to help mask their scent. The cubs’ first teeth start to appear after a few short weeks, but they drink milk for around two months before

Learning from mum Mountain lion mothers raise their cubs alone, taking full responsibility for their food, protection and training as they grow Siblings Mountain lions are born in litters of between one and six but not all of the cubs survive until adulthood. More females make it than males by a ratio of two to one.

Environment Mountain lions live in a variety of different environments, so different cubs have different obstacles that they have to contend with.

Defender It takes around two years to raise a mountain lion cub, but impatient male mountain lions may try to kill them before they’re grown.

Vulnerable Young mountain lions have blue eyes and are covered in spots, helping them to stay hidden in the dappled shade cast by grasses and other leaves.

Teacher Mountain lion cubs have a lot to learn. Aer around two months on a diet of milk they are ready to start hunting training under the watchful eye of their mother.

20

The ghost cat

Types of mountain lion There are six distinct subspecies of mountain lion across their vast American range Florida panthers are the rarest Mountain lions used to cover North America, but European settlers drove them away. Their last remaining stronghold is Florida, where the cats can be found in hardwood forests and swamps. Today, there are just under 100 Florida panthers le, and the population occasionally needs boosting with North American cougars from Texas. These animals, though separated from the Florida population, belong to the same subspecies. Argentine cougars gorge on a diet of vicunas Vicunas are camel-like animals likely to be the wild ancestors of domestic alpacas. These spindly legged grazers are adapted to living on loose ground, but their big appetites can further weaken the soil. Mountain lions help to keep them under control by distracting them from their food; the more worried they are about being eaten, the more time they spend watching and the less time they spend grazing.

ABOVE Females raise their young cubs alone until they are around 18-26 months old

transitioning to solid food. At first, the female brings kills back to the den, and then she starts to lead her young out to fresh kills, sometimes even leaving them there whilst she goes off to hunt for more. The kittens eat hair and bone, and play around the kill site, breaking branches and trampling plants as they practise stalking and hunting with their siblings. Mountain lions strike the neck and head of their prey, puncturing the skin and suffocating their victim and, before the cubs reach adulthood, they need to master the technique of this killing bite and develop jaw muscles powerful enough to deliver it effectively. When they are a bit older they start to hunt on their own. Not all of the cubs make it through to adulthood; if their mother is killed before they are six months old, they will struggle to survive. Male and female mountain lions look very similar, and legal hunting, illegal poaching or retaliatory killing can all result in the loss of a breeding female. Male cats can also be aggressive towards cubs, particularly if they aren’t related, so females use scent markings to avoid encountering them wherever possible. It takes up to two full years for the cubs to reach maturity, but if they survive this long there are still threats ahead. Before the cats can have cubs of their own they

need to find and defend a territory, and this is the biggest challenge of their lives. To thrive, mountain lions need somewhere away from people, with lots of cover, places to drink and prey animals to eat. If the location is rich in wildlife, they can get away with a home territory of just 30 square kilometres (11.6 square miles), but if the climate is dry or the prey animals migrate, they might need hundreds. They prefer changes in elevation and lots of stalking cover to hide in and under, like low vegetation, caves, crevices and rocks, but they will also live in smooth grassland if they have to. For young males, finding a home can result in a fight, but if they’re lucky, they’ll be able to take the territory of an older lion; as mountain lions age, their teeth start to wear down. The youngsters have sharp, pointed canines, but as they age they become shorter, more rounded and more yellowed until they become small stumps, making it harder and harder to catch food and defend a home. Eyesight can also start to fail, giving young lions a distinct advantage over their elders. Where a lion settles determines its diet. They can live in all different types of forest, mountains, deserts and snow, but wherever they are, they prefer medium-sized meals. These offer more calories than small meals and at a lower

“They’ll see you first. Their eyes are adapted to see movement and contrast, helping them to pick out prey in the dark”

© NaturePL/ARCO; Getty/Joseph Van Os; Alamy/ Mark Conlin/ Ron Bennett/ Buddy Mays

Costa Rican cougars have to compete with jaguars Mountain lions are adaptable animals and have managed to colonise lots of different environments. In Costa Rica they inhabit dry, cloud and rain forests. They share this varied habitat with jaguars, which means competing for food, but there is one advantage; with their larger size and patterned coats, these cats are sadly more appealing to trophy hunters, helping to shield mountain lions from harm.

21

The mystery of the ghost cat Keystone species Mountain lions stand right at the top of a complicated food web

Coyote

Mountain lion

Ringtail cat

Pika

Pacific tree frog

Western whiptail

Edith’s chickenspot

Bobcat

Pine marten

Raven

Douglas’ squirrel

Black-tailed jackrabbit

Plants, flowers, nuts, seeds, fruits, insects

risk than taking on something large, and for a lone hunter, it’s important to stay safe. In the United States and Canada, most of their diet is made up of deer. In a year, a single lion can eat up to 1,300 kilograms (2,866 pounds) of prey — that’s the equivalent of nearly 50 animals. When they kill more than they can eat, they bury the carcass, dragging it tens of metres to a safe spot and returning each night to feed. Bears occasionally bury their prey, too, but carcasses killed by mountain lions are easy to spot. The cats eat in a particular order, going in under the ribs to get at the liver, lungs and heart first, then going back for the large leg muscles later. If there are cubs, they’ll eat even more, tearing the kill to shreds.

22

Mule deer

Tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers

Primary consumers

Producers and decomposers Mountain lions are crucial for their habitat. Across their range, they evolved closely with grazing animals like deer and vicuna. Without predators, these prolific eaters tear up the vegetation in their local ecosystems, getting out of control and damaging the environment for other species. Mountain lions evolved stealth tactics, and in return the deer respond with vigilance, keeping watch and moving often. When there are mountain lions in the area, prey animals spend less time eating, which helps to give the ground a chance to recover. But although mountain lions are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, their numbers are in decline. They might still have a wide range, but a few hundred years ago they were spread even further still, and in many areas they are now extinct. When European settlers arrived in North America they drove mountain lions out. The cats were seen as a

The ghost cat RIGHT Mountain lion cubs use playtime to hone their hunting skills

“Mountain lions adapt their hunting skills to different environments”

CUBS

Mountain lions have picked up over 40 different names, including cougar, puma, mountain screamer, ghost cat, catamount, shadow cat, painter, false deer and long tail.

Mountain lion cubs are usually born in litters of between two and four, but not all of them make it to adulthood. On average, just one in six reaches maturity in the wild.

2-4

80 KPH

Mountain lions are ambush predators, relying on stealth to take down prey. They appear from the shadows and can reach speeds of up to 80kph (49.7mph)

threat to lives and livestock, and in some places a reward of around $30 was offered for every one killed. People also used poisoned carrion to pick off predators, taking down grizzly bears and wolves, although for the most part mountain lions prefer to kill their own food. Today, mountain lions are still trapped, shot and poisoned, and thousands are killed every year in the US and Canada alone. In both countries, along with Mexico and Peru, hunting the cats is still legal. In the long term, habitat loss is the most pressing issue facing mountain lions, and with half of their home already taken by humans, it’s an uphill battle. These animals roam over large areas, and breaking up their habitat stops males and females from meeting and could damage the flow of genes. Roads in particular act as a physical barrier that stops adults meeting one another to breed, or cubs spreading apart when they are grown. Both could result

20+ 30,000

On average, wild mountain lions live for ten years, but their life expectancy can exceed 20 years in captivity as they escape the harsh wilderness.

Searching for the eastern cougar European settlers cleared mountain lions from the eastern part of North America, but this didn’t stop people looking for the elusive ‘eastern cougar’. There are occasionally sightings in the eastern United States, but these oen turn out to be South American subspecies. The eastern cougar was finally declared Extinct in 2015, but it’s thought to have been gone since the 1930s.

There are thousands of mountain lions in the Americas, and altogether the species are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN.

3,000

METRES

Mountain lions are adaptable and can be found anywhere up to 3,000m (10,000) above sea level, inhabiting deserts, forests, ice, lakesides, swamps and rainforests.

© Val Duncan/Kenebec Images/Alamy/ Simon Littlejohn; Thinkstock

40+ names

23

The mystery of the ghost cat Height A mountain lion can jump 4.5 metres (15 feet) straight up into the air, and can cover over 12 metres (39.4 feet) in one bound. This incredible springiness allows them to navigate rough terrain and rapidly escape from danger if threatened by bears or wolves.

Female mountain lions usually give birth to a litter every two years

Spine Domestic cats are well known for their ‘righting reflex’, which allows them to land on their feet aer seemingly impossible falls. Cats have unusually flexible spines, and this anatomy helps mountain lions to keep control in the air.

in inbreeding, eventually wea akening the gene pool if the situation is left unchecked. As human populations exp pand, it also makes us more likely to encounter mountain n lions in the wild. This can be a treat for wildlife enthusiasts, but on a day-to-day basis there are significant risks tha at come with living alongside large predators. In some area as, predation on livestock already increases in the sprin ng when deer numbers naturally fall. Calves are taken from their mothers and during the summer when sheep are out on unfenced pastures they can also be killed and eaten by wild cats. The cats don’t actively hunt people, but they have been known to kill adults and child dren, particularly those walking alone in low light. And, thoug gh mountain lions rarely y attack horses, barbed wire injuries can c be confused for claw marks, adding to the potential conflict. Learning more about mou untain lions is the only way to ensure their future as we con ntinue to live side by side, but due to their elusive nature th hese secretive animals have been notoriously hard to study. Researchers are building up u a picture of their movements using a combina ation of collaring, DNA analysis of scat or hair, camera traps and looking g for signs g in the wilderness. Even though it m might be hard to spot a cat, their footprints can be found d and tracked. Mountain lion prints are ea asily distinguished from the prints of bears because grizz zlies have five toes and a different foot shape, but their tracks are a similar size to the footprints of dogs, wo olves and lynxes. Expert trackers and enthusiastic am mateurs can pinpoint the small differences that help tell them m apart. Mountain lion pads are 43-70 millimetres (1.7-2.8 8 inches) wide, with three even lobes at the back, and their toes are rounded and asymmetrical. Dogs, on the o other hand, have only two lobes on their foot pad, theirr toes are more angular and

“They don’t ac ctively hunt people, but th hey’ve been known to kill adultss” 24

Tail A mountain lion’s tail is more than half the length of its body and acts as a powerful fih limb in the air. It can be twisted and curled for balance, helping the cats to maintain control of their movements metres above the ground.

Shoulders Mountain lions owe their jumping prowess to their feline anatomy. Cats have ‘floating shoulders’; their shoulder blades are anchored to the collarbone by flexible muscle instead of rigid bone, allowing them to make longer strides and to absorb shock when they land. Legs A mountain lion’s hind legs are slightly longer and more muscular than its front legs. The powerful muscles are attached to the bones by tendons that act as coiled springs, ratcheting in to store energy before releasing it in an explosive burst.

6m

5m

4m

3m

2m

1m

0m Javier Sotomayor holds the world record for the highest human jump, clearing a 2.45-metre (eight-foot) bar. A mountain lion can jump nearly twice as high and land on its feet.

Feet Mountain lions have wide feet, with four toes on the back and five toes on the front. These help to spread the load allowing them to balance on unsteady ground and to push off and land with ease.

“America’s ghost cats are becoming easier to see because we’re encroaching on their territory”

Don’t run — you’ll never outrun a mountain lion. Stand your ground, but look the lion in the eye to make sure it knows that you have seen it.

Try to remain calm, turn to face the lion, wave your arms and use a low shout to make yourself look and sound bigger than you really are.

If the lion does not leave, maintain eye contact and back away slowly. Don’t block the cat’s only exit route, and take care not to trip and fall.

behaviour and ecology of mountain lions so that they can be managed more effectively. They have already collared more than 130 lions living in Yellowstone National Park; they’re watching lions who like to eat domestic sheep in Torres del Paine in Chile; and they’re also monitoring an urban population living on the central California coast. Working across these three different habitats, they’re building a more detailed picture of the types of prey the lions prefer, when and how they target livestock and what happens when wolves are reintroduced into the local area. America’s elusive ghost cats are becoming easier to see because we’re encroaching on their territory, but if we aren’t careful their numbers will continue to fall. The more we understand these animals, the more that can be done to live peacefully with them.

Always keep children close, and pick them up if you encounter a lion. Do this without bending over, and don’t turn your back on the animal at any point.

No one wants to harm an animal, but when faced with a mountain lion, shouting and throwing stones or sticks is a good tactic to scare them away.

© NaturePL/Visuals Unlimited; imageBROKER /Alamy/Life on white

LEFT Despite being lethal hunters, on average there are only four attacks on humans by mountain lions each year

evenly spaced, and you can often see claw marks at the front of their prints. Another big clue is the way that the animals walk. Dogs run back and forth, bounding, jumping and stopping to sniff the ground. Cats, on the other hand, tend to walk more purposefully, carefully stepping in their own footprints. In some places mountain lions live alongside jaguars, and telling these prints apart is much more difficult. Here, other signs like scrapes under trees and at the edges of tracks can indicate the presence of a mountain lion. Bobcats also make these marks, but their paws are much smaller than a mountain lion’s. Using a combination of techniques, the Panthera big cat conservation organisation is conducting a Puma Program in the US and Chile to find out more about the

25

Meet the family

Pufferfish The 120 or so known pufferfish speciess share the characteristic beak with four teeth, and most are toxic enough to killl dozens of humans. ans. H However, beyond these family tra aits they’re y a varied bunc ch The Valentini sharpnose puffer’s bright spots and stripes warn predators of their deadly toxin.

The remarkable appearance of the Papuan toby is due in part to the fact that pufferfish don’t have scales, instead having g skin with thin spines spines.

Papuan toby The e inflatabl ble disco ball

VALENTINI SHARPNOSE PUFFER Class Actinopterygii

Territory Reefs in the IndoPacific Diet Coral, algae and molluscs Lifespan 5-8 years in captivity Adult weight 9g (0.3oz) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

Covered in bright markings, this Canthigaster papua fish looks like Class Actinopterygii it’s ready for a carnival, but its life is a little more conservative Territory Reefs in the Asiatic than that. At only region of the Pacific ten centimetres Diet Coral and crustaceans (3.9 inches) long Lifespan Unknown Adult weight Unknown and with the Conservation Status characteristically poor swimming skills of the LEAST CONCERN puffers, the Papuan toby sticks to sheltered areas of water out of the way of strong currents. They can be seen on reefs, among sea grass and hanging around piers. They’re socially flexible, spending time on their own and as part of a pair or group. It’s thought that adult males control harems of females, a mating behaviour common among tobies. PAPUAN TOBY

Canthigaster valentini

Valentini Valen sharpnose se puffer The toxic trendsetter While many pufferfish are solitary, these little ones like to stick together and are found in shoals of up to 100 in the IndoPacific. These large groups contain one lucky adult male and lots of females and juveniles. The distinctive black stripes that give this species its other common name — the saddled puffer — have been hijacked by another fish. The blacksaddle filefish (a non-toxic creature) has evolved to look very similar to this toxic puffer and slips into their shoals. This copycat pattern and dangerous choice of company deters predators.

D g-faced puffer DogThe cal alm canine-like puffer DOG-FA ACED PUFFER Arothron n nigropunctatus Cl s Ac Class ctinopterygii

Terri ritory Reefs and lagoons of the e Indo-Pacific Die et Invertebrates, sponges, lgae, coral, crustaceans and alg molluscs m Lifespan 15 years in captivity L Adult weight Unknown Conservation Status

Its face may resemble a friendly dog, but it’s not a good idea to pet this puffer as it contains the lethal poison tetrodotoxin.

26

LEAST CONCERN

Dog-faced puffers are also called black-spotted puffers, with the blotches appearing on a range of background colours from orange to blue. Whatever the colour, they’re recognisable by the distinctly canine shape of their head. Dogs are man’s best friend, and this species is noted as being one of the most docile pufferfish, although they’re still not keen on each other’s company. While they’re not great swimmers, they can manoeuvre well enough across reefs and through lagoons.

Not a pufferfish Although they can also puff up when they feel threatened, and despite the two families oen being misleadingly grouped together under the name ‘pufferfish’, porcupinefish are not pufferfish. Despite being closely related, porcupinefish can be identified by the spines that are visible even when the fish are not puffed up — when they’re scared, the spikes stick straight out to put predators off. In contrast, only some pufferfish have spines, and these are thin and only visible when they inflate to defend themselves. Both families have highly poisonous members and are popular with aquarium owners.

Pufferfish

Guinea afowl puffer

Fine spines become visible when the fish inflates itself with water, the increased body size forcing them to stand upright against the skin.

The featherr-patterned fish This puffer comes in two main colour morphs — Arothron meleagris black and yellow — with Class Actinopterygii some fish showing a bit of each. Their name comes from the resemblance of the spots on the black Territory Indo-Pacific and morph to the feathers East Pacific of the African bird. Diet Coral, sponges, algae and molluscs Despite being the same Lifespan 5-8 years in captivity species, the varieties store Adult weight Unknown different amounts of toxin Conservation Status in different places. The black form is the more LEAST CONCERN toxic, with its weaponry located in its liver. Yellow guineafowl are slightly less potent, with toxin stored in their mucous. Like most pufferfish, they live in Indo-Pacific waters, where they feed on a varied diet including i l ding coral, coral spong sponges, algae and molluscs. GUINEAFOWL PUFFER

3

1. Largest freshwater Mbu pufferfish

STELLATE PUFFER Arothron stellatus Class Actinopterygii

Like other puffers, the stellate has excellent eyesight — being such slow swimmers, they need as much warning of danger as possible.

Stellate puffer

Territory Shallow waters of the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Diet Invertebrates, sponges, algae, coral polyps, crustaceans and molluscs Lifespan 8 years in captivity Adult weight Unknown Conservation Status

The fish that changes its spots Despite the name, the stellate puffer — also called a starry toadfish — doesn’t see much of the stars as it’s most active in the day. This fish is the largest of the puffers, reaching 120 centimetres (47.2 inches) in length. They spend their time alone and can often be seen having a rest on the sandy seabed in shallow waters. Juveniles have large spots on their skin, while adults have much smaller dots. Once they’ve reached maturity they become territorial. The highest concentration of toxin in this species is found in the ovaries of the female.

Arothron diadematus Class Actinopterygii

Territory Red Sea Diet Invertebrates and molluscs Lifespan 8-15 years in captivity Adult weight Unknown Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

LEAST CONCERN

This carnivorous giant is found in the Congo River and Lake Tanganyika in Africa, where it grows to 67cm (26.4in) long.

4

3. Most romantic White-spotted pufferfish Males of this species are dedicated lovers, spending weeks creating intricate sand circles to impress ladies.

2. Smallest Dwarf pufferfish

4. Biggest Stellate pufferfish

Also known as the pea pufferfish, this Indian species doesn’t get any bigger than 3.5cm (1.4 in). They are classed as Vulnerable.

When panicked, a puffer takes on as much water as possible, swelling in size. At 120cm (47.2in), only a desperate predator would attack a stellate. Although they only have four teeth, the beak of a pufferfish is tough enough to break through shells and rip off pieces of coral.

Masked puffer fe er The ocean bandit Looking like the raccoon of the sea, s t e th masked puffer has a striking app ppearance e. The base colour of the skin vari ries, but ea e ch fish has a bold black stripe acr cross itss face. These fish inhabit coral-rich reefs, re and they y are often collected to be sold ld as decorati eco ive e items. Masked puffers are considered c to be of Least Concern in te terms o of risk of extinction but, like many ny other puffer species, their preference e for life on the reef means they could be b in troub o le in the future as large areas off coral ar a e being g lost.

© Alamy; Andrey Nekrasov; imageBROKER; NaturePL; Alex Mustard; David Fleetham; Jeff Rotman

MASKED PUFFER

2

1

27

HIDDEN DRAGONS They can’t fly or breathe fire, but these animals are every bit as ferocious and magnificent as the storybook beasts of myth Words Victoria Williams

28

The deepsea dragonfish likes its food delivered Found in the black depths of the Atlantic Ocean, this scaleless fish has an eerie way of luring food. Small organs called photophores light up its teeth and the barbell hanging below its chin, and the light of the fish’s bioluminescence draws in unsuspecting prey.

© Nature Picture Library/Alamy/David Shale

Hidden dragons

29

Hidden dragons The dragon shrimp prefers coral over caves

© Getty; Andrew Marriott

Just two centimetres (0.8 inches) long, the dragon shrimp is hardly the monster of legends, but it does have horns along its little body. These spikes are thought to mimic the stinging tentacles of the coral the shrimp inhabits, and shrimps of different colours choose corals that they best blend against.

30

Hidden dragons Bearded dragons can handle the heat

© Thinkstock/shannonplummer

Central bearded dragons are at home in Australia’s scorching dry regions. Patches of their bodies are covered in thorny spikes to deter anything not put off by their 60-centimetre (24-inch) length. They can also inflate the colourchanging pouch on their neck when they’re really under threat.

Colourful, sweet-smelling and not to be messed with

© Thailand Wildlife/Alamy

This recently discovered Thai millipede was given a name based on its remarkable appearance: the shocking pink dragon millipede. This three-centimetre (1.2-inch) mini-beast lives in leaf litter, where its pink body and spines ward off hungry mouths. It also produces a toxin that gives it an almond scent.

31

Hidden dragons Some dragons are farmers, not killers Divers nicknamed this creature the ‘blue dragon’ because it looks like something from Chinese mythology, but it’s actually a species of sea slug, or nudibranch. They are only found in New South Wales, Australia, where they keep tiny plants in their bodies and harvest the sugar they produce from sunlight.

32

© Getty; Thomas Kline / Design Pics

Hidden dragons

33

The wildlife of Sumatra

34

Forest cover in 1985 Forest loss since 1985

Sumatra

The wildlife of Sumatra Lush jungles and raging rivers are at the heart of this Indonesian island, in the depths of which hide some of Earth’s rarest fauna Words Ella Carter Formed of dense tropical lowland jungle, hazy montane forests, meadows, heathlands and steamy, carbon-rich peat swamp forests, the Leuser ecosystem rolls over 6.4 million acres of Sumatra. This is one of the most ancient and biodiverse forests left on Earth, and it is fed by the cool, clear rivers that cut through the jungle, serving as lifelines for all within. © Getty; Anup Shah

Sumatra is the second largest Indonesian island after Borneo in the Malay Archipelago. It’s one of the final wild frontiers for Southeast Asian wildlife, and thanks to the island’s geography Sumatra is shaped by numerous volcanic eruptions, sea level changes and biodiversity colonisations. This has produced a unique ecosystem known as Leuser (pronounced low-sir).

35

The wildlife of Sumatra

The Leuser locals Introducing the wildlife of Sumatra: the endangered, the wonderful and the downright weird denizens of the deepest, darkest and most ancient Indonesian forests Large flying fox

Buru babirusa These pig-like animals are distinctive thanks to their amazing tusks. Babirusa means ‘pig-deer’ in the Malay language, owing to the babirusa’s rotund body and slender, and deer-like legs. They are omnivorous and will use their hooves to root in the earth for absolutely any tasty morsels that can be found.

Two-wattled cassowary y Looking very much like an a armoured emu, cassowa waries are large, flightless bbirds with black feathers an and long g necks and legs thatt pack a powerful kick. Theey roam the rainforests of Su Sumatra a a and the other island nds across the region, brow wsing the h forest floor forr any fallen fruit and sseeds.

Reticulated python

Sumatran rhino As the only Asian rhino with two horns, this tiny species stands at just 1.5 metres (4.9 feet) high. The rarest of its kind, these hair-covered rhinos are classified as Critically Endangered. They prefer thick lowland vegetation with plenty of greenery and fruit. King cobra Red junglefowl

36

The e wildlife d fe of Suma u atra Lesser adjutant Sumatran elephant One of three Asian elephant subspecies, Sumatran elephants are a keystone species that ensure the health of the forest for the rest of the Sumatran wildlife. Their familial herds roam the moist, broadleaf forests and their critically Su S um ma attrranendangered rhinoceros s population Ass tthe A th h hee onlyy Asian two t standsrhino at justwith 2,400-2,800 le in the wild.s at ho hor h or orn nsss, this tinyy species stand

Siberian flying squirrel

Proboscis monkey There’s no blending in with a nose like that! Thought to be used for attracting mates, these fleshy-faced monkeys live in large harems in trees near to Sumatra’s rivers and swamps. They are the most adept swimmers of the primate world, with slightly webbed hands and feet to aid a confident doggy (technically monkey) paddle.

ju jjus ust 1..55m high. It’s also the rarest us off itiits o ttss kind andd these ese hair-cove a co ered rhi rrh hi h hin in nos no oss are critically endangerred. o The Th The hey prefer thick lowland veg ve veg egeet eta ttaation with plenty of greeenery a d fr and fruit on o which c to o feast. eas

Sumatran tiger Sumatra is the last stronghold for this tiger subspecies, with as few as 400 le in the wild. The solitary tigers roam across the Leuser ecosystem, hunting anything from wild pigs to crocodiles. They are powerful swimmers and will oen chase prey into swamps or rivers to ambush them in the water.

Su S um ma a atran elephant p t On One O ne ne off th three r Asian elephant sub ssu ubsp ub sppeeci spe ccie ies, Sumatran elephaants ie are aar rree a key kkeeey eystone y species that ensure the tth hee h h heeeaaalltlth of o thee forest o es for o thee rest of th of tthe h hee Su Sumatran a a wildlife. d e Thei eir fam ffa aam miliililliial mili al herds roam the moist, brro bbro roaad adl dl dleea eaf aaff forests and their critically en eend n nddan ndang aang ng n ger ered population standds at jus ju usstt 2,,4 ,40 44000 – 2,800 le in the w wild.

Prrobo ob o bo os scis monkey Th heerre h re’ ee’’s no blending in with a nose likee th hat ha at at! Thought to be used for f attrrrac raaacctin titin ing mates, these fleshyy faced mo onkkey on keeeyys live in large haremss in treees es ne near to Sumatra’s riverss and sw sw waaam mps mp m ppss. Th hey he ey are the most aadept sw sw wiimm mme m meers m rs o off the primate wo orld, wititith slig w liliig gh htltltly ht ly webbed hands and feet to aaid to aiid id a cco con on o nfident doggy paddle.

Th TThe hessee ppig he ig ig-li --llliike animals are diis ddis ist sttin tiiin ncct ctititive ve thanks to their amazing ttu tus ussks. u kss. Ba ks Babbi bir i usaCrested meanspartridge ‘pig-ddeer’ in tthe in hee Ma h Malay language, owing g to the bab bba abiru abir ab iirrru usa usa sa’s rotund bodyy and sllender, deee ddee eer-lik r-l rr-l -lik ike legs. They are omnivorous aan nd w nd wiill use their hooves to ro oot in tth the he eeaarth for absolutelyy anyy taasty he mo m mor or orsels rse s that a can ca be found. ou d

© Thinkstock; Sol90

Bu B u urrru u ba ab birusa

Sumatran tigerr Su

Great argus Malayan tapir

Sumatra is the very last stron nghold for this tiger subspecies with as few as 400 le in the wild. The sollitary tigers roam across the Leuseer ecosystem, hunting anything from wild pigs to crocodiles. They aare p powerful swimmers and will oen chase preyy into swamps or rivers to ambush them in the water.

Two-wattled cassowa ary

Stag beetle

Looking very much like an armoured emu,, cassowaries are llarge, flightless fl hl birds b d with h black bl feathers and long necks and legs that pack a powerful kick. They roam the rainforests of Sumatra and the other islands across the region, browsing the forest floor for fallen fruits and seeds.

37

The wildlife of Sumatra

A jungle under threat Sumatra’s pristine forests are decreasing at an alarming rate, with industry, logging and illegal activity all threatening the wildlife inhabitants Forests play a huge part in the fight against climate change by sequestering excess carbon from the atmosphere and providing oxygen and rain, critical to our global climate. The Leuser ecosystem is no different, yet despite its importance this delicate ecosystem is under threat from industrial logging, palm-oil plantations, mining and all the destructive infrastructure that comes with it. Deforestation not only displaces countless species of plants and animals, but it also causes floods and landslides that endanger people as well as life in the forest. Wildlife is squeezed into ever-smaller pockets of the ecosystem that just aren’t large enough to support all of the species’ needs. This often means that large animals such as elephants roam into areas farmed by humans, which can then breed resentment and bring harm to these creatures. Conservation charities are working tirelessly to reduce human-animal conflict and to educate people as to how to deal with the jungle residents if they arrive. Legislation and patrols are in place to protect critically endangered species from illegal poaching and trapping, and there are also a great many conservation and preservation schemes in place to monitor the critical species, such as Sumatran tigers, rhinos, elephants and orangutans. The Leuser is the only place in the world where these species coexist side by side, and it deserves our utmost attention to ensure that it has a future.

Sumatra in numbers

15,000+ Number of known species of plant on Sumatra and Borneo combined.

400

Number of Sumatran tigers le in the wild.

38

580

species of bird live in Sumatra.

6

Sumatra is the sixth largest island in the world.

70%

The amount of the Sumatran elephant’s habitat destroyed in one generation.

29.6m ACRES

of forest cleared in the past two decades, a loss of nearly 50 per cent.

BELOW The hairy Sumatran rhino is more closely related to the extinct woolly rhino than to any other rhino species

The wildlife of Sumatra Unique island life Measuring 473,970 square kilometres (183,000 square miles), Sumatra is home to a host of animals that exist nowhere else in the world

Flying fox bat With a wingspan of over 1.5 metres (4.9 feet), this bat is one of the largest of its kind. It’s an important forest species thanks to its ability to disperse seeds, and the flying fox is also responsible for pollinating canopy trees. They are hunted by humans for food, which is posing a serious threat to their population.

Great argus These impressive pheasants cut a striking silhouette on the rainforest floor as the males drag their elongated wing feathers behind them, flashing with thousands of iridescent eye spots. This Near Threatened species roosts in trees at night but forages by day, perusing the leaf litter for fruit and insects.

Sumatran orangutan One of two species of orangutan (the other is from neighbouring Borneo) this charismatic great ape is a Critically Endangered species. These primates live exclusively in the trees, with specialised arms and legs for swinging in their forest home. Their range is now restricted to the north of the island.

Sunda slow loris These cute, slow-moving, boggleeyed primates come out at night to forage for food, when the Sun has set in the Leuser. Although they don’t have tails, their wrist and ankle joints are highly evolved for efficient climbing and grasping of branches. They feed on fruit, nectar, eggs, insects and small animals.

Malayan tapir A favourite prey of the Sumatran tiger, the Malayan tapir lives in the jungle and lower montane forests of the island. It’s the only tapir species native to Asia. With a stocky monochrome body, the tapir also has a long, trunk-like snout, handy for snorkelling underwater and grasping twigs and leaves for food.

Despite their name, sun bears are nocturnal. They are the smallest of the bear species and come out at night to hunt for berries, fruit and small animals, using their long claws to tear through obstacles in their way. Sun bears live in dense forests and are known to climb and sleep in the treetops.

© Getty/ Mark Carwardine; freevectormaps

Sun bear

39

You wouldn’t believe

How hamsters store food SYRIAN HAMSTER Mesocricetus auratus Class Mammalia

Territory Syria and Turkey Diet Seed, grain, nuts, vegetables, small insects (in the wild) Lifespan 1-2 years Adult weight 120g (4.2oz) Conservation Status

VULNERABLE

BELOW Fiercely territorial, Syrian hamsters are known for being highly aggressive towards other hamsters

01 Pouches Pouches in the mouth lining reach all the way back to the animal’s hips, creating plenty of room for storage.

Hamsters may look adorable as they fill their faces, but their puffy cheeks can be the difference between life and death in the wild Life can be full of hazards when you’re only a few inches long. Hamsters can’t afford to spend too much time in the open where they’re visible to predators, so they’ve developed a clever method for putting food away until they’re somewhere they feel safe. Many people are familiar with the sight of a hamster cramming food into its cheeks — in the Arab dialect of the area where it’s found in the wild, the Syrian hamster’s name translates roughly as ‘Mister saddlebags’. But have you ever wondered just how much room there is in there?

05 Inbuilt nursery It’s not just seeds and fruit that go in the pouch — female hamsters can put their pups in there if they feel threatened.

02 Gathering

© Andrew Gardner/Alamy/knightpics

Hamsters pack food they find into their pouches with their front paws, storing as much as half their own body weight.

04 Storing When a hamster reaches its burrow or food store, it will use its paws to push out the edible contents of its cheeks.

03 Transportation Stored food doesn’t get soggy while it’s being transported because hamsters don’t have salivary glands inside their pouches.

40

My zoo report W asked our special reporter Meredith Todd, age nine, to take We part p in the Junior Zoo Academy at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo

“On One of the lemurs jum mped on my ad and ate a hea piec ce of banana!”

worked The zookeepersrn about together to leaanimals a range of

We then put on some high-vis jackets and went outside with clipboards and a list of animals. When we saw them we had to say what habitat they lived in, what they ate and what special adaptations they had. The first animals we saw were mata mata turtles, sea lions, giraffes, African hunting dogs, and, of course, the beautiful snowy owl. Then we went back to base and had our lunch — I was very glad of it! While we were having lunch we started our scrapbooks and stuck on stickers of ocean animals. We started to fill this in with our worksheets and animal facts. After lunch we fed the lemurs, which was one of my favourite parts. We stuffed kongs and bottles full of papaya and banana, which they really enjoyed. One of the lemurs jumped on my head and ate a piece of banana! Close to home time we held two snakes; one was a corn snake called Sausage and the other was a royal python called Reggie. Sausage should’ve been red and white but was peach and orange because he didn’t have enough melanin. I was surprised they weren’t slimy; instead they were scaly! We had so much fun holding them that time went by really fast and we were five minutes late for drop off. That evening we had to do some homework on snakes and design a snake tank.

On the second morning we learned all about the zoo and what different jobs there are. We stuck some more sheets in our scrapbooks and then we noticed a taped-off area in the corner of our room with a fake dead impala in it! We had to find out what killed it by looking at clues. There was beige and black fur, scat, a wild cat paw print, and then we found a lion’s skull. The impala’s face was red and bleeding, on his thigh there were scratch marks and three hooves had been taken away. We decided a lion had done it and we were right! After lunch two keepers brought in a chocolate millipede tank and a New If you would like to take Guinea stick insect tank. We part in the Junior Zoo Academy played a game to decide visit www.zsl.org/experiences/junior which we would hold, but -zoo-academy-8-10-years-old. both won so we held them To win a free adult both. They felt weird. We had zookeeper experience visit to wear gloves because the animalanswers.co.uk. chocolate millipede releases a toxin if it feels threatened. Then we walked across to the sloth bear enclosure to feed them. We put apples, dog food, nuts and mealworms into newspaper, then scrunched it up and put it into boxes and sacks for the sloth bears to rip open. They feed them like this because it gives the bears the feeling that they are still in the wild. It was so much fun that we were late again for our parents! I’d like to thank all of the people at the zoo who helped me and the other children have such a good time. Emily and LeighAnn explained everything very well and helped me learn lots about animals. It’s a memory I will never forget!

Working at the zoo

© ZSL

I went to the zoo aca ademy at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo. It lasted two days so I had to stay in a hotel overnight with family. Before we went I had a list of things I needed to take: wellies, waterproofs, sunhat, packed lunch and snacks. You can also take a camera with you. We arrived at the zoo for 10am and met my two zoo helpers, Emily and LeighAnn n. They took us into the zoo academy base e where we put our bags in cubbyhole es. Then we went and sat down at the benc ches, which had a display of stuffed anim mals, tiger fur, snake skin, and the fur of an n arctic fox in its summer coat. And I can’tt forget the shark head! Aftter I had taken a few pictures of the displa ay we had to design our own zoo acade emy badge. While we were doing t that we w had to tell each other our names, hobb obbies and what we do after school. We t then p played a game called safety bingo. It t taugh ht me how to stay safe and keep calm i any of the animals were being cheeky. if

Sausage the co took an instantrn snake liking to Meredith

41

Explore the Earth

GOING WILD IN

ETHIOPIA Better known for its early human remains, Africa’s oldest independent country is beginning to step out of the shadows of the continent’s more familiar safari destinations Words Adam Millward

42

Wild in Ethiopia Travel expert Nakachew Birlew works for the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), a government organisation tasked with the protection and promotion of Ethiopia’s rich fauna and flora Ethiopia is situated in the Horn of Africa, with varied topography and altitude, making it suitable for a wide range of fauna and flora. The country has many wildlife-protected areas, including 22 national parks, two wildlife sanctuaries, seven wildlife reserves, three community conservation areas and 18 controlled hunting areas. In these protected areas, research conducted in the field indicates that Ethiopia hosts a high number of endemic species: 32 mammals, 17 birds, 15 reptiles, 30 amphibians, seven arthropods and 40 fish, and 12 per cent of the total 7,000 flowering plants that grow here are found nowhere else on the planet. Among these endemics are seven large mammals: the walia ibex, mountain nyala, gelada, Ethiopian wolf, Swayne’s hartebeest, Menelik’s bushbuck and the Bale monkey. Map key 1 Harar 2 Simien Mountains National Park 3 Bale Mountains National Park 4 Abijatta-Shalla Lakes National Park 5 Chebera Churchura National Park 6 Gambella National Park

2

Gelada

1

Black-maned lion 6

Spotted hyena

4 5

Elephant

3

Though far less developed in terms of safari tourism, you might be surprised to learn that many of the African big game species can be found here.

Travel guide When to go September/October is tipped as the best time to go as it pre-empts the main tourist season, and the highlands are particularly verdant following the summer rains.

Flamingo To experience one of the country’s most colourful wildlife displays, head to Lake Abijatta. For bird lovers, this is one of Africa’s top destinations.

No need to go looking far for wildlife in the walled city of Harar — it boasts the world’s only urban hyenas.

Ethiopian wolf There are only some 500 left in the wild, but the isolated Bale Mountains National Park is one of the last remaining strongholds for the planet’s most threatened canid.

© freevectormaps.com; Getty/ Olivier Cirendini; Alamy/Michael Runkel

Numbers of Ethiopia’s national animal have been on the decline for decades, but there are still pockets where it’s possible to catch a glimpse of these rare cats.

Native to Ethiopia, these baboon-like monkeys live the high life on the grasslands of the country’s mountainous interior.

How to get there There are regular flights between London and Ethiopia’s capital, Addis Ababa. It’s recommended to take internal flights on to more remote locations.

What the weather will do Much of Ethiopia experiences a temperate climate due to its elevation but it can get cold at night. The heaviest rainfall on the Ethiopian Plateau occurs in July/August.

What to take Layers for the mountains and lighter clothing for the plains, plus hiking boots and bug repellent. Anti-malaria medication below 2,000 metres (6,561.7 feet).

What you’ll see Often called the ‘Roof of Africa’ owing to its mountains and unusual ecosystem, there’s plenty to see, including sites featuring early traces of human evolution.

43

Track rare cats and dogs The black-maned lion may be Ethiopia’s official national animal, but in recent years another creature has been increasingly stealing the limelight: the Ethiopian wolf. It’s possible to catch a glimpse of both these endangered predators in the Bale Mountains National Park, an area that boasts one of the greatest concentrations of endemic species per square kilometre on the planet. Of the 500 or so Ethiopian wolves (known locally as red jackals) in the wild, almost half call Bale’s alpine meadows and heathland their home. Should you want to find out more about these graceful, long-limbed canids, your

Seek geladas in the mist Another Ethiopian wildlife icon is the gelada. They have gone by many names, including lion monkeys (owing to the males’ shaggy manes) and the bleeding heart ‘baboon’, referring to the distinctive patch of red skin on their chests. Although closely related to baboons, these Old World monkeys are in fact unique in evolutionary terms. Geladas are like no other monkeys on Earth. They have one of the most complex social hierarchies and systems of communication. Their diet is predominantly grass and, save humans, no other primate spends more time on the ground. Although distributed throughout Ethiopia’s highlands, most people agree that Simien Mountains National Park is the best place to see geladas. Home to the country’s highest peak, the 4,550-metre (14,927-foot) Ras Dashen, this park provides an epic backdrop for your visit. Not to mention that it’s one of the country’s fauna hot spots (see ‘More Simien stars’ on page 45). You can hire a guide to lead you to the very heart of a gelada clan, which can consist of several hundred individuals. You’ll be able to spend hours observing and photographing these amazing animals up close as they go about their (monkey) business: appearing like ghosts out of the morning mist, eating, grooming, playing and fighting, then disappearing around sunset as they return to the steep cliffs where they sleep.

44

first port of call should be the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme: www. ethiopianwolf.org. There are many tours dedicated to seeking out these timid pack animals, and it’s best to take advantage of local knowledge. Be prepared for a long hike or horse ride to reach a den as there’s very little road access and vehicles can scare off the wolves before you even see them. With only around 50 Abyssinian lions living in the Bale Mountains, the odds of spotting one are slim. That said, a male was snapped in early 2017 while a photographer was driving along a road within the reserve, so it’s always worth keeping your eyes peeled. If you have your heart set on seeing this subspecies of African lion, consider a trip to Gambella National Park (Ethiopia’s largest national park) on the border of South Sudan, where they number in the hundreds.

Wild in Ethiopia More Simien stars

Serval These solitary felines are most famous for their long legs and big ears. They shouldn’t be confused with the caracal, another wild cat found in these parts: the latter has distinctive black tus on the tips of its ears.

Walia ibex Like the gelada, this is another Ethiopian endemic. The endangered walia ibex spends most of its time grazing in small herds on the Simien Mountains’ sheer, craggy cliffs.

Rock hyrax

Lammergeier With a wingspan over two metres (6.6 feet), bearded vultures are one of Ethiopia’s largest birds. Known as ‘bone-breakers’, they drop carrion bones onto rocks then eat the marrow.

Hamadryas baboon Geladas share the mountains with two types of baboon: hamadryas (pictured) and olive. Hamadryas were once considered sacred by the ancient Egyptians.

© Rod Waddington; Graham Dean; Noel Reynolds; Getty/Michael Runkel; NaturePL/Christophe Courteau; Alamy/Robert Pickett

Despite appearances, the closest relative to these critters are elephants and manatees! Living in colonies of up to 80, they can oen be seen sunbathing on rocks near their burrows.

45

Explore the Earth

Come dine with… hyenas Here in the UK, the most exciting wildlife we get in our towns are a few birds, foxes and the odd hedgehog. The walled city of Harar in eastern Ethiopia, meanwhile, is frequented by something a tad bigger: hyenas. It’s the only place in the world where hyenas and humans get this close, so it’s an experience not to be missed. Harar is a beautiful city in its own right, so you should factor in spending a couple of days there. During the daytime you can visit the Harari museums, bustling markets (the local coffee is legendary) and ancient mosques, or just get lost wandering the medieval streets. After the Sun goes down, head to one of the gates in the city walls, where hyenas have been coming to scavenge for centuries. For a small fee, a guide can introduce you to one of Harar’s famous ‘hyena men’ — a handful of locals whose families have been feeding the hyenas for decades. It’s incredible to see these powerful animals being greeted as if they are almost family pets. If you’re feeling brave, there may even be a chance to feed a hyena yourself — just be sure to follow the pro’s instructions at all times.

Gatecrash a flamingo fiesta So many thousands of greater and lesser flamingos congregate at Lake Abijatta — particularly in migration season (July to September) — the shores turn pink. The shallow, alkaline waters are perfect for algae, making them equally attractive to flamingos. You can hike around the edges of the lake surrounded by these colourful birds. Mind your step, though, as the ground can be unstable. Once you’ve had your fill of flamingos, there’s plenty of other

46

birdlife to be enjoyed in the park, including white pelicans, fish eagles, reed warblers, plovers and herons. In the much deeper neighbouring Lake Shala — situated in the crater of a dormant volcano — you can take a dip in the hypersaline waters, where you’ll notice its rather odd soapy texture. Alternatively, join the locals in one of the hot springs for a rejuvenating morning bath, where steam from the ground is also used to boil eggs for breakfast!

Beyond the wildlife

Visit a royal city Former capital Gondar is sometimes called the ‘Camelot of Africa’. The ruins include a royal castle, fortifications and an extravagant bath house.

Go to church under ground Hewn out of the rocky mountainside in Lalibela is a series of subterranean churches. They have been a holy site for Christians since they were built in the 1200s and are one of Ethiopia’s most popular World Heritage Sites.

Walk in our ancestors’ footsteps Ethiopia has long been lauded as a potential birthplace of humans; fossils unearthed here have redefined our understanding of evolution. Why not visit the Awash Valley where the famous ‘Lucy’ skeleton was found.

Addis Ababa is home to what is widely deemed to be Africa’s largest open market: the Mercato. Whether it’s carpets, textiles, silver jewellery, spices, coffee or vegetables, you’re guaranteed to find it here.

Go on an Ethiopian safari Everyone’s heard of South Africa’s Kruger National Park and Kenya’s Serengeti plains, but few people associate Ethiopia with safaris. This ignorance, however, can be turned to your advantage: it’s a fantastic opportunity to see some of the continent’s perennially popular animals without having to share them with ten other jeeps full of enthusiastic tourists snapping away. Chebera Churchura National Park in the southwest corner of the country is a stunning reserve comprising a wide range of topography

from grassy plains and lakes to densely forested hills, which explains its equally diverse biodiversity. And while it may not be able to claim the full package when it comes to the ‘African Big Five’, it does tick off four: lions, elephants, buffalo and leopards. The only one missing is the rhino. That absence, though, is surely made up for by the presence of hippos, as well as over 200 species of bird, including endemics such as the wattled ibis. Without a doubt, this has to be one of Africa’s best-kept safari secrets.

Turn up the heat With sulphur springs, salt pans and even a lake of lava, the Danakil Depression is one of the hottest places on Earth, with an average annual temperature of 34.4 degrees Celsius (93.9 degrees Fahrenheit).

© The Africa Image Library /Alamy/ Eric Lafforgue; Alamy/ Troy GB images

Get bartering!

47

Look out for royalty Ethiopia has some of the most diverse avifauna in Africa, boasting around 900 different birds (more than 20 of which are found nowhere else). The forests in the south near the border with Kenya are home to one of the country’s — if not the world’s — most sought-after species: the Prince Ruspoli’s turaco. This flamboyant flyer, which has acquired almost legendary status, can be spotted at the fringes of woodland on the road between Negele Borena and Wuchale village. It particularly favours fig trees, so pay attention to those.

Chew the cud with rare ruminants Rather aptly, the Horn of Africa is home to many a horned grazer. Some are restricted to Ethiopia, including walia ibex and the Menelik’s bushbuck (both found in the Simien Mountains National Park) and the Swayne’s hartebeest (with a small population in Maze National Park). One of the biggest antelopes is the mountain nyala (pictured), which you’re most likely to encounter in the Bale Mountains. Also known as the balbok, this antelope, with its stately curled horns that can reach over one metre (3.3 feet), was the last large ungulate to be ‘discovered’ in Africa by scientists.

48

Wild in Ethiopia

Top tips Don’t forget your visa Anyone heading to Ethiopia from the UK, whether travelling for business or pleasure, requires a visa to enter the country. Tourists can pick up theirs at the embassy in London or online (www.evisa.gov.et). At the time of going to print, a 30-day tourist visa cost £28.

Expect guides with guns When hiking in the Simien Mountains National Park it’s required to have an armed ranger with you at all times. You can find a certified guide, obtain maps and information and also buy a permit at the National Park Office located in Debark.

Detour to Djibouti While Ethiopia boasts some of Africa’s best mountains, one thing it lacks is coast. If you’re craving a bit of beach time, why not head to its diminutive neighbour Djibouti? This country is only one-sixth the size of England, but the waters off its shores are home to some amazing coral reefs, as well as whale sharks, the world’s biggest fish.

Read this…

Watch this…

Download this…

Pack this this…

Ethiopia: Through Writers’ Eyes Yves-Marie Stranger travelbooks.co.uk, £14.99 A compilation of the impressions Ethiopia has made on some 80 travellers over the centuries, from ancient wanderers like Herodotus to more contemporary scribes like e Edgar Allan Poe and Sir Wilfred Thesiger. It offers a great insight into the country’s history, as well as how its culture has evolved.

Planet Earth II: Cities bbc.co.uk/programmes, from £1.89 On the off chance you didn’t catch this 2016 series — and even if you did — the final episode is well worth a (re) watch. In Cities, Sir David Attenborough focuses on urban wildlife, with a whole section dedicated to Harar’s unique relationship with the spotted hyenas that prowl the city.

Tourism Ethiopia Google Play, Free This is a great all-round app giving an overview of the major national parks, UNESCO World Heritage Sites and other tourism hot spots. It also includes practical information about hotels, shopping, dining out and transport, so it covers all the necessary bases for both new and seasoned travellers.

Hiking fleece berghaus.com, £50 Any wildlife holiday in Ethiopia is going to entail a lot of time in the highlands. When the Sun goes down, and early in the mornings, it can get surprisingly chilly, so it pays to take along a fleece like the Berghaus Spectrum Micro 2.0. It’ll keep you warm, but the light, stretchy material means you’ll barely know you’re wearing it.

© Alamy/ y Oliver Smart; NaturePL/ Elio Della Ferrera; NaturePL/Elio Della Ferrera

Before you go…

Who to travel with Bird-watching Nature Trek

Nature & history Wildlife Worldwide

Luxury Scott Dunn

NATURETREK.CO.UK

WILDLIFEWORLDWIDE.COM

SCOTTDUNN.COM

Ethiopia’s Endemic Birds A ten-day tour focusing on Ethiopia’s rich avifauna, including augur buzzards and Abyssinian woodpeckers; £2,495 per person, including international flights.

Ethiopian Wildlife Extravaganza As well as ticking off the key wildlife spots, this 12-day tour also takes in the major cultural sites, including royal forts and holy caves; £3,695 per person, including flights.

Ethiopia & Kenya Safari Over 11 days you’ll see the best wildlife of the Bale Mountains before heading to Kenya’s Maasai Mara for a safari experience; from £11,000 per person, all flights/transfers included.

49

Spotters’ guide

Deer rutting As autumn sets in, many animals begin to slow down and prepare for winter. But for deer, this is when they need to be at their best. Once the females (called does or hinds) have had their fawns they become fertile again, and males (bucks or stags) compete for access to them. The impressive displays involve rivals roaring and strutting next to each other, a tactic called parallel walking that allows the males to size each other up. If that’s not enough to determine a winner, the opponents charge at each other and clash antlers. In order to make themselves look bigger, males often adorn their horns with foliage.

Young males are often the first to start rutting as they try to establish their place in the hierarchy. When they show up to join the fray, older males can be identified by their sheer size, thick necks and manes and the greater number of branches on their antlers. There are six species of deer spread across the forests and moors of the UK, providing plenty of places to observe the males trying to outdo each other. Roe deer rut slightly earlier than the others, but most rutting seasons last from late September until November. Signs that a herd is nearby include droppings, chewed fruit and tracks in soft ground. Males rub their antlers

“The impressive displays involve rivals roaring and strutting next to each other” RED DEER Cervus elaphus Class Mammalia

Territory Europe, Asia, North Africa (native), North America, South America, Australasia (introduced) Diet Vegetation, grass, berries and tree bark Lifespan 20-25 years Adult weight 200kg (440.9lb) Conservation Status

LEAST CONCERN

See them yourself RSPB Minsmere

www.rspb.org.uk/minsmere During September and October, visitors can take a guided 4x4 safari to watch the rut (booking essential). Richmond Park

www.royalparks.org.uk Just outside central London, this royal park and nature reserve is home to fallow and red deer. New Forest National Park

www.thenewforest.co.uk For variety, head to Hampshire — five species of deer live and rut in the New Forest. Cairngorms National Park

www.cairngormsnature.co.uk Rangers lead walks through the dramatic scenery of the Scottish Highlands to find rutting red deer. Exmoor National Park

www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk Visitors to the South West can search for deer themselves or team up with rangers.

50

against tree trunks to clean them and to mark the area with their scent, so look out for damage to bark and branches. Mud wallows can be a useful sign, too — males urinate in muddy patches and roll in the mixture to cover themselves in a scent that encourages females to mate. Because of the hormones coursing through their immense bodies, it’s best to keep well away from rutting males. A good pair of binoculars and a long camera lens are a must if you want a good view and some good photos. Be sure to tread quietly, wear natural colours and try to remain upwind of the herd. Patience is essential, so find a sheltered spot and get comfortable.

Deer rutting

Deer live all over the country in the wild and in parks and estates, but these are some of the best locations for red deer sightings

Expert advice We spoke to the experts at RSPB Minsmere in Suffolk When is the best time of day to see rutting? Any time during the day from late September and throughout October. Photographers prefer aernoons, with the ‘golden hour’ of sunlight making the best conditions for photos. Others argue that the best time to see deer is at dawn and dusk when they’re most active.

as possible to the herds. However, every year we run deer safaris where you can get up close and watch the deer safely. You are also safe to watch the deer from the designated area. At other times of the year the deer will come very close to people, but they normally stay around 20-30 metres (65.6-98.4 feet) away.

How do you locate rutting deer? The deer here at Minsmere have chosen an area of heath as a ‘rutting ground’ where they return every year, so we always have an idea of where to expect them. The hinds gather in large numbers and there’s plenty of space for the stags to strut, bellow and occasionally clash antlers to assert their dominance.

What do you think is the most impressive part of the rutting display? The best bit is hearing the stags bellowing early in the morning. It’s a very unusual noise [a bit like a mooing cow] and very loud! The atmosphere on the heath is fantastic, with the excitement of two stags approaching, dew dripping off their antlers, ready to battle for supremacy. These are the largest land mammals in the UK and it is amazing to see them in the wild.

How close can you get to deer during the rut? We advise not to get close to the deer as the stags are full of testosterone and are easily provoked into charging and clashing, and we like to cause as little disturbance

Words attributed to Ian Barthorpe, RSPB Minsmere’s visitor experience officer

Males will lock horns as they fight over access to females

Hello deer The UK’s deer range from the tall to the tiny

Red deer The red deer is the largest land mammal in the UK. Their characteristic reddish coat can be seen in the summer, and during rutting season the fearsome roars of the males can be heard from a distance.

Fallow deer Also a large species, these deer can be easily identified by the white spots on their flanks and rumps. The present-day UK population is descended from deer brought over from the eastern Mediterranean.

Roe deer Roe deer share the reddish coat of the red deer, but they’re the smallest native British deer. They became extinct in England a few hundred years ago but survived in Scotland and spread south again.

Muntjac deer The muntjac is an ancient species of deer, introduced to Britain from China around 1900. They are roughly the same size as a fox, and males have a pair of tusks protruding out of their mouths.

© Getty/Damian Kuzdak; Thinkstock; freevectormaps.com

Where you can see red deer in the UK

51

The eyes have it The right pupils for the job are a matter of life and death The pupil is the opening in the eye’s iris that lets in light. It appears black because the eye tissue absorbs light, and it changes size as the iris dilates and contracts to adjust the amount of light that enters the eye. Many animal species have eyes, but they don’t all have the same pupils. In a recent study, scientists concluded that different pupil shapes perform different jobs. The pupils of prey animals, for example, offer a wide field of

view that helps them scan for predators. Grazing prey species have eyes that rotate so the pupils are always parallel to the ground, helpful for animals always ready to flee. In contrast, the pupils of predators dilate much more to better equip them for hunting in all light conditions and allow them to gauge the distance of prey without moving their heads and giving up their position.

Round pupils

Vertical slit pupils

Horizontal pupils

Horizontal slit pupils

Animals like dogs, wolves and big cats have round pupils. They actively chase down prey, mostly in daylight. Round pupils mean that the field of view isn’t spectacularly wide, but as top predators their vision isn’t required to help them flee from attack.

The animals that sport these pupils are small ambush predators that hunt close to the ground: cats, foxes and even crocodiles. The slits allow a greater expansion of the pupil to let in much more light — an adaptation to predators hunting in a variety of light conditions.

Horizontal, oblong-shaped pupils are a feature of prey animals like sheep, goats and horses. These curious-looking pupils provide a wide field of view, allowing the animals to scan for potential predators. The pupils also keep the ground in sharp focus to aid escape.

These pupils are also a feature of preylike animals, seen in some frogs, toads, snakes and octopuses. This pupil type allows the animal to spot the vertical motion of predators and therefore take evasive action. They also extend wide to let plenty of light in for day and night foraging.

Crescent pupils

W-shape pupils

Vertical beaded pupils

Human pupils

This pupil type is shown in stingrays, flatfish and some catfish. Crescent pupils enhance vision by decreasing the effects of distortion in the water, providing a wide field of view to look out for any predators lurking nearby or spot potential prey. They also boost contrast.

Shown in cuttlefish, these pupils are a modified horizontal-split pupil. In darkness the pupils are almost circular but form a W-shape in bright light. This allows light to enter the pupil from many different directions and boosts image contrast and distance vision.

Geckos (as well as some species of fish) are equipped with pupils that decrease to very thin vertical slits with multiple pinholes in bright light. These multiple ‘beads’ work together to help the lizard perceive distance as well as allow hunting in various environments.

Like dogs, we have round pupils. We’re mainly active in daylight so don’t need the sensitivity other pupil shapes provide, instead focusing on details and judgment. Human pupils can betray what others are feeling, dilating in response to states like attraction, interest and concentration.

52

FEED YOUR MIND www howitworksdaily com

Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets TM

ON SALE NOW

• HOW WE'LL CURE CANCER • DOGS WITH JOBS • EXTREME OFF-ROADERS SCIENCE UP CLOSE

INSIDE GADGETS

COOLEST TECH

ILLUSTRATIONS

AMAZING FACTS

BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY

Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com Available on the following platforms

facebook.com/howitworks

twitter.com/@howitworksmag

All about Galápagos giant tortoises

54

Galápagos giant tortoises

All Aboutt

What they lack in speed these giant reptiles make up for in staying power as they go through their long lives in a rapidly changing environment Words Victoria Williams

© Getty; Scott Portelli

Galápagos giant tortoises

55

All about Galápagos giant tortoises

The life of a castaway These tough island giants are in no hurry They may look prehistoric — and indeed their ancestors were around over 200 million years ago — but it’s thought that tortoises arrived on the Galápagos Islands only a few million years ago, over 60 million years after dinosaurs went extinct. They were probably carried across the sea from the mainland by a current, clinging to floating vegetation and kept alive by their long necks and ability to go without food or fresh water for a long time. There’s still some debate over whether they grew to their huge size once they’d landed or whether they were large to begin with. There are about 12 remaining subspecies spread across the islands, some with domed shells and others with saddle-shaped shells. Being large and cold-blooded, giant Galápagos tortoises (which are the world's largest species of tortoise) need to spend a few hours warming up each day. They bask in the

sunshine, sometimes in pools or muddy patches to protect themselves from insects. A good coating of dust from a dry patch can also help keep the parasites away. Once they’re warm enough for activity, tortoises walk the islands and browse the vegetation. They get most of the water they need from dew on leaves and rocks and from moisture in plants like cacti. A slow metabolism means that they can survive for a long time without food, but the poor quality of much of the island’s vegetation means they have to eat frequently to remain healthy. On drier islands in the archipelago, tortoises live alone and create ‘tortoise highways’ as they repeat the journey between resting and feeding spots. On islands where there’s more vegetation there’s less competition for food, so tortoises can live in groups. Their size means that Galápagos tortoises can tolerate changes in temperature pretty well, but even they have

Galápagos tortoises in numbers 18 0.3 12 16 175 MONTHS 1.87 years HOURS metres Record length of a Galápagos tortoise.

56

The age of the oldest Galápagos tortoise on record to date.

Approximate length of time they can survive without food.

KPH

Their longdistance travelling speed.

Types of Galápagos tortoise thought to remain.

The average time they will spend resting every day.

their limits; when temperatures drop at night, the tortoises settle into soft ground or a bed of plants to keep themselves warm. As expected from a tortoise, the Galápagos giants are slow and calm. The saddleback shape of some species’ shells mean that a section of neck is exposed when the animal retracts; this would be very dangerous if a tortoise was under attack, so it’s believed that they evolved without any predators to worry about. Unfortunately, this weakness has been demonstrated by dogs introduced to the islands that prey on them. Galápagos tortoises have a much better relationship with the birds on the islands. Birds like finches and flycatchers flit around to attract the attention of the tortoises, which respond by stretching their necks and raising their bodies up on strong legs. The little cleaners then feed on ticks and other parasites that have taken up residence on the skin of these immense reptiles.

Galápagos giant tortoises

Life in a tortoise shell

BELOW As well as cacti and grass, Galápagos tortoises will also eat tree bark, lichens and guavas

There’s a lot going on at the start of a Galápagos tortoise’s life, but then things slow down until it’s time to mate Newly hatched Galápagos tortoises are put to work as soon as they leave their eggs. First, they face a gruelling dig out of the nest, coordinating their brand new legs to push through the layer of compacted earth that was piled on them by their mother. Whether the babies that emerge are male or female depends on the temperature, a feature shared with other reptiles. If conditions were warm in the nest there will be more females, with more males produced in cooler temperatures. With their huge bodies and shells, adult giant tortoises are too much of a challenge for any predator (except humans), but it takes a while for the juveniles to grow out of the danger zone. They don’t have speed on their side, so they take refuge in their shells or in hiding spaces when danger is nearby. Once they’ve become too big to be easy pickings all of their energy can be channelled into the important things in life: food, rest and mating.

Stranger danger

Bobbing along

After their exhausting climb, the little tortoises have to avoid predators like hawks, dogs and cats. With poor hearing, they rely on vibrations and smell to tell them when it’s time to hide in a crevice or their shell.

These giants are not good swimmers but they do float if they end up in the sea and can keep their heads above water with their long necks — it’s how they arrived on the archipelago in the first place. They do, however, use shallow water on the islands to cool off.

Head and shoulders above the rest Males ‘fight’ for dominance in the breeding season by seeing who can reach the highest with their head. If a similarsized saddleback and domed tortoise were to meet, the more aggressive saddleback would almost always win.

Golden years Once fully grown, giant tortoises aren’t easy targets for other animals, so they can spend their days basking, wallowing and searching for food.

Just keep digging Females trek for miles to find the right spot for their nest. They dig for hours over several days with their stumpy legs until the hole is deep enough to lay their eggs in.

© The Art Agency/Peter Scott; Getty/ Rebecca Yale; Thinkstock

Leaving the nest Young tortoises have to fend for themselves from the moment they hatch. They live on the nutrients from their egg while they dig their way out of the nest, a challenge that can take a month.

57

All about Galápagos giant tortoises

Island romance The love life of the Galápagos tortoise Galápagos tortoises are late bloomers, becoming mature adults from the age of 20 to 40. Once they’re able to reproduce, the (very leisurely) chase begins as males compete for access to females. In keeping with their slow lives, male giant tortoise fights are fairly low-key; each contender simply stands tall, opens his mouth and stretches his neck — the one with the highest head is the winner. Saddleback subspecies are more hostile, occasionally biting at rivals during this display. When dominance has been established, successful males have their pick of the ladies. Like boys in the playground, male tortoises court the attention of the opposite sex through mild aggression; they snap at the females’ legs with their beaks and ram their shells. Being slow and smaller than the males, females have little choice once a male has made a decision on his mate — they are simply overpowered by his weight. Mating is a logistical challenge for two large animals with shells. Males push themselves up on their back legs to mount the females and have to remain balanced while they fertilise them. The underside of a male’s shell (the plastron) curves inwards so that his shell fits against his mate’s. Perhaps due to the effort involved, mating is one of the few times that male tortoises make any noise, producing a sound likened to the moo of a cow; the females remain silent. Once a female has begun to develop her eggs, she walks for several kilometres until she finds a suitable site for her nest. Using her strong back legs and claws, she digs a hole about 30 centimetres (11.8 inches) deep — a gruelling process that can take days — into which she lays between two and 16 eggs the size of tennis balls. Although the eggs have hard protective shells, she urinates on the soil and leaves that she uses to fill in the hole to prevent it from collapsing later on. She seals the hole by flattening the ‘plug’ with the bottom of her shell. After putting a great deal of energy into travelling and digging, the female abandons her eggs. She can repeat this process up to four times each breeding season, which usually takes place between January and August. Young tortoises may never see their parents as they are independent from the minute they hatch.

BELOW A victorious male will bob his head and bellow to attract a female's attention

58

Galapágos giant tortoises RIGHT The tortoises now have to live alongside a growing human population

The Galápagos tortoise and humans

In human culture

Whether for practical or spiritual reasons, tortoises have been valued throughout human history

Emblem of resilience Tribal groups of the Mojave Desert had many uses for desert tortoises, from household equipment to ceremonial instruments, and pets to symbols of courage.

Offending the gods A lesser-known fable describes Zeus giving the tortoise her shell as a punishment — she missed his wedding because she believed there was no place like home.

Sacred symbols In Chinese mythology, tortoises were sent by an ancient ruler to hold up the Island of the Immortals. They are also one of the four sacred creatures said to each protect a side of the compass.

© Thinkstock; Getty/Mark Newman/Layne Kennedy

Humans and Galápagos tortoises first came face to face in 1542 when Spanish explorers landed on the islands. The reptiles provided a convenient food source, being so large, slow and unafraid of people. Sailors and pirates stopping on the islands between the 17th and 19th centuries could load tortoises up onto their ships, where the ability to go without food and water for a lengthy spell meant they could be kept alive and then eaten fresh when they were needed. More permanent settlers to the islands introduced animals like goats that competed with the tortoises for food, and others, such as pigs, that dug up and ate their eggs. With their peaceful island life disrupted, Galápagos tortoise numbers dropped on some islands from tens of thousands to tens. In 1959, the government of Ecuador established the Galápagos National Park with the aim of protecting the islands and their tortoise populations. Visits are regulated, visitor numbers are monitored, and tourists aren’t permitted to leave paths or look round without a guide. The Charles Darwin Research Station on the Galápagos breeds and rears giant tortoises to be released into the wild. The hope is that this, along with research into the animals, will boost population numbers.

59

All about Galápagos giant tortoises

Inside the Galápagos tortoise The unusual external anatomy of the tortoise, with its bony, plated shell, is matched by other features including a tiny brain and huge neck muscles

Spine Most animals’ backbones bend, but the tortoise’s spine and ribs are rigid and fused to the bony plates that form the inner layer of the shell.

Neck Strong, welldeveloped muscles in the neck allow for movement, stretching and retraction.

Brain Beak Tortoises don’t have teeth, but they do have strong jaws and ridges inside their beaks to allow them to crush their food.

A tortoise’s brain is very small and lacks the e region that other animals use for learning. Some barbaric 17th-century experiments found thatt they can actually live for a while without a brain.

Nares These small holes allow a tortoise to breathe. Their fixed ribcages mean they don’t breathe like humans, having to pump air in and out by moving their legs and shoulders instead.

Legs

Heart

Strong legs with stumpy feet hold up the huge weight of the body. The tortoises have no visible toes, but they do have claws – five on the front feet and four on the back feet.

Plastron The flat underside of the shell is called the plastron and it’s attached to the breastbone – tortoises can’t leave their shells like they do in cartoons!

JUVENILE

INFANCY Humble beginnings 0 days Eggs hatch aer approximately four to eight months of incubation. Newly hatched tortoises weigh about 80 grams (2.8 ounces).

60

Like other reptiles, tortoises have three-chambered hearts. Some of the blood is pumped under the shell to allow it to warm up before it’s sent to organs and muscles.

Out into the world 0-30 days The little tortoises now face a big task — they must dig their way out of the nest hole, which can take several weeks.

Hazardous youth 30 days to 5 years Being only a fraction of their final size and living alone, juveniles are at risk from heat stress, hawks and falling into gaps between rocks.

MATURITY Adolescence 5-20 years If they have managed to survive the perilous first years, young tortoises spend the next couple of decades eating, basking and growing.

All grown up 20-40 years Galápagos tortoises don’t reach maturity until about 20 or 25, but sometimes not until 40. Once they’re mature they begin to mate.

Lungs Galapágos tortoises inhale less often than humans, as they can cope with higher levels of carbon dioxide in their blood. They can remain in their shell without breathing until danger has passed.

Galápagos giant tortoises Scutes Plates made of keratin (the protein in human hair and rhino horns) cover the bony shell. More layers are added under the existing ones as a tortoise grows, creating growth rings.

Disappearing act When speed isn’t your strong point, you need another escape route

Digestive system Food passes through the digestive system even slower than in other planteaters when the tortoises are eating poor quality food in order to extract as many nutrients as possible.

Letting themselves down If a tortoise needs to retract into its shell, it quickly deflates its lungs with a hissing sound to make room.

Round the bend Some turtles found in the Southern Hemisphere are pleurodires, bending their necks sideways and tucking their heads in front of a foot.

Neatly away Like most tortoises and turtles, Galápagos tortoises are cryptodires — they pull their necks and heads straight back into their shells.

Closest family Meet the Galápagos tortoise's relatives

Adulthood 25-100+ years Now much too large to become prey, the next decades are spent wandering the islands in search of vegetation, potential mates and sunny spots for resting.

Aging gracefully 100+ years Time is very kind to the Galápagos tortoise, as they show few signs of aging and can continue to breed past 100 years old.

Old, old age 150+ years Members of this species can live well past the age of 150, usually only dying of illness, injury or heart failure.

Yellow-footed tortoise Although it’s dwarfed by the Galápagos tortoise, this is still one of the largest tortoises; adults usually measure 40 centimetres (16 inches). These reptiles are native to the Amazon Basin in South America.

Red-footed tortoise This species is also found chomping on plants in the Amazon Basin. Medium-sized, they are similar to their yellow-footed neighbours, and the fact that their leg scales vary from yellow to red only adds to the confusion.

Chaco tortoise Another mainland species, Chaco, or Argentine tortoises live in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay, and the further south you get, the bigger they are. Lots of their time is consumed with feeding on shrubs, grass and even cactus pads.

© The Art Agency/Sandra Doyle

Cloaca This opening at the rear end of the tortoise is used for mating, egg-laying and the removal of waste.

61

All about Galápagos giant tortoises

The habitat of the Galápagos tortoise Conditions in the Galápagos can vary greatly between islands, leading to the diversity of the different subspecies. Some of the islands are hot and dry, while others are wetter and have more abundant plant life. The saddle-shaped shell of tortoises on the drier islands allows them to stretch their necks up as high as possible to reach cacti and leaves, but wetter conditions on the other islands produce much more vegetation low to the ground, so the shells of their inhabitants are dome shaped. All of the islands were created by powerful eruptions from underwater

volcanoes, producing rocky landscapes with sparse vegetation. Whichever island they’re on, tortoises have two priorities: basking and eating. They rest in the morning Sun to warm their cold-blooded bodies before going in search of plants like cacti, grass and fruit. The islands are off the coast of Ecuador and so experience the rainy and dry seasons of South America as well as the effects of sea currents. For many years, Galápagos tortoises were the only large land animals on the islands, and their main threat was their young being eaten by hawks. The islands were

“People living on and visiting the islands have caused the loss of tortoise habitat”

Environmental factors Sadly, life on the Galápagos Islands is no longer the undisturbed paradise that it once was Agricultural development As more people settle and start families in the Galápagos, biodiversity and the plants available for tortoises to eat are lost as areas of vegetation are cleared for farming. Temperature cycles During years when warm El Niño ocean currents affect the islands, more eggs develop into female tortoises than into males, altering the sex ratios of vulnerable populations. Invasive species Introduced species of plants and animals — whether brought over from the mainland on purpose or by accident — overgraze vegetation and compete with and harm native species. Human activity The islands are hugely popular with tourists, but this brings problems. Planes and boats arrive daily, contributing to pollution, and trekking visitors wear away the landscape.

62

covered in forest, and the giants could amble and browse wherever they wanted to. However, after humans discovered the island in the 16th century, things changed drastically and rapidly. People living on and visiting the islands have caused the loss of large portions of the tortoises’ habitat and brought competition in the form of other animals. While factors like the temperature fluctuations caused by the El Niño current have long affected the populations, the potential implications are compounded by the worryingly low tortoise numbers on some islands.

Galápagos giant tortoises Darwin and the tortoises One young voyager’s time with the tortoises changed science forever Charles Darwin was just an aspiring naturalist when he set off on his voyage of exploration on HMS Beagle in 1831. Aged 22, his role was to investigate the geology of the places the ship visited and collect specimens of the plants and animals that they found. Aer making their way around South America, the crew of the Beagle arrived at the Galápagos Islands in 1835 and encountered the giant tortoise. Darwin heard from locals that they could tell which island a tortoise Finches It wasn’t just the tortoises that inspired Darwin’s theory — the differences between the finches on each island were also of great interest to him.

came from by looking at it. His notes from the voyage show that his theory of natural selection began to form aer observing differences between islands: “It is the circumstance, that several of the islands possess their own species of the tortoise, mocking-thrush, finches, and numerous plants… that strikes me with wonder.” Darwin only collected specimens from a few islands, but he did eat his share of tortoise meat, declaring that “the young tortoises make excellent soup”.

Food for thought As did all visitors to the archipelago, the crew of the Beagle loaded their ship with tortoises as a source of fresh meat for the next leg of their voyage. They also took some young tortoises with them as pets.

Different shells Darwin noticed that the different shell shapes — saddleback and domed — corresponded to the differing vegetation on the islands.

Take note The keen young naturalist noted down all his observations, as well as information he gathered from locals and other sailors.

© Getty/ Eric Rorer; Thinkstock

BELOW The islands are named aer their tortoise residents — the word Galάpago means ‘tortoise’ in old Spanish

63

Leading the way in

Animal welfare Countries around the world are working for the welfare of animals, whether they have a long history of protecting wildlife or are just beginning to change their ways

Norway ranks highly for overall animal protection and welfare. Its capital Oslo has become the first city with a ‘bee highway’ – a route with regular relay posts to provide pollinators with food and shelter.

Canada The UK has strict laws on animal cruelty and negligence and gives out tough sentences for people who fail to properly respect and care for animals.

Switzerland has some of the strictest animal laws in the world, covering issues such as the age at which puppies can be separated from their mothers and instructions that social animals must not be kept alone.

The big spender Canada has 39 national parks, with at least one in every province. There are also eight national park reserves, which are areas waiting to become national parks. Several overpasses have been built to allow bears, elk and other animals to safely cross busy roads. This vast country is one of the highest-spending nations when it comes to conservation, although its animal protection laws — virtually unchanged since they were first written — mean it doesn’t rank so well for animal welfare.

Namibia was the first country in Africa to include environmental protection in its national constitution.

Protecting their produce Chile is the highest-ranking South American country on World Animal Protection’s Animal Protection Index and the only country on the continent to score a B grade. The government fully supports the proposed Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare, which would create a formal agreement and common set of principles between countries. They also score well for the protection of farmed animals, with many of their laws recently updated and the meat industry regulated. The legislation includes a clause obliging people managing animals to take an animal welfare course.

64

Chile

Saving the big guys Botswana is ranked as the best country in the world for large animal conservation. As the country relies heavily on eco-tourism, the diverse wildlife that attracts the tourists is well protected.

UK

Bridging the gap The Netherlands pioneered the use of overpasses (also called wildlife bridges or ecoducts), beginning in 1988. Since then, dozens have been built across the country — along with hundreds of underpasses — to allow animals to safely negotiate roads and railway lines. One overpass even has a series of ponds to help amphibians on the move. The Netherlands is also home to the longest ecoduct; it’s over 800 metres (2,624.7 feet) long and crosses a business park, river, road, sports park and railway. As well as the crossings, the nation has banned the use of apes in research and enforces animal cruelty laws that cover farm animals.

Kingdom of conservation Nestled among the Himalayas, the Kingdom of Bhutan certainly appreciates wildlife. Conservation of the environment is an important part of the country’s constitution and its philosophy for attaining happiness. More than half of Bhutan — over 20,000 square kilometres (almost 8,000 square miles) — is designated as national parks and reserves linked by corridors, and 60 per cent of the land must always be covered with forest. The huge number of trees offset the country’s emissions enough for Bhutan to be considered carbon negative.

Norway No

Netherlands Switzerland

Every dog has its day

Bhutan

Taiwan

Vietnam

Namibia

Botswana

Tanzania has 16 national parks, and a third of the country’s 947,303 square kilometres (365,756 square miles) are protected.

Banning bear bile Vietnam has previously been criticised for continuing the cruel production of bear bile, where bears are kept in cages so that their bile (a fluid produced by the liver) can be extracted and sold for its supposed medical properties. Bear bile farming has been illegal in the country since 1992, but there was a loophole in the law that meant bile farmers could still keep bears as ‘pets’. Now the government has signed an agreement with the organisation Animal Asia that promises to completely eliminate the practice within the next five years. Around 1,000 bears currently held captive will be moved to sanctuaries.

New Zealand is considered among the best countries for animal welfare. An amendment bill was passed in 2015 legally recognising animals as sentient beings, and laws protect wild animals, farmed animals, pets and other captive animals, and laboratory subjects.

New Zealand

© Thinkstock; freevectormaps; frans lemmens /Alamy

Tanzania

Taiwan has become the first country in the continent to ban people from eating cat and dog meat. The slaughter and sale of the animals has already been outlawed for years, and it’s illegal in several other Asian countries, but this is the first time consumption has been forbidden. Although eating cat and dog meat has long been a part of Asian culture, attitudes in the east are now shifting as pet ownership increases. The update of the Animal Protection Act has also seen an increase in the maximum sentence for animal cruelty.

65

BEETLES ON THE BRINK In a few tiny patches of the UK, the rare tansy beetle shimmers on despite a huge drop in its numbers Words Victoria Williams

66

Beetles on the brink With its remarkable iridescent green wing case, it’s not surprising that the tansy beetle is known fondly as the ‘Jewel of York’. This striking green insect used to be widespread throughout the UK, but Yorkshire is now one of just two locations where populations remain. Phill Robinson, aquarist at The Deep, says, “When you think of beetles in the UK, many assume they will be dull in colour. That’s what’s so great about the tansy beetle; its striking green metallic hues are almost unexpected!” Tansy beetles were given their name because they primarily live, breed and feed on tansy, a flowering plant

native to Europe and Asia. They do occasionally set up home on other species like water mint, but tansy — especially on riverbanks and in marshes — is their habitat of choice. Tansy leaves contain a toxin that’s thought to deter predators, but the beetles are resistant to the chemical and can happily chew away at the foliage without suffering any side-effects. Each spring, adult beetles emerge after overwintering underground. Through spring, they feed on the leaves of their host plant, mate and lay small yellow eggs on the plant’s leaves. These eggs hatch from May to July, and

BELOW A female tansy beetle’s body is generally larger than that of its male counterpart

© NaturePL/ Paul Hobson

“Tansy leaves contain a toxin thought to deter predators, but the beetles are resistant to it, chewing away happily”

67

© Thinkstock; freevectormaps; The Deep; The Art Agency/Peter Scott

Beetles on the brink the larvae — grey and a little like slugs in their appearance — also munch away at the leaves. When they’re ready to transform into adult leaf beetles, the larvae make the trip to the base of the plant, where they burrow into the earth and become pupae. The shiny new adults emerge around August and get straight back to eating leaves. Come September, the beetles return to the ground, where they will stay until the cold weather has passed. But being underground doesn’t guarantee safety. Tansy beetles are prey to several species, including birds and spiders. Flies and mites parasitise the larvae, and it’s thought the young may be eaten by moles. According to Phill, beetles and other invertebrates in the UK aren’t doing too well. “Around 165 species in the UK are considered Critically Endangered, with one in ten facing extinction. Invertebrates make up 97 per cent of this and they are struggling. They may be small, and many people may not like them, but they play such a crucial role in maintaining healthy ecosystems — even humans are reliant on them. It’s important that we conserve and encourage building invertebrate populations where we can.” The tansy beetle is now considered Endangered in several parts of its global range, and in the UK it is now protected under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UKBAP). Its UK populations are now limited to just a 30-kilometre (18.6-mile) stretch of the River Ouse in Yorkshire and an area in Cambridgeshire where a small population was recently discovered. Claire Burton, project officer for Yorkshire Wildlife Trust, describes her first introduction to the beetles. “A few years ago I was introduced to the tansy beetle while running a project for the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust to improve riparian habitats on the River Ouse in York. I felt really proud that we had such a rare and beautiful species exclusively on our riverbanks! It also made me aware that the beetles’ rather specific habitat was gradually disappearing, with a real threat that the population could easily vanish.” One of the main issues facing the species is the fact that, despite having wings, they rarely fly. They walk between plants in search of mates and new places to feed, but they struggle to travel any further than around 200 metres (656.2 feet). The beetles seem to be unable to detect tansy plants from a distance, so they can easily get lost and starve on long walks. The charity BugLife explains why this is such a problem. “As the beetles are dependent on tansy as their sole food

Restricted range No one is quite sure of the former distribution of this beetle, but they were certainly more widespread than they are today.

Key Current range

68

It’s said the tansy beetle’s wings were so admired by the Victorians they used them as sequins

“The tansy beetle is now Endangered in several parts of its global range, and in the UK it is now protected under the UKBAP” source, if a clump disappears the beetles have to walk to a new clump as they are seldom known to fly. Pressures such as land-use changes and the increase of invasive plant species such as Himalayan balsam have resulted in a decline in tansy plants over the past few decades. This has had knock-on effects on tansy beetle numbers as beetle populations have become increasingly isolated.” Plants like Himalayan balsam have been thriving in their new environment and preventing sunlight from reaching the tansy. Riverside willow trees are also hindering tansy growth, with their large bows overhanging the plant’s preferred habitat. As the tansy beetles are such specialists, any decline in their host plant is likely to impact their own numbers. And in case these beetles don’t have enough to This beetle’s species name, graminis, is a form of the Latin noun gramen, meaning ‘grass-like’

TANSY BEETLE Chrysolina graminis Class Insecta

Territory Europe and Asia Diet Tansy plant Lifespan 1-2 years Adult weight 1g (0.03oz) Conservation Status

LOCALLY ENDANGERED

Beetles on the brink Life and times of tansy beetles

Starting small Small, yellow eggs are laid in clumps of two to 15 on the underside of the leaves of tansy plants, normally between April and May following a brief mating season that can range from March to June.

Time to hatch The eggs will hatch between May and July, with grey larvae emerging. They will immediately set about feeding on the tansy plant’s leaves with a rapacious appetite. However, they can last for about four days without food.

cope with, their preferred habitat puts them at further risk — a flightless beetle living on a riverbank or flood plain is in trouble when heavy rain raises the water level. The Tansy Beetle Action Group (TBAG) was set up in 2008 to try and conserve this gem of a beetle and its host. It’s made up of representatives from a number of organisations and groups, including the Environment Agency, the National Trust, Yorkshire Wildlife Trust, BugLife, the University of York and The Deep. Together, the members of TBAG created a conservation programme, which involved removing invasive plants, undertaking surveys and planting new clumps to reduce the distance the beetles have to walk — this year, volunteers have grown 400 tansy plants in their homes and greenhouses. Landowners have also done their bit by allowing enclosures to be created on their land, permitting tansy to grow without being cut down or grazed. They’ve also been educated on the difference between tansy and ragwort, a plant that often has to be removed because it’s poisonous to animals. A captive breeding programme and ark sites have been established to create populations that will eventually be released into protected areas, expanding

Going underground The larvae go through several stages of development before descending from the plant in June or July. They dig down into the ground, make themselves a little burrow and turn into pupae.

Surfacing for food Come August, fully developed adults surface and pick up where they le off, feeding on tansy for the next month. Just before autumn arrives, the beetles return to the soil to avoid cold temperatures and a lack of food.

their wild range. Talks given to the local community have raised awareness and provided people with ways to help beetles and other invertebrates at home. Caroline Howard, wildlife park manager at Askham Bryan College, explains the work that goes on at their site. “At Askham Bryan College we maintain two ark sites for the tansy beetle — one by our farm and the other within our wildlife park, Askham Bryan Wildlife & Conservation Park. The creation of ark sites helps to safeguard tansy beetle populations. Living on the banks of the Ouse is risky, and local ark populations give us a potential reservoir for future translocation in the event of any catastrophes. “We’re also delighted to have the beetles within our wildlife park as they offer us the opportunity to teach both our students and our visitors about the conservation of this local endangered species. Students can get involved in projects studying the beetles. A student this year is researching egg sites, looking at the plants the beetle likes to lay its

End of the line In April, when winter is over and there are once again enough tansy leaves, the adults appear again. Over the next few months they find mates and lay eggs. Most adults will then die, with a small number surviving another year.

Pompom flowers Tansy flowers bloom between July and August and look like pompoms, with dense yellow ‘buttons’ at the top of each stalk made up of lots of tiny florets.

“This year, volunteers have grown 400 tansy plants, and landowners have allowed enclosures to be made” Crucial foliage The tansy plant is essential to the life of the tansy beetle Prolific plant These colourful plants can grow up to about a metre (3.3 feet) tall, sometimes slightly higher. When le to its own devices, tansy grows and spreads quickly and is oen considered a nuisance.

Pungent foliage The leaves give off a strong odour, especially when they’re crushed. Although poisonous raw, they have been used historically for a number of culinary and medicinal purposes.

Roots in mythology Its name comes for the Greek word for immortality. In Greek mythology, Zeus made the hero Ganymede immortal by giving him a drink containing the plant.

69

Other beetles in a bother

BELOW As a UK Biodiversity Action Plan species, government bodies have to protect the tansy beetle by law

It’s not just tansy beetles having a tough time — other UK species are endangered

Stag beetle Stag beetles spend years underground as larvae before becoming reproductive adults. Such a long lifecycle puts them at risk from predation, trampling and loss of woodland.

Violet click beetle In the UK, violet click beetles only exist in three locations. They’re rare because they live exclusively in the middle of decaying ancient trees, which are oen cleared.

© Thinkstock; Alamy/blickwinkel/ Lewis Thomson; Lindsay Vivian/USFWS; Andreas Eichler; The Deep

American burying beetle One of the only beetle species that looks aer its offspring, these caring creatures are now found in under ten per cent of their original range because of habitat loss and change.

Northern dune tiger beetle These beach-loving beetles are at risk from an increase in visitors to the dunes where they live. They’re one of 20 species chosen to receive conservation funding from the National Lottery.

Cosnard’s net-winged beetle Perhaps the fussiest of all, these beetles only occupy the rotting centres of beech trees. They are incredibly rare — only 11 individuals from two areas have ever been recorded.

70

eggs on, along with monitoring environmental conditions. Our students also learn how to talk about conservation; they deliver ‘Learn About: Tansy Beetles’ talks, where they find beetles in our patch and explain the threats they face to our visitors. “Partnering with local conservation organisations such as the Tansy Beetle Action Group is a great way to support our students in becoming the conservationists of the future — it was a student who planted our first ark site; our students helped to translocate beetles into our new wildlife park ark; and they are involved in everything from monitoring to public engagement.” Claire’s project with the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust was undertaken with the aim of protecting and helping the existing population in Yorkshire. “The beetle is quite specific in its diet, favouring tansy plants (hence the name), so a large part of the project was to remove Himalayan balsam, which tends to smother smaller plant species, including tansy. Hours were spent with volunteers removing the balsam to let the other species flourish and hopefully allow tansy to return. We also built enclosures for the tansy plants, not to stop beetles (or plants) escaping, as some thought, but to prevent livestock eating and trampling on them. During this time I worked closely with the Tansy Beetle Action Group, who are effectively saving the tansy beetle from extinction. I’m so pleased

that I could play a part in the conservation of this beautiful beetle. It’s such a pleasure to see them glinting in the sunshine on the bright yellow tansy plants!” Saving these precious beetles is a task that’s also close to Phill’s heart. “With the bulk of their remaining population localised to York, it’s close to home, and their location provided the perfect opportunity to get involved in a native species conservation initiative that we could actively contribute to and get our hands dirty. The Deep is just one of many British and Irish Association for Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA) collections working to protect the tansy beetle. Together, we offer zoological support for the Tansy Beetle Action Group, from raising awareness to assisting with population monitoring and carrying out surveys to undertaking habitat restoration work. “We recently lent a hand clearing Himalayan balsam from a section of riverbank at Acomb Landing in York and planted around 400 homegrown tansy plants in their place. Previously thought to be unpopulated by tansy beetles, during the work we discovered a single beetle, the first to be recorded at this location!” Thanks to the efforts of a dedicated group of people, the tansy beetle population rose by 60 per cent to 40,000 individuals from 2015 to 2016. The future of this shiny beetle was once incredibly bleak, but thankfully it’s now looking an awful lot brighter.

LEARN TO INSPIRE www.dphotographer.co.uk

Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets

SOURC RE

VERY IS DE

E • FREE SU

E

WN DO LOA

ON SALE NOW Shoot your best black and white > Subtle lighting > Work with gels LANDSCAPE TIPS

SHOOTING ADVICE

WILDLIFE PHOTOS

PORTRAIT GUIDES

CAMERA REVIEWS

BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY

Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available for iOS and Android Available on the following platforms

facebook.com/DigitalPhotographerUK

twitter.com/DPhotographer

WHAT IS A SEA URCHIN? With their self-sharpening teeth and notoriously prickly spines, these small but mighty creatures reveal the incredible power of teamwork in the animal kingdom Words Harry Cunningham Deep in the ocean or lurking just beneath a sandy shore, in waters warm and cold, lies a colourful and intriguing-looking creature. Spherical or rounded in shape, with an abundance of spines and not noted for moving at any great speed, it is easy to mistake the sea urchin for an exotic plant, a seemingly integral part of the coral reef. But don’t be fooled. The spines of species like the flower urchin can be deadly, and when sea urchins work together the consequences for the environment can be utterly devastating.

72

There are approximately 800 different species of sea urchin, spanning a variety of different sizes and shapes. Mainly epifaunal (living on the seafloor), although some will burrow into the seabed itself, sea urchins evolved some 450 million years ago. This makes them one of the earliest — though certainly not the earliest — multicellular life forms and approximately 449.7 million years older than us humans, having survived the cataclysmic event that completely wiped out the dinosaurs.

What is a sea urchin?

Three amazing facts about sea urchins

What’s in a name? Sea urchins take their name from the old English term ‘yrichon’, which was first used around 1340 for their land equivalent, the hedgehog. Other than their obvious spines there are few biological similarities: hedgehog’s have eyes and their spines are not poisonous. Sticking around Sea urchins have thin, sticky feet, known as tube feet, which they use both for feeding and respiration and for clinging on to rocks and kelp. These are thinner than their spines and culminate in small, circular sucker discs.

© Melvin Redeker, Buiten-beeld/Minden Pictures/FLPA

Covering up Like humans, sea urchins that live in shallower waters need protection from the Sun’s ultraviolet rays. Using their sticky tube feet they can pick up special pink algae on the seabed to protect themselves.

73

What is a sea urchin?

Prickly power A sea urchin’s spines can be deadly If you’ve ever gone for a swim and suddenly happened upon an unexpectedly shallow stretch of water, you may have felt the crippling power of the sea urchin’s defence mechanism: it’s spine. Spines inject themselves into their prey for maximum impact. The biggest culprit is the long-spined urchin. Their spines not only protrude as far as 30 centimetres (11.8 inches) from their tests, but they also contain venom. An urchin cannot see but it can sense light and dark so it knows when it is about to be attacked or trod on and can inject its spines with precision and accuracy. There are a few species that also have spines in their fins, and the flower urchin’s venom is deadly. Divers fear the sting but can usually look out for them. However, sea urchins that live in shallower waters or attach themselves to rocks can leave the casual swimmer — with no wet suit or flippers — in agony for days. Locals who live near seas that are abundant with urchins like the Caribbean talk of painful homemade remedies that include applying hot candle wax to the affected area to remove the spines.

“Sensing an attack, urchins can inject their spines with precision and accuracy”

74

BELOW The red sea urchin is one of the largest varieties, measuring up to 18-19 centimetres (7-7.5 inches)

DID YOU KNOW?

Heart urchins are selective deposit feeders. This means they are selective about what they ingest, using their tube feet to hunt out sediment that is high in organic matter, rather than simply hoovering up the seabed.

What is a sea urchin? Life cycle

Gastrula At the gastrula stage embryos develop layers of cells in a more complex structure.

Four-armed larva The four-armed Eight-armed larva larvae live in surface Thyroid hormones create the rudiment waters and use their whose cells develop vital organs while arms to feed. the larval arms disappear.

Adult sea urchin During their final larval stage, sea urchins sink to the seabed to live among adults.

Strength in numbers When they work together, sea urchins can literally change their world Sea urchins might be small, particularly when we consider the vastness of the world’s oceans, but when they combine their talents they can pull off remarkable feats. In the shallower waters of the Pacific Coast, near California, giant kelp forests made up of brown algae, one of the main food sources for sea urchins, can grow tens of metres high. So that they can eat the kelp, sometimes hundreds of sea urchins will work together like an army, using their self-sharpening teeth to gnaw away at the roots that anchor the kelp forests to the seabed, leading to their eventual destruction. This deforestation is hugely damaging to the environment, and areas that have been completely cleared by sea urchins are referred to as ‘urchin barrens’. Such a feat can only be achieved when there is an abundance of sea urchins, and studies on the Aleutian Islands show that deforestation by sea urchins is more likely to occur during a decline in the population of sea otters, as these marine mammals prey on urchins.

© NaturePL/Brandon Cole

A sea urchin’s life begins when the sperm and egg are released into the ocean, where the eggs are fertilised (spawning). The resulting larvae swim out to sea Cell before metamorphosing over the course Four-cell organisms divide quickly during of a few weeks. Some species, like the a process known as red-tipped urchin, are lecithotrophic, cleavage, creating skipping the larva stage and developing smaller cells called straight into adults from eggs. micromeres.

75

What is a sea urchin? A colourful bunch Peak beneath the waves and take a closer look at the sea urchins’ extended family

Inside a sea urchin Take a peak under the skin of one of the ocean’s most diverse creatures c ea u es Test plate The outer shell is known as the test and is formed of ten plates.

Gonopores Here the sperm and egg are released into the ocean.

Genital plates The anus is surrounded by five genital plates covered by pores known as gonopores. Anus

Spines

Axial organ Hosts the water vascular system and plays a role in defence.

Intestine

Flower urchin This urchin is one of the most deadly species. Its venom contains contractin A, which causes muscle spasms, and peditoxin, which is lethal.

Aristotle’s lantern A chewing mechanism located near the mouth containing around 60 muscles. Mouth

Black longspine urchin Although these urchins are easily breakable if attacked, they are very capable of looking aer themselves, reacting quickly to threatening fish.

Pea urchin Measuring only one centimetre (0.4 inches) in diameter, this urchin turns from yellow to green when it feels threatened.

Purple heart urchin Measuring up to 12 centimetres (4.7 inches) in length, the purple heart is found at depths of around 900 metres (2,952.8 feet).

DID YOU KNOW?

Purple sea urchin Mainly found in rock pools along the Pacific coastline from Alaska down to Mexico, the purple urchin oen burrows into so rocks.

76

Sea urchins are a delicacy in Japan and form part of a sushi dish called uni. Recent interest for them in North American restaurants has resulted in a sharp population decrease. Many worry they will soon become endangered.

Nerve ring

Hard plate with a madreporite

Sharp as knives Sea urchins’ teeth have amazing self-sharpening powers tearing away any damaged or blunt edges. These special teeth, which probably evolved over the course of 200 million years, are made up of two types of calcite crystals and are arranged in an imperfect crisscross, or interdigitated block pattern, and held together by a sort of calcite cement that is extremely strong. But there is also another chemical, a much weaker ‘organic layer’, and this is the material that perforates when probed by rocks. Scientists, however, have yet to establish what this organic layer is made from.

©Steve Trewhella/FLPA; NaturePL/ Constantinos Petrinos/ Sue Daly; Thinkstock

Scientists have recently started to uncover the mystery surrounding sea urchins’ remarkable self-sharpening teeth. Despite the fact that many purple urchins regularly grind through rocks and then burrow into them to find themselves a home and shelter from strong tides, their sturdy set of five teeth, usually around two centimetres (0.8 inches) in length, remarkably never become blunt or damaged over time. It is believed that sea urchins’ teeth operate like human skin or, as Charles Q Choi explains, perforations in a sheet of paper, which continuously regenerate,

77

GREAT MIGRATIONS Meet the birds that risk it all on round-the-world trips in search of the perfect conditions Words Alex Hoskins

78

Great migrations As the winter draws in we may wish that we had the ability to migrate as birds do. They seem to have this remarkable business all worked out, living in the mild north during the summer and moving down to the warmer climes of the Southern Hemisphere in winter. Migrations are an incredible display of these birds’ superhero-like survival skills, endurance and speed, whether it’s a bird smaller than your hand journeying

across continents without even stopping for a snack, or a huge seabird circumnavigating the globe in the hope of finding the best feeding grounds and calm weather. While birds aren’t the only animals to migrate, their capacity for flight makes their journeys particularly fascinating. So let’s meet some of the feathered marvels that have undertaken the longest, most impressive and most dangerous migrations in the sky.

A high-risk undertaking, migration is largely driven by the availability of food. Many birds don’t make it all the way

© Derek Watt/Alamy

“Migrations are incredible, from tiny birds crossing continents to seabirds circumnavigating the globe”

79

Great migrations

Risks and rewards of migration Migrating birds expose themselves to incredibly dangerous conditions in their bid to survive Many birds migrate over remarkable distances, but the longer the journey, the more hazardous it is. Birds must survive being out in the open for long stretches of time where they are exposed to predators, at the mercy of the elements and unable to find food on their way. Every year, millions of birds don’t make it to their destination. However, on these treacherous journeys, migratory birds display incredible physical

endurance. For example, studies of the migrating Swainson's thrush have shown that they take nine-second-long microsleeps to top up their energy as they fly 4,828 kilometres (3,000 miles) from Canada or Alaska to Central or South America. Birds also display incredible navigation skills, with many species, such as the golden-cheeked warbler (which migrates from central Texas to southern Mexico and

back each year) using a variety of methods to stay on track. These include using minuscule concentrations of iron in their ears to navigate using the Earth’s magnetic fields, a keen sense of smell and using the position of the Sun and stars to help guide them. But, for all of the difficulties of migration, the species that adapt to be capable of completing these unbelievable journeys will win a valuable prize: long-term survival.

Arctic tern Wandering albatross Bar-tailed godwit Ruby-throated hummingbird Barn swallow Northern wheatear

Arctic tern This bird sees more daylight than any other Arctic terns take the longest route of any bird during their migration from the Arctic, where they breed, to the Antarctic. A population breeds in the very north of Britain and Ireland, but this is the furthest south that they can be found breeding.

80

Wandering albatross This albatross is an aviation marvel that mates for life The aptly named wandering albatross spends more time in the air than on the ground as it travels across the southern areas of the Atlantic. They take time out of soaring over the seas to return to their partners to mate on ridges and small hills.

Bar-tailed godwit Bar-tailed godwits make the longest non-stop migration This wading bird’s migration is the greatest show of avian endurance. It’s been known to fly a staggering 11,500 kilometres (7,145 miles) as part of its migration from Alaska or Siberia (where they breed) south to New Zealand for the winter.

Ruby-throated hummingbird The ruby-throated hummingbird is east America’s only breeding hummingbird This tiny bird undertakes a truly mighty migration. They breed in North America and then travel non-stop over some 1,600 kilometres (994 miles) to winter in Central America.

Barn swallow Migrating swallows fly around 322 kilometres per day One of the most famous migratory birds, the barn swallow will breed across much of Europe, North America and Asia, then leave around September to spend winter in Africa, Central or South America, south Asia or Australia.

Northern wheatear Northern wheatear groups take radically different routes Migrating from northern Eurasia and North America to sub-Saharan Africa for the winter, these small birds are the best-travelled songbirds on Earth. The tiny globetrotters cover around 14,600 kilometres (9,072 miles) each year.

Great migrations

© freevectormaps.com; Thinkstock; Doug McCutcheon/Alamy

With shorter legs than a common tern, the Arctic tern is identified by its black cap

ARCTIC TERN Sterna paradisaea Class Aves

Territory Arctic and Antarctic Diet Fish, sand eels and small crustaceans Lifespan Up to 34 years Adult weight 90-120g (3.2oz-4.2oz) Conservation status

LEAST CONCERN

Longest: Arctic tern Arctic terns go back to their birthplace The Arctic tern is renowned for its yearly journey to the opposite end of the world. Travelling around 40,000 kilometres (24,854 miles) for its winter Sun, it makes the longest journey of any bird species. They begin moving south in August or September and will settle for four or five months in Antarctica before returning to the north in May or June. They conserve energy by gliding rather than flapping their wings all of the time,

and they will often eat while on the wing, swooping down to pick up fish. They’ve also been known to take long detours on their migratory journeys to find better places to feed or to avoid bad weather conditions. When they aren’t migrating, the Arctic tern has a particular mating ritual known as a ‘fish flight’, in which a male puts on an impressive display in the air before presenting a female with a fish as a gift.

81

Great migrations

Largest: Wandering albatross This avian colossus will follow trawlers to snatch discarded fish The wandering albatross doesn’t do things by halves. Alongside its southern royal cousin, the wandering albatross is the largest of 22 species of albatross, with a huge wingspan of up to 3.5 metres (11.5 feet). They can live to a ripe old age of 50 years, occasionally lasting until 60. They’re also one of the world’s biggest and best migrators. Each time they breed, the male and female will take it in turns to look after the young until they can fly, which is three to ten months after they are born. The albatross will then leave for an

The huge wandering albatross’ plumage takes nine years to reach its adult state

18-month migration before returning to repeat the cycle. During this break, they will soar over the ocean, popping down to the surface to catch fish and squid. Some stay close to home, while others make round-the-world trips. This remarkable bird has also made an impact on the lives of sailors throughout history, as it is a maritime superstition that a dead albatross is a symbol of bad luck. Once considered supernatural, the albatross’ symbolism is used in the famous Samuel Taylor Coleridge poem, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

“The wandering albatross has a wingspan of up to 3.5 metres”

Using a spotting scope for bird migration Migration is one of the true wonders of the world, and bird migration is a particularly fascinating subject, mainly because so little is still known about it. With many birds either choosing to migrate at night or flying at high distances — typically 200–1,500 metres above sea level — spotting scopes and binoculars have become incredibly useful tools in the field with which to watch birds as they make their journeys. Scopes like the IS 60 R ED by Opticron are ideal for tracking bird migrations as they allow you to spot birds from a safe distance, and the powerful magnification ensures identification is a lot easier than using binoculars, although the need for a stand can make scopes a little more

82

cumbersome when in the field. At £299 ($396), the IS 60 R ED is cheaply priced, too, making it the perfect scope for beginners who are worried about having to spend serious cash on more expensive glass. But where should you use your new scope? Well, you could simply point your scope to the sky and take a look around. However, you’re best off searching for specific locations, particularly those with land that juts far out to sea, such as Spurn or Portland Bill, both of which also house excellent bird observatories. It’s also worth remembering that a large number of songbirds tend to migrate at night, so be sure to use the Moon as a suitable backdrop for spotting high fliers.

Great migrations Flight formations The V-formation is best known, but some birds also use other formations in flight

Irregular

File

Rank

V-formation

This formation could be a result of individual birds flying towards the same location in no particular order.

It’s thought that flying in single file creates a partial vacuum, making the flight easier for the flock.

While scientists can’t be certain, it’s thought that birds flying in this shape do so in order of their rank in the flock.

This formation allows birds to benefit from the upli generated by the bird flying in front, thereby saving energy.

WANDERING ALBATROSS Diomedea exulans Class Aves

Territory South Georgia, South Africa, French Southern Territories and Australia Diet Fish and cephalopods (squid) Lifespan Up to 60 years Adult weight 5.9-12.7kg (13-28Ib) Conservation status

© Thinkstock; David Tipling Photo Library/Alamy

VULNERABLE

83

Great migrations

Non-stop: Bar-tailed godwit

BAR-TAILED GODWIT Limosa lapponica Class Aves

The bar-tailed godwit doesn’t have time for a break Populations of bar-tailed godwits can be found in many places across the world. Some spend their time breeding across the Arctic from Alaska to Siberia before making the long journey to New Zealand, Australia or coastal Western Europe for their winter. Others breed in Russia and migrate to Africa’s coasts or western India when the weather gets too cold. Wherever they start out in the north, which is usually around August, these wading birds of the sandpiper family can go incredible distances. The longest recorded non-stop flight by a bird covered 11,500 kilometres (7,145 miles), made by a female

RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD Archilochus colubris Class Aves

Territory North and South America Diet Nectar and small insects Lifespan 5-9 years Adult weight 3.4-3.8g (0.11-0.13oz) Conservation status

LEAST CONCERN

84

bar-tailed godwit over just nine days. This was tracked by biologists using satellite tags. As the godwit is not a seabird it isn’t able to catch snacks on the way, making it an even more impressive journey. They return north in early March. Bar-tailed godwit breeding takes place before they set off for the south, in swampy areas, near rivers and in woodlands close to water. Their brown and grey feathers help camouflage them in mudflats and bogs. The females lay large eggs, which when hatched produce chicks that are completely developed and able to move, meaning they are ready to fly around one month after birth.

Smallest: Ruby-throated hummingbird When it comes to migrating, size isn’t everything Imagining such a tiny, delicate bird making the mammoth 800-kilometre (497-mile) or more trip from North to South America is almost impossible. Yet the rubythroated hummingbird, weighing just three grams (0.1 ounces), makes this journey every year. Starting in the north in late August, they fly south, beating their wings 53 times a second and not stopping until they reach the tropical forests, hedgerows

and groves of Mexico, Nicaragua, Guatemala or another of South America’s countries. The sexually dimorphic species is so-called because males can be identified by shiny red plumage on their throat, though the female does not display this colouring, having a white throat. Males and females have iridescent green heads and backs. Its long beak is perfect for sucking the nectar from flowers, which constitutes most of their diet.

The small size of this bird makes its migration all the more impressive

Territory North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand and Africa Diet Insects, crustaceans, berries, seeds, worms, snails and molluscs Lifespan Up to 34 years Adult weight 322g (11.35oz) Conservation status

NEAR THREATENED

Great migrations

Extensive range: Barn swallow This swallow makes an effort to really see the world BARN SWALLOW Hirundo rustica Class Aves

Territory Europe, Asia, North & South America, Africa and Australia Diet Flying insects Lifespan 4-8 years Adult weight 17-20g (0.6-0.7oz) Conservation status

LEAST CONCERN

It’s estimated that there are 120 million breeding pairs of barn swallow

The barn swallow actually began breeding in caves but now prefers to nest in barns and other farmyard buildings almost exclusively. It is largely for this reason that this migrating bird is so iconic and well known among even the most novice bird-watchers. Its migration south from northern Asia, Europe and North America begins as early as April further north or as late as October in the UK. Agile in flight with an unmistakable forked tail, blue-black feathers and a rustred throat, males and females don’t differ much in appearance. Males will attract females for breeding by spreading their tail, circling a chosen mate and singing.

Why migrate? 1. Cold weather forces birds to migrate to find food and stay warm.

3. Breeding oen takes place at their original nesting site.

2. When the weather is too hot, they must migrate to find water.

4. Natural rhythms dictate when birds like albatrosses migrate.

© Thinkstock; Arterra Picture Library/Alamy; Getty/Emil Von Maltitz

“The barn swallow began breeding in caves but now prefers nesting in barns”

85

More migrations

NORTHERN WHEATEAR Oenanthe oenanthe Class Aves

Furthest-travelling songbird: Northern wheatear Relative to body size, wheatears migrate further than Arctic terns

Territory Europe, Asia, north Africa, northeastern Canada and Greenland Diet Insects and spiders Lifespan 10 years Adult weight 25g (0.88oz) Conservation status

Grey whale Longest mammal migration

LEAST CONCERN

In 2015, a grey whale broke the humpback’s record by swimming 22,530 kilometres (14,000 miles) from Russia to Mexico and back.

Flying high 12,000m

10,000m 8,800m

8,000m

Porcupine caribou Furthest land migration The furthest-migrating land animal is North America’s Grant’s (or porcupine) caribou, travelling up to 4,800 kilometres (2,982 miles) each year.

500m 300m

Large migrating birds fly as high as eight kilometres (five miles) above the ground. Small birds will fly between 500-1,000 metres (1,6403,280 feet) high.

Copepod Smallest migrant These small crustaceans move towards the light in lakes and oceans every day and away from it at night.

© Thinkstock

Dragonfly Longest insect migration The globe skimmer dragonfly migrates up to 18,000 kilometres (11,184 miles) to lay its eggs.

86

The northern wheatear travels the furthest of any songbird and makes its journey of around 14,600 kilometres (9,072 miles) from Alaska to eastern Africa in as little as 55 days. While it is not the most remarkable bird when it comes to appearance, with females sporting dusty brown feathers and males being blue-grey with

black wings, its migratory efforts are remarkable. In flight, the black markings of the male display a distinctive T shape. Breeding takes place in the same nesting site year on year, and pairs choose each other through a dance on the ground. The northern wheatear catches its prey on the ground, enjoying a diet of insects and spiders.

Bizarre! The leaf-like toad with young that really get under its skin

COMMON SURINAM TOAD

They’re tongueless, almost completely flat and don’t croak, but there’s no denying Surinam toads make some of the most devoted mothers

Territory Eastern region of South America and Trinidad Diet Worms, insects, small fish and crustaceans Lifespan 6-10 years Adult weight 100-160g (3.5-5.6oz) Conservation Status

Pipa pipa Class Amphibia

LEAST CONCERN

Toadlets are instantly independent Young Surinam toads won’t be seen swimming through the rainforest as tadpoles — they go through this stage while still in pockets on their mother’s back. Once they’ve developed enough to start life on their own, up to 100 mini toads emerge and swim away.

They find food with their feet

Males have a unique style of flirting

Their reproduction process makes the skin crawl Mating is not a rushed process, with the pair somersaulting through the water for up to 12 hours, sometimes longer. While the female is upside down, she releases eggs to be fertilised by the male. He then rolls them onto the female’s back, where they become embedded in the skin.

Their squashed Unsuspecting appearance is prey barely effective camouflage touch the sides The Surinam toad may look like it’s been run over, but this unusually flat body — along with miniscule (and ineffective) eyes and mottled brown skin — allows it to blend in among the dead leaves and mud in the murky rivers and flooded areas of the rainforest.

As ambush hunters, the toads lurk in the water at night waiting for prey. Animals wandering past are crammed into the toad’s large mouth with its spindly fingers — with no teeth or tongue, they have to swallow their food whole.

© Photo Researchers/FLPA

The toads have weak front legs with long fingers that aren’t much use for movement, but they end in star-like sensory organs that help them locate food. Their back legs are strong, with webbed feet to push them through the water and debris on the riverbed.

When mating season comes round, males don’t woo potential mates with a croak like other frogs and toads. Instead, they produce a clicking noise underwater using a bone in their throat before crawling onto the back of any females attracted by the call.

87

TM

Subscription offer

FREE GIFT Worth £25

Free Bird Photographer of the Year book Subscribe by 30th November to receive your free gift The Bird Photographer of the Year competition celebrates the artistry of bird photography, and this large-format book is lavishly illustrated to reflect this. A celebration of avian beauty and diversity, it is a tribute to both the dedication and passion of the photographers as well as a reflection of the quality of today’s modern digital imaging systems

Zara Gaspar Editor

Never miss an issue

Delivered to your home

Get the biggest savings

13 issues a year, and you’ll be sure to get every single one

Free delivery of every issue, direct to your doorstep

Get your favourite magazine for less by ordering direct

TM

Subscription offer

Pick the subscription that’s right for you MOST FLEXIBLE

GREAT VALUE

Subscribe and save 20%

One year subscription

 Automatic renewal – never miss an issue Pay by Direct Debit

 Great offers, available world-wide One payment, by card or cheque

Recurring payment of £26 every six months saving 20%

A simple one-off payment ensures you never miss an issue for one full year. That’s 13 issues, direct to your doorstep

Name of bank

Instruction to your Bank or Building Society to pay by Direct Debit

Originator’s reference 7 6 8 1 9 5

UK £51.90 (saving 20% on the retail price) Europe €78.64

USA $96.75

Rest of the world $87.08

Pay by card or cheque Address of bank

Pay by Credit or Debit card Mastercard

Visa

Amex

Card number Postcode

Account Name

Expiry date Account no

Sort Code

Please pay Future Publishing Ltd Direct Debits from the account detailed in this instruction subject to the safeguards assured by the Direct Debit guarantee. I understand that this instruction may remain with Future Publishing Ltd and, if so, details will be passed on electronically to my Bank/Building Society. Banks & Building Societies may not accept Direct Debit instructions for some types of account

Signature

Date

Pay by Cheque I enclose a cheque for

£

Made payable to Future Publishing LTD

Signature

Date

Your information Name

Address

Telephone number

Mobile number

Email address Postcode

Please post this form to QPlease tick if you want to receive any communications

from Future and its group companies containing news, special offers and product information.

Future Publishing Ltd, 3 Queensbridge, The Lakes, Northampton, NN4 7BF, United Kingdom

Order securely online myfavouritemagazines.co.uk/WOA/PS17GB

Spe S eak to one of our friendly ccustomer service team Call 0344 848 2852

These offers will expire on 30th November

Please quote code PS17GB

Terms and conditions: Gift offer only available to new UK subscribers. Prices and savings quoted are compared to buying full-priced UK print issues. You will receive 13 issues a year. You can write to us or call us to cancel your subscription within 14 days of purchase. Your subscription is for the minimum term specified and will expire at the end of the current term. Payment is non- refundable after the 14 day cancellation period unless exceptional circumstances apply. Your statutory rights are not affected. Gift is subject to availability. Please allow up to 60 days for the delivery of your gift. In the event of stocks being exhausted we reserve the right to replace with items of similar value. For full terms and conditions please visit: http://bit.ly/magterms. Offer ends 30th November 2017.

Wildlife photography

Lfe on w e Revealing aling ling the th hidden be beauty y off the natural world d around using u a field studio d us usin usi o The white background technique T e iis a unique way y of showing wildlife where th the subject j is the entire focal point of the im image. m It allows 100 p per cent of the viewer’s r’s r s attention to be drawn to the subject j with thout th the distraction of other elements in the h image. It can also be used as a fantastic cw way y to reveal the biodiversity y of a particular arr llocation location, ti such ch as

90

a garden, woodland and nd or rocky y shoreline. It is also a great way y to start documen umenting umen the wildlife on your doorstep. W When taking photographs in the wild, you are nearly always reliant upon natural light to illuminate y your subject. j By y having full control over the lighting and backdrop, you no longer need to wo worry y if it’s it s a grey y day. y

W dlife photography Wil Tip p1

Wo orking with ssmall mammals Be prep pared to work with some quirky c characte ers in the pursuit of a great shot Small ma ammals can be a real challenge to photogra aph — mice especially are always on the looko out for a quick escape and will leap from any y surface. Bank voles, on the other hand, are e fairly docile and less cautious. Often they will sit and groom themselves, making them a lo ot easier to photograph.

Tip p2

A Adding multiple iinte erests to y you ur images E Expect p tthe unexpected

LEFT With h mammals such h as this h bbank vole, it h helps to photograph at eye h h them h llevel. This h allows the h viewer to bbecome more engagedd with h them h

TI ’ TI TIM’S TIP

A camera on auto mode will generate a different exposure for everything y y you point it at.. Make sure you shoot on manual mode — this will stop p the camera from making the decisions along the way way.

During a shoot with this bank vole, I introduced a bunch of blackberries with the hope of the vole reac ching up to feed on one. I was amazed when the e vole decided to climb up and begin nibbling on individual berries. I quickly had to adjust my y front light position to get the best shot possible. Over time you will get used to knowing where and how to set up your lights to achiev ve the best shot. Sometimes you will only have e a second — if that — to capture somethin ng special.

Pre eparation As long as you’re ready it’ll be all white

Step 1 Set up p the back light with the sheet of white perspex p in front of it.

Step 2 St Take test shots to make sure the background is pure white, with your test subject appearing as a perfect silhouette. Most cameras will have a highlight alert feature that flashes on the image when the highlights appear pure white. Once you have achieved this, turn off the flash.

Step 3 Set up your front light and take a test shot. After reviewing your image, increase or decrease the flash power until you get the right exposure for your subject.

Now turn on the rear light so both flashes are active. Take a test shot to make sure the lights are both balanced. The image should have a bright white background with the subject perfectly illuminated.

© Tim Hunt

Step 4 The field studio set up for documenting a bank vole in my garden in Worcestershire

91

Wildlife photography

Essential Kit: k Camera and macro lens k Tripod k Glass plate or clear acrylic sheet k Sheet of white perspex k Two flash units k Sobox k Reflector k Light stands

Tip 3

Lifecycle of a frog This simple style of photography allows you to reveal development within a species In order to document the lifecycle of a frog, I used a small acrylic box from some packaging as a tank. I also used bottled mineral water to ensure that the water was free RIGHT The final images can be arranged together to help show the changes during the lifecycle of a frog

92

of chemicals. To prevent the subject from disappearing to the back of the tank, where they would be hard to photograph, I used a small sheet of acetate to partition off a section.

Photograph one subject at a time Photographing tadpoles can be hard work when trying to capture them head-totail in focus while they are moving. Patience will result in success, so be aware that you may have to take a couple of hundred images before you get the perfect one!

Wildlife photography

TIM’S TIP

You can use a reflector to bounce light to parts of the subject that fall into shadow. Tin foil works perfectly and is very cost-effective. You can either mount a reflector on a stand or use a handheld one.

Tip 4

A different perspective

h a llong subject, b RIGHT RIG T With like this snake, it’s ’ worth waiting for f them to create an interesting posture before f taking a picturee

Sometimes, the best Sometim way to reveal the profile of a particular subject, such as this grass snake, is to shoot top-down. By using a stepladder I was able to get to a good height over the

subject. When shooting like this, it is important to photograph totally square on to your y subject. This way you can make sure that everything will be in focus for a clear image.

© Tim Hunt

Change your angle and shoot top top-down d

93

Xxxxxxxxxxxxx

Animal answers

Send your animal questions to us at:

[email protected] Which animals change sex? Hermaphrodites are animals with both male and female genitals, and there are plenty of them. Simultaneous hermaphrodites (mostly fish) have both sexual organs at the same time, but sequential hermaphrodites are born one sex and later change to the other. Bearded dragons can switch from male to female genitals in the egg at extreme temperatures. Female fossas become more masculine between the ages of one and three (a process known as transient masculinisation), possibly to reduce harassment from other fossas, before this masculinity diminishes again. Female African reed frogs can become males by activating a dormant set of testes and deactivating their ovaries. Clownfish are the most famous example. They are all born male and live in an anemone with a strict hierarchy and a dominant breeding pair. If the female dies, the dominant male becomes a female and pairs up with the next biggest male. Wrasse (another type of fish) can swap the other way, with a female growing male organs and becoming more aggressive.

Female dies

BELOW In reality, Finding Nemo would have gone quite differently…

Male changes to female

Dominant female

Dominant female

Dominant female

Nondominant male New male Nondominant male

Nondominant male

Undifferentiated

Undifferentiated

Undifferentiated

Undifferentiated

New fish arrive

Follow us at... 94

@WorldAnimalsMag

worldofanimalsmag

Animal answers A What exactly is a slow worm?

Completely legless Although they don’t look like it, slow worms are actually legless lizards. Both sexes grow to around 40–45cm (15.7–17.7in).

Subtle colours Light to dark brown and occasionally brick-red in colour, female slow worms oen have a dark stripe down their back. Mark of a snake Adders feature far more distinctive markings, including an X- or V-shaped marking on their head. Patterned predator Ranging from off-white to brown in colour, adders have a dark zigzag pattern running down their backs.

Have humans always kept animals as pets? Humans initially domesticated animals for practical uses, like travel and meat. Dogs were the first domestic animals, as huntergatherers gained the trust of the best-natured wolves about 40,000 years ago and eventually bred them for desirable qualities. Dogs were useful for hunting, protection and warmth but also came to be valued for their companionship. Of the millions of species on Earth, humans have domesticated a tiny fraction

The story is similar for the animals that followed. Cats kept pests out of food stores, oxen could transport goods, hawks could catch food, horses could be ridden and sheep could be shorn and eaten. Each of these working relationships, and many years of selective breeding, produced animals with good temperaments, which also made them good pets.

When they’re side by side it’s hard to mistake a slow worm for an adder

Why don’t sea turtles get stung when they eat jellyfish? While some turtles live on plants, others add jellyfish to their diets — in fact, it’s pretty much all the leatherback eats. So how do they manage to evade being stung? The short answer is they don’t. Jellyfish-eating turtles can’t always avoid getting a zap while feeding, but they can reduce the damage done.

Sea turtles have thick skin on their beaks that helps to lessen the effect of stinging tentacles, and the inside of their mouth and throat is covered in spines made of keratin that protect the lining and break food down. As they grow turtles build up a resistance to the stings, and they’re oen seen biting jellyfish from the top. The largest of the turtles, the leatherback is the fourth heaviest reptile on Earth

© Thinkstock

Despite their name, slow worms are definitely not worms. They’re reptiles but, despite their appearance, they’re not snakes either. Slow worms are lizardss and can be distinguished from the serpents by their eyelids (which snakees lack completely), the lack of narrowing ng behind their head and the fact that theeirr tongue is notched rather than fully forked. They’re found across the UK and a mainland Europe, grow to around 45 centimetres (17.7 inches) and eat slugs, worms, insects and spiders. The ancestors of the slow worm had legs like other lizards but they were gradually lost over time through evolution, with a slithering motion better suiting their lifestyle. The remains of these lost limbs are still visible on the skeleton, but the slow worm is now a uniform cylinder — roughly half body, half tail. They can detach their tails if they’re startled or need to escape, although it never quite grows back fully.

It’s all in the eyes Unlike its serpentine counterpart, which sports vertical slit pupils, slow worms have round, black pupils.

Q.How do sperm Q. whales hales care for f Find out at… their young?

animalanswers.co.uk

Lesser bilby First d described b d in 1887,, this h nocturnall m marsupial l was llikely k l d driven to extinction n b fforeign predators and competition by Rabbit-like ears Large ears allowed the bilby to listen out for predators and keep cool in the heat. Brush tail Lesser bilby tails could reach 27.5cm (10.8in) long — about 70 per cent of their body length.

Koonchera Koon Dune,, Australia A

Reverse pouch Lesser bilbies had backwards-facing pouches so they didn’t fill with earth as they dug.

Digging legs Short, powerful front legs with sharp claws were ideal for digging burrows.

96

T Their grey-brown y or y yellow-brown fur would have helped to camouflage fl them ffrom predators against g the desert sand, and long g hind legs g produced a hopping gait similar to a rabbit’s. Lesser bilbies were nocturnal, emerging from burrows in the sand dunes at night to feed. Although they were rarely seen, those who were fortunate enough to encounter them noted their bold, aggressive temperament. No one is completely sure why the lesser bilby went extinct, but there are a number of factors that probably contributed to their demise. Introduced rabbits may have created competition for food and space, while habitat loss could have limited suitable living space. The biggest driver of their extinction is thought to have been the arrival of alien predators like foxes and cats that hunted the bilbies. The last sighting of a lesser bilby was in the 1930s, but reports from indigenous Australians suggest that they survived until the 1960s.

L Last seen… Date: D e 11931 31 Location: Koonchera Dune Dune, Australia A In 1967, a lesser bilby skull was found in an eagle’s nest and it was estimated to be less than 15 years old, but the last sighting of an animal was several decades earlier. In 1931, mammalogist Hedley Finlayson collected 12 specimens and reported that lesser bilbies were abundant in the area. This, however, was the last time anyone saw one alive.

“Those who encountered them noted their bold temperament”

© freevectormaps.com; Alan Batley

While the kangaroo g is the one that makes it onto th postcards, the d Australia l is home h to severall other h marsupials. p A fossilised jaw j found in 2014 indicates that one group — the bilbies — had been around for 15 million years. Over these millions of years they evolved long teeth for digging and finding invertebrate prey and a body shape suited to Australia’s harsh desert environment. Also known as yallaras, lesser bilbies were approximately the same size as a juvenile rabbit and slightly smaller than the greater bilby that still lives in Australia. They were omnivores, eating insects, plant roots, small rodents and seeds. They were first described in 1887 from a single specimen in a mammal collection at the British Museum. Only six sets of specimens were ever collected, so not much is known about how much of the country they inhabited except that they could be found in the deserts of central and northeastern South Australia.

DISCOVER THE UNIVERSE w w w.spaceanswe r s.com

Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets TM

ON SALE NOW

72 Hours unitl impact > Andromeda > Neil deGrasse Tyson > Falcon Heavy > Cassini Finale EXPLORATION

SOLAR SYSTEM

DEEP SPACE

FUTURE TECH

ASTRONOMY

BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY

Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com Available on the following platforms

facebook.com/AllAboutSpaceMagazine

twitter.com/spaceanswers

NEXT ISSUE Explore even more amazing animals in World of Animals Issue 52

Future Publishing Limited Richmond House, 33 Richmond Hill Bournemouth, Dorset, BH2 6EZ

Editorial Editor Zara Gaspar [email protected] 01202 586220

Designer Lauren Debono-Elliot Production Editor Charlie Ginger Staff Writer Victoria Williams Editor in Chief James Hoare Senior Art Editor Duncan Crook Photographer James Sheppard Contributors Amy Best, Ella Carter, Kirsty Cathrine,Harry Cunningham, Alex Hoskins, Tim Hunt, Laura Mears, Adam Millward Cover images Alamy, SuperStock, Thinkstock Photography Alamy, Alan Batley, FLPA, Getty, Nature PL, Thinkstock, Tim Hunt, The Art Agency, Peter Scott, Sandra Doyle, Sol90, Shutterstock All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected Advertising Media packs are available on request Commercial Director Clare Dove [email protected] Regional Advertising Director Mark Wright [email protected] Advertising Manager Toni Cole [email protected] 01225 687368 Media Sales Executive Jim Henderson [email protected] 01225 687125 International World of Animals is available for licensing. Contact the International department to discuss partnership opportunities International Licensing Director Matt Ellis [email protected] Print subscriptions & back issues Web www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Email [email protected] Tel 0344 848 2852 International +44 (0) 344 848 2852 Head of subscriptions Sharon Todd Circulation Circulation Director Darren Pearce 01202 586200

ON SALE 26 OCTOBER

Production Head of Production US & UK Mark Constance Production Project Manager Clare Scott Advertising Production Manager Joanne Crosby Digital Editions Controller Jason Hudson Production Manager Vivienne Calvert Management Commercial Finance Director Dan Jotcham Creative Director Aaron Asadi Art & Design Director Ross Andrews

BEAUTY AND THE

Printed by :\QGHKDP3HWHUERURXJK6WRUH\·V%DU5RDG Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, PE1 5YS

PLUS BATS LIONS PLATYPUS SQUIRRELS RACCOONS

WILDEBEEST

Distributed by Marketforce, 5 Churchill Place, Canary Wharf, London, E14 5HU www.marketforce.co.uk Tel: 0203 787 9060 We are committed to only using magazine paper which is derived IURPUHVSRQVLEO\PDQDJHGFHUWLÀHGIRUHVWU\DQGFKORULQHIUHH manufacture. The paper in this magazine was sourced and produced from sustainable managed forests, conforming to strict environmental and socioeconomic standards. The manufacturing SDSHUPLOOKROGVIXOO)6&)RUHVW6WHZDUGVKLS&RXQFLO FHUWLÀFDWLRQ and accreditation Disclaimer All contents © 2017 Future Publishing Limited or published under licence. All rights reserved. No part of this magazine may be used, stored, transmitted or reproduced in any way without the prior written permission of the publisher. Future Publishing Limited (company number  LVUHJLVWHUHGLQ(QJODQGDQG:DOHV5HJLVWHUHGRIÀFH4XD\ House, The Ambury, Bath BA1 1UA. All information contained in this publication is for information only and is, as far as we are aware, correct at the time of going to press. Future cannot accept any responsibility for errors or inaccuracies in such information. You are advised to contact manufacturers and retailers directly with regard to the price of products/ services referred to in this publication. Apps and websites mentioned in this publication are not under our control. We are not responsible for their contents or any other changes or updates to them. This magazine LVIXOO\LQGHSHQGHQWDQGQRWDIÀOLDWHGLQDQ\ZD\ZLWKWKHFRPSDQLHV mentioned herein. If you submit material to us, you warrant that you own the material and/ or have the necessary rights/permissions to supply the material and you automatically grant Future and its licensees a licence to publish your submission in whole or in part in any/all issues and/or editions of publications, in any format published worldwide and on associated websites, social media channels and associated products. Any material you submit is sent at your own risk and, although every care is taken, neither Future nor its employees, agents, subcontractors or licensees shall be liable for loss or damage. We assume all unsolicited material is for publication unless otherwise stated, and reserve the right to edit, amend, adapt all submissions.

© Getty; Rebecca Yale; Thinkstock

,661

ANIMAL ISLAND TAKEOVER

98

STARS OF THE SEA

BLUETHROATED MACAWS

9000

901 90 9 01 0 12