mmmMILITARY l\1EN-AT-ARMS SERIES 101 THE CO QUISTADORES tmmMIUTARY EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW l\1El'i-AT-:\R:\;lS SERIES 101 THE CONQUISTADORES Fint publi...
226 downloads
62 Views
7MB Size
mmm MILITARY
l\1EN-AT-ARMS SERIES
THE CO QUISTADORES
101
EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW
tmm MIUTARY
l\1El'i-AT-:\R:\;lS SERIES
THE CONQUISTADORES
101
Fint published in Great Ilrilain in 1980 b) Osprey. an imprint of Reed Consumer Books Limited ~Iichclin I-Iousco, 8t FuJham ROe: addrc:sM:d 10 the Publishen.
ISBN 0 85045 357 7 Filmset in Grat Britain Printed in Hong Kong
Bibliography Adamson, D., Tiu Ruins of Time, London 1975 Blacker, I.R., Corte.! (/lId the A~ttc Conqunt, London
,g66 Blair, C., European Armour, London 1958 Bray, W., Everyday Lift oftlte A~llCs, London 1968 Clissold, S., Conquistador, London t 954 Cae, M.D., The Ma]a, Harmondsworth 197t Cortes, J., Guide to ROj'a{ AmlOury of Madrid, Madrid
,g6,
Davies, N., The A~/ea, London t973 Desoola, J., The CAnquut(U/ores, London 1957 Diaz, B., TJu Conquest of.Nat) Spoitr, Harmondsworth
'g63
Garibayk, A.N., (trans.) The Drokor Spears, London
,g6,
von Hagen, V.\V., Tiu Ancient Sun Kingdoms oj/he Amtn'cm, London 1962 von Hagcn, V. W., The Goldtn Man, London 1974Hemming, J., The Conquest ofl/lt lncaJ, London 1973 Innes, H., TheCollquis((ldofJ, London 1969 Kcndall, A., ElJer;'d(lY Lift of ti,e ItIC(/S, London 1973 Nuttall, Z. (cd.), TJte Codex NUllall, New York 1975 Prescott, W.H., The COllqut51 of Peru, New York Ig61 SoWitellc,J., TM Doily Lift oj the A
'9;0 VVhitloc.k, R., ErJn7day Lijeojthe Maya, London t976 Film strip oflhe COOex Laud, Codex ~·lendo7..a, the Selden Roll and Mixtec History from the Bodleian Library.
The Conquistadores
Introduction er no longer able to find uitable employment The 200 al [r m 145 t 1650 ar ~ n r of Di ov ry. [or durin thi 10 urop. Th y ar d G th Id for 'pain in Grred to as th th Indi s only to m r:L1 s in th role of p riod Europ an xplor r oyag d to rno to th habitable r gion o[ th lb. Th >xplorer ttIer one th ir pi n rin w rk was don . nxiou to avoid the dull w rk of th aclminihall nging not only th force of natur but al 0 trators and planters who inevitabl followed the hur h dislhe t ad ings of lh all-po\! rful xplor r in th· n w lands f th panish ov r d vast terri tori who i t n had n l b n u p led, and mapp d lh rouah outlines o[ the world w . kn wit. Y t the m n w r An unarlDoured Spanish cro bowman. He i reloading his not 'pur' plor r ; m t w r . king nl to weapon with the aid of a wooden lever, a siJnple but effective device probably descended frOID the older 'goat' foot', This link urop with th rr- ionsknownorbe1ieved lever was SIDall, light and 1D0re convenient than the goat's foot lever, as it pushed the bowstring to the catch of the lock to xist, and whi h were onsid r d t b of instead of pulling it there, and worked without friction. It conomi imp rtan . They ought p ronal could bend easily and quickly a steel bow of 1D0derate size, one, for instance, which did not require a windlass or nnan ial gain and th ir discoveri s w re lar Iy cranequin; and it and the lighter crossbow would therefore have been 1D0re uited for service in the AlDerica than the accid ntal bonu es. more elaborate reloading ysterns required for the stronger bows. In the 15th and 16th c nturi . an unm n amount ofgeographi aI knowled was gain db this rath r haphazard m thod. Mo t startling of all tb dis ov rie was thal of th w v orld, a va land appar ntly un ndin ontin nt hitherto unknown and unsuspect d. On 12 t b r 1492 olum u king a route to th I g ndar ri h mark t~ of China and Japan by sailjn continually w stward di ov r d thj w World wh n h ight d a aribb an island \ hi h h nam d an alvadar (g n rally id ntified with Watling Island in the Bahama ). In tb G II wing cI cade olumbu di a recl mo t of th larger i Ian s of th W t lndi and laim d lh m for pain. B '520 man of th se i land had b n on id rable numb r of pani h xplor d and olonies h d b n G und d n th m sp ially in uba and Hispaniola (Haiti). Most o[ th tl rs in th xoldi r wh had fought in th arml whi h ell' v th fo r out of outhern pain or ervd in lb Italian campaign a ain t th Fren h. Til y were a hardy, adventurou and unruly
3
Gennan cro bow of cireD 1520 with compo ite stave of layers of Cllfte and whalebone, covered with parchtnent. Overall length 72.5CDl (28in.), pan of bow 63.7CID (2sin-) weight 2.170 kilos (4ilb). The bar piercing the tock above the trigger is for the claw of a cranequin (illustrated alongside: one arm of the claw is ju t visible on the left underside). (Wallace CoUeetion)
Spanish armet of aboot 1500 the whole of which is blued. This is a distinctively Spanish type of armel. He1JDets uch a the were worn by tb.e beavy cavalrymen of the period. (Wallace CoUection)
Crown th. m n knew fronti I' on again turnin s we tward towards th onquistador 'tb f au it was spirit whi h mad m n kn \. n vastnes of the m ri as.]u t a lh navi ators had sou ht th I' ut to n \ mark t for financial ain via sea-born trade so now th conqui tador ought wealth by th nl m th d th y knew- nqu t of land. B mal laz p 1'hap the rna than triter on tb onque t in th m ricas WI' t that h and hi mpani n w nt t th· lnwe 'to ser d and His aj sty to gi Ii ht to tho who weI' in darkn s and to r w ri h as all m n d ir t do'. Th a e of th conquistador w and bri f. lasting from 1520 until ab ut 1550. Tb conqw tador und rtook th ir pun e pedition into th gr at land rna s of th meri a at th ir own xp TIS nduring gr at hard hip, and ri king th ir Ii e and fortun with ut an h lp [rom the pani h rown. L ft to th rnselv th would probably ha ttled in fi udal ommuniti paylng only v r.bal h mage to th rown and arv d out reat fortun ~ r th mI b 'pl iting th Inwan th had onqu I' d. But the panish Crown did not allow this to happen. Those ~ w onqui tad I' who UMV d th battle with Indian disea poisonou nake tal ation and thir t-and th kni of th ir ri al -w I' di placed b royal appoint lawy and I ri nl to prot t th rown int I' ts in th n land. Plant and mining exp I' foUow d in arabi for ing thos onqui tador who ur iv d t keep moving ever westward: it wa to b th Crown and th m r hants of ville-not Lh onqui tador -who r ap d the I' ward of th conque ts. pain wars with Fran b gan in 1495 and did not end until 1559. ranee was twi a populou as pain and ri her in natural I' our in ord I' to fi ld armi whi h auld with tand th might of Fran pain n ded to hir thousand of merc nane. ars and particularly mere narie co t a I' t d al f man and the parrish treasury had sam how to b I' fill d n t ntl if th m nar h wa 0 hay eh
Sp.Di." he.vy cavatrymeu iD three-qu."'er ......our. wear_ i.>:>.J opeo-f.«d helmeu ....d with Iheir lowel" lep protKted only by bootll. The drawingll.re by Anion Hoffm.... who ill 1918 pubU.hed • sen.,. o( 1I",et> drawiog... ill"'straWzg the eonqu1lltadoretl .nd their Indi.... opponent ... HofFtnaD ill generally • .,.,,,,rate 00 Spallish det.il, but is oflen at (.",11 when it Cam'" to the Indian.. Howeyer, he h ... m.oaged to capture the atmollphere of 1.1.01' time, pt.ce ....d P'""Ople .trik.Ulgly, a.Dd • oumber o( hill drawing.. loa_ be
wherewithal to pursue his grand policy. on the gold which had circulated amongst the In the 16th century money meant gold, and petty medieval kjngs. Within the wars of Spain gold was a rare metal in Europe. At the end of and France was waged another war-the war for the 15th century Europe's entire store of gold did gold. And where was gold to be found, if not in not exceed go metric tonnes (88 Ions): cast in a thc Indies? This was the reason for the Spanish single ingot it would have formed a cube only two monarch's great interest in tbe New World, and metrcs (6ft) in each dimension. There was con- his rigid control over it by loyal officers from his siderably more silver available, 3,200 metric court. II is estimated that Cortes look from Montelonncs (3,'50 tons) in the whole of Europe-but even this was insufficient to finance protracted zuma $6.300,000 in gold (valuation made in the wars, which now required great investment in mid-1950s). Pizarro is believed to have taken cannon foundries, gunsmiths' factories and pow- from Atahualpa 1,326,000 gold pesos ($6, 169.200) der mills, as well as horses. arms and armour, and and 52,000 silver marks ($681.240). No Eurothe greatest drain of all-the soldiers' pay. If pean monarch or banker had ever had such a Spain was to grow in power, she needed gold. fortune in his coffers: here was the source or Some was scavenged from the Portuguese ex- Spain's rise to greatness in the ,6th century. ploration of the coast of Africa, some from By 1500 it is estimated thal 101 mctric tonnes Oriental overland trade routes. and gold plate (99 tons) of gold had been shipped to Spain from was melted down to produce more coin. But these the New World, more than doubling Europe's were trifling additions: the grandiose plans of the entirc store of that metal. The discovery of the great European monarchs could not be fulfilled Potosi mines in '545, and those at Zacatecas in 5
1547, was to result in an almost equal increase in the stock of silver in Europe over the next 40 years, during which timc 6,872 metric tonncs (6,765 tons) of silver crossed the Atlantic. To these riches must also be added the vast wealth realized by the Aztecjewels, Bogota emeralds and Venezuelan pearls; by the beaver skins of New Mexico, the precious woods of Guiana and the indigo, vanilla and cacao of the islands. The conquistadores, Spain's ex-soldiers in lhe ~ew War lu.ddle of 15'f,g.. The aeat q padded and covered witb quilled lealber IIlronsly lined witb browu leal.her and bordeO'fll wilh a .Uk (rinS"" The large padd.,d bollllu'!J on eitber aide a..., 10 support the rider'a lhighs. Tbe centraJ IItec:1 plat'" ill reinforced at Ih", had! by a fourth pial"'. 1ft", und"nid", of tb", lIaddle L.. bnvily padded wilh 1I1..... W covered with COarlle can".a. (W.llace Collection)
6
World, had won the battlc for gold, and made possible Spain's brief but brilliant burst of glory.
Los Conquistadores The highly efficient armies created by Ferdilland Vand Isabella for the recollquis{(l of [481 to 1'~92. \vhic!l finally expelled the Moors from Iberia, were reorganized in the last decade of the 15th century into a standing army under full royal control. This was the army which was to fight the Italian Wars against France, under the inspired leadership of El Grt/II Cnpi!an~Com:alo de Cordoba, the first important European soldier
fully to understand and utilize small-arms firepower. At the beginning of the wars with France in 1495, the standing army of Spain was the only one in Europe which could truly be described as a rcgular army, with ovcr a decade of continuous warfare behind it. In the next decade, under Cordoba, this army reconquered the kingdom of Naples, which was finally surrendered by the French in 1505. During this period Cordoba trained a portion of his infantry in Swiss pike tactics, and by 1505 he had forged an army of highly disciplined and experienced pikemen and arquebusiers which, combining the advantages of both arms in mutually supporting roles, and trained and organized in a modern sense for the first time, was to dominate the battlefields of Europe for the next 70 years. The italian Wars were renewed in 1508 by Louis XII, and lasted until 1514. Francis 1 re· newed them in 1515, but peace was signed the following year. The wars were not resumed until 1521. For the first time in 20 years the soldiers of Spain were unemployed. Volunteers flocked to the newly discovered Caribbean islands to pursue tbe only trade they knew-and to get rich quickly. The soldiers who went to the West Indies, and from there to conquer the Americas, were the most adventurous men of an adventurous age: tough, brave and ruthless. More imporrantly, two decades of war, of constant success against all enemies-and anothcr decade of success against Islam before that-had given these Spanish soldiers an unshakeable self-confidence. They were not only unbeatable, they knew they were unbeatable; and whenever they were faced by thousands of Indians in the Americas their first reaction, regardless of the overwhelming odds, was always to advance, with their cavalry charging arrogantly into the thick of the enemy. When one looks at the numbers of Spanish soldiers involved in the American conquests, one can begin to appreciate the measure of this selfconfidence. When Cortes advanced into the heart of the Aztec empire, confronting and defeating armje.s of 40,000 or more, he had 400 men, '5 horses, iO heavy cannon and four lighter pieces. When he undertook the siege of Tenochtitlan in
c...... an
1Jt
spur or eirc.. 1500, or the style usecl by Ihe of the Eovironmoelll)
cOllqwst.do~s.(Dept.
A pair or Spa-mall stirrups in tbe Moorish slyle, clued .baut "S5O. (WalIsc>e Collectioll)
7
1521
h
cavalr on!
had some 85 and 15 cannon. rr nd
Iron shield or buclder in the Spanish tyle, mad about IS60. The hield I made in two halves riveted together and is convex in erooD. The conical bo ba central spike of diamond emoD. At the Inck are ring for the ann and hand-loop DilUDeter 59.3CD1 (2:Jin.) w • bt ~.I80 kil (g1b). Shields of this fonn, with applied radiating pokes and rOUlld bo e but faced with leather or velvet may be seen in tbe Real Anneria at Madrid. (Wallace Collection)
Spanish tUlllrgll- ~Ie hield of the 16th century made of bide. (Dept. of the Environment)
cro bow with i
P w rfu!
t
1
armour mn
xp and ral
ortes
8
tween 120 and 160 crossbowmen and arquc· busiers, yct conditions were as near ideal as they would ever be for such weapons; and when Alvarado altacked Quito he had no arquebusiers at all, though one-firth of his 500 Illcn were crossbowmcn. There was also the problem of ammunition replenishment. Before the siege of Tenochtitlan, Cortcs had Spanish crossbow bolts and boltheads distributed to his Indian allies of Texcoco, with instructions to copy them and produce 8,000 of each. Within eight days lhe Indians delivered 50,000 bolt-shafts and a similar number of copper boll-heads. the latter apparently superior in quality to the Spanish ones! These were distri· buted amongst Cortes's crossbowmen (possibly &:l in number) with instructions to polish, oil and feather the bolt's. Another vital item was powder. Before the siege of Tenochtilian Cortes had 510 kilos (I, I 241b) for his arquebusiers and his three heavy iron cannon and five small bronze field pieces. Finally, bow-cord was shipped to the conquistadores in great quantity, suggesting a rapid deterioration of the cord in service, and confirming the lack of reliability of the crossbow in this theatre. Ifit was not the trained arqllebllsiers with their 'sticks which produced t.hunder', or even the crossbowmen using a weapon which the Indians could comprehend, who defeated the American Indians, then success must have been achieved in hand~to-hand combat. It seems incredible that such small numbers of Spanish soldiers-who were not always supported by Indian alliescould overwhelm thousands of Indians in hand~ to-hand fighling, but they did. So how did they do it? firstly, and most importantly, the Spaniards had the horse. The American Indians had never seen horses before and few became familiar with the animal during the conquistadore period. The Aztec account of the conqucst (TIlt Broken S/u!(lrs) brings home just how supernatural these animals must have appeared to the Indians, who at first believed that if the rider was killed the horse was rendered useless: 'The stags [i.e. horses J came forward, carrying the soldiers on their backs. The soldiers were wearing cotton armour. They bore their leather
Spanish sword... nd-buckler Olan in cuiralis with tassets, bU"1onet and ~orset. His annOur is decoratoed with the popular braidoed or 'rope' de"ign of t.he 'S:lOlI.
shields and their iron speul'S in their hands, but their swords hung down from the necks of the stags. 'These animals wore little bells, they are adorned with many lillIe bells. When the stags gallop, the bells make a loud clamour, ringing and reverberating. 'These stags snort and bellow. They sweat a very great deal, the sweat pours from their bodies in streams. The foam from their muzzles drips onto the ground.· It spills out in fat drops, like 9
Spaaisb ,_rd.....d-bocJ.ln mat '- baul" wiLb An.,.., ....mo .... AU a"" "'.... lroa budd~ .....,... bal'1:0..ds, .... d bave _armoured I"S"
Spaa.i.b ...I1d, lal" 'Sib ctDlury, ".D1prd wiLbIJw, mark or C""";';" d" I.. a.rma. (Za sou). Tht: aaUd .ad burt0D"" S"."ralIy wo .... by W lryrn"... tb.oup SO~ eavalrymat alR p""rnred lbnn 10 d,e clond b"lmd. (Depl. of lb." E.. vironm".u)
w"""
lather or amolc [a plant used by the Aztecs to make soap). 'They make a loud noise when they run; they make a great din, as if stones were raining on the earth. Then the ground is pitted and scarred where they set down their hooves. It opens wherever their hooves touch it.' Although the dominance or the heavily armoured horseman had been challenged by the introduction orthe pike and arquebus rormations, such cavalry was to retain a considerable measure or importance on European battlefields right into the second hair or the 16th century, and in the Americas it reigned supreme. In battle the mounted man had an ovenvhclming advantage over a root-soldier, striking downwards from a greater height with all the added rorce that entailed, and using his horse as a weapon to knock down other opponents. "Olat same height made the rider less accessible to the root-soldier, and the horseman could fight longer and manoeuvre more quickly than a root-soldier, who had only his own legs to rely on. Even more important was the mobility which horses gave to the Spaniards, in comparison with the Indians, who were wholly on root. Time and time again small bodies of Spanish cavalrymen dashed into the rray, or rode across country to take Indian rorces by surprise. There was no way the Indians could prevent such lightning attacks, for even ir a screen or picquets was thrown out in advance or an army, the Spanish horsemen could ride past them raster than the sentries could run back to give the alarm. Tlte Brokell Sptars also gives a description or the riders: 'There were aboul fifteen of these people, somc with blue jackets, others with rcd, othcrs with black or green, and still olhers with jackets or a soiled colour, very ugly, like our ichtilmatli [cloak made rrom the fibres of the maguey cactus]. There were also a rew without jackets. On their heads they wore red kerchiers, or bonnets or fine scarlet colour, and some wore large, round hats like small comalts [wide flat pottery dish on which tortillas were-and still arc-baked] which must BriS....dine of .maU pial" rivded to liD.... c.ov'"-rs, c:aHce1e aJWl bevor, uod plllltld" aD Spamsb eire. '470-'500- TlU. r"preftDts type of .r_o.... uud by nu.Dy Spaa.i'" r_soldl,"-", in tb" laidal battl".. (Dept. «lbe EaviroDmatt)
d,,,
10
II
Sid.,..view or lhe c:.ba<;:fle illu,.lraled ;., lhe prec:ed.Uo.s photosrap'" h .. orlale 'sth c:eulury Spwsh m ...uIaaure, or poPibly 1t.1.... ror tb.- SpuU..h market. (Depc. or th.. E.. viro........,I)
Spulip moricm or doe early .6IJI CftlIDry. nn. ..... tlI.e Iype orhdmet prer"rTed by arqu.. hu,.iuD ."d eros.bo_......... d _ . also popWar with other r_·nldi ...... (Depc. or th" Euvi...... m ....t)
12
have been sunshades. They have very light skin, much lighter than OUl'S. Tiley all have long beards, and their hair comes only to their cars.' The European fashion at this time was for doublets of cloth and leather with puffed and slashed sleeves, with padded rolls at the shoulders, and very short and wide knee breeches, also puffed OUI by stuffing. With these were worn tight-fitting hose and calf-high ~loorish boots of red leather, or the heavier rough leather thighboots, turned down to belo\\' the knee except in battle. The clothing was colourful, n:d being an especially popular colour, and feathers were orten worn in the hats. The stuffing in the doublet and breeches afforded some protection against a sword slash, but when the conquistadores first fought in the Americas they wore armour of the type used in Europe. The captajns and some of the richer horsemen would have worn what is known as three-quarter armour; closed helmet, cuirass, arm defences and gauntlets, and leg defene(:s which ended at the knees. This armour \\'as probably quite decorative in appearance, for the age of the conquistadores coincided with the peak of the art of the armourer. The Italian Wars had caused an interchange of styles between the great German and Italian armour manufacturing centres, and by about 1500 the formerly distinc· tive styles of these two countries had fused to give a common style throughout Europe, usually referred to as Maximilian armour, though this term refers particularly to armour decorated with vertical fluting. However, armours with smooth surfaces were used as widely as fluted armour during this period, and indeed smooth armour was the most popular style outside Germany. (Fluled armour went OUl offashion in Italy about 15'20, and in Germany by the 1530S.) Arter about 1510 the lurned edges of plate armour made in Germany were often decorated with brass border.; of a braided or 'rope' design. and this was general practice by about 15'20. Jo~rom this date these edges were turned inwards instead of outwards as formerly, and this provides a rule-of-thumb guide when dating armour. Another development circa 1510 was the embossing and elching of whole annours in imitation of the puffed and slashed costume of the period. This fashion was at its peak
in the 1520S and cndcd circa '530. The Spanish had been greatly influenced by the Moors, and had developed a lightcr armoured horseman in the Moorish style to cancel out the advantages of pikeman and arquebusier. These light cavalrymen, calledjinelt's, rode ljghter, faster horses than the medieval knight and used a style of riding called a lajineta, which made for greater manoeuvrability. Instead of riding with legs stretched out, like the medieval knight, who had to take the shock of charging home with thc lance, these riders used short stirrups and rode with their legs bent backwards so as to give the appearance of almost kneeling on the horse's back. A high ivloorish saddle was used, and the single-rein but powerful Moorish bit, whieh turned a horse by pressure on the neck, not by pulling at the corners of the mouth. This bit had a high port and often a long branch, so that by
ralsmg the hand the port was pressed into the palate, and a horse obeyed far more rapidly yet suffered less than undcr the modern system of riding. Most of the cavalry in the Americas would have been of this lighter typc, wearing a lighter type of armour specially designed for them. This usually consisted of an opcn helmet, collar, cuirass, thigh defences called tassets, arm defences and gauntlets. Some cheaper armours consisted of helmet, gorget, cuirass and vambraces, which protected only the outsides of the arms and bad laminated extensions over tile backs of the hands instead of gauntlets. Occasionally no plate was used on the arms, only mail, and some light "Spanish' morion of circD. 1580; in fact d.;'8 ""....ple ;8 of noMh It.lian ...a .. uf:lI(:tu~, hut t.he ",orion wall 50 di"tinc_ tively Spani.!lh Ihat .Imnst all morioD.!l were 50 tenned reg.rdlen of pl.ce of origin. (Dept. of the Environment)
13
carried 011 the shoulders. The tropical rains of central America soon rusted such armours (cven though they were often paimed black to prevent this), while the sun boiled the men inside them; and it was not long before the conquistadores began to adopt the local armour, a jacket of cotton or maguC)' fibres, stuffed with cotton to a thickness of three fingers. This armour is sometimes referred to as quilted, and there must have been some stitching to keep the stuffing evenly distributed. The jackets were soaked in brine to toughen them, and were quite capable of SlOpping an [ndian arrow or sword slash: one Spanish captain is said to have emerged from a banle looking like a porcupine, with 200 arrows in his quilted armour, and it was certainly normal for such armour to stop perhaps 10 ;}ITO\\'S without injury to the wearer. Helmets and gorgets were worn with this quilted armour, with local hemp sandals replacing the heavy leather boots. Diaz says: 'We never took off our armour, gorgelS or leggings by night or day.' It must be assumed that 'leggings' refers only to hose, as it is doubtful if any form of protection was worn on the legs. A small shield completed the cavalryman's defences, generally an oval buckler of iron or wood covered in leather, though the hean-shaped ar/arga was also used. Offensive weapons wcn: a I;UlCl', sword and dagger. The lance (/a1/,{{ljinda) was between three and four metres (g-12It) long, thin and light, with a metal head of diamond cross-section. It could penetrate the Indian armour with case. In weapons and equipment as well as in spiril, the conquistadores were indeed men or iron: well migbt tbe American Stone Age author of ,6eh-eentury ~words, left to righe: h.nd-and-halI IIword, The BrQkm Spears write or thc Spaniards: 'Their probably Germ"-'l, length of blade '09'3c"" (13in.), weight trappings and arms are all made of iron; they 2.'40 kilo, (dlb); two-handed .word, Spanisb or German, length '35.2<:m (53;"')' weight 2.675 kilOll (51.b); hand-anddress in iron and wear iron casques on their half !>word, Spanilh blade, ~rma.n bilt, length 95'4cm heads. Their swords are iron; thcir bows arc (37tin.), we;llhc '.740 kilo. 13ilb). (WallaCO! CoUece;on) iron; their shields are iron; their spears arc iron.' cavalrymen had only an open helmet, mail shirt The second decisive factor in band·to-band and gauntlets. combat with the Inclians was the Spanish in· A full suit of armour weighed between 27 and fantryman and his sword. At this date the pike 32 kilos (60-70Ib), but was not cumbersome and arquebus bad not yct totally replaced the becausc the weight was distributed evenly over sword·and·buckler men who had built the fine the whole body. A mail shin might weigh be- reputation of the Spanish army, and who were tween 7 and 14 kilos (15-30Ib), depending on the famed throughout Europe for their skill as size of lhe links, but most of that weight was swordsmen. Encased in three-quaner armour 14
and opcn helmet with gorget, armed with a long, Spanish lorbade any Indian 10 possess a steel double-edged sword and small buckler, these sword under any circumstances whatever. swordsmen had broken the famous Swiss pike Thirdly, there were the cannon the Spanish formations which had ruled the battlefield for a dragged so paitlstakingly ovcrland with themcentury, to emerge as the leading infantrymen of or rather, enlisted native porters to do so for the day. them. There is little refercnce to the role played The development offirearms had not yet made by cannon in the conquests, yet one can judge the swordsman obsolete, only caused the lighten- from the eyewitnesses' descriptions of battles that ing of his armour to give greater speed in the the cannon were devastating, employing in the auack, and in America the sword-and-buckler set-piece battles what must have been langridge man more often than not wore only a helmet and (a kind of canister-shot containing irregular iron studded brigandine, or ajack made ofsmall plates projectiles) at close range and wilh murderous of iron or horn secured between two layers of effecl. Nor was their effect restricted to the purely canvas by Slitching, or a plain but tough leather physicaJ: as with the horses, the cannon had an jerkin. SallcLS and burgoneLS were worn by these effect on the minds and morale of the Indians: men, but the most popular type of helmet for the infalllry was the morion, which was especially favoured by the arquebusiers and crossbowmen Spani.h .wont of th.e mid_16th c:enlury, Icon«1b I04'3cm (,pin.), _igh, 1.:WO kilos (2ilb). (W.Ua.... Collection) bccause it enabled them to take aim better. The straight Spanish sword was about a metre in length, double-edgcd, with a sharp point and S-shaped crossguard, one arm of which curved towards the pear-shaped pommel to protect the hand, while the othcr curved towards the point and could be used to trap an enemy's weapon. Sometimes there was a metal ring at each side of the blade to provide extra protection for the hand. This was the period when the rapier made its appearance, and the art of fencing became popular throughout Europe. The Spanish had gained much from the Moors when it came to swordblade manufacture, and by this date Toledo was one of the most famous centres of sword manufacture. Strict standards were enforced, and all blades were rigorously tested by bending them into an S and semi-circle, and by striking full force against a steel helmet, before being passed. Toledo blades were long, strong, flexible, light and razor-sharp-deadly weapons in the hands of skilled men, and the Spanish were the finest swordsmen in Europe. Against such weapons the Indians had a heavy, clumsy sword which could only be used in a slashing acdon: while they were still raising their arms to strike, the conquistadores could transfix them with one lighllling lunge, piercing the cotton armour with case. It is no coincidence that, once established in the Americas, the 15,
'Then the Spanish fired one of their cannOllS, and this caused great confusion in the city. The people scattered in every direction; they fled without rhyme or reason; they ran off as if they were being pursued. It was as if they had eaten the mushrooms that confuse the mind, or had seen some dreadful apparition. They were all overcome by tcrror, as if their hearts had fainted. And when night fell, the panic spread through the city and their fears would not let them sleep.' (From The Broken Spears.)
TheAztecs
German l!word of abo"t IS80, ,he Toledo inscription is not in the Spanish manne... Length 93.4crn (36lin.), weighl .830 kilos (Illb). (Wallace Collection)
\6
'Aztec' has come to be used as a collective title for all Mexican Indians, but the true Aztecs were originally a relatively small tribe which moved from the north-west into the valley of Mexico in the 11th or 12th century. By circa '3:25 they had founded their city of Tenochtitlan in Lake Texcoco, and about a hundred ycars later they emerged as one of the leading powers, forming a triple alliance with the cities of Texcoeo and Tlaeopan (Tacuba). Under Aztec leadership the Triple Alliance conquered the neighbouring tribes, but civil war broke out between the allies in the 14.60s, ending in 1473 with victory for the Aztecs. Tenochtitlan thus became the capital of an empire, which by the time of the conquistadores contained no less than 38 scmi.independent tribes, all ruled by the Aztec emperor or 'Chosen Speaker' in Tenochtitlan. By this date the population of Tcnochtitlan had grown to an estimated 90,000 (contempol'ary sources usually give 250,000 but this is an exaggeration); at t.he same date London had a population of circa 40,000, Paris 65,000. The Aztecs could no longer support themselves from local produce, and were dependent on tribute from the conquered tribes, notjusl in the form of food, but also for all tbe luxuries which they coveted but could not produce for themselvesgold, jewels, chocolate, rubber, cotton, animal skins and birds (for their feathers). However, war was not only a political and economic necessity
to maintain tile status quo and to exact tribute, it was also essential for religious rcasons. The Aztecs regarded themselves as the chosen people of {he gods, chief of whom was their own I-Iuitzilpochtli (the Hummingbird Wizard), who was the sun, the ever-youthful warrior who fouglH Man's battles with the other gods for Man's survival. To keep up his strength, I-Iuitzilpochtli needed food, and the most precious food was human blood. Huitzilpochtli was therclore fed by human sacrifice, and war was the means by which the Aztecs secured an unending supply of victims. Thus the Aztecs were continually at war, and their army was of paramount importance. All youths, regardless of rank, were submitted to a rigorous military training from tbe age of fifteen. As a mark of their status their hair was shorn, with the exception of a long tuft left to grow at tbe back of tbe head. These youths went into baltic with experienced veterans, each youth following a veteran and awaiting the opponunity to p1"Ove bimself, rather like a medieval European squire. If a youth succeeded in taking a captive for sacrifice-usually with the help of five or six other initiates-be became an D'ac and most of his tuft of hair was removed, leaving only a small part which reached down to one car. Thereafter the youth had lO take all further captives en tirely unaided. Successful youths were allowed to stajn their faces with red ochre, and the Chosen Speaker granted them orange capes with a striped border and a scorpion design, together with two breechelouLS, one of carmine, the other of many colours. More honours were granted to those who managed to achieve a total of three captives, but only when a youth had taken a fourth captive was he promoted to the title of seasoned warrior. I-Ie then became a member of lhe officer class, and could mix on equal terms with the greatest captains. Needless to say, only a minority of youths achieved this status: the majority failed and returned to their homes, where they pursued the tradc of their father, morc often than not becoming pcasant farmers. The peasant (macehllalli) formed the base of Aztec society and was grouped in clans of related families. Although primarily a farmer he was also a warrior, part of the vast reservist force whieh 4
formed the bulk, the rank and file, of all Aztec armies. For the Aztecs had no standing army as such, only the cadre of seasoned warriors, and when war was declared the peasantry had to be mustered, armed and given a brief refresher course. Other members of the clan tend<..-d a peasant's fields while he was away with the army. As warfare was almost continuous, but normally on a small scale, the peasant-warrior was usually called upon to serve in a sort of rota system, and because of his initial training was quile proficient as a warrior. The smallest unit in an army was a squad of 20 men, although detachments of fOlll' to six men were used for scouting and raiding parties. These S(Juads were combined into larger units of 200,400 and 800 \varriors, and wcre comlllanded at each Icvel by officers drawn from the officcr class but of the same clan. Some missile men were formed into separate bodies under an officer called OlomilL. All the men of one clan were tbus fonned inlO onc large group (capulli), with their clan chief in overall command. There were 20 clans in Tenochtitlan and tbe 20 capulli were organized into four divisions, corresponding to the same grouping as existed in the four quarters 4
eul,,~rin
with
hronze b .. rr~I,lypical of the 6~ld w~" arnOdSIiI th~ firlil 10 rnohility, hUI ~v..." 110 "'Ilhl or nine bonH we..., needed 10 rnove the artiUery p;ece.. In Ih~ AlDene. . the pi~CH w~ft moved hy native labour, and no rnention i. made o(lim~n. It ill pou;blethey we..., dragged barrel 6nl, with tbe lra.illiterally trailing.
A light
calrt
guDli o( I.h~ period Th~ un Hm~rs 10 iJnprov~
SplUlish
17
A m"tn~ of th" 'military ord,,'" of th" KniShlS of th" Jasua... H" w.,. ... a jasua.. skin, whio;:h <:onc:o:als his quilled <:ol.1on armour. He il; armo:d with. l'ath.,... f;uu:ifu.1 ."" Co.. whio;:h the.... is no "vid...a<:", bUI i" otherwise <:orro:aly ponl'a"ed.
(b(lrriQJ) of the city. In the largest armies the troops from a given barrio were sometimes divided
again into 'brigades' of two or three dans. The four divisional commanders were blood rdatives of the emperor: two were called aacaillcall (chief Df men), another Ilacoe/lca/call (chief of the house of javelins). The Chosen Speaker was cDmmander of the whole army, and commander-in-chief' of all the forces lielded by the Aztec confederatiDn of city states. The emperDr might lead the armies in person, but in time of continuous warfare the command was sometinH.'S delegated to a war chid (t/ocalecalecult//i) who held ofllce for a single campaign. Mexican chroniclers refer to arm it'S of anything from 20,000 to 200,000 warriors under the supreme command of TenDchtillan, The first figure seems a reasonable estimate for the contingent from Tenochtitlan itself: Texcoco and Tlacopan may have produced a further 20,000 warriors between them. They were thus depen o
18
dent upon each other, and on contingents from conquered tribes, when lighting the largest tribes, such as the Tlaxcalans, who could field about 40,000 warnors. In addition to providing officers for thc subdivisions under the clan chiefs, the Dfficer class also provided a bodyguard for the emperor and at least three olher permanenl bodies of troops, known as the Knights of the Eagle, theJaguar and the Arrow. The Knights of the Armw do nOi appear to have been of the same importance as the other two 'military orders', but all tlu'ee seem to have fought as a separate body within the army, acting as a rorpJ d'e/i/~ which probably took the centrc of the line of b
warriors were usually plain, though it is possible that all warriors' shields had painted on them the hieroglyph of their clan. The shields of the various captains and members of the knightly orders bore their personal emblems or hieroglyphs, as did that of the commander of each clan. These shields were frequently of wood inlaid with gold or turquoise, or had the devices portrayed in a feather mosaic stuck onto bark·paper backing. The equipment of the captains and commanders was also much more elaborate, with feather decoration on the idu:altuipilli, and ban· ners of wickerwork decorated with feathers or paper, gold and jewels, carried on each captain's back by means of a shoulder harness which left both arms free. These captains also wore headdresses of leather or wood, decorated with feather crests 01' devices made from cloth and paper. The long green and bronze plumes of the quetzal bird were reserved for the highest ranking commanders-clan chieftains and above. The Jaguar Knights wore jaguar skins over their itltcalwipilli, with lhe animal's head forming a headdress, lhe warrior's face showing through the open ja\'~'s. The icltcaltuipilli of the Eagle Knight was completely covered by feathers in imitation of that bird and a headdress in the shape of an cagle's head was worn, with the beak wide open to show the warrior's face. in addition to the clan and unit insignia each army also had a distinctive emblem which served as a rallying point and which was carried on lhe back of a leading warrior. That of the Tepetipac was a wolf with arrows; that of the Ocotclolco a green bird perched on a rock; and lhat of the Tlaxcalans a white crane with outstretched wings. Added to this riot of colour was the red, white and black paint used to colour the faces of the warriors. The purpose of all this finery was to distinguish the various captains in battle, not only for the benefit of their own troops, but also because the main aim of Indian warfare was to obtain prisoners for sacrifice, and those prisoners had to be warriors of rank, the higher the better. Orders were given in battle by small drums carried on the backs of the captains, and by trumpets, shrill bone or day whistles, and deepLOned conch shells. These were also used to send
up a cacophony of sound at the opening of a battle, and the Spanish chroniclers record the ear·splitting din with which Indians began their battles in an attempt to intimidate their foes. The missile weapons of the Aztec confederation were the bow, sling and javelin. The bows (ILauitolli) were between 1.25 and t.5 metres (4ft lin.-4ft lOin.) in length, made from a single piece of wood, and shot arrows with points either of obsidian or simply of fire-hardened wood. The bow was llot a particularly eR"cctive weapon and the Aztecs preferred to llse the javelin (llacf}{;!JtIi) or dan (milL), both with obsidian points and bllrled by a spear-thrower (all-ali). This consisted ofa short wooden staR'with a groove down the middle to hold the missile, and a projecting peg at the end to prevent the missile slipping Ollt when the thrower drew back his arm for lhe throw. Thejavclin was also used in hand-to-hand fighting, but the dan was solely for missile llse. Some javelins had a dOllble or pronged head. A light throwing spear, normally used for hllnling
A knight of the military order of the Arrow, .... mUlLtrated in contemporary rnanuscripu. He wea .... the distinctive dnn of his order, in red and white. and carries a shield, two javelins and a fighting spear ruernbling a jl;iant arrow. Sorne of the other mernbe.,. of the order would probably have carried the mac"",." orm..q_'",ill.
19
20
birds, was also employed at th(' siege of Tcnocbtitian. Perhaps the most eflcclive missile weapon againsl the Spanish was the sling. These were of plaited or twisted COlton thread, and were capable of hurling stoncs the size of chicken eggs with deadly eAcct. The Matlaltzinca tribe of the valley of Toluca were noted slingers: they carried their slings tied round their foreheads when not In usc. For hand·to-hand fighting the Aztecs had, in addition to the javelin, a long wooden lance (/epll.?/ojJilli) between 1.75 and 2.75 mctres (5ft 7in.-gft) long, wilh flakes of obsidian set into the head 10 provide both point and cuning edges. This was a popular weapon with the Chinantec tribe from the mountains of Oaxaca. Another two-handed weapon was the 1.25-metre (3ft loin.) CUflllhQlolli, which had a knob al onc end and a 50 to 60cm (20-24in.) blade at the other. It resembled an axe or medicval bill morc than a spear, having no point. It was not common amongst the Aztecs but was used by tribes they had conq ucred. The two main weapons for close combat were the maquolwil! and the macana. The maquahllitL was a two-handed, paddle-shaped sword-club of Ailt.,c: warrior, all drawn by Hoffman. H" ;s arm.,.( with a maqW4hw;rt, Or liword-duh, "dged with obsidian blad"s, and wood, about a metre (3ft) long, IOcm (4in.) wide w""", quilted armOur and .. typical Aztec: h"addr""",. Cotto.. u"ed by th., SpaniaNb probably tool< this form, but and 5cm (2in.) thick, with obsidian blades set in armOur tb., nati"" armOurfil are sbown itt c:ont.,lDporary lDanu_ grooves all along its edges. The mocona was a S.,riptll all r"..c:hing to th" wriats and mid-calf. heavy club of wood with a thick round end. The maquflhuitl was a deadly weapon at close-quarters, insults, the archers, slingers and javelin mcn disand both it and the mocOIIa could smash down charged their missiles at the enemy and the two even those Spaniards equipped with plale armour armies rushed at each other for the hand-to-hand by the sheer force of their blows. The maqllolJllitl fighting. Tired troops were withdrawn and recould also sheer through COtton armour, for the placed by fresh warriors from a reserve, and obsidian flakes were frequently renewed and attempts were made to outflank an enemy or to were razor-sharp. In fact, the very sharpness of attack him from two sides at once, but that was obsidian-sharper than steel, though not holding the limit of tactical manoeuvring. Sometimes an its edge for long-was the main reason why the army might feign a retreat, only 10 lead the Aztecs had not bothered to put to practical usc pursuers into an ambush. Another popular ruse was to conceal troops in prepared positions and the iron they stored in their treasure houses. Tactics were relatively simple, and typical of lure the enemy into the trap. Victory wa.,> achieved when one side captured most plimitive peoples. After the whisl1ing, beating of drums, clashing of weapons and shouting of lhe opposing commander, or seized and set fire to the other side's templc. Consequently battles tended to be short and sharp, with relatively few Wa ....io....' ".,.ddr",;".,a, "hit:.ld,. and o""....,.w15., tog.,ther wit.b casualtics; a warrior gained no glory by killing an "ariOIlll otb"r it"ma, a. d"picted itt a c:o.. t"mpo....ry manu_ lI.,ript Ibn;ng t.b" trihut., to be paid to th" Azt.,c:s by • opponent, being rewarded only in proportion to c:o..qu"red tribe. Th" lIwt. w"re often c:ompl.,t"ly c:o""red in the number of cavtives he had taken, and lhere £eatb"rwork. (BodI.,ian Library fil..",tripll) 21
was no pursuit to slaughter a routed enemy. Rewards were also given 10 the families of those who died 01' were taken captive: those who had done wrong in the battle were sloned to death on the balllcfieid. The nature of the land itself determined stralegy. Azlec roads were only of beaten earth, but they were superior to most roads in Europe at this dale and were quite adequate for a civilization which had no draught animals and therefore no vehicles. However, this laek of transport, and the lack of a system of supply depots along the roads, mea III thal all supplies and equipment had to be carried on the backs of men. Although an Aztec porter could march 24 kilometres (IS miles) a clay carrying 34 kilos (7Slb), it was simply not possible to eonducl a prolonged campaign. For the samc reasons sieges were almost impossible, and in general there were no fortifiAn Aztec capt.....s depicted by Hoffm.... & carries. most improbable dub, and is appa~..dy without a ..y fonn of body armour, but th., drawin. d ..... show th., cornet form of shield, h.,addn:,,~ captain's insignia carried 011 the back, and p.dd..... 'grea".".' which we..., only wo .... by tbe higb_ r.nking offic.,u.
22
cations: the water defences of Tenochtitlan, for example, wcre sufficient to deter all allackers except the Spanish. When campaigns had to be undertaken in distant parts of the empire it was customary for the local conquered tribes to supply the bulk of the army, stiffened only by contingents of knights and seasoned warriors from the Triple Alliance. Wars or battles were always begun by the ritual of sending shields, arrows and cloaks of a special kind lO the enemy leaders as a forillal declaration lhat they would soon be attacked. This explains why the Aztecs were taken by surprise when the conquisladores, at that time their guests, suddenly turned all them without any apparent motive and without formal warning: the Aztecs conducted war on a ritualistic level, with almost chivalrous ideals, but in the Spanish they were fighting men whose aims were lotal conquest and subjugation oflhe Aztecs, and permanent occupation of their lands-concepts never entertained by the Aztecs themselves, whose only interests werc sacrificial captives and tribute. In addition the Aztecs could not match the quality of the Spanish weapons and armour. Their javelins and arrows proved to be virtually useless against the conquisladores, able at besl to inflict only slight wounds which did not even prevent the Spaniards from maintaining their position in the battle line. There are frequent mentions of conquistadores being injurcd, but few of them secm to have been kjJ]ed in battle with lhe Aztecs. The Spaniards themselves feared lhe stoncs of the slingcrs far more than all the arrows and javelins, which at some battles are described as so numerous that they darkened lhe sky. The only weapons which did seem capable of kil1ing the Spaniards or lheir horscs were lhe macana and maquahuill, but the Aztecs were all too often prevented from getting close enough to employ these successfully, and even tben were outmatched by the lightning thruslS of the Spaniards' steel swords. Another problem in hand-to-hand fighting was the Aztec's ingrained practice of taking prisoners. Many Spaniards must have died but for lhe desire of the warriors to seize lhem alive for sacrifice; even Cortes could have been killed on at leaSl two occasions,
if only the Aztecs had not been so preoccupied with the aim of taking him alive. Spanish sources also imply that the Aztecs were poorly lcd, but this impression was marc likely due simply 1O the superiority of Spanish tactics. The Spaniards fought lOtal war of the kind practised in 16th-century Europe, and the Aztecs just could not adapt to this concept of war. The Aztecs were also fighting the finest soldiers of the age; and face to face, quality of weapons aside, the Aztec warriors were simply no match for the Spaniards. And yet the Aztec commanders and warriors were not inAcxible; they did make some effort to adapt their tactics to defeat this new type of enemy. During the siege of Tcnochtitlan they learnt never to move in straight lines, but always to zigzag to avoid the bullets of the arquebusiers. Whenever they saw thc crossbow men taking aim, they would drop to the ground and allow the bolts 1O whistle harmlessly overhead. Theyovercame their fear of the cannon, and if thcy captured one they made sure it would not be used again by toppling it into the lake; and they also used captured swords, with considerably more success than when armed with their own weapons. Even their dread of the horse was overcome. Warriors knocked holes in lhe walls of houses: when the cavalry charged, they dived through these holes to shelter, where the Spanish cavalry could not reach them. Whcn the cavalry began to withdraw, lhey issued out to drag the riders from the saddle and cut off their heads. Given time the Aztecs might have overcome their preoccupation with captives and lIsed their numbers and undoubted bravery to defeat the invadcrs, but they wcre not given that time. The Aztec empire fell to the conquistadores after only two major baules in the field, and a three-month siege of the capital by the Spaniards and some 24,000 Tlaxcalan allies.
T/zelncas As with the Aztecs, the term 'Incas' did not originally have the meaning which we now apply 10 it. By about A.D. toOO a tribe called the Qucchua had occupied the valley of Cuzco in
A g ....up or A~tec eaptai.us, sbow;ng e..amples or their insignia and how 'hey were rran,reI and carriw.
modern Peru and gradually expanded lheir hold all the surrounding territory, absorbing or killing their neighbours. Around A.D. 1200 Ihe chieftains of the Qucchua declared that they were de· scended from the Sun God, and would henceforth be hereditary and divine rulers. They called themselves Incas, but their tribe was still called the Queehua, and Quechua·speaking Indians survive in Peru to this day. The Incas reached the zenith of their power during the 15th century, and never lost a battle after 1437-until the Spaniards arrived almost a century later. By 1500 the Queehua people had absorbed about 500 other tribes and the Incas mled an empire five times lhe size of modern France, covering not only Peru but also Ecuador, southelTl Colombia, part of western Bolivia, and northern Chile. The Qucchua were still the main ethnic group in this vast empire, but there were three other major ethnic groups: the Symaras to the south, the primitive Urus from the Amazon Basin, and the Chimus along the coast north of
23
Lima. This last group was the final one to be conquered by the Incas, in a prolonged war lasting from 1461 to 1464, which made such an impression on the Quechuas that they were still talking about it when the Spaniards arrived. Unlike the Aztecs, the Incas convened the conquered tribes into subjects within the empire, not semi-independent states merely paying tribute. Alllcvcls oflife were highly organized in the Inca empire, and adminjstered with iron control by the Incas from their capital at Cuzco. At the base of the society was the peasant, regimented into units of 10 under a boss, with 10 such bosses in charge of 100 men controlled by a foreman, and 10 foremen in charge of 1,000 men in their turn controlled by a supervisor, who was head of a village. Villages were grouped into approximately the original tribal divisions, but the decimal system was continued up to 10,000 peasants in 10 villages, constituting a province under a governor or Tuc-ri-cuo ('He who sees all'). There were therefore 1,33 I officials for every 10,000 pea~ants. Each of these clans or tribes, called ayll/I, owned lhe land it farmed, but everything the pcople did or owned was controlled by the Incas. The Incas were themsclvts organized into an a)'llu, which included all those of royal blood. As the Incas frequently sired scores of children, Ihis was a numerous a)'llu and provided the elite nobility of the empire: the Tuc~ri~cuos were all Incas. A second order of nobility was the Curacfll, men who were Incas by privilege, not by birth, and whose ability had earned them promotion. The Curaeas were often the caciques or leaders of the conquered tribes, or their descendants. To achieve this dominance over such a vast empire the Incas needed a large and well. organized army. Most able·bodied males were trained in the usc of arms from boyhood, witb regular drills twO or three times a month, and could expect to be called up to perform their military service whenever needed between the agcs of 25 and 50, but there was no standing army. Instead, when war was imminent, each province was orden.-d to send a contingenl of warriors under a local commander, and these tribal contingents either marched to Cuzco or waited in readiness to join the main army when it passed ncar their territory.
24
Within these contingents organization was, again,
panish knight, c.I500-40
A
I.
2. 3.
B
pani h. wordsman, c.1520-50 pani h arquebusier, c.152 0 panish pik man, c.I540
I. ThL"cllJan C,.• plilin 2. TlaxcaJan purler 3. Te cocoon ·apt. in
c
I. zt Eagle wnrrioT 2. ,ztee J"guaT warrior 3. Art c pn 'Sl
o
I. Aztec archer Z. zt pcasnnt Ie y 3. Aztec alii d c. ptain
E
I. Inc.'1 ~..n"r,,1 2. Inc-a. empir,C': °hilllohnysuyu :1. In -'n w ..'nor
F
gen~r'fll
I. In '0 l'mpir: hin 'ha 'suyu warrior 2. In " mpir,,: Quechuo ling r 3. Inca entpiloc: him r wllrrior
G
I. ~1n)'o g nerHI
2..
loyn
\\"01Tior
:J. MnYli J) "llSnnl levy
H
There werc at least four 'baualions' in the corps: in order of importance the Auquicona (lhe ncarest kin to lhe Inca and including some of his sons), the Mancopchurincuzcos, the Cacacuzcos, and the Ayllucuzcos. The size of an Inca army depended cntirely on the campaign to be undertaken, and strcngths from 70,000 to '250,000 warriors arc recorded. 'When a war was 10ng-drawn-oUl, or pursued in an unfavourable climate, a rota system was established so that a proporlion of the soldiers could periodically return to their homes to recover and tend their land. Thcir fields were tended by othcr members of the ayllll during their absence on active service. Discipline was strict within both the cQrps dJeLitt and the army as a whole, regardless of rank. One general named Capac Yupanqui caplured a province on the bordcrs of the empirc without or9crs to do so, and despite his success was cxeCUled for exceeding his orders. When the Inca's troops first met the Spaniards they were overawed by thc horses, the first they had seen. When Hernando de Soto demonstrated his horsemanship on a spirited mount fol' the imperturbable Inca Atahualpa, one squadron of Inca troops drew back as the horse approached lhem: that night they were all executed for showing their fear. The ordinary people wore a standard form of clothing issued from common stores; no variations were allowed. For men this clothing con4 sisted of a loincloth or br('ecbcloLlI (dlllmIJi) of colourful woven wool, about 15cm (Gin.) wide, which was passed between the legs and secured at front and back by a belt, with the ends hanging down. A slccveless woollen tunic (onka) was also worn, which reached tojusl above the knees. This consisted ofa piece ofmatelial doubled and sewn down the sides, leaving openings for the arms, and with a hole cut out for the head. The tunics often had a pallerned border. Over this was worn a woollen cloak (rawl/a) knotted either at the centre of the chest or at aile shoulder. All woollen clothing was made from the wool of the alpaca, which was generally white but could also be in various shades of grey and natural brown. Blankets and cloaks were made from lhe coarser
and greasy llama wool, of a distinctive brownwhite mix. Sandals of llama leather were worn all the feet, secured by lacing round the ankles, but as these were of untanned leather they became soggy in wet weather, and peasants often went barefoot. Wool and magucy fibre were used for 'dress' sandals, worn at ceremonies and parades. The officials and nobility wore the same patterns of clothing but of higher quality (vicuna wool) and with morc ornamentation. When dressed for war the men donned tunics which bore the dislinctive insignia of their a)'lfu, and added bright fringes of woven wool around their legs below the knee and round the ankles and biceps: these were believed to give strength to the limbs. The elite corps may have worn a rich blue tunic, though this may only have been the unilorrn of the Rucana tribesmen, who carried the Inca's litter. Some warriors were issued with protective clothing, in the form of a quilted body armour resembling the Aztec ichcallUipilli. Leather breast plates were also used. Most warriors also had some form of head defence which carried the distinctive insignia of their aylfu. Some of these defences were just caps of thick wool, the grey maguey fibre, or padded cotton, but others were of plaited wood or cane. Many of these helmets had a feather crest running across lhe top from car to car. There were two distinct types of shield: a round onc of slats of iron-hard chonta wood obtained from the jungle tribes, which was carried slung round lhe neck to protcct the back, and a smaller rectangular one of wood or wickerwork covered with cloth or feather decoration, or of toughened deer or tapir hide. This was held on the left arm to shield the front of the body. The reclangular shield often had an 'apron' of cloth which hung from its bottom edge and was decorated with geometric patterns and insignia: the apron protected the legs from missiles. Captains and generals sometimes wore armour decorated with feathers, and could be recognized in battle by their Lall helmets formed in the shape ofa puma's head, or bearing plumed crests. They also wore metal discs (cmu/JU) on chest and back. These were military awards, the rank of the
25
........
..
26
award being indicated by the type of metal, either bronze, silver or gold, with the lauer reserved for the Inca nobility. Generals also carried a long staff of office decorated either with fcathers or with gold or silver bands and a cluster of plumes at the top. The various tribes had standards of birds, snakes and gods, which were carried on long staves. The standard of the Inca himself was small and square and bore a rainbow 1.0 indicate his descent from the Sun God, together with his personal device of a puma, condor, elc. It also had a cluster of coloured plumcs at the head of the stave. Individualllnits also had small banners about 2Qem (8in.) square, painted with insignia and carried on a spear. The Inca army could rely on a great variety of both long- and close-range weapons, since the contingents from diflerent provinces were expert at fighting with their traditional weapons, developed in a variety of conditions. For example, the Antisuyus forest Indians from the east were experts in the use of the bow, for only in their jungk-s could the springy wood for the bows be found. Because of this, wars fought in the mountain regions of lhe empire rarely had any archer contingents. The bows were short and shot arrows of hardwood, sometimes wiLh firehardened points and sometimes tipped with bone. The Ecuadorian and coastal tribes llSed spearand dart-throwers, similar to the Aztec all-atl. The darts had bone or flre~hardel1ed points. At closer range the Colla people employed their /lJ'llos or bolas, two or three stone balls tied La cords or thongs which were united into one cord, and which wrapped themsc\ves round the legs of men and animals. The balls themselves could cause serious wounds, and the weapon was particularly successful against the Spanish cavalry. The other missile weapon \Vas tbe sling (luwmea), \vhich wa.~ used universally, because all children spcm many hours killing birds in the maize fields with slings. The slings used for war were of plaited woollen cords or maguey fibre, tk-d round the waist like a belt when not in usc. These slings could hurl a stone the size of a Captai... and pea.anl levies, rrona a corueDlporary MeIiean m.nulicripl, iUustrating w".pon....rmOur .nd insignia. (Bodl"ian Library 6lmslrips)
A l1a"cab.n captain, beariag upon his back Ih" g~..t whit" cr.n" symbol or st.ndard or his tribe. Thc n ...c:.I.....rrny or <40,000 w.rriors was d"r" d by Co"n soon allcr h" I.nded. Th".....rtlU I.hc lla"eaI roughl ror him as.i",st their tradilional "n"min, tbe Aztecs. There were a . . 11.",ca.I.as.1 tbe sieg" orT"nocblitl....
chicken egg with deadly accuracy and effect: at 30 metres (98ft) a sling-shot was observed by one conquistadore to break in two the sword held in a man's hand, and at halfLhat range it could dent an iron helmet and sLun the man wearing it. At the siege of Cuzeo red-hot sling-shot were used by the Indians in an attempt La drive the Spanish out by firing the town. These sling-shot were wrapped in cotton, though flaming bitumen was used to coat them on other occasions. Spears about two metres (6fi 6in.) long, with copper or more commonly bone poims, were lIsed for hand-to-hand fighting, but the main closecombat weapons were swords, clubs and axes, which were as devastating against the Spaniards as against Indian enemies. The spear and club were the main weapons of the Quechuas, but swords, clubs and axes were supplied by the Incas to the other tribes to supplement their native missile weapons. The clubs or maces had wooden handles about 80cm (3Iin.) long and a
27
Spa.IlOah _.bowm... aDd na...,...... bowrna"' .. po.., yed by HoWm.u.. The ."" or • •hield by .... ti_ bowm i. coojedorat. bon the", q, .... ~._ why. smaD .hield could DOC hsve !>eel uHdlh ... by rn .......... ed wiLh •• hon bow.
circular head of stone or bronze with six projec~ ting points. The s\\'ords were of the hard, black cl1onta-palm wood, about 1.2 metres (3ft Bin.) long and toem (4in.) wide, tapering towards a handgrip which was rounded and ended in a knob. Bronze cutting edges were fixed all round the wood, and a few swords were made entirely of bronze, though these wtrc rare. The axes had stone or bronze blades set into wooden handles of varying lengths. There was a short hand axe called champis, but some had hafto; so long that they morc nearly resembled a halberd. The Incas opcned their battles with an intimidating cacophony of sound from an assortment of drums, conches, flutes and pipes, together with shouted insults. Slingers then began the missile barrage, followed by the archers, dart~throwers and aylloJ as the range gradually shortened. Then came the deadly hand-to-hand fighting which, lacking the religious rcstrictions of Azt'ec warfare, was frequently extremely bloody. Tactics were rather more complex than those
28
of the Aztecs. Instead of attacking all along the line of battle, the Incas sought out the centre of command and resistance of their enemy, and cndeavoured to t.lke OLlt this nerve~centre with a band of picked warriors. Once their commander was taken, the enemy soon became demoralized and fled the field. Reserves were carefully handled and kept well clear of the confused mClee so that they might be fed into the battle line when and where needed, or were used to outflank the enemy position, or to protect the rear and lines of communic.ltioll of the Inca army. A favourite trick was to divide the army into three divisions and engage an enemy with only one in order to assess his strength before committing the other two in surprise flank attacks. Another trick was to set fire to the grass scrub to drive an enemy from a strong defensive position. Campaigns were normally begun with extensive intelligence work, once attempts to induce peaceful submission had failed. The Inca spy system seems to have been particularly well organized, and informed the military chiefs of the position and strength of the enemy armies, the chief points of resistance, the position of supply centres for weapons and food, and the importance and strength of any alliances. The spics also tried to bribe important people in the enemy's camp, to spread false rumouTS, and to isolate the enemy from his al1il'S. Strategy was usually aimed at cutting lines of communication to prevent the enemy being reinfofccd or receiving supplies, and inducing the enemy to fight as far away from his support points as possible, over terrain which was un· lavourable to him. The key lo bOlh administrative and military control over the Inca empire was the great road system. These roads reached to all parts of the empire; lhe longest onc, the royal road, ran through the Andes, down through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile, for a total of 6,800 kilometres (3,250 milcs)-longer thall the longest Roman road, from Hadrian's Wall in England to Jerusalem. There were special mili~ tary roads in this network, rather wider than the standard width of seven metres (23ft) for the royal ro'l.d, five to six metres (20ft) on the coast road. Side walls kept the soldiers literally on the
slr i ht nd n rrow during long mar he, and thos who broke from th columns to steal food or mol t iviljan w I' put to d ath. top were at about v ry 20 kilom tr (12 mil ) at supply depots (tambos) manag d by local offi ial . Th d P t can i ted of row of I' ctangular h d , full f hamp rs of dri d m at and fi h maiz arms and eq uipment. i he different army corps mar hed at on -day interval a that ther wa no ov I' rowdin at th d P ts. Other smaller posts were et up alan the roads fI I' communi ation purpos at intervals of approximate! two kilometres (I mile). Each post can i ted of wo small stone huts housing two runn r or chasqui. B a on ould b u d fc r urgent and simpl signals but th chasqui could by a I' lay yst m betw en post achi ve 392 kilom tr (24 mil ) in 24 h urs ov I' terrain at altitud of mar than 3300 m tr s (10 oooft). Ev n th mount d couri rs of Rom weI' fortunat to cover 320 kilometr (200 miles) a day and for 16lh- ntury Europ an such speed of ommunication wa uobeli vabl . Th chasqui
naturall had pre den v r all other road users and wore a sp ial liv ry of hequ r d design to id neify them quickly. The Incas did not hay th wheel, but a their t rrain was UD uitabl for wh I d v hides and they had no draught animal capable of pulling such v hi I this was probably no loss. Jl supplie and q uipment w I' th refare carried ith I' b port r ,many f whom w I' women, or by llamas th I It r bing u d in train f 500 or even 1,000. Th llama was an xceedin ly useful beast for althoucrh it could only carry a light load of about 57 kilo (12Slb) for 1 to 16 kilom tr (6 to 10 miles) a day it ould withstand extremes of limat , n ed d no h ing and could xist on mo sand tunted h rbag wh re oth I' pa k amma\s could not graz . its dung auld b us d as fuel its m at as Cood, and th thi k wool on its back did away with th n d for any pack saddl . Th In a al 0 tablished a ystem of fortifiaLions thr ughout th mpir s If-contained An assortment of headdresses as portrayed on Aztec warrior in various conteDlporary manuscripts.
29
fortresses being built on the high ground olltside the cities~ on the major military roads, and on the frontiers. Each fonress was a miniature city in itself, with great storehouses and cultivated terraces, capable of supporting itself under siege for a considerable time. The citizens look refuge in these fortresses when their cities were attacked and defended themselves umil help could arrive. Those fortresses on the frontiers and roads wcre smaller and had permanent garrisons. The Chimus were superior to lhe I ncas in building fortifications, and when the Incas conquered them they absorbed lhe Chi mus's fortifi.~ cation system into their own. The best-known Chi mar work is the greal chain of strongholds which blocked the coastal plain from the CorAztl:'C ...arrio", in fuD flight before a Spanish cavalry charge. Lacki,,! thO': pi.l
dillera to the Pacific. The most imporlant fortresses in this chain were Paramonga and Caneta, north and south of Lima. Both consisted of three terraces, rising at Paramonga to some 22 metres (72ft) above the plain. The ollter wall at Paramonga was between three and six metres (10 and 20ft) high, with a parapet and pathway round the lOp. Ramps, which passed through narrow passages, linked the tcrraces. The Incas usually conquered such fortifications by blockade, cutting off supplies and water. Another method was to make a pretcndcd withdrawal, leaving a division concealed to CLlt off the garrison if it could be enticed OUI by the manoeuvrc. This great Inca empirc fell almost as casily as tbe Aztec one, tOjusl 130 infantry, 40 cavalry and one small falconct; but after the initial defeat and thc fall of Cuzco, the Incas rallied and waged successful war against the conquistadores 1'01' many years. Their initial defeat was due to lWO main factors. Firstly, thc Inca had died in [527
-- -
-~
....-.
-~
30
.&
and his death was followed by five devastating years of civil war between his sons Atahualpa and Huascar. The conquistadores landed just as Alahualpa emerged as the victor. Secondly, Atahualpa's intelligence reports were faulty and he did not tfeat the invaders with the respect they deserved: he was told by his spies that tbe horses were useless at night, that if the rider fell off that was the end of both rider and horse, that the arquebuses were thunderbolts which could only be fired twice, and that the steel swords were as ineAcclual as women's weaving battens. He felt he had nothing to fear, mct the Spaniards in person, and was taken prisoner by treachery. Subsequently the Inca troops fought bravely when led by good generals, but they always launched their atlacks on the advent of the full moon, and would rarely fight at night in any great numbers. The Spaniards soon recognized this pattern, and used it against the Indians time and time again. But the Inca~ did not go under without a fierce struggle. In t536 the puppet Inca Manco led a revolt which lasted until his death in 1544. Under his leadership the Indians tried desperately to adapt their tactics to deal with the new weapons, and bad some considerable successes, once annihilating an entire Spanish force of 70 cavaJry by trapping thcm in a mountain defile and overwhelming them with boulders rolled down from the heights. They put
D1ustratiOrl5 (rom de Ayala'. N'We".. Cora"':':.. y bwe>< ~obi ..",o, dra_ in Pe.... "irca 1600. Left to ri~hl: Huayna_ 'capac, fal.ber of HUlUcar aoo Atahuatpua: Chalcuchim.a, a ~reat ~eneraJ of Atahualpa: Huascar being l!!'d towardR Cajam.a,.ca by Atahualpa'. gen~ral" Cbalcuehima and Q.u.i5qui....
Spanish prisoners to work making gunpowder, and learnt to fire captured arquebuses. Captains equipped themsclvl'g with captured helmets, bucklers and swords, and proved as good as any Spaniard. Some even Icarncd to ride the few captured borses, ineluding Manco himself, who fought on horseback armed with a Spanish lance; but too few horses were captured to alter tbe inevitable eourse of the war. After Manco's death the Incas lacked a leader, and little further attempt was made to assimilate Spanish fighting methods-although Manco's son, plolling a rebellion in 1565, had 800 pikes made, with another 2,000 poles gathered from the jungle ready for heads. The pike was the only answer to the mounted conquistadores, and the Indians of Venezuela had succeeded in holding off the invaders by adopting this weapon. The Incas were not so lucky: the revolt was nipped in the bud, and all the pikes destroyed. Thereafter there was no serious threat to the conquistadorcs; and the death ofTupac Amaru, last of the Incas, in '572, signalled the end ora great empire.
31
who held the office for three years. The naeom was appointed, but the positions of Halaeh Vinic and balab were hereditary. The situation after the 1441 rebellion is not known, but obviously each of the minor states must still have had a ruler, and it is likely that similar offices existed, though now in the hands of the native nobility. In many respects the Maya had a civilization The common people were grouped in clans of similar to that of the Aztecs because, although a related families, with all property and land in· different people, they had been ruled for six hcrited via the father's line. The precise form of centuries by an arislocracy of Mexican origin. these clans is not known, but it is believed they This aristocracy was overthrown by a Mayan were similar to those of lhe Aztecs. Below lhe rebellion in 1441, and thereafter the Yucatan, clans were the slaves, moslly prisoners of war who home of the Maya tribes, disintegrated into 16 were tOO lowly to be sacrificed, Every able·bodied man was eligible for service independent, pelly Slates which were constantly squabbling with each other over boundaries and in the army, which was highly disciplined and malleI'S of honour. Also, like the Aztecs, they trained by regular drills and exercises. However, practis(.·d blood sacrifice, and war was therefore there was .no standing army, only a kind of local essential in order to supply a continual stream of militia, commanded by an 01 nolpop. When an suitable victims. army was to be muslered, orders were sent to Under the foreign nobility each province had these officers to report with their troops to the been ruled by a Halatn Vinic, who lived in the naeom. Thcre seem also, at least in later times, to capital of the region and tended to give all ad· have been bands of full· time mcreenaries known ministrative posts to relatives. The minor towns as holkanJ, who fought under pennanenl leaders. in each province were run by balabob (singular There wcre also branches of the Aztec warrior botab), who were also the towns' war leaders, societies of the Jaguar and Eagle, though it is not though they shared this second post with a nacom, known if these survived the overthrow of the Co.. q ....st.dores .dV.lllci..S .pi...... hail of 1..diau. SMSshoe, d.ns and j.veli.... Of all •.he Ind....§' """POlIS Lhe cODqwlJt.dores fured Ihe sliaS-shot the m"llt, for evna tbrir .......0.... coWd aoc preYeD' tJonn from baD! st...... ed, ... biIe • bit _ aD . . . protfl:lN be.d meaa' de.th or blindinS-
TlleMaya
32
i\'lcxicll n aristocracy. Clothing for the ordinary man was a \'/ovcn cotlon brccchdout and a poncho-type tunic (poli). A heavier square of cloth (mo1/ta) served as an overwrap in cold weather and as a blanket at night. Sandals (keuef) of tapir or deer hide were worn, tied to the feet by two thongs. The nobility wore similar clothing and sandals but much more colourful and elaborately patterned. ,jaguar skins were often worn over the shoulders or suspended from the waist, or cloaks of waist or ankle length werc worn. The nobles also wore elaborate headdrt:'SScs-thosc of the mOSl important officials wcre sometimes as large as thc man himself. These consist cd of a light wicker frame covered with feathers, particularly thosc of the quetzal bird. Other types of headdress were colourful cloth turbans, or a long swirling design representing the maize plant. In battle these nobles wore on their heads the masks of jaguars and olher animals, reptiles and fish, somc apparently mythologicaL Feathers were also used to
decorate ulcir cloaks, banners, brccchclout ends and ceremonial shields. The nobility also wore a great deal of jewellery in the fonn of gold car plugs, a jewel (orten a topaz) in the left nostril, jade rings on fingers and laCS, jadc bracelets and nccklaces, and even had their front tcelh filed to poinl~ and sometimes inlaid with jade. Feathers were also worn round the wrists and ankk"S, ancl for battle they paintcd themselves black and red. Tattooing was also practised from the waist up, including the face, as was decorative scarification. The aristocracy worc quilted armour in baltle Spa.a.i"b knir;bl" ridins doWD Indiao warrior~ In Pe..... and Ihe YUC.laD Ihe Inc." .nd Maya _ere able On • number of occa"ioD5 10 u""' Ihei.. brok.... terrain 10 n"g.I" Ih.. "u_ periority oflh"lIe borsemen, bUI in Ih.. more open lands of Ihe A>:leCll the Span'sh knighl ..eigned .up..e e. Difficult as il m .. y be 10 bf!lieve today, ..t Ih..1 d ..le Ihe b vily .. rmou ....d knigbl on ho ...eb.. ck _ virluaUy imp....gn.ble, and .mall groups of knigbtll w ble 10 cb.. tl;.. inlo bundreds of Indian.. time and lim g.in, p ..ovided Ihey In.red in clo"e formaLion. On • number of OCC"-'OM knighl" did get " ..pa.,ued froD> t.he m.in body, when they w ...... u"u.lly unhorsed .nd killed.
33
and it is possible that some of the lesser warriors also worc cotton armour, but ofa diAcrent (orm, described by Adamson as twisted rolls of cotton wound round the body-a cheaper but perhaps just as effective protection. The /wlkam wore cuirasses of eithcr quiltcd colton or tapir hide. Shields wcre either round, and larger than those of the Aztecs. or rectangular, of wood or hide decorated with feathers or animal skins. j'vlissile weapons werc the bow and dart propelled by an ail-ail, both introduced by the Mexicans, and tile ubiquitous sling. Arrow and dan heads wcre of bone or obsidian. The original Mayan weapons were all designed for close combat-a lance or spear 1.5 metres (4ft loin.) long, a wooden club edged witb obsidian, a broad·bladed flint knife, and a kind of trident made by carving three sharp blades from a large sea shell. Battles were pn:cedcd by the usual din, made by war trumpets of wood or bark 1.5 metres long, conch shells, drums, (lutes, Pan pipes and rattle gourds. This was followed by the missile barrage, A section of the onginal Inca wall in the Calle Jon de Loreto in CU'tco, (he Capill.1 of Ihe Iuca!!. The InCaJ!l we~ famoul for (heir masonry.
34
then a charge into close combat. Such ballles were of short duration, the main aims being to secure slaves and important leaders-the laner for sacrifice. "Vhcn the chicI' of the opposing army was killed or captured the battle was over, so thc only tactic was to rcach him as soon as possible. Campaigns were usually begun by a guerrilla raid into encmy tcrritory to take captives. A major battle normally followed this provocation, but once an enemy army bad pcnetrated into home territory there were no more major battlcs. the defcndcrs resorting to irregular warfare, with the emphasis on traps and ambushcs. Campaigns could not be conducted far from home as all supplies and equipment had to be carried on the backs of slaves and women. Also, the bulk of the warriors wcrc farmers first, soldiers sccond, and their crops always came before the needs of war. As late as 1848 the descendants of the Maya had the capital of Merida surrounded and at their mercy, but gave up everything to return home in time 10 plant their maize. A road system existed in the Yucatan pcninsula to link the major cities. Some of thl.'Se roads were up to 96 kilometres (00 miles) long, broad and level, with a hard, smooth smfacc of trodden limestone. Alone of all the great Central American civilizations, the Maya were a maritime people, and they used the sea to transport military forces upwards of 320 kilometres (200 miles). There is evidence that their traders could travel from Tampico to Panama, a distance of 3,850 kilometres (2,400 miles) if following the coasl. Their 'ships' were c.1.nol.'S hollowed out of huge trees, often up to 24 metres long and 2.4 metres wide (79ft by 7ft 2in.). They had a high bow and stern, and could hold up to 40 men. In t527 Francisco de Montejo wa~ senl by Cortes to conquer the Yucatan. His army of 380 men and 57 horses was worn down by a war of ambushes and attrition, for unlike the Aztecs and Incas, the Maya could not be crush<.'<1 by a single battle, nor paralysed by the seizing of a central point or supreme leader-for there was none. They were masters of guerrilla warfare, and in the jungles of the Yucatan the horse was of littlc advantage to the Spaniards. By 1535 not a single white man remained in the Yucatan.
.......
--
Montcjo's son launched a new invasion in 1542, and thanks mainly to imernecinc feuds amongst the Maya states this OIlC was successful. A rebellion in 1546 was crushed with horriflc slaughtcr, and haifa million Maya wcre sold into slavery. One tribe, the Itza, escaped by rctreating to their ancestral home in the wastes of the Peten. Here, on an island in the centre of what is now Lake Flores, they buill a new capital, Tayasal, and here they preserved a small independent state ulllil 1697, when this last Maya stronghold al last fell in a holocaust offire and blood. The r.,'laya rose in revolt again in 1712, 1847, 1860 and 1912, and in the mid-19th century rebcllions they very ncarly retook the entirc peninsula from their oppressors. In fact it is only in recent decades that the morc remote villages have begun to accept once again rulc from Mexico, for the Maya people were never rcally conquered, although over the ccnturies their spirit-and their 4,ooo·year·old civilizationwas broken.
(Wfl) Anoth"'r of Hoffmann'lI dranullin.lly brooding reconslrue;t.;on!l of an A~I"'c warrior in e1aoonl'" h"'adg"ar and compl
TltePlates A: Spanish knight, circa 1500-10 Spanish knight III threc·quartcr armour, blacken<.:-d to protect it from the weather. Most of the captains and gentlemcn amongst the conquistadores wore such armour, although somc latcr abandoned all except the helmet in favour of thc lighter 1ndian armour. The Spaniards took their deerhounds with them to the Americas, presumably to hunt mcat, although thcy were also used to savage the Indians. The Indians wcre ovcrawlx! by these enormous and fierce dogs, which wcighed around 41 kilos (golb) and stood 75 to 80cm (approx. 30in.) high, for the only brced thcy possessed was a little one raised purely 35
for i1$ food valuc. HI: Spollisll swardS/1/f/ll, ,irctl 1520-50 Thc burgonet illustrated here was thc most comlnon type of helmet for the sword-andbuckler mcn and light cavalrymen-not the morion, as is so often supposed. Some swordsmen wor(' studded brigandin<-'S or jacks instcad of plate armour: all threc types of armour wcre frequently shed in favour of the Indian armour aner the initial banIL"$. The brass 'ropc' decoration on thc aTlllour was popular from about 1520. Gentlemen on foot usually \\'ore similar armour, though sometimC5 a deep skirt was tied round the waist, falling in folds to the knees. These skirts were usually briglllly coloured, with dark bordeTS. The illustration is basc..-d on figures in a 16thcentury mural in the ~Iozarabic chapel ofToleclo Cathedral. 82: Spanish arquebusier, circa 1520-4° The morion \\:15 the typically Spanish helmet,
R.. mamJ of' II... G~al Town' at Mach.. Picc..... 0.... oJ t"" mo.. (amoui recre.l!l 0(1."" b,cal dIn' d ... initial coaquetil, aad "ituau,d !lome 1I0J00 mec",", up u. the Andes.
36
especially popular with crossbowmen and arqucbusiers. It was derived from the cabacete, illustrated in 83. The comb becamc marc promincnt from about 1530. ~llorions and bUTgoncts were frequently fitted with fabric covers, not just in the Americas but also in Europe. Arqucbusiers were usually ullarmoured, and this man has abandoned the more clumsy European footwear for native sandals. 83: Spanish pikeman, circa 1540 This man wears the cooler Indian armour of quilted cotton, and native sandals. He has given up wearing hose, which quickly becamc torn in Central America's rough landscape. He wears a cabaccte, a helmet popular with Spanish infantrymen. !\otc the holder for a plume al the rear. C I: Tlaxtalan taplain This figure is based on illustrations in the Codex Ylendoza (compiled between 1536 and 1':;50) and the Lienzo de Tlaxcala (compiled by Tlaxcalan artists between 1':;5° and 1564). It shows a Tlaxealan captain c.'l.rrying one of the banners of his tribe. The Tlaxcalans fought the Spanish at first, but then became their allies, supplying
24,000 warriors for the siege of Tenochtillan. As their weapons and insignia were almost identical to those of the other tribes, Cortes advised them to wear a distinctive emblem in ballle, and at the battle of Cholula they wore plaited garlands of feather grass as a 'field sign'. Most illustrations show them wearing similar garlands in other ballles. C2 .. Tlaxealan porler The Tlaxcalans also supplied thousands of porters to carry the supplies and equipment of the conquistadores into the interior or Mexico. These porters could march 24 kilometres (15 miles) a day carrying 34 kilos (75Ib). The conquistadores claimed to march seven leagues (30km/18! miles) a day in the lands of lIle Aztecs. This illustration is based on a number of porters shown in the Codex Mendoza. C3,' Te.\'cocoal/ caplain
This is based on a contemporary Indian manuscript which describes the figure as King Nezahualcoyolt of Texcoco, one of the three major citics of Mexico and an ally or the Aztecs. He is wearing a gold lip plug called lel/letl, which is a form or military insignia, and carriL"S a small drum on his back to pass orders during ballies. Note the small drumstick attached by a thong. The leather leg protections seem to have been worn only by the warrior caste in the Aztec empire. I .. AZfec I!.·agle Knight A member of the warrior society known as the Eagle Knights, who dressed as eagles for war. The figure is based on illustrations in the Codex DUrlln, drawn between 1560 and 1580 by a Mexican artist.
D
The temple of the Plum'ld Serpenl al the grul Mayan city of Chichen.ltza in Ihe Me"iclUI province of Yucatan. The city was founded Dol laler I.han A.D. 530 and was al its z",n;lh in the 121h and 131h "",nluri",... It waS abandnned in 1448, seven yean after the Maya rebelled against t.heir rore.ign aristocracy.
Natural History: other details lire drawn from the Codex Duran and Codex Mendoza. D3,' A<:ltc priest The Aztec priests ruled the empire alongside the Chosen Speaker; there were no lcss than 5,000 of them in Tenochtitlan alone. This portrayal is based on illustrations of ivlixtec priests in the Codex Nultall. The codex is pre-Aztec, but it would appear there was lillIe change in clothing and religious practices. The priests painted their bodies black, symbolic of religion and war, matted their hail' with blood from human sacrifices, and apparently mutilaled their cars. They also filed their teeth to points and made their eyes bloodshot to indicate a state of religious exaltation.
Aztec archer Based on illustrations in the Codex ]\ilendoza, D2,' Aztec Jaguar Knight this figure shows the appearance of the rank and A captain belonging to the warrior society known file of the Aztec army, the peasant levies. He is as the Jaguar Knights. All the warriors in this wearing quilted cotton armour and a bl'eechsociety dressed almost idemically, the only clout, and is armed only with bow and arrows. It variation being to the border of the shield, which is not clear how the arrows were carried, preis usually shown as all yellow. This warrior is sumably in some form or quiver on the man's distinguished as a captain by the banner strapped back. Other peasant levies illustrated in the same to his b
37
with seven roundcls. arranged '2:3 :'2. £2: A-tltt warrior Another peasant levy, seen here hurling
A Maya warrior, (rom a ball... relief al Chicbe....h ....
F2: Illca empire: Cllindlfl)'SII)'1l gtl/eml The Chinchaysu)'u were a subjecl tribt: whose lands began about 100 milcs south of Lima. This general wears war·paint which indicates he has killed al least three warriors, and carries a cloak inSlead of a shield all his left arm: cloaks were sometimes used thus in place of shields.
1-): Inca warrior This figure is also based on I)oma de Ayala's work. and shows a warrior of lhe nobility wielding a halberd type of weapon unique lO the Incas. He wears a bronze military award on his chcsl: a similar pialI.' was worn on the back. His helmet bears his aJllu symbol. G I : Inca tmpire: ChinchayJuJu warrior An ordinary soldier of the Chinchaysuyu tribe, fighting in the Inca army. NOle he has no shield and onl)' the one type of wcapon. The war·painl on his ann means he has killed on~ warrior. He bean; the uyllu device of his clan on his hcadband. The figure is based on ilIuslrations in Poma de Ayala's work, which shows several similar soldiers, lacking helmelS or shields and armed only with spears. G2: Inca tmpire: Q!uchua slinger The sling was us(.'(! by all warriors, from the Inca and his generals down lO the lowest peasant levy. The figurc shown here is a soldier of the Queehua people, who had disproportionately well. developed chcsts and legs because of the altitude at which they lived in the Andes. The man is wearing a cloak of llama wool, which was coarse and greasy, but wi lid- ami waterproof. Cloaks were not normally worn in actioll. G3: Inca empire: Cltimor wurrior This warrior is based on a tel'racolta figul'c made by the Mochica people, who lived on the northern coast of Peru north of Lima. They were conquered and rcplaccd by lhe Chimus, who were in tum conquered by the Incas in the 15th century. Much of lhe Mochica culture survived Ponraic of a Ma).. _rrior, .... elaboralely f",..lb",....d COlilu..me ...d carryins a Iropby bead aad ceremollial .la8', pa.... ted Ott. cyti..drio:al Vflsd from Campecbe. (PhOIOS'",ph eounuy of Mu....uln of doe Aoneriean India.., HeY" Founda.. ti...., New York)
38
39
in the Chimor kingdom, and this warrior is therefore probably a fair example of a Chimor warrior at the Lime of the conquistadores. H,: Mfl)'(l general The figure is based on discovered at. Bonampak paintings arc believed cemury A.I)., but so far sentative of the Maya in
the ast.onishing murals in 1946. These beautiful t.o date from the 9th as we know arc reprethe 16th century.
shield bears a face meant to frighten his enemies. The Maya went to extreme lengths to make themselves look 'handsome', including tattooing and scarification, filing and inlaying their teeth, remodelling their noses with surgery to create a continuation of their sloping foreheads-themselves obtained by tying boards to the heads of babies.
Ih: Ma)'a warrior This illustration is drawn from a figure portrayed on a gold disc found at the Sacred Ccnotc, Chichen Itz;l. He is armed with a lance and his
H3: j\tl aya peasant levy This probably represents a peasant levy, wearing a brecchcloul, and feathers m his hair, and equipped only with shield and sling. The figure is based all terraeona figurines from the small island ofJaina, just off the coast of Campccbc.
Noles sur lell plancheII' en couleur
Farbtafeln
A /\tmurl' noird. pour ""I"",h", I. rvu,n.; ap'" un c"'laon ,.mp$. he"uwup do upi,.ind « ~Ctl1ibhomm .. d. la ~.rdr y .ubo,i'"airn' d .. arm",,,, in· dic"n.. m toilr ouat~•. Lo I"di."" ~,.ir"t ~l<"''''' p;or I... "hi.". f~r<>cr. d", l:"pa~nob qu'ih I· ..... i.,,' tIt par I.u" ch"",~u... B, I)·.prb u"'" pcimure mur.k d~,,, I. c~,htdr.k de Tol~d•. Ct usque b~,,.~t1 ~l>it Ir 'ypc k pl~l coura",; Ir 'lui tlail souv~"t r~prbrnll! rn pci",urr, n'tl~i, 1''''' he.ucoup IX'rll! ''''a", '~:JO' Ba 1.(0 """I"'" ~'aic'" parfois Nt"i""''''' hn""", rn ,,,.u. Cr ...rr.... vai, tIt d~vdol'pt du I"'rlt par Ir piqui«. 83 Dro •• mu'''' indi'''n.. n,a,d_ d rl ...."rlal... ""Iill~n.. tt'Jrnt 'O'""~'" adop''''''' C, IYap.n k C4du M",'~. c' I. l,l",~ '" nOMolo. Leo b.nduu '" lI.rhe Ir...co. u" anit d.. ,\~tkJ""'; "Ott:'L Ie I><,,,d,oo, d'OI' da"" '" Ih'''' inf~nru", r1 I. I.mbour IU, ton dOl. D, I)"prb lr CN'~ D,,';": lin mrn,b", de I••odttt guerrihe ... ~ur drs eh.vali... ·.igl...•. Do La b.n"'~'" ."ad,o!<: au d"" identif. . "" ""pi'.'''e. D3 I... pri:t,.. por'.;r,,' unr IlC'nlm'T .orporrllr ,,<>irr; I.. clt ..... wc ttai,nl cm""I'" d• .a"II; nOt... lot m,n,I'"Otl .llu~llr d~ or";l1... r, do de"n. E. O'O\"b I.e UJr% ,II.,,,,,~ •. un ",ld., ordina;'" 'rlli,!"e de: l'.. mtt ... kJue. ~ot.,. I 'rmu... dr CO'OI' matcl ...t. E2 A"eun ,·Ctem.n' d" protec,ion n'...., portt. horm;' "n honnN r..m!>.. u,", ." llb.. de .ach EJ U" .lIit d.. ,\.'kJu"; I", A.'kjUCO de o.+l"1e,i~ d'u"e dale .n,~rie\l"', mais probablemen' u,"' ...... bonne: ,mi,.,jon ,I'u" g"e,ri... ehimor. ",or a"lre "ilot' ...ujell;. .... I'emp,,,, ioca. H, ])·.prb I.. prin'ur'" m".... I'" de Ilonaml'ak, duouvr"", .n '946. H. 0·.1'..... k d...h, g,.,.~ "or u" dl!(IU" ~n or Iro,",';, ~ Chid",,, ltd. I.e boudicr pottr I'im'ge d'un vi....ge, 1""" .Frral·r, I", cnn,mit. Us M'l·. '" m,,'ilaient ..... U«l"p... f.;",,,, d'" dr.'rie.... ,Ies tato".go. .. lim.,,' I.. dr."" ~n po'''''. dr. H3 C<-UC im.ge '''11 prohablrm.nl d'"" ..,Id., "rdinair•. boot" .ur dd figurines.n po,rri
'" Oi" l(iblun8 ill .urn Schu'" ~.grn I(QIII gcschwanl; ".eh ~",igrr Zd, gingc" vietc dcr grhar"i~h.." Ihul',l.ul. u"d '\dlig." ""f dir mi, StotT .".grpol"e". KI.idung tier I"di."rr "b••. ])ir wilden Hundr drr Sp."ier wirkl." genau"" furrh'~rr.grnd a"f di. I ndianer ,,;,. de.rn l'ferd•.
."ui
"""i.,.,
,-bu,"
'.'/fIt"'."'"
40
'.'1""".
8, Von .inrm \\'.ndgrmlilde ill d~, K~throrak ,'"" Tol.do. Di.... H.lm w",de am hi"fi!{S,r" g~u"g.n; dcr.,n d.rg~"lh. ""'"... ,,':or "01' '»3" nkht ,,'.i"'erbreitr'. Sa Dir ltd"'r " ....n ",,,,,ch,,,,.) mil StolT iilxtlos"n, Di.... _ '..."twick.h••ieh .,.. dern rd.«/" drr v,,", d... l'ihnieD gelr.s.n "'urd•. B3 Hiufig ",,,rd~ndic .".g.pol".". Klrid,,"ll und die Salldal"n dc' Indi.nrr (,hemolllm.n.
'"
C, Aus d.m C4d'x ,I'"",~, ""d d.", J.".~. TI .illl" i"di.". ioch.... S.:nr,; ])''''lc1lu''g lI.... K"nigs '·on TcxcQO:Q. ";nn V~rh"d"'rn d" ,\~tek.". Von In..r....,.i"d d'" d...",h cll. Lipl"" grsteck'r Coldul'frn lInd die T'omm,,1 ."f dem Rikk.n. D, Aus dem CH'JI D.,';~; .i" Mi,~lird dr-r a>.leki.. hrn Kri.~rr~.m.i"l<:ltaf, de.. 'Adler', Do [). . . u! dem Rucken brfatig'. 1I."ner krntl7.r
Ii""
E. Aus drm CNU ,11.,Iota; cin 1)'piKhrr Krieg.. d.. A.'rk.nher". M.n br.d"e rnd. Kldd'"lg g.''''8.n. Es F.i" "r,b""d"rr "".kc; die gc••il" K.uk w" kei... Kriegsw.fT. der ""rkrn. 0 .. ·R.n"..' .uf d"", Rii<:krn .on,.•ich"", dne" Anmh'.r. f. Oi ... ,\rt KI.idun", und lkw.frn"n~ din", Fc!dh.rm r,,,,rI mi' ~eringfii~ig.n Ullt<,rach;r:d ... in .lIrn R~ng.n rico Ink.·l-l.~ .. V.,,,,..,,,I"")01 F. E,n i'I.toc,,".mm .Ier I"bs; di..... F.lllhr" ,rig> Kri.gslxmalu"lI. d.. die ,\n,.. hl scin.. brsi.gt~n G.gner k.nn>..ichnrt; d..- Um),."g ubr, d.", Arm diem.1o Schild. F, Aus I'oma de ,\>·.I"!'kh,ift.w demJ.h ,6'3; ri" Kri.ger do h.rnch.nll.n St.mnu. ffir Bm"",rn.d.illr iSl .i'.... ,\" ichnu"8 It" srin<- V.,--di.",,.. und .in•• w~i'e M.d.illr hing> aufdrm Ru"k.". C. Ein K";<'1('" .in", NebeltS,"m",.; .lir Krirg.dRr an, d.• B.. dn.n C.gner grtOtCl ha'. Ca I).. Umb.ng.us l..",.wollr wmdr ge...ohnlich vor dron K.ml',.bgcl.gt. Alir Range dt:1 I"hhec", v...... ndr"''' di< Schl.udrr, doeh ;" di .... ci" g• ...ohnliehrr Kri,g.r. C:J Von riner Tonfillu, ilt.rrn I)atum.; jo:
"'l<
H, v"" den '946 rutd.d,.n 8on."'pak·\\'.nrl,nalerri.n. Ih Von lIrr D.r· "ellung .uf .inrr bci Chich.n II ... 8.fund~"en Goldpl.krn•. Dcr Schild ill mit ei".m 'Gnieh,' brm.h. urn di. Fri,,"" .u .. hrrckrn. Vi~J Sdbo1Vrr· "ilm,nc!lIng mit ~.rbrn. 'Jii,owie.ung'''' IIrfdlrn d•• Zihnr u.w .••in. Prox;" d•• M.y.... II] Ve,mullid,.in ",nrarh er Krirgt'r_".eh ."fllrt' 1.....1 J.in. grfundenr.. To"fig"rr".
Continued
from bocII CO'ter
57 The Zulli War 59 So..dInCampa'gn5 1881.98
'60 Nap's Guard Infantry (2) 44 Nap'~~AIlies{11
90 106 122 199 111 227 88 116
Nap'~ German Allies (3 Nap'~ German AllIes (4) Nap's Getman AIie5 (5) Nap's Spec.a~l Troops Nap's o.erseas Army Nap's SeA Soldiers
Nap's rtalian Troops Austnan Army(I~ Infantry
181 AlI5tnan Army (2~. Cavalry 223 Au5trwl Specoa"st Troopo;
151 Prus5lall l.Joe Infantry 149 Pruss&an Lilt>! Wamry 192 !>russian R6erve & Irregulars 162 Pt'US$IMl Cavalry 1792·1807
In Prussoaf1 Cavalry 1807-15 ISS Rus5lall Army (I ~ Infil/1U)' 189 Rus"",,, Army (2): Cavalry 84 we!llngton's Geoera!s 114 w~longtorl's Infantry (I) 119 w~lIngtoo's Infamry (2) 253 weiliogton's HigI'Oanders 126 Wellington's UgIlt Cavalry 1)0 Wellington's Heavy Call"'''''' 204 we\l.ngtoo's 5pec:lo'Ilt£ T ~
161 BrunswICk Troops IB09. I5 98 Dutm-Beli}lll T rtlOp§ 206 Hanovenan Army 17':12-1816 226 The Amenc.m War 1812-14 96 ArtIllery EQll'PITleOlS 77 Fla~ or the Nap War<, 78 Flags of the Nap Wan. 2} liS Flags of the Nap Wars (l)
I"
19TH CENTURY 232 BolIvar and San MartJn 173 A\ilmo & Texan War 1835-6 56 Me>ocart.Atneoc.1n War 1846·8
212 The MelOCall Adventure 1861·67 63 Amencan·1ndian Wars 1860-90 170 Amencan GvJl War ArmIes. (I ~ Cof1federa!e 171 \Jnoon 119 ~ Specialists,
m
190 (4): Slate Troops 207 (5); VoUiteer" M"lia )1 Army of Northem Vo-gna. ]8 Army of the Potomac. lS2 fL.J.gs of the Amercan CIVIl War; (I ); Confederate
"'1"_ ~ ••
3): Slale & Vo/uo1teer Ameno:an PlaiOS IndIolIlS
,'"_
US Cavalry 1850-90
~
TolJpong
~Ioon
1851-66
lW.;s.an Army of !he
Cnmean W;.v Bntl$h Army on ~ I}. 1816-185) file
Cnmea. 1854-56 I(3):2): 1857-81 (~~
I, 500<""" AI=
2~
US Army 1890-1920
95 The Boxer R.ebdlion
THE WORlD WARS 80 The GeJl1'\Ml Army 191'1.18 81 The Bntish Arrrrt 1914-18 14S Bntrsh Temton;l! Urou I91 4.18 169 The Ottoman Army 1914·1 B 208 Lilwrenc:'" and !he Arab Revolts 181 Bnw. Battle lmIgr>.a > 191418
(\L
187 2) 1939"45 7<1 Spanosh eMl Wv
111 The Polish Army 1939-'15 112 BrrtlSh &nledra5 1937·61 120 Allied Corr1maoder!. of WW2 115 The Royal AIr Foru:
70 US Army I91H5 216 The Red Army 1911--'l5 2.." The RornatlWl Army 220 The SA 1921-45
2. ThePanzer~ 166 The AIIge
142 Pa.rtJsan
Warf~
1911-'15
169 ~tanl:e Warfare 19-1{).45
270 F\ag5 of lhe lhrd Reoct1, ( I) Wchfmac.tlt 274 (2) W~ffen-55 178 (3) Party $. PoIo:e l..lnolS
MODERN WARFARE I J1 MalayMl CampaIgn I 948-60 17<4 The Ko
Vletnam War ~ !%2-75 VlI'tnam War A,mleS (1) War on Cambod.... 1970·75 War on laos 1%1).75 ModerTl Nncan WNS; (I} Il.1'1odes&a 1%5-80 101 (2} Angol
1<41 (J} South·West Afro
159 Gren.lda 1983 178 Rus$lol'~ War III AfRiw>rsWl 111 Central AmerlCKl Wars
1882-1902
VlClona's t.1'leITOC'>:
I
no
Northern Afro
(3): Ind-a (4); Asoa ump.t,grl'i 18W-70 The IoOOn Mutorly BnlIsh Tr"()()p$ ,n lhe lndiar> MutIny 1857-59 ~
GENERAL 65 The ~y31 Navy 107 Brnl!.h Infantry Eqo'P~ (I) 108 BroW! Infantry Eqo.llpl5. (1) I l8 BnWl Cavalry Eq,pp15 72 The Northwest Frootoer 11 <4 US Inf
German Combat Eqo..wpts.
indian tnfi\fltl')' ~lS ~H french Army 181Q..71 (I)
n<4 157 In 16<1
137 Frer>:tl Army 1870-71 (2) 217 The RlJ<&o. TUI1
197 Royal Caoad&an Moo..nted Poke
~
Cavalty Regome!1ts
FW; jackets
Australian Army 1899·1975 CanadWl Army at War
161 SpaMh Fortlgfl Ll'g!Ot1
rmm MILITARY
.\IE~-~-\T-~-\R.\IS
SERIES
mmD
MILITARY
An unrivalled source of information on the uniforms, insignia and appearance of the world's fighting men of past and present. The Men-at-Arms tides cover subjects as diverse as the Imperial Roman army, the Napoleonic wars and German airbome troops in a popular 48-pagc fonnat including some 40 photographs and diagrams, and eight full-colour plates.
COMPANION SERIES FROM OSPREY ELITE Detailed information on the uniforms and insignia of the world's most famous military forces. Each 64-page book contains some SO photographs and diagrams, and 12 pages of full-colour art""'ork. WARRIOR Definitive analysis of the annour, weapons, tactics and motivation of the fighting mcn of history. Each 64-page book contains cutaways and exploded artwork of the warrior's weapons and unnaur.
NEW VANGUARD Comprehensive histories afthe design, development and operational use of the world's armoured vehicles and artiUery. Each 48-page book contains eight pages of full-colour artWork including a detailed cutaway of the vehicle's interior.
CAMPAJGN Concise, authoritative accounts of decisive encounters in military history. Each 96-page book contains more than 90 illustrations including maps, orders of battle and colour plates, plus a series of three-dimensional battle maps that mark the critical stages of the campaign. THE ANCIENT WORlD 118 AncIent Ow>ese Armles 109 Ar10ent MoOcIe East m The ScytNans 700-)00 Be 69 Greel< & P~ W~ 500·32.3 8,C 1'l8 'YmY ~ Ale4nder !he Great 111~W~
.. R.Oman Arm , 9)
11'
c....,·;r....
~I 2
'!
~·C<:nstant>->e
's Enemoes:
I
151 2 GaIic. & 8nti5h Celts """'" 175 ) Go-m.->a P&rttWos & &~ 110 4 ~ 218 8,C..19 B,C 14) 5 The Desert Frontier
THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 247 Romanc>-8~ Armies 4th-9th C 154 ISS lIS ISCI 89 IS 1J I 75 171 155
ArtIu' & A.IIgb-Saxon Wars Arrnles of tho! f"'Mlrn Coroquest
Armoes of Islam. 7th-11th C
Ar
The of ~ 8yuntirle Armoes 886·1 118
Saxon. V~ & Norman FTenCh MedIeval Armies 1000-. JOO Armoes of !he Crusades SWdin & tho! Saraceni; Kro2htl of Chnst 100 Et Cd & R«onqusta I050-14n lOS The Mongols 111 The Age Of Tameriane
IS I HedievaI CIlInf:'5e ArmIes SCI ~ European Amlles lSI Scou & WelVl War> 94 The Swiss I 300-1500 1)6 IlaIian ArrT0e5 ! 300- 1500 1M German Armies 1)00.1500 I.S Ho.n2arY & E. Europe
'QOl.' ""
IS. The f"1.>mk.Jks 1250- I 517 140 0u0r'rwI Tuoo 1300-1774 110 Venetian ElTlplre 1200-1670 III Armies of Crky ~ POI\le~ I"" Medieval~ 1)64-1477 III Armies of ~ 14S Wars of !he ll.oses
" Hediev.tJ Heraldry 16TH AND lITH CENTURIES 156 The Irish Wa", 1485-1603 191 Henry VIII's Army 5ITht!~
101 The ConquIsudores 26) Mugh..oIIndia 150-1·1761 2)S ~ws Adolp/'us{I): Infantry
m
261 Gustaws AdoiPhJs Ca~ 14 EJ-clish 0viI War Armies 110 Ne'w Model Army IM5·60 10) LoUs XlVs Army 167 The 8ritISh Army 166G-1704 f7 Marlborough's Army . . Sam.,ora, Amves 1550·1615 1t4 Polish ArmIes 1569.16% (I)
188 Poksh Armies 1569-1696 (2)
18TH CENTURY 161 18th Century Highianden. 160 Peter the Greafs Army ( I): Infantry 164 Peter the Great's Army (2): Cavalry 118 \.)Coote P.ebeMions 1J6 "Frederick the Great 1040 Fredend< the Great 2) 248 Fredenck the Great 3) 211 AustNn Army 1740-80 (I) 'l8 Wolfe's Army 218 Amencan Woodland Iodoan'l ). Bnt. Army ... N, Amenca 1.... French ... Amer, War Ind. 21) General W~'s Army (I): 1775-1778
I')
NAPOLEONIC PERIOD 2S7 Napoleon's Can-op.;I,~ .. Italy
n Napoleon's Egypban
87 Napoleon's Marshak
~gn
64 Nap's CUll'i554ers & Carabnoers 55 Nap's Dragoons & Lancers 68 Nap's ~ Chasseurs 76 Nap's Hussars 8J Nap's Guard uvalry 141 Nap\ ~ Infantry 146 Nap's Ughtlofantry 1S) Nap's Guard Infantry (I) 160 Nap'l Guard Infantry (2)
Avec arv>otationJ en fr~IJ nor les planehn ell couleur$. Hit Aufukttnunlen ;auf Deut:Kh Ober den FiUbt:af.ln.
ISBk 0·85045-}57-7
9
UUllJlJ
![Men At Arms 101 - The Conquistadores[Osprey Maa 101]](https://docer.tips/img/300x300/men-at-arms-101-the-conquistadoresosprey-maa-101_5a49f3b1d64ab234d6e9c61b.jpg)
