Osprey, Men-at-Arms #063 The American Indian Wars 1860-1890 (1977) 95Ed OCR 8.12(1)

~ MILITARY

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

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THE AMERICAN INDIAN WARS 1860-1890

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PIIILIP K..\TCHER G.\ E\lBI.ETO,,"

EDITOR, MARTIN WINDROW

mm:n MIUT....RY

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

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THE AMERICAN INDIAN WARS 1860-1890 Text by PHILIP KATCHER Colour plates by GAEMBLETON

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fJ/fror!l/rtioll The wars between \,hites and Indians. the most ramou!> of which \\ erc fouglll 011 the great wcstern plains bet" cen 1860 and 18go, were among the most ITaRic orall wafS c\-cr fougili. They were wars to the death between one ci\"ilization and another, both unable to comprehend or accomffi
Kansas would also come after them and not stop ulltilthey were soundly defeated and in a resen'ation. To their minds if they defeated one Army column that should be the end of it. The death of one Army general should result in peace. Instead. howe\'er, they found themseh-es con· stantly pursued. fighting a European-style war of constant pressure until there is a final and total victor~ for one side or the other. It was a type of war Ihe \\ hites knew; the Indians did nOlo Their lack of understanding of \\ hite military and ci\;! unification \\ as fatal. ThaI unification was not apparent to the vast majority of I ndians because of their own 100aiiack

Cbi",f JOHph, l.,.d",r of the N"" P",r",1i durinlll the;r war w;th the whites, .ad polII,,;bly th" ....OlIt abte t.,.der the Iadia.n." produrfll durinlll the yean of tbe Plaia" Iadia.n. wa .... (Smith_ ..oma.. 1a5thutioa)

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Seco..d Li~u.en t Read, 3rd Inrantry, ....d Chid or ScOUUi John O. Austin ~ m"'~ th~ body orhuo.~r Ralph Morriso.., who bad been kiLled ..nd Kalped O~"r Fon Dods:~, Kansas, 7 DecelD~r .868, I~.. thlo.. an hour ~ror~. Li.,,,tenant Read W~"r11 th~ ~latio.. rroclo-co.. t .. nd a .,baSlleu.... ~ ro...s:e cap (Smith""i.... Instit"tion N.. t';o...l Anthropologi...J Areb;"..., Bu~.u or Am~rican Ethnology CoU.,ctio..)

of tribal co-operation. (Indians like Santana are exceptions.) Were it not for the Indians who happily co-operated with Ihe whites against their own kind, the wars would have lastcdlonger and been much bloodier. In the south-west Apache fouglll Apache and a wick variely of tribes fought the Sioux. Many of these fed allies joined because of anciCIll tribal fcuds which seemed more important than fed unification; olhers because they had seen the white man's power first hand and fcl, Iheironlyehance ofsurvival lay in co-operation with the whites. The Indian \Vars, as all wars are between people who don', understand each other, were excessively crud wars. Perhaps the ollly things to compare with the hideous massacre of friendly Indians, camped beneath an American Aag at Sand Creek, would be the equally hideous treatment ofseulers caught by raiding Indians and made 10 die as

slowly and painfull) as possible. :\"0 one side had any premium on cruelty. The Indian Wars are nOt neat wars of grand manocuvre and greal baule. Between 1866 and 1875 whites and Indians, mostly Sioux. fought some '200 battles. the majority with merc handfuls of people involved; between 1875 and 1887 only a few less were fought, mostly with Apaches. There were campaigns; there wcre battles. And yet, in thcse wars to the death hetween civilizations, they were, perhaps, less important than those who actually fought them.

'I7te Plaillsfllr/ialls The Illains Indian, mounted on a brown and white dappled horse and topped by an enormous fcather bonnet, has ridden into the sunset and the imaginations of millions throughout the world. Oddly enough, howevcr, his lire span was quite brief. It was not until the 1al(' 18th ('('ntur) that the

basicgl'oups which became the Plains Indians, the Sioux and the rest, Wt'rc thrown out of their green eastern woodland homes by their perpetual rivals, the Chipp{'was, and had to find new homes in the arid and sparsely vegctated plains of nonhern America, There they found two basic ingredients \\hieh vastly changed their previously agrarian h\"cs the horse and the bufi"alo. Th(' horse is not native to America. I t is thought the first horses to live free on the continent escaped from Spanish explorers of the 16th and 17th centuries. Herds of these \\ild horses still roam w('Stnn American states, and the)' supplied the newly-arrived Indians with a difierent form of transportation. The buffalo filled all the Indians' other needs. His meat fed them, his hidec10thed them and even his excrement served to fuel their fires. The bufialo became the most vital pan of the Plains Indian environm(·nt. It was hunters and senlers dri\'ing off the buffalo \\ hich caused most Indian wars. Some ninety.five different tribes lived on the Plains. although man) of them were smaller divisions of a larger tribe. The largest and most aggressive tribe!> included the Che)ennes, Com-

anches, Crows, Kiowas, Osages, Pawnees. Sioux and Utes. Other tribes like the Nez Perce and Modocs fought brief wars with the Army, but were, on lhe whole, rather peacefuL These names arc not always the names tribal members called themselves, but ones given by early explorers, usually French. The Sioux, for example. called themselves the Kakota. The word 'Sioux' was a French abbreviation of 'Xadowessioux', taken from an Ojibwa name for the tribe ·N5.dowesssi', meaning a small snake or enemy. Tribes had no formal governments. They were divided into separate bands, each with their own chiefs. usually chosen for brave actions. great speeches or sp('cial wisdom. Chiefs had no real powcr, ho\\c\'er, other than that of persuasion. D('cisions about war. mo\-es and the like were made by a council of band leaders, including. the chief and shaman, or medicine man. Individuals also often belonged to societies. rather like clubs. Th('Se had special officers, dress and songs. The) \\ere graded and usually mem· ChierWuhakle, with hi" arm e"lended, di~" the dance or _me ShOll hone bodlan" at Fon Washakie, Wyomin!!:, .bollt Ia".. n"ir wom.,., "il _Ichin!!: the dancen, Be.hirlod them "oldi.,.." are watch in!!:, weanns combination5 of f:ui~e ...d Inable dr". . (U.S, Sipal Corp5)

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Crow priMne....1 the Crvw Ageaey. Monl........ They are drelillM •• Ihey would be i.n baltle, with eolourCuJ blankets ..Old neckl..ce•. The .oldi",u wear rt!'ullOtion CaliSU'" dr",s". wilh IWO oC them complel'" whh mark"m..nship b ..dgu on Iheir coli...... Th", bells are Mill" web c"rlrid!", bell" (U.S.

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bers would advance from one 10 anOlher as the) aged or performed some major act of bravery. Societies had different purposes: some policed the village, while others were concerned with hunting or war. A typical one is a Kiowa society called the Koitsenkga. the society of the ten bravcst. Each of its ten warrior members wore special sashes in battle. When a stand was nocessary, the member would pin his sash to the ground, vowing to remain there until killed or released by a fellow member. The Koitsenkga's leader wore a black el'-skin sash, while the next three highest members wore red c1kskin sashes. The remaining mem· bers wore red eloth sashes. The most famous, and possibly the largest, society was the Hotamint3nto, a Cheyenne word 6

usually translated as the 'dog soldiers'. This was made up of the tribe's bravest warriors. and the society spread to inelud(' members from among the Arapaho and Sioux. A group which may be considered a society was that of the 'suicide boys'. According to SiouxJohn. Stands-in-Timber, just before Little Bighorn, 'Some of the Sioux boys had just announced that they were taking the suicide vow, and others were pUlling on a dance for them at their end of the camp. This meam that they were throwing their lives away. In the next battle they would fight till they were killed. The Xorthern Cheyenncsclaimed thaI they had originated the suicide vow; then the Sioux learned it from them, and they called tltis dance they put on to announce it "Dying DancIng".

'The next morning the Indians held a parade for the boys who had been in the suicide dance the night before. . It was customary to put on such a parade after a suicide dance. The boys went in frolll, with an old man on either side

ChiefLookin~ Gla.,., One of ChiefJo"eph'a ",owt able lieuten. ants, and killed duri.. ~ the Ne>r. Perce war, mounted for war and armed with bow and arrow". Beb.ir>d hi", are teepees, the buffalo-akin t"nta in which Plau.s lndi...... lived (U.S. Signal

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announcing to the public to look at these boys well; thcy \\Iould never come back after the next battle. ' This ceremonial dance was only one and a rare one at that ofa variety of dances held for a number of reasons. One of the most famous of them was the Ghost Dance, created about 1890 by an obscure shaman who had a vision of this particular dance causing the return of hundreds of thousands ofslain braves. These warriors. along with li\"ing ones. would drive white men from Indian lands. The dance itselfinvolvro a frenzied. continuous dancing until the participant fell. too exhausted to move. It was to go on until the dead arri\"ed. A novel addition to thc dance was a special 'ghost shin'. worn during the dance and then in battle. The shirt, being blessed through dancing. would ward off an) white man's bullets. Surviving examples of ghost shins arc quite beautifully beadc-d and fringed, madeofanimal hide,although simpler white cotton shirts wcre also worn. Visions, such as caused thc ghost dance, were a vital part of Indian life. In their late teens boys would be sent into the wilderness to seek a vision, which usually came aftcr fasting or self torture. This vision, taking the form of an animal or god, would becomc his personal guardian, leaching him special magic songs and prayers. The vision wOllld also givc him special items, perhaps fealhers, old bones or pebbles, which he carried with him for the rest of his life. Faced with a problem, he used them to gct in tOllch with his guardian. Indians having especially strong visions often became shamans. They werc thought to have special powers, such as an ability to Cllre the sick. In some tribcs the shaman required special training as he was in charge of tribal rituals. The shaman was also often responsible for the tribe's ChierPowder FaCt!,.n Arapaho, we~ hi. war costume in thi. photo tatr."D between .868 aDd .874. hold5 hi5 coup 5uck wiLb both haDds, while cradlinS a toma.bawk U. ODe ann.. The dldt piece """'et1 bolh a. dec:orauoD aDd. rOrID ofannour (NatiODal Park s-vice)

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Heliosraph St.tion No]., Bowie District, Amon., .bout .88s. ....nned by Si)l;n.1 Corps ...cn. In the doudlelJs lJoutb-west, lign.1I could be fluhed great diSI.nces by ... irrorll. 80th .oldier. and Indians ""ed the •• m" conlmunicaLion m"thod (U.S. Si)I;Dal Corp.)

sacred objects. Shamans, like other Indians, carried their own medicine with them in a small bag which was pan of their standard wardrobe. Other than this, their typical wardrobe was small, and consisted of beautiful clothing made of skins and decorated with painted quills. These were replaced with beads after the arrival of the whites. According to one Sioux in the late 191h celllury, beads replaced quills as a rL'Sull of an Indiancaused wreck of one of the first trains passing O\'er their lands, in the early 1860's: 'My mother had hidden ncar by, and after the train smash-up she ran to it. It happened to be a freight, carrying supplies ofall sons to the distant West, and among the cargo was quite a quantity of maple sugar, gingham, and beads. Nly mother obtained from this train wreck the first beads ever seen by the Sioux Nation. Prior to that time, all the fancy work on moccasins or clothing was made with porcupine quills, which were dyed. In using these quills, the women would hold them in their mouths until sort, then, when they were used, the quill was Oattened with the finger nail. 'Being a very SOlan woman, my mother conceived the idea of using some of these beads in place of the quills, to see what they would look like. She beaded a strip of buffalo skin, using yellow beads for the background, instead of the white ones which are now used so much. This

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beaded stripshe sewed on a buffalo calfskin, which. I wore as a blanket.' Besides beads or quills, some successful warriors trimmed their shirts and moccasins with human hair. Other possible decorations were bear claws and elk and wolf teeth. As only two teeth from one elk could be used, a shin such as one on which there were 300 elk teeth showed its wearer to be a great hunter. Such wcre cercmonial itcms. Usually the Indian went about in summcr in littlc marc than a breechcloth and, perhaps, n shirt. Ceremonial clothing, howevcr, was worn for any important occasion, including war. \VrOte a Chcycnnc Indian, Woodcn Leg, 'I fa bailie seemed to occur, the warrior's first important preparatory act was to jerk off all his ordinary clothing. He Ihen hurriedly got OUI his fine garments. 'The idea of full dress in preparation for a battlc comes not from a bc1icfthat it will add 10 the fighting ability. The prepnration is for death, in case that should be thc result of the connict. Every Indian wants to look his best when he goes to mcet the Grcat Spirit, so thc dressing up is done whether thc immincnt danger is an oncoming battle 01' sickness or injury al times of peacc. Somc Indian tribes did nOI pay filII allcntion to this maltcr, somc of them seeming not 10 care whether they lOok life risks while naked or only partly clad or shabbily clad. But the ChcyennL'S and the Sioux wcrc careful in following Out the proccdure.' An Army officcr described some Sioux at a meeting in 1876: 'All the men wore loose trousers of dark blue coth; moccasins of buck or buffalo

skin covered with bead work; and were wrapped in i\lackina\v blankets, dark blue or black in color, close!) enveloping the frame; some oflhese blankets were variegated by a transverse band of bright red cloth worked with beads, while underneath appeared dark woollen shins. Strings of beads. shells, and brass rings encircled each neck. The hair was \\'orn long but plain, the median line painted with wrmilion or red ochre. Their faces were not marked with paint of any kind, an unusual thing with Indians in those days: Some Indians. even among the Sioux and Cheyennes. howcvcr. wore no clothing at all into battle. They \\ere. said Wooden Leg. '. . such warriors as specially fortified. by prayer and other devotional exercises. The) had special instruction from ml'tlicine men. Their naked bodies were painll-d in J>e<:uliar ways, each according to the direction of his favourite spiritual guide, and each had his own medicine charms given to him by this guide. " warrior Ihus made ready for battlc was supposed to bl' proof a~~linst thc weapons of thc enemy.' One Sioux s) mbol, paillled on a body or shin. was a hand, \\ hich showed thc \\carcr had killed an enemy in a hand-to·hand fight. According toan Army captain in the 1870S black was most commonly used by the Comanches for painting thc body and facc, although much olive green, red and yellow ochre was uscd as wcll. Besides body and facc paint, hair was important to the Indians. DiOcrent tribes wore their hair in different styles. The Omahas braided their hair with feathers. The Crows pulled their hair into a tall pompadour with heavy doses of grease. The Pawnees shaved their heads, leaving a strip of hair rUllning frolll brow to nape of neck. The captain among the Comanches wrote that in that tribe, 'Their hair, especially that of the "bucks" or warriors, is a mailer of great pride to them and daily about a village they could bc seen carefully combing, greasing, and braiding their scalp-locks, which arc generally tied with red flannel, with otter or beaver fur and, in battle, by elaborate hcad·drcsscs or war-bonnets of the most unique and fantastical designs. 'They carefully plucked all hair from the face with a pair of tweezers made either of bone or metal. '

\Varbonnets generall) were made of feathers. Among the Sioux the fealhers had special mean· ings. Each untrimmed feather stood for one man til(" w('arer had killed, while a notched or nat· trimmed f('ath('r indicated that he had cut an CIWIllY'S throat. A split feather indicated a wound recci\'("(\ in battle. '\\'arbonnets \\ere not worn b) all warriors,' wrotc \\'ooden LeI'!:. 'I n fact, there wcre only a few such distilll;uished men in each warrior society of our tribe. It \\as expected that one should be a studelll of the fightill~ art for scveral years. or else that he be an unusually apt learner, before hc should put on the cro\\ n of ea~1e feathers. He then did so upon his own initiative, or perhaps because of the commendatory urgings of his seniors. Theact meant a profcssionoffully acquired ability in warf.'lre. a claim of special accomplishmcnt in usin!{ cunning and common sense and cool cakulation ('quippcd with the brawry attrihuted to all warriors. The \\(~arer was supposed ncver to ask for merc) in battle ... 'War chiefs and tribal chief" ordinarily were

Thia bospital ale_rd'a rou ...bulton ratipe bto1lH;5 toa!er th.luo 1I511at and "'5 th.ree out5id.. pocket5- He hold5 a black 51ouclo hat

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mixed with nali\'c weapons. Guns and ammunition, supposedly for hunting but as often used for war, were also supplied by the U.S. GOHrnment warhonnet men, but this was not a requirement through its Indian Agenls. Often these weapons for these positions. I)urf' modcsty mi~ht keep the wer(' decorated b) nailing brass lacks in designs all bravest and most capablc fighter from making over the stocks. As Indians gave little thought to the claim. Also, an admittedly worthy wearer of Lhe future, however, they were usually ill·tended. the warhonnet mi~llt not be chosen for or might dirty and rusly inside and out. Rather than dean refuse all official positions.' a weapon, the typical Indian preferred to obtain Each man mad(' his own warbonnet, with his another. \\ife, mother or sister making only the beaded The mosl famed native weapon was the bow and band for his forehead. Some tribes didn't wear arrow. Originally these appear 10 have been about beaded headbands. An officerdcscribed the Crows the length ofan En~lish long·bow. However, when in the I 870's as ha\'ing, '... head-drcss fashioned Ihe horse came into usc. Ihe bows wcre madc in di\'ers shapes but the most frequently formed !\horler. A typical one was noted as being some from an old black army hat, with the tOp cut out three feet long. By 1865 most Indians were using and sides bound round with feathers, fur and arrowheads madc of sheet or scrap iron. An Army captain wrote in 1864, 'A bow-andscarlet cloth. Their arms were all brt'ech-Ioaders, throwing cartridges of caliber .50 with an occa- arrow is a much more dangerous and effective sional .45. Lances, mcdicine-polcsand tomahawks weapon than a revolver in the handsofan Indian. figured in the procession. The tomahawks, made While a revolver could shoot six times ... it could of long knives inserted in shafts or handles of wood not be loaded on horse back on a run with someand horn, were murderous weapons.' body pursuing, but the Indian could shoot six Indians had no facilities for making self. arrows ... and then he could shoot twenly.four contained ammunition or guns and therefore more in rapid succt.'SSion. And so, when a soldier depended on tradin~ or buying that material, had shol Oul all his cartridges, he was a prey to an being supplied with it by the government, or Indian with a bow·and-arrow who followed him. capturing it in bailie. In addition to Ihis, Ihe Indians carried lances, As a result there was a tremendous hodge- which they used to good purpose. Our boys had podge of weapons in usc in ever) b"mel. Shotguns sabers; an Indian could not hit a soldier with a and hunting rines, taken from slain hunters and lance if the soldier had a saber, nor could a soldier farmers; Colt revolvers from cowboys, and mili- saber an Indian if the Indian had a lance.' tary carbines, rifles and pistols from soldiers were Lances were generally some twelve to fifteen feet

Medic.I aid for bcKh .-ides was crud~, •• ,hi.. lieutftUUll wouotded in t.he Battl~ of51;... Buues, Dakola Territory, .8'76, 10•• diKO,·~red...A »05' ~pital ..... Y'"' ........ y ... ne. a_ y (U.S. Siltw Corp")

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long, decorated with feathn!; and scalps. Among those of the Sioux and Crows and Cheyennes, were the Comanches only the bravcst warriors could madc of tll(' skin of the huffalo hull's neck, which is an inch in thickness. This is cut to the desired carry lanccs. The lanc(' was similar to another long stick shape, and slightl) larger than the required size to carried in battle, decorated like the lance blll allow for shrinking: it is pegged down tight on the shap('d like a shepherd's crook. This was the coup ground, and co\'ered with a thin layer upon which stick. which was used to gain honours. lIS owner is heaped a bed of burning coals, which hardens would touch a li"e enemy with it, without being the skin so that it \\ ill turn thc point of the lance harmed himself during baule. 1f the encmy were or a round bullet.' The shield was thcn decorated dead. honour for the coup went to he who touched with paint. while bits of fur or hair wcre often hung around its "idN. the corpse first. rather than the actual killer. Thus drcsst-d and armed the Indian was ready Such a way of makin~ sport of battle led to tremendous actsofbra\'ery, but they were. in the for battle. 'Their tactics under firc arc difficult todC!\Cribc,' lon~ run. rather foolish. wrote Capt;tin Richard Carter in the ,87OS. A Other nati\'(' weapons were tomahawks. altypical one was the action with Quanah though b) then these ,\ere usuall) made b) white men for trade. The) \\erc clubs of wood often Parker·s band of Qua-ha-da Comanches in the tipped with stone and kni\'cs. Knivcs were also mouth of Ca.1011 Blanco. October 10. 1871. when usually bought from white men and were often they assembled their entire force for an open field fi~ht \\ ith our command of the 4th Cavalry. Their the famed Bowie kniH>S. For defence many Indians carried small round (;0,0---.1 Geo"8e Crook in c.he souclt-wdC as he ..onnally apptarfll dun"l a I'Ulnmu CllmpaiJll, wich hi. ra"ouril~ ~hiclds. An Ann~ officer in thc J880s described mule, .hOl~u.o aDd cwo Apache KOutS. His hac is. cork ..on them: . rthe] shields of the Shoshones, like helt..... (U.s. SiS••1 Corps)

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Lieul"'•••1 CoIOOld Geo~" C.,.t".... colu..... of troop. in the Black Hills ",.peel;ti..., Ibkota Territory, .871' T",,·o .2.lb Napol...... aut..on are in the forq:;round, while cavalry rides along the flanka, lefl and righl. The near officer on the 1"f1 .p~.r. to b<': wrapped in .. blank"t or waterproof(Office oft he Chi"r of Engineer.}

rapid swing out or rush into a V-shape formation and then fanning out to the front from these two win~ illlo an irregular line of swirling warriors. all rapidly moving in right and len hand·circlcs, no two I ndians coming together, and their quick extensions, while ad\'ancin~ to the right or Icft. and as rapidly concentrating or assembling on the ccntre, but without any close bUllching and their falling back all in til(" same manner, some· times in a fan-shaped or wing formation, all was most puzzling to all ofour Civil \\'ar veterans who never witnessed such tactical manoeuvres, or such a flexible line of skirmishers: all without an)' audible commands but with much screeching and loud yelling.' This was typical orall Indian attacks. The war chief would lead his men to the aaack, but from there on it was every man for himself. 'We paid no attention to the chiefs,' said a Santee Sioux, Lightning Blanket, in ,86'2. 'Everyone did as he pleased. ' Although it seems total chaos, the I ndians felt their tactics work('d bcsl. Wrote another Sioux.

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Big Ea~le, 'O''''ing to the white men's way offi!{lll. ing they lost lllany lllen. Owing to the Indians' way of lighting they lost but f(·w.' Generally. however, Indians preferred not to light pitchl.-d battles. 'They have no idea of meet· ing the enemy upon an opcn plain face to face, to he shot at like dogs, as thc) say; wrote Ojibway Chief Kahkewaquonaby. 'Their aim is to surprise the enemy by darting upon them in an ullexpected moment, or in the dead of night. The) always take care. in the first place. to ascertain the position of the enemy. When they find them unprepared or asleep, they creep up slowly and stealthily, like panthers in pursuit of their prey; when sunlciently ncar, they simultaneously raise the war whoop. and before the enemy awakeor have time to defend themselves, the tomahawk is rattling O\'er their heads.' \Vhcn atlackcd in their own village the braves immediately ran for horses to lllect the enemy on horseback. while the women gathered children and ran for cover. According to half-breed George Brent, 'At such times a lllall always took an) pony he wanted; if the pony was killed in the figlll the rider did not have to pay its owner for it, but everything the rider captured in battle belonged to the owner of the pony he rode.'

ernerJ!p{f(HeS 'With a slupidit) stricti) consistent with the whole history of our contact with the aboriginies,' wrote an officer who spellt some years in the Apache homeland. the south-\\t'St, 'the people of the l}nited States have maintained a biucr and unre-

lenting warrare against a people whose name was unknown to them. The Apache is not the Apache: the name "Apache" does not occur in the language of the "Tinneh", b) \\hich name ... our I nelian prefers to designate himself "The 1\tan."· The name 'Apache' actually comes from a

ZUlli word meaning 'enemy'. The Apaches, whose lcrrilOry coverro what is now parts of Texas. Arizona, :'\cw ~Icxico and ~texico, were a numbn of smaller groups, each made up ofa number orramilics united b) kinship and a common placc of residcnce. I~ach local group was indep(·nd(·nt. while a number of these groups would form a loose association or band within ccrtaintcrrilOriallimits. These bands would go together unckr one leader in wartime, although normally each group had its own leader. ~lorrover, some of th(' bands together considered themsdv('s a single people, and made up a tribe, although th('n' were no tribal officers or govern men IS. Each local group would usually have a head chief, who would make decisions on sending out raiding panies, holding ceremonies and such activities. However, he had no rca I authority, depending on his influence among his followers to persuadc them to do his will. Any family unhappy with the chiefwas free tojoin another group, and a popular chief would attract followers from a numbl'r of neighbouring groups. Each group also had its own shaman. While SOme groups had hereditary chiefs, the position passing within the same clan, olhers passed lhe POSI on to sons of dead leaders or members of important families who had qualities of being a nOled hunter, warrior or wist· man. Clan heads within the group werc subchiefs, while their wi\'('s were wOlllen chiefs in charge of the c1an"s WOlllell.

In wartime one man, known for fighting and leadership ahilities, would usually be chosen as war chief for a whole band of up to several hundred warriors. Individual groups sometimes preferred their own war chiefs, and it would not be uncommon for a band 10 go into bailIe with Iwoor more war chiefs. The band's council, made up of local group's chiefs and subchiefs, would also choose a civil leadcr, usually someone know n as an outstanding speaker, for the war's duration. Often both war and civil chiefships wcrc combined in one man. \\'hilc council and I).'l.nd leaders would have to approve major wars. an indi\'idual was free to organise and go off on his 0\\ n raid any lime. He could enlisl mcn 10 follow him from his own group. Before an) raid or war special dances and ceremonies would be held. Other ceremonies. especially a scalp dancc with cveryone participating:. would be held on the warriors' successful return.

The .86. VolUlueer caVII.lryn\an'. jacket had a short coUar with only One button and lace buttonhote, while Lhe r",!ular's had two. The .hiM was !"'y RaDDel. Boots ....ere rarety issued, atthou!h widety worn

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Men of T ..oop C, 51h Caval..y in the Indian Te....ito..y. 1888, we typical field d ..ess. Th", man .econd f..om Ih", I",ft we f.lse-f"onted 'fi ..",man',' ,hi .. t. whil", th", man n",,,t to him .po..ts. quil'" un_military white shi.. t. Thei.. ;ssu'" hac, I.ck .ny bad!"" (U.S. SignaJ Corps)

Rarely did til(' Apaches rid(' into battle, for they were poor horsemen and pr('ferred to dismount and fi~ht on foot. One of C('ncral CeorRe Crook's officers. \\ ho st'ned a~ail1st Ihe Apaches, \\ rate, 'The Apache was a hard foc to subdue, not I)('cause he was full of wiles and tricks and experi('nced in all that pertains 10 the art of war. but I)('c::wse he had so few anillcial wants and depended almost absolutely upon what his great mother .:"ature stood n'ady 10 supply. Startin~ out upon the warpath, he wore scarcely any clothing sa\"e a pair of buckskin moccasins reaching to mid-thigh and held to the waist by a string of tile same milterial; a piece of muslin encircling the loins and dangling down lx·hind aboullO the caln:s of the legs, a warhat of buckskin surmounted by hawk and eagle plumage, a rine (the- ntTeSsal') ammunition in [a] belt or a 1)0\\, with the- quiver filled with arrows reputed to be l)Oisonous. a blankt't thrown O\er the should('rs. a water-tight wicker jug to ser\"{' as a cantel'n. and perhaps a small amount of"jcrked" meat, or else of"pinolc" or parched corn-meal. 'That is aiL excepting his saered rdies and .. mediciIH..... for now is the time when the Apache is ~oitH~ to risk no failure by ne!o";!ecting the prccaution needed to !o";et all his ghosts and gods on his sid('" 'I

Rardy did Apacht's fight actual battlcs in large hands; tilt'} preferred to raid. Their tactics u~ually consisted of a small group of (wo or three,\pac1H's sneaking' to some rock 01" hill's shelter which overlooked an enemy camp. Therc they would wait for as long as se\'eral days, almost mOlionlcss. ul1lil they got a chance to stampede a herd. kill some ene-mics or 'jump' a wa~~on train. WrOle an officer. 'They knew ho\\ to disguise th('msch-cs so thoroughly that one mi!o";llI almost step upon a warrior thus occupied before he could dctect his prcsence. Stripped naked. with head and should('T') wrapped up in a bundle of yucca shoots or "sacaton" grass, and with hody rubbed over \\ ith the clay or sand along which it wri/{gled as sinuously and as venomously as the rattler itself, the Apache could and did approach to within earshot of the whites 'On such occasions he preferred to employ his lann' or bow. because these made- no sound, and half or ('\'Cn a \\ hole da} might elapse before the stiff('n('d and bloody corpse of the herder or waf{onl'r \\ould be found. and the presence of I ndians in thc vicinity known. At least twenty such examples could be gi\TIl from mv 0\\ n kno\\'!cdRI' .

Until 1865, wl1('n 'he Ref{ular Arm} was fre-e- to relLlrn to \\'estcrn duty. the frontiers wcre largely guarded by locally-raised regimellis. Besides locals. the Army raised five regiments, called U.S. Volunteers, li'om among captured Confederates who pr<.·ferred fighting Indians to the cold and misery of Union prison camps. They had been guaranteed thcy would not be used against their fello\\ southcrners. B} 1866 allthe volunteers had Ix'en demobilised and the Regulars were back on Ihe plains. Th(' men who made up the Re!o";ular Army came from all back~rounds. :\Iany had a taste ofarmy aclion dllrin~ the Civil \\·ar. found itto their liking and stayed in.. \ good number simply changcd from Confederate grey to C .S. blue often 105in~ a grl'itl deal of rank in the process. Others came

from European armies. Still more were men 'on the run' from the law, big city toughs or men financiall) 'busted'. Troop C, 8th Cavalr) even IxmstL'CI a Harvard University graduate among its rankers. One man, who previously put in four years in the Cerman Army, wrote that the men in his regimellt, the 7th Infantry, in 1888 were ani) fair soldiers, although the company officers were excellent leaders. Relations between officers and rank and file were very good, he thought. The 7th Infantry. \\ hich served on the northern plains, \\ as a better than usual regiment becausc it manag(.'d to serve together in the same place and thus maintain an esprit de corps rather unique in the Army. Only the '3th Infantry. sen-ing in Apache country. and the _ph Cavalry managed to stay together in the same way. Each regiment was made up of ten to tweh-e companies. Thest' rarel) served together. making the company for all practical purposes the basic militar~ unit. The President had the alllhorit) to permit companies to havc any stren~th from a minimum of fifty rank and file toa maximum ora hundred, \\ith a captain and IWO lieutenants. In 1866 light artiller~ batteries were authorised IZZ rankers, while infantry, cavalry and heavy artillery companies \\ere allowed 6.1. After Little Bighorn this strength was rais('d to on(' hundred. although companies rarely r<.'ached such a numbcr. A 51h Infantl") offic<:r, campaigning against the Sioux and northern Cheyenncs in 1878 wrote that onc of his regimcnt's companies had only sixteen men fit for duty. Not ollly were companies separatcd and small, but the men wcrc largely untraincd. It was supposed that, with the majority of mcn bcing Civil \Var vctefans, lillie morc training was neccssary, cvcn drill being neglected. Post sutler's derk Peter Koeh wrOte that inspections at Fort Ellis, iVlontana, in 1871, were limited to, 'officers. inspecting a few bottles of ebampaigne '. This began to change by 1872. In that year small arms targ<.'t practice officially began, with each soldier ha\'ing to fire nill<.'ty rounds annually at a rifle range. and to participate in drills on estimating distanCe
Fir.1 s.e~"anl John CotnrOri ia 6,,(d dre••, Tb" lI"rg..anl ba" adapt"'" th" I""tb"r .wordbeh ;alo a cartridg" belt by."wia!!: canva" loops .ro....d il. His "ailor_lype .hirl i. "tnclly a civili... tnoo,,1 (U.S. Si!!:nat Co.,..)

'5

Th;1I <;avatryn1arl wears th .. lIlauntt.. t" fortll issued in .88.t. E.<".. pt for ,h.. neck.. r"hl.,f, his urllforn1 i,. ..nlir""y th., i,."u," fallgu"orle for ,h.. laler Iridian War y.... rs(U.S. Signal Corps)

policy or awarding- prizes and rurloughs to each unit's best shot was adopu.:d, with cs under fire. Other regiments were sending: rccruilS Ollt on long: practice marchC'S and war

'"

games as early as 1879. Still, the only real specialists in the Army wer(' in the Signal Corps. The Corps' telegraph and heliograph operators were the Army's first field specialists and, as such, were the highest rated enlisted men in the Army. In the I 880's upon enlisting they J'f'{;eiwd special training in their crarts at the Coq)S' own school at Fon ~Irer. Virginia. AnOlher training area inilially neglected was first aid. By the late l880s two to rour men a company were given special training as litter bearers, wilh an emphasis on bandaging wounds. makjng splinlS and anything else they could doon the spot. Liller bearers \\ere joined by anOlher new rank. hospital corpsmen, and a programme or weeki) lessons and lectures ror these men was begun in t887· Aniller) chan~ed little rrom the Ci\ril War. Bronze, smooth·bore I '21b :\"apolcon cannon were commonly used. With a ~lower rate or fire and shaner range than guns used by COlllemporar) European anniC'S thq would han~ been hopelessl) outclassed in a war with an) other nation. At the range Indians typically rougill. and given the ract Indians had no cannon at alt and were quite awed by its usc. the :\apoleon wa~ all that was needed. Perhaps more effective and popular than the limber-
A 'olb ca"alry troop.,r;n Arizon... ,888..."d...... wn by Fro:d.,r;ck R.,m;n!lon. H., cam... lwo wat.,r_ bolll.,,,,

boxes. The new metal cartridges noisily bounced about in theold boxes, making sneak attacks pn:tty difficult. Soldiers solved the problem themselves by making looped belts to hold their cartridges. These were made at first by sewing 1001'S onto issue lealhcr bells. Tannic acid in the leather corroded the cartridge cases. pUlling a layer of laugh blue-green verdigris on each one. :\Ot only could this dangerousl) weaken the cartridge, but it made it stick in the weapon's breech or soldier's belt. The sold in would have to pI') a fired case loose from the breech slo\\ and dangerous in a hot fight. The men sol\'{"(1 this problem by either cleaning each cartridge dail) or making- their belts of hea\~' cam-as. \\ hich had no acid content.

An 18th Inl:1Jltry captain, Anson Mills, at Fort Bridger in 1866 had his post saddler make leather looped belts for his men, personally obtaining a patent on the idea. In laiC 1876 the Ordnance Department, which had consistcntly prcfcrred boxl's to belts. finally gave in to popular pressul'l' and had 30,000 canvas and leather 'prairie' can ridge belts made at Watervliet Arsenal. B) then vinuall) no cartridge boxes had been used out \Vest for a number of years. This light-\\ei~ht belt had another advantage, besides bringing in a fair sum of royalties to Captain i\lills. It reduced the fighting man '5 load. The Indian-fighting infantr) man became one of the lightC'St loaded soldiers in the world. Lieutenant \\'. B. \\'l,ir in 18nlisted an infantryman's full ,7

Officer'>, who g('l1('rall~ carried a pistol and often sOllle sort of riO(·. carried about the same weight. Sometillles the men \\Clll ('\Tn lighter. as shown in General Fi('ld Orders AO. 2. Deparllnent ofDakOl:l. loAugust 1876, in an anti-Sioux campaign: ':"Jo tents \\ h:l.l('v{'r \\ ill be carri('d, no compan~ prop{'rt~, no cookin~ ulinsils [sic]. except tin cups. no bedding ncept one blanket per man ... 100 rounds of ammunition per man ... Ev('l"Y inf:llltr) oflicer and man will carry \\ ith him two days' cooked ratiollS.'

THE C.\\·.\LRY

P~.ch~.,. Whil~ Mountai.. Apache scoul in .885' H~ i5arm.ed with a civilian_type rm~ and appar~.. t1y a 8ritish r~volv~r (Nat;onal "rchiv~.)

fidd equipnH.'nt load as:

60 rounds anlmunitioll and belt ovcrcoat blanket (Rr('y wool) rubber blanket (~round cloth) Springficld rin{, and sling (bayonct oJl1ll1i!ted frOIll Ihis list) extra clothes full canteen onc quart five rations: 3/4 lbs Ine'lI and I Ib hardtack pcr cia)

Total

5-4° lbs 5· 2 5 1bs 5· 13 lbs 3·001bs 8·401bs 2.001bs 3.84- lbs 8·7S lbs

41.77 1bs 18.79 kg

Because of the t)pe of land on which the Plains Indian Wal") \\er(' fou~ht fairly treeless and \'ast and the fact that the J ndian \\ a~ oflife was based on thc horse, the arm of thc s('n-ice which hore the primary brunt oflhe J ndian Wars was theca\"alr~. When the Cidl \\":lr broke out there W('Te onl~ six ca\'alr~ r('girncnts. They \\er(' SCIlI where the~ wcre mOSt dt"'lp('ratd) 11('('ded alon~ the cast coast to fight C:onfederal('s..\s thc J ndiansdeclined to stop fi~hting their own wars and making raids just because whilcs \\ere ftglHill~ bCI\\c('n Ihem. s('I\-es, ca\-alr) had to beS('111 \\cst. The main eAort had to be made h) volunteers. During th(' \\ar the ea\'a!r) reginwnts in the \\cst were the 1st and 2nd California; lSI and 3rd :\'ebraska: I'2t h, 13th and I I th ~ Jissouri: 5th. 6th, 9 th . IlIh, 151h :Ind 16th K:lnsas; 2nd and 3rd Color
for the disgraceful massacre at Sand Creek by Colorado VolulH(:crs until the Regulars could return. By 1866 only Regulars patrolled the plains. The 1St Cavalry was sent to the Pacific Coast in 1866. In 1868 it was sent to Arizona to handle Apaches. A decOSts in A'ew ~lexico, Arizona and throughout the south-west, fighting Apaches. It was sent north, serving against Utes and Sioux in 1872, rCLUrning to Texas in 1882. The 4th Cavalry was sent to Texas and the Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) in 1866. Between 1875 and 1881 it was mostly fighting Utes and Cheyennes. It was sent to New Mexico in

1881. In 1884 lhe regiment was assigned lO Arizona forts. Itwas senl lO the Pacific Coast ill 18go. The 5th Cavalry was sent to Kansas in 1866. In 1871 it was sent 011 to forts in Texas, going on to Arizona the next year. In 1875 it was returned to Kansas, going on campaigns from there against the Sioux, Cheyennes and ~ez Perce. In 1879 it was selll against the Utes. In 1880 the regimem was split among posts in Kan<;as, Oklahoma and Arkansas. The 6th Cm'alry was sent to Texas in 1865. In 18jl it was sent on to various posts in the Indian Territory and Kansas. In 1875 it was sent to garrison posts in Arizona and A'ew ~Icxico, being united in New ~Icxieoin 1885. In 1890 it was sent to the Dakotas. The jth Cavalry was organised in various posts from Kansas to the Rocky ~lountaillS in 1866. In 1875 it went to posts in Texas and the soUlh-west. From 1873 to 1876 it served against the Cheyennes and Sioux, being virtually destroyed at Little Bighorn in June 18j6, and ha ...; ng (0 be newly recruited. From 18n to 18go it served in posts in the Dakotas and ~Iontana, The 8th Cavalry \\as organised in the Presidio fort) of San Francisco. California, in 1866, serving there until 1870 when it was sent to Arizona. Apach~ ac::ou15 al Fo" W;n8al~, N~w ~1enco, on parad~wilh carbinu and w~b-l)'p~ carl.rid8~ hocl..., Th~)' w~ar a ...-id~ vari~ly of If:fI;~iJl8. and rool'8~ar (U.S. Si~nal Corpa)

.:.170

'9

Crow KinS, a Hunkpapa scout, at Fon Buford, North Dakota, •88., won an old lIeCond Ii<,:ut<,:nant'" <':oal. Hi" ba.ir i" bno.idC':d -itb an;mal Cur (U.S. SiS...l Corp.)

In 1875 il was ~elll on to Texas. and in 1888, the DakOlas. The 9th Cavalry was il1l all·bhlck regiment 'bufnllo soldiers' to the Indians, ·brUIH.'!tes' to tlw whites. It was or~anised in Xew Orleans, largcl) from among blncks who had seen .service durin~ the Ci\il War. in 1866. Onlcen; were white. The next year it was senl to Texas, sen·ing there until selll on to :'\ew :\Iexieo in 1875. In 1881 the regiIllcnt was split among posts in Kansas and the Indian Territory. In 1885 it was scrH to posts in :"ebraska and Ulah. while two troops went to :\Iontilnil in 1887. The other black em·alry re~iment \\as the loth Ca\'alry. organised al Fort Lea\-enwOrlh. KanS'i

each. ,\ colond. assisted by a lieutenant colonel. commanded a regiment. Each squadron wa~ commanded by a major. The squadrons wert.' numben-d. Troops were de~ignaled b) letters. although the Ietter'.J' was omilled. A T Troop, if there wcrt· onc at all, was a :John'. or recruit, troop. Each troop was commanded by a captain, assisted by a firsl lieulenant and a second licutenant. :\on-('ommi~sion('d onleers on Ihe regimental stafr induded a sergeant major. a qUilrlermaster sergeant, a chief musician and a chieflrumpctcr. E
thost' lIs(·d in the Civil \\'ar, e.g. Sharps, Smiths, Spencers. (;;,I];H~hers and Burnsides. They wcrc usually o.;)'.! calibrc, with a rather short range; liuk' further. in fact, than pistols. The} also Llsed, except for thl' Spencers and Henrys. paper eartridgcs and copper caps. The other tWa used brass self-contained cartridges, stored in magazines. In IS73 the same breechloading system as used in infantr) riAl's \\as
A "rederid. Re,"irt~IO" d",wi"~ or art Apache Scout wea.rirt~ rtali"e Apache bool_lype moc.,._

,.in,.

carried in a holster similar to the older ones, butt forward, although Ih" hol~t"r didn'l slide easily OlltO looped cartridge bells without some work by the individual soldier. In 1877 the Ordnance Dcpartment began issuing web can ridge belts with a provision for I he holster. Initially troop('rs rode on plain rawhide·cov('T"d saddles. although the) were supposed to be ITplaced with a black leather-covered. beechwood saddle, the l\IcClellen. from the beginning. The 7th Cavalr} didl1't recein- the new saddles until 1869 and the old oncs weren't wholly replaced until the end of 1875. The ne\\ saddle had a blue webbing ~irth and hickor} wood stirrups covered with hlack leather hoods marked 'US' on each one. An extra strap was included on the saddle for a man to hold the horse \\ hile its owner was on' fighting. Generally. one OUI of eyery four men

"

nished them, but no two of the Pawnees seemed to agr("e as to th(' correct manner in which the various aniclt,s should be WOI'l1. As they lined up for dress parade, some of them wore heavy O\'ercoats, others discarded even pantaloons, content with a breech-clout. Some \\ore large black hals with brass aecoutremcnts; others went bareheaded. ~Iany wore the pantaloons, but declined shirts. \\ hile a few of the more original cm the scats from the palllaloons. lea\'in~ onl~ leggings. Half of them wer(' without boots or moccasins. but wore the clinking spurs \\ ith manifest pride.' One Army ofticer \\ho probably made more usc of Indian scoutS than most was George Crook. The success of his campaigns against the Apaches largely dependc..-d on his SCOutS, which he managed to rcr:ruit from among the \'ery people he was figilling. In the hot south-\\ cst. Crook's scouts dressed in e\ell less of a regulation manner than scouts did on the northern plains. An ofticer accompanying Crook described th('m in 1883 as wearing, '... a looscl~ fitting shirt of red, white or grey stuff, generall~ of calico, in some gaudy figures. but not infrequently the sam(' article of woollen raiment issued to white soldiers. This came dO\\ n outside a pair ofcotton drawers, I"('aching to the moccasins ... a leather belt encircling the waist holds fort)' rounds of metallic cartridges ;:Ind also keeps in place the regulation blue blouse and pantaloons which were worn ... only when the Indian Scout is anxious to paralyze the frontier towns or military posts by a display of his finery. The other trappings of the savage auxiliaries arc a Springfield breechloading rifle, army patlern, a canteen full of water, [and] a butcher knife In contemporary illustrations Apache scouts usually wear their hair long with a colourful headband instead ora hat. Other than that, they were genera lIy d rcsscd the same as typical Plai ns Ind ian scouts a five-button ratigue blouse, a web cartridg-e belt, sometimes sky blue trousers and a black slouch hat. It \\as not until Circular :\0. 10 was published on I I August t8go that the Indian Scouts received a re~lIlation uniform. Generally it was the same as other Army uniforms, s."\\,e the dark blue shirt had a deeper collar, some t\\O inches wide at the back and three-and-

,

-

-

•

On the frontier officers preferred Ihe broad-brimm..... slouch MI to Ihe r0!8"lation fora!e cap, Colonal Silas P, Richn:oond has Ibe embroidered 'nfanlry officer's cap bad!e -ith his r0!8intental .. untber in Its Coon Ire On hi" hat

a-halrinches at the front to hold a neckerchief. Thl.' badge to be worn on the slouch hat was. 'to be made of nickel 0" some \\'hite metal, three inches in length, t he letters U .S.S. in the upper intersection' or a pair or crossed arrows. The hatcord was white worsted with a sO'and of scarlet interwoven, representing the blending of Indian society into thal of the whitt's. eliding in a white worsted slide and two white tassels. Chevrons were white, piped scarlet. A unique uniform itcm was an overcoat, 'to be made or I.'ish rriczc, or imitation of that material of some dark color, to be cut ulster shape, large and rull enough to covel' all accoutrements; to reach within ten inches of the ground: to be closed in front with two rows of brass buttons; to be slit well up in the rcar to admit the seal in the saddle; the coat, lined \\ith black Italian cloth, or OIhcrsuitable mauorial, made to button around the neck, under the collar, and large enough to cO'er the head; to be \\01"11 at night and in inclement weather; and each hip to have a horizontal slit

held four horses while tlte other three wen: in action. Th(' ~addle hlanket was hlue \\'itb yellow lX)n!cr and yellow 'CS' badge. In September 1876 the 4th Cavalry rcC('ived clark grey saddle blankets. In the field the :l\-crag-e ea\"
Captain Dutton noted that, 'The- old pattern (small size) arc altnost useless to them. The leather bags (t\lodei t874) would be preferred though thc linen bags Uvlodcl r872 would be highly salisfactory. I think that if the Ca\alr) could he supplied at oncc or before the spring campaign opens with large saddle-bags that branch of Ihe sen'ice would be most highl) deli~hted.' Horses were often smaller and hardier than Ihose found in European cavalry rcgimcnts. usuall} slandin~ about 15 hands, At least once they were assigned todim'rent troops according 10 colour. Cu<;ter nOINI in the 7th Ca\·alry. ·For uniform it) ofappcarance it was decided to dc\'ote one afternoon to a general cxchan~e ofhorses. The troop commanders were a"<;embled at head· quarters and allowed, in order of their rank. to s('!cct tht-' colour Ihe} preferred: This was nOI a common thing and it was rather unpopular Wilh the soldiers who had to gi\e up wdl·known animals ..impl} to appear uniform cspecial1~ strans:;:(' since dress uniformily was in many ways unknown!

THE I:"OIA:" SCOljTS

""'l._

All infantry ~"''l:",.nc in 1861 drK~ .. niform wicla clae bl..," tro,,_n ori~inallrordered_He i~ artned with the lara'll.5-Ioilced non-comrnill'llioned officer'...word

'3

If 'it takt,s a thief to catch a thier, then a wild Indian could best be tamed by an already-tame one. So reasoned the Arlll). In 1866 General Order No. 56 was published, callin.l;" fOI" the enlistment of Indians as Army scouts. These scoutS were organised into permanent companies and anrlched to ReKular regiments, A mustcr roll of Company A, Indian Scouts, ill 1878. then atla("\lccI to til(' 3rd Cavalry at Fort Rains, Dakota Territory, indicates that officers w('re while, while Indians servcd as il first sergeant. a sergeant, a corporal and as private scouts, Indian scouts Wl'fe issued regular Army fatigue uniforms. However, lhey felt mLich more comfortable in their native COSlume and. as a result, usually wore a mixture of the IWO. Officers didn't aHempt to maintain regulations about the dress of their scouts. Buffalo Bill. seeing a parade of I)a\\ nee scoms in 186g, thought. ' ... their full-dress uniforms were calculaled to excite e\'en the arm~ horses to laughter. ReKular ca\'alr~ <;uits had been fur-

•

eo\ered with a flap, this for access to the revolver and ammunition. 'nw('oal to be lined throughout.' Arti~t Frcdcri<:,k Remington thought, '... the new overcoats of the corps metamorphose the ~COUb into somethin~ between Russian Cossacks and Black Crooks'. For dress th(' basic 1888 cavalry blouse was ordered, trimmC'd with white piped in scarlet. :'\oncommissioned officers' and trumpeters' trousers had while stripes piped in scarkt, as well. while the trull1pete~' dress coats probabl~ had white lace across the chest with a scarlet strip through lhe cemre. The 1888 helmet was worn with white mohair cords \\ith a strand ofscarl('l \\,O\'en in and a \\ hite horsehair plumc \\ ith four strands of scarlet runnin~ throLU~h it. .\ pair ofcross('d arrO\\1> \\as worn on the staff badRC' on the hdmct. .\ccordinR to Circular :'\0. 10 the scouts also recei\'ed an lInu'lual guidon. cut square instead of swallo\\tailed likt, R('Rular ca\·alry. and made of scarlel "ilk with white silk frin~e. In the centre were two white cross('d bows and four arrows, two on each "ide, with the \\ ords . L' .S. SCOUTS' and the troop's kll('r on top and the departmental name on the bottom. all in silk. B~ then the scouts had been firmly integrated into the Army, and Remington in 18go described a, ' ... company of Cheyenne Scouts who are to ('SCOrt the General fine looking. tall young men, with long hair and mounted on small Indian ponies. They arc dressed and accoutred as United Slales Soldiers and they fill the eye of a military man until nothing is lacking.' flRMY FIEl.D DRESS ON THE PLAINS

"Crook,' wrot(' an officer who served with him in the south-west. 'never liked to put on faJ uniform when it could be avoided.' During a winter campaign in 1875 Crook wore, hc wrote, '... boots, of Govcrnment pauern, number 7; trousers of brown corduroy. badly burned at the ends: shirt of brown. heavy woolen; blouse. of the old Ann) style; hat. a brown Kossuth or felt. wntilatcd at tOp. An old arm} overcoat, lined \\ith red flannel. and provided with a high collar made of th(' skin of a wolf sllot by the , I

general him~elr, compl('\('d his coslume, excepting a leather belt with forty or fifty copper cartridges, held to the shoulders by two leather slraps.' Crook was far from unique in his disdain for regulation dress. Custer wrote once how a group under his command was mistaken for Indians, ' ... and welllhc} might, considering that two of our party \\ert~ O~ages and the others dressed in an}lhing bUl Ihe r('gulation uniform'. Custer hims(']f usuall~ \\Ore a li~ht grey, lowcrowned hat and .1 heavily-fringcd buckskin jacket and trousers, with a dark blue shirt ofwhich the wide collar "as tied together b} a scarlet cravat. A cam-as cartridge belt held his holsters and a knife in a rrin~cd and beaded sheath. :\lany other 7th Cavalr~ officers wore similar garb. \\'h~ such a de\·iation from the specific regulation dress? One reason was that issue clothing was ofIX>Or qualit}. Private- William :\lurphy. 18th Inrantr}. wrote that in northern \\'yoming in the winter of 1866 7, 'Our shoes wer(' made of cheap split leather and the shoddy clothes ... furnished at that time were nOt any protection.' :\Ian} uniform items wcre made in great quan+ tit} during the Civil \\"ar for the huge Army and were badl) filting and orpoor materials. So much of this rcmained in the Quartermaster's stores for years after the war which they could not afford simply to toss out, that it was issued regardless of quaIit y. A 6th Cavalry trooper in Texas composed this ditty to sing in a Christmas Eve variety shO\\ : You ought to Sec the coat I wear, And, lhen, the trousers, such a pair! There's no such uniform, r swear, In any decent army. Complaints about quality, however, drew a sharp reply from Quartermaster General :\101Hgomery ?'Icigs that it was the duty of officers to be concerned with economy and to avoid criticism of serviceable material. The clothing issued, the General said, was the same as saw service in the Civil War and if troops on the frontier were kept busy enough they wouldn"t have time to complain about their dress. \\'hen new uniforms of decent quality were finally issued. beginning around 18]3, a habit of 'making-do' on the plains had been entrenched

•

3

• Cheyenne warrior, .878 Sioux ....arrior, 1876 3 Ghost dancer, '690s \I

G.l4.-tM8lHON

A

•

• Sergeall' Major, US Cavalry,.866 "Corporal, US Cavalry,.866 3 Captain, US Cavalry, ,866 .. S",rs",ant, US Inralltry, .866

•

•

B

.r,*._

G A.(M8L£TON

3

I fir", S('r~".. nl. US Arlill"ry•• 875 :z Firsl Li.,ul..nanl, US Cavalry, .875 3 Quartermal!ll"rS.,rs"anl, US Inranlry, 1875

G. A. (M8l£ION

c

•

7th US Cavalry in c.h.. fi"ld, .876

• Corpo.-.l 2 Second Lieut"nant 3 Trooper

D

G. A. EM8lE"TOH

E

I Capulin, 5th US CaV>l.lry, full dr".Iii, .87\1 Serl;:,.an. Major, S,h US Cavalry, full dress, .87\1 3 Trooper, 91h US Cavalry, full dr,..., .8711 \I

F

(; ..... fM8IETON

• S"'r!l",anl Major, Apach'" Seoul., .880s '" Apach", Scoul, .8808 3 Apach'" warrior,.8805 .. Omc.,r, US Cavalry, .8808

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G. A. [MBLETON

G

•

, US offic",rli in winter fi",1d dre'"i, ,87°..-.880", II Trooper, ,ol.h US Cavalry, w;nt",r field dr"'...., .8708 .8805 J Drl.adier Gene ....l Ge0'1l'" Crook, w;nt",r field dr"'...., ,870" .880.. <4 St:r.eant, Norlh_\'I'",.. t ,\1ount"" Poli""" ,8708

•

H

G ..... (MliIlfTON

rather firmly and even the lIew uniforms were mixed with old and civilian clothes on campaign. It was also a major p"oblem to get uniforms of any quality to men, often far from posts, spread throughout a country lacking decent roads and railways. In a south·western summer campaign an officer reported, '\Ve were all cut down to the lowest notch in the matter of clothing, a depri\·a· tion ofwhich no one complained, since the loss was not severely felt amid such surroundings.' Corporal F. J. Gehringer recalled returning to Fort Wingate in September 1866, after a campaign; 'We wert' a sight to behold, hardly a uniform on a man mall) just had overalls.' In the summer extreme heat drove officers and men to assimple a uniform as possible and. regardIessofregula tions. a uniform quite similar throughout the period. Although a few caps were worn, gt'nerally soft. broad-brimmed hats were most common. The initial issue ones were black. with grey ones being issued by the mid· 1880's. The first issue ones were ~aid to last only about three weeks in the ficld, although quality was said to impro\'(' by 1876. Sold iers often bought greyslouch hats themselves. A civilian scout with the 7th Cavalry wrote that in that regiment. 'Occasionally a man had a [companyllcller on his cap, but they generally wore what kind of hat they pleased and not all had letters on their hats.' Cavalry, infalllry or other corps badges were onen worn, although the majority of men left their hats plain. A variety of this issuc hat, worn briefly around 1876, had hooks and eyes on the hat brim, so it could b('lastened up like a chapeilu·de·bras. These didn't last long, Sir Edward Thornton, British Minister to the United States, obtained onc hundred cork British Army helmets from India in 1875 for the QuartermaSl('r Department to test on the plains. They wcrc approved for use in 1880 when General Ordt'rs 72 authorised cork summer helmets for rank and file in 'hot climates'. They were to be without pugarees. but with a narrow cloth band worn wlwre the pugaree would go. and to be covered with white drill cloth. Officers wore a slightly fancier helmet. \\ilh a finer quality covering. brass chin strap, side buttons and spikc top.

The helmets wcre worn mostly while 011 garrison duty, apparently, A quartermaster lieutenant at Fort Mojavc, Arizona Territory, wrote in t883 thal the mcn hated them and he himself thought nothing could be worse for frontier service. In the field the helmet's bright white cover stO
t

The .861 fatigue uniform C:O,,~i~ledof. blue wool blo,,~e wilh fou.r br... bunon8, lfky bl"e lrousen lind II blue kepi_like fora~e cap

common in modern films about the Plains Indian wars, all hough many officers did wear cravats with broad running ends. The Plains is a land or extrcmes, the most extreme being tempenllures. In the summer, a blistering sun in the winter quite the opposite. An officer wrote that in the winter, 'Particular atlention was bestowed upon his subject or clothing; and when I say the m('rcury rn.'quently congeals in the bulb, and tbat tll(' spirit thermometers at Fort Fred Sleele, Wyoming, that winter registered as low as 61 below. Fahrenheit, the necessity of precaution will be apparent. The most elastic interpretation was gin"n the word "uniform" so as to permit individual taste and 31

experience to have full play in the selection or the gnnnellls which were to protect rrom bitler cold and fierce wind.' Supposedly the issu(' blue wool ratigue uniform, with the addition of a sky blue kersey over. coat complete with cape, was all the soldier would need for winter dress. Such was quickly round not to be so. In 1876 the Quartermaster Department bought bunalo-hide overcoats and Canadian-made felt boots for Plains usc. along with seal-skin caps and gauntlets. The laller items were not sen-iceable because the) became hard and brittle when they dried out arter being soaked. B) 1878 muskrat skin was successfully tried. Caps and gauntlets of it \\ere purchased in quantit} b) 1881. Officers and men were free to wear whatcver they could afford or wished to in the winter. An officer sening in a winter campaign under Crook described what was probably a typical assortment ofdrcssstyies in any period wintereampaign: 'For cavalry, great care was demanded to protect reet, knees, wrists, and cars; the rOOI soldier can stamp his feet or slap his hands and ears, but the mounted man must hold his reins and sit up straight in the saddle. Commencing with the feet, first a pair of close-fitting lamb's·wool socks was put on, then one of the same size as those worn b) women, so as to come over the knees. Indian moccasins of buckskin, reaching well LIp the leg, were generally preferred to boots, being warmer and lighter; cork soles were used with them, and an ovcrboot of hufJ'alohidc, made with the hairy side inward and extending up nearly the whole length of the leg, and opening down the side and fastened by buckles something after the style orthe breeches worn by Mexican "vaqueros". These overboots were soled, heeled, and boxed with leather, well tanned. Some officers prcrerred to weal' the leggings separate, and to usc the overshoe supplied by the Quartermaster's Department. By this method, one could disrobe more readily aner reaching camp and be rree to move about in the pe..rormance of duty while the sun might be shining: but it was open to the objection lhat, on account of the clumsy make of the shoes, it was almost impossible to get into the stirrups with them. "All people ofexperience concurred in denoullc-

ing as pt'rn1ClollS the practice of wearing tight shoes, or the usc of :lily article or raiment which would induce too copiolls a flow of perspiration (which might freeze later) .. For underwear, individual preferences \Vere consulted, the general idea being to have rll least two kinds of material uscd. principall)' mcrion and perforated buckskin: o\er tht'se was placed a heavy blue flannel shirt. made double-breasted, and then a blouse. madc also double-breasted, of ~lission or ~Iin· ncsota blankcl. with large buttons. or a coat of :'\orway kid lined with heavy flannel. When the blizzards blew nothing in the world would keep out tht· cold but an overcoat of buffalo or bearskin or beavcr. ahhough for many the overcoats made in Saint Paul ~Iinncsota ofcanvas, lined with the headNit blanket, and strapped and belted tight about the waist. were pronounced sufficient. The head was protected by a cap of cloth, with fur borda to pull do\\ n over the ears: a fur collar enclosed the neck and screened the mouth and nQSC from the keen blasts; and the hands were covered b) woollen gloves and over-gauntlets of bcaveror muskrat fur. For rainyor snowy weather most of the command had IWO india-rubber ponshoc"S sewed together, which covered both rider and horse. This was found very cumbersome and was generally discarded.' Buffalo coats, while best for fromier usc, were rather expensive and therefore the Clothing Burcau l'xp('rimented with sheepskin overcoats and canvas ovcrcoats lined with sheepskin. These were reported to soak 1hrough with rain and snow easily and were abandOl1cd in favour of overcoats similar to those made in Saint Paul. Enough bufralo overcoats had been bought for moSl men on the plains to have one.

Ill(' bend of the knee; single~breasted fol' Captains and 1,ieutenants; doublc-breasted for all the other grades.' A major general wore, 'two rows of buttons all the breast, nine in each row, placed by threes.' with 'collar and cuffs ... of dark blue vclvet'. A brigadier had the same wilh 'only eight buttons in each row ... placed in pairs'. The field officer had, 'only seven buttons in each row on the breast, placed at e
DRESS REGULATIONS r861

r8g2

The following regulations governed Army dress during the period. Quoted material is taken dirt'ctly from official regulations. 186r REGULATIO:\"$

'All officers ~hall \\'ear a frock-coat of dark blue cloth, tht' skin 10 extend from two-thirds to threefourths of tht· distance from the top of Ihe hip to

A1> H. A. 0sd.,.. draM"S of 187'1 drKS ....uonns. Th., dism.ounted m.,.. ar." rrom I.,rl, • cava..lry 6.,ld offic.,..-, • fOOl company oflic.,r,. c. va..lry 1J"'cr"J-.DI, aD infantry .,orporat and aD infaDlry privalO!

35

distance from the tOP of the hip to the bend of the knee; one row of nine buttons ... : sland·up collar to rise no higher than to permit the chin to turn freely over it, to hook in front at the bottom and then to slope up and backw:lrd at an angle of thirty degrees on each side; cufTs pointed ... and to button with two small buttons at the underscam; collar and cuffs edged with a cord or welt of c10lh as follows.... : Scarlet for Artilhry .. skybluefor Infantry: yellow for Enginurs: crimson for OrdnanCt and Hospital stm:ards. On each shoulder a metallic scale 'All Enlisted Men ofilli' Cavalry and Light Artillery shall wear a uniform jacket of dark blue cloth, with one row of twelve small buttons. .' The stand-up collar had 'two blind bUllon-holes of lace ... onc small button on the buttonhole'. The -.arne lace bound up the collar. jacket frOIll and back scams. Each culT had a laccd, pointed cuff with two small buttons. Lacl.' was red for light artillery and yellow for cavalry. Musicians worc their corp's uniform, 'with the addition of a facing of lace ... on the front of the (001 or jad.eI ... placed on a line with each button ... 'and a strip of the same lace followin~ the bars at their outer extremity .. .' On fatigue men could wear, 'a sack coat ofdark blue flannel extending half-way down the thigh falling collar ... four coat bUllons .... Generals and staff officers had dark bill!: trousers. plain for generals and with a gold cord down each leg for staffers. Regimental offic(TS wore dark blue trousers, 'wilh a wclt lei inlO the outer scam ... of colors corresponding to the facings of the respectivc regiments'. Enlisted mcn wore dark blue trousers with sergeants having a one and a halfinch wide stripc and corporals a half inch wide slripe down each leg. On 16 December 1861 officers and men, exccpt generals. were ordered to wear sky blue trousers. Hats werc black felt, the brims bound in silk for officers and stitched for rankers. Offic('rs wor(' their respective corps badges embroiden'd in gold on black velvel. Rankers wore brass copics of the samc badges. These were a shell and flame for ordnance; two sabres crossed, edges upward. for cavalry: a crossed cannon for artillery: a bugle for infantry; and a castle for en~ineers. Generals and starr officers wore a silver CS in old English

36

characters within a gold wreath. All ranks wore their regimental numbcrs as part of their hat badges. Hats also had corps colour cords; an ostrich fcather thr('C for generals on one side; and a brass badge pinning up the right side for mounted men or up the left side for foot mcn. Light artillerymen wore a visored shako, 'with red horsehair plume, cord and tassel'. 'For fatigue purposes. forage caps [were] ... dark blue cloth with a \\'eh of the same around the cro\\n, and yellow metalleucrs in front 10 dcsig. nate companies.' 'Commissioned officers may wear forage caps of the same pattern, with the distinetivc omament of the corps anti regiment in front.' Generals wore a. 'buff, silk net' sash. t\lcdical officers wore a, 'medium or emerald green silk net' sash, while other officers wore. 'crimson silk nel'. Sergeants and hospital stewards wore, 'red worstcd'sashes. 'The sash will be worn [over the coatI all all occasions of duty ... except stable and fatigue.' 'The sash wilt be worn by Officm oflhe D"!.)'across the body. scarffashion, from the right shoulder to the left side, instead of around the waist, tying behind the left hip as prescribed.' Belts were plain black leather, except for those of gCIll:rals which had 'Russia lealher, with three stripes of gold embroidery'. The belt plate was 'gild, rectangular, two inches wide, with a raised bright rim; a silver wreath oflaurel encircling the "AnTIS of the United States": eagle, shield, scroll, cd~e of cloud and rays bright. The motto. E Plurbius l'num, in silver letters upon the scroll; stars also of silver .... Dress officers had gold cpaulcltes with rank badges within a solid crescenl. A major general had two silver stars, the Army's commanding general had three, and a brigadier general had one. A colonel \\ore a silver cagle and ('ilher his corps badge or th(" infantry, artillery or cavalry colour. The lieutenant coloncl had a siher leaf and the major had nothing. All general and field officers had bullion fringe threc-and·a-harfinches long and a half inch in diameter. Company officers had bullion fringe two·anda·half inches and a quarter inch in diameter. A captain had two silver bars; a first lieutenant had one; and a second lieutenant had nothing.

• 'The epau!ctlc may be dispensed with when nOlan duty, and on certain duties off parade, 10 wit: at drills, at inspections of barracks and hospitals, on COUrlS of Inquiry and Boards, at inspections of articles and necessaries, on work. ing partics and r~uigllc duties, and upon the march, exccpt when, in war, there is immediate cxpcclalioll of meeting the enemy, and also when the overcoat is worn.' Then onlccrs WOfe shoulder straps one-andthree-eighths inches wide b) four inches long. They were clark blue for generals wilh the same stars worn within their gold borders as worn on cpaulettes. Olher officers wore shoulder siraps of their corps colour and Iheir cpaulette badges, except a major had gold Ica\'cs and company grade officers had gold bars. l\ledieal cadets wore, 'a strip of gold lace three inches long, half-an-inch wide, placed in the middle of a slrap ofgreen doth three-illld-thrcc-quarter inches long by onc-and-

/

Offic.. u in ,8711 dress llDiform. at .·ort Walla Walla, Wa"hinA"too T ..rritory, ht t874. From I..ft, tb......t!HI are an infantry and two nlOunted offic...... Sianding, from I..fl, they ar.. an infantry privat.., an infantry company offic..r, a mOllDt!HI offic..r, a fi ..ld_grad.. infantry offic..r, two company_ grade mounted officer., a .u"!eon, and another company_ grade mounted officer. Note the .urgeon'. chapeau and unique "word (U.S. Signal Corp.)

one-quarter inches wide'. Non-commissioned officers wore chevrons, 'upon both slet'ves of lhe uniform coal and overcoat, above tht:' elbow, , , one-half an inch wide, same colour as the edging on the cdat, points down, as follows: For a Strgtanl ,1I0)or three bars and an are, in silk, Fora QuarttrmasttrStrgtanl three bars and a tie, in silk. For an Ordnanu Strgtant three bars and a slar, in silk. For a Hospital Sttrt'ord a half chevron ... of

37

Officers wore a dark blue o\"('rcoat. 'closing b} means of four frog bUllons of black silk and loops of black silk cord down the breast .. .' Rank was marked b), 'a knot of flat black silk braid·. Generals wore a double knot of five braids; colonels, a single knot of five braids; lieulenant colonels, a single knot of four braids. and so on, ending with a second licutenant who had a plain slecvc. Rankers worc sky blue ovcrcoats, doubkbreasted with a cuff-lcngth capc for mounted mcn, and singlc-breasted \\ith an c1bow-lcn~th cape for foot men. 187'2 REGULATIOXS Officers had the samc frock-coats. A full general had twelvc buttons in sets offour, and a lieutenant general. tcn buttons, thc upper and lower groups in threes and the middle group in fours. Field officers wore nine buttons in each rowan their double-breasted coalS. 'The upper halfof the cun's to be ornamented with thrce double stripes of gold braid running the length of the Cliffs, emcrald grecn cloth. one and three-fourths pointed at their upper ends, and with a small inches wide, running obliqucly downward button bclo\\ the poinl of each stripe .... from the outer to the inner scam of the sleeve, Company officers now worc two rows of seven and at an angle of abom thirty degrces with a buttons each and 'two stripes on the cuffs'. horizontal, parallel la, and one-eighth of an Military storekeepers, who in the t861 regulainchdistanl frolTl, bodl the uppcrand lower edge, tions wore, 'a citizen's frock-COilt of blue cloth, an embroidery of yellow silk one-eighth of an with buttons of the department to which they arc inch wide, and in the centre a "cadeceus" two attached,' now were allowed 'a single·breasted inches long. embroidered also with yellow silk, coat, as lately worn by Captains ... with staff the head toward the outer scam of the sleeve. shoulder-straps to indicate rank'. For a First S"gtonl thrce bars and a lozengc, in On fatigue officers wore, 'a sack coat ofdark blue cloth or serge; falling collar; single breasted, with worsted. For (I Sergeant thrce bars, in worstcd. five bUIlOllS in front.. with black braid For (j Cor/)oral two bars, in worsted. cxtending from each button and button-hole back For a Pionur - twO crossed hatchcts of cloth, six inches and terminating in "herring-bone" same color and material as the edging of the loops. 'The skirt to extend from one-third to two-thirds collar. To indi(olt .5 years 011 Sin·itt ... below the the distance from the hipjointLO the bend of the elbow ... a diagonal half chevron, one-half knee ... a knot of black braid ... on the upper inch wide, extending from scam to scam, the part of the cuff.' The braid was ordered removed front cnd nearest the cufr and one.half an inch 19 November [87.5· above the point of tile cun', lO be the same colour Enlislcd men wore frock-coats slightly shorter as the edging on the coal ... Sen'ice in war will than those of 1861. They were piped in corps be indicated by a light or sky blue stripe on colours, with a corps colour gorget patch four each side of the che\Ton for Artillery, and a red inches deep on the front of each collar, the 'numstripe for all other corps. ber of regiment or badge of corps in yellow metal

3B

in the middle of [the patch 1.. on each side', Facing colours were used on shoulder tabs; on the coat's skin which was also 'ornamented with four buttons'; and on cuffs which now had three bultons, '1'\\'0 straps of dark blue cloth, piped with the same color as Ihe facings [are to be] lei into the waist-scam on each side [of] the coat and buuoning above the hip to sustain the waist-belt,' Corps colours were as in 1861, except for engineers who wore scarlet and white with scar· let shoulder tabs. On 20 i\larch 1873 ordnance sergeants' facing colours were changed to cadet grey. ~tusicians u"ed the 1861 braid system. Cavalry, anillery and the signal corps wore similar but shorter coats, with orange the signal corps colour. Generals and staff officers alike wore plain dark blue trousers. Everyone else wore 1861 regulation trousers. The original fatigue blouse was pleated and had five buttons. In 1874 this was replaced with a plain one with facing colours piped on collar and cuffs. Generals and staff officers wore a 'chapeau', :\Iountcd men received black felt helmets with a yellow metal eagle on the front and a plume holder with a red or yellow horsehair plume on top. Officers had gold cords and tassels hanging from it; the men had red or yellow ones. Everyone else received dark blue cloth shakos, but those for the officers were 'ornamelHed with mohair braid of the same colour as facings .. .' Pompons wcre also in facing colours. Badges were the 1861 regulation ones. On 19 November 1875 infantrymen were ordered to have cap badges of two 'rifles without bayonets, barrels upward'. The regimental number was worn below the spot they crossed, with cnliSled men wearing the company letter above that. 'Field and Band Musicians will continue to wear the bugle and letters as at present prescribed,' The order was effective 1June 1876. On fatigue everyone had caps, 'chasseur pattern'. like the 186l forage caps but with stiffened sides and a bit smaller than the old ones. Corps badges and, for enlisted men, company letters were worn on the cap fronts. Sashes were taken from everyone but generals who had buffsilk ones. On 12 February 18n they were ordered to wear them from left shoulder to right hip. Their sashes \\ cre then to be of buff and

Fi....t s.,~ea ..l Joh.. CORlfort in IS71t full dr"" UIliform with hi!!' Congreu;onal Medal of Honour (U.S. Signal Corp!!')

gold thread. Generals wore 1861 regulation sword belts, Field officers' belts had, 'a broad stripe ofgold lace on ... black enameled leather'. Staff officers helm\ field grade had belts with, 'four stripes of gold, interwoven with black silk'. Cavalry. artillery and infantry company officers had the same stripes. 'int('rwo\-en \\ith silk of the same color as 39

the facings .. .' Sword belt plates from 1861 regu la tions were used. Only generals had epaulcues. The General of the Army had 'two silvcr cmbroidercd stars, with five rays each, onc and one·halfinches in diameter, and the "Arms of the United States" embroidered in gold placed between them'. A lieutenant gcneral had three stars; a major general, two; and a brigadier general, one. Other officers wore shoulder knots, 'of gold cord, Russian pattern'. 'An aigullette of gold cord [was] to be worn with the right shoulder·knot and permanently attached thereto,' by officers of the adjutant-general's and inspcctor·general's departments and generals' aides-de·camp. Other officers wore the knot, 'on cloth of the same color as the facings of thcir arm, with insignia of rank and number of regiment cmbroidered on the cloth ground'. Non-fighting corps wore their badge on their knots. Regimental adjutants also had aiguilleltes. Rank badges were as in 1861, except the major had a gold leaf. 'The shouldcr·Slrap will be worn whenevcr the epaullene or shoulder-knot is not.' They were the same as in 1861. The rank of medical cadet was abandoned. 'Officers serving in the field may dispense with the prescribed insignia of rank on their horse equipments, and may wear overcoats of the same color and shape as those of the enlisted men and omit epauleltes, shoulder.knots, or other prominent marks likely to attract the fire ofsharpshooters; but all officers must wear the prescribed buttons, stripes, and shoulder·straps, to indicate their corps and rank.' Non·commissioned officers wore t861 chevrons. Engineers had scarlct chcvrons pipcd white. A new rank, principal musician, was marked by three bars and a bugle and a company or battalion quartermastersergeant had three bars and a single tic. On 20 March [876 infantry chevrons were changed to dark blue. Officers wore a 'dark blue close fitting doublebreasted surtout coat, with a cape, mad~odctach from the coat ... with sevcn buttons ... as those on the uniform coat'. CuO' rank badges were five braids in a single knot for a colonel, four for a lieutenant coloncl and so forth down to the plaincuffed second lieutenant.

4°

All enliSK-d men were to have the 1861 mounted man's overcoat. On 2sJune 1873, official regulations stated, 'Until further ordcrs, the singlebreasted overcoal, with the additional cape, may be issued to, and worn by. enlisted men of all arms of the service, in lieu of the double-breasted overcoat.' 188. REGULATIO:,>;S The 1872 coat was regulation, but its cuff stripes were removed. Each cuff had three small buttons, regardless of rank. In thc lield, officers could wear a plain dark blue sack coat without braid, with fi\·c buttons and shoulder straps. Trousers were t872 ones. In addition, from 1879, ',"Vhenever, in extreme southern latitudes, while trousers arc worn by enlisted men, the officers must in like manner wear them.' Generals and staffofficers, except signal officers, wore a chapeau, cocked slightly lO the [eft, 'showing the gilt ornaments upon the right side'. ,\·Iounted officers wore helmets, 'of cork or other suitable material covered with black cloth. or of black felt, at the option of the wearer. Trimmings: cords and tassels, top piece and plume-socket, chain chin-strap and hooks, cagle with motto, crossed cannon, rifles, or sabres, all gilt, with the number of the regiment on the shield in white; plume of buffalo-hair, white for Infantry, yellow for Cavalry, and rcd for Artillery.' Signal ome-ers worc thc same with orange plumes. Foot officers had the same helmets. 'except the trimmings are as follows: lOp piece, spike. chain chin-strap with hooks and side buttons, eagle with motto, crossed rifles or cannon, all gilt, with the number oflhe regiment on the shield in white.' In summer officers wore cork helmets, 'covcred with white facing cloth, 'complete with top piece, spike, chain chin-strap and hooks, all gilt'. 'The helmet cords will be attached to thc left side of the helmel and come down to the left shoulder. where the} arc held together by a slide; one cord then passes to the front and the other to the rca I' of the neck, crossing upon the right shoul· der and passing separately around to the front and rear of the right arm, where they are again united and held together by a slide under the arm; the united cords then cross the breast and arc looped

up to the upper button on the left side of the coat.' The chasseur cap was still worn. A black felt fatigue hat could be worn on marches and campaigns. Also, 'Whenever, in extreme southern latitudes, straw hats are worn by enlisted men. the officers must in like manner wear them.' Generals wore 1872 epaulcttes and other officers, the 1872 shoulder knoL". Shoulder straps were worn when knots were not. A shoulder strap with a shepherd's crook of frosted silver on a black velvet background was authorised for chaplains. Sashes, swordbclts, swordbelt platcs and overcoats were as in 1872. Enlisted men wore 1872 pattern coats. Chevrons were also the s... me, \'I!ith the addition of a badge worn on hoth sleeves by Signal Corps privatcs first class. It was 'crossed signal Rags, red and white, on dark blue cloth .. .' Signal Corps non-commis-

A cOTnpany oftb.. 'lil Infantry, about '1190, in full dr..n. Not.. th.. Tnan lIecond frOTn th.. I..n, front row, has thr.,.. _rvi.... IItripn, on.. indicating wartiTnf! s .. S..v.....1 m"n w ..ar marksmanship medats. Two Tn..n, top row,s ..cond and third from th.. riKht, .. nd th.. bugt.. r d ..arly show tbe .874 belt bucklf!ll with ..xlra loops to be ullf!d with the knapsack (MuseuTn of the Prellidio of San Francisco)

m.,..,.

sioned officers wore this badge above their chevrons. Signal Corps privates second class wore the badge on their left arms only. Trousers wert' 1872 patlern ones. Enlisted men wore helmets like their officers. They also wore chasseur caps and. 'on the froillier or in actiw campaign', black felt hats. O\Trcoats were, 'of sky-blue cloth, doublebreasted, , . the lining and facings to conform in colour to the lrimmin~ of the uniform. The lining for Infantry great coat capes to be dark blue,'

4'

and loops of black mohair square cord .' Braid showing rank on the slecves was as it was in 1872. In addition, the coats had cap('softhe same material, lined in facing colours. 'On the frontier and campaign, offiC('rs may w(:ar the soldier's overcoat, with insignia of rank all the sleeve.' Facing colours werc the same except infantry now used whitc. Enlisted men wore 1872 pattern coats except collars were made \\ hall} of facing colours. Regimental numbers were no longer worn on collars. Ordnance was to have crimson piped white for its colours, and the Hospital Corps, green piped \\ hite. The coat 'for acting hospital stewards [is] to ha\'e a red crosson each sidc of tile collar. in front'. Post quanermaster sergeants had buff facings piped white, and post commissary sergeants, cadet grey piped white. Fatigue blouses were the same as before. Gold chevrons \\ ere authorised for dress. Otherwise. chevrons were thc sa me wit h several additions and 'or changes: For a Sadd/~r S~rg~ant

Aft H. A. 0sdna drawias of a .....jor selu~ral in 18& full dr6. tal.k.in.s with aa infa.ury officer

,888 REGULATJOr\S

Three bars and a sadd ler's round knife, handle up\\ard ... For a Chiif Trump~t~r Three bars and an arc of one bar, with a bugle or pattern worn on the caps, in the centre. Fora Post Q]lQrtermaster Serg~ant Three bars and a crossed key and pen. For a Commissary &rgeant Three bars and a crescent (points front) ... For a Ilospiial Steward Three bars and an arc of one bar or emerald green c10lh, inclosing a rcd cross. For an Acting Ilospital Steward The same as ror a hospital stew:ll'd, omitting the arc. For (J Company Litter !Jearn A brassard of white cloth .. on which is a red cross ... to be worn on the cuO' of the left arm. For a Farrier A horseshoe of cloth.

Officers wore the 1882 regula lion coats, trousers, fatigue blouses and helmets. Storekeepers lost their uniforms. Forage ca ps were the sa me and officers' ones had, 'a cord cap-strap of gold on silver'. Badges were the same except signal officers bad a burning torch added to their crossed flags. Black felt fatigue hats were, 'to be worn only on target practice, fatigue duty, and on marches and campaigns.' Epaulettes, shoulder knots and shoulder straps were the same, although chaplains lost their straps Trousers were the 1872 pattern, except that in 1888. Sashes, sword belts and swordbelt plates musicians wore 'two stripes, each one-half inch were the ~ame. wide, of cloth conforming to the color offacings'. Officers, except generals, wore an overcoat of, Foot soldiers received brown cotton duck leg'1.1 double-breasted ulster of dark-blue cloth, lined gings for marches and campaigns. with dark-blue flannel, or black Italian cloth, Helmets and badges were the same as in 1882 closing by meansoffour black molmir netted olives except band musicians wore, 'a lyre of white 4'

metal'; cavalry trumpeters wore crossed sabres like other cav;,dr} men; and field musicians wore brass bugles. Fatigue caps
TilE :-;ORTH WEST POLICE

~IOU:-;TED

Indians didn't rec~nise national borders; tribal lands spread between the Cnited States and Canada. Problems in protccting Canadians from Indians, and vice \'ersa grew. On 30 August 1873 pro\'ision'lofan act of Parliament \\ ere enforced by an Orda in Council. and recruiting for the :'\orth Wesl i>.loulHro Police was started. Th('organisation was to ha\'e 300 men, aged between 18 and 10, in two ranks. Sub·constables \\ere to bepaid 75cdaily. and constables, S 1 daily. Three divisions of fifty men ('ach were to Ix-' posted at Fort Gerr} , :"fanitoba, and three more at Stanley Barracks, Toronto.

.88,. r~ubdon helmet plale.. ror a 6th Inrantry officer and an artillery .... nker

The organisation was modelled somewhat along lines of the Royal Irish Constabulary, with dress and administration copied from the British Army. Later non-commissioned and inspector (officer) ranks \,'ere added, using British rank badges, The unit first saw action when '275 mounted policemen were sent west in July 1874 to pacify warring tribes and protcct the country from

adventurers. By that autumn they were as far west as the foothills of the Rocky !'I'fountains. In two years the organisation was firmly established. In many ways the ~. \V.M .1>. was more successful in pacifying its wards than the U.S. Army. This ma) ha\'e been partl) so because it had less Indians to pacify and less settlers to keep away from them. It is probably equall} true to sa) that it was because the individual policeman seemed to lack the arrogance and brutality often shown b) new· comers to the west. Typifying 'friendly authority'. polin'men usually gained the Indians' confidence and respect. thus a\'oidin~ bloodshed. Their first uniform was red and fairl) plain. Red was chosen because the Indians had been friendly with the British I\rmy, earlier stationed Ou( west. and to them the colour represented authority. A red-coatcd man wasll·t trying to hide he was out in the open. upholding the law impartially. The first coats were :'\orfolk jackets, with open roll collars. twO large skirt pockets, two inside pockets and Austrian knots all the inspectors' sleeve. There were no facings or lace. Riding breeches \\'ere steel grey Bedford cord, while trousers were dark blue with a doublc white stripe. For dress, a white cork helmet with a muslin pugaree, its ends hanging behind, was worn: while a blue cavalry pill box cap with a white band and button for privatcs, and gold for non-commissioned officers and inspectors, was worn for fatigue. Boots Wt'rc black wellingtons with steel spurs for dress and brown boots for service. Brown colton jackets and trousers were worn on f:"lliguc. The uniform was completed by white gaunllets, a brown pistol belt with a brass snake buckle and a white haversack. In [876 a new uniform was ordered. For dress, inspectors wore a scarlet jacket, CUI and laced like an hussar's jacket, with dark blue collar and cuffs. Dark blue overalls had a gold stripe. The helmct had a brass chain and spike. Sword slings were scarlet morocco with gold edging and the sword knot was gold. The dress pouch was purple velvet with gold embroidery and a silvcr buffalo head in its centre. For undn.-ss, inspectors wore a scarlet tunic with dark blue collar. Rank badges were trimmed in gold. A dark blue pill box hat with gold band and buttons was worn with scarlct-striped, dark blue 43

Major Engagements, t860-ISgo Pyramid Lake, .:\"evada

.:\"1:\\

elm,

~1innesOia

1862

Rosebud. j\'lontanna

1864

~lollntain_ .:\"orth

Dakota

Adobe Walls, Texas

Hayfield Fighl, Wa~on

~lontanna

Box Fight, Wyoming

Washita, Oklahoma Sand Creek, Colorado

186..J-

186S

Felterman Disaster, \\fyoming

1876

Dull Knife, Wyoming - 1876

186_1 1874

Platte Bridge, Wyoming

1876

1876

Little Bighorn, i\'lolllanna

Calion de Chdly, Arizona Kildeer

1876

Slim Buttes, South Dakota

1862

Fon Ridgely, Minnesota

1874

Warbonnet Creek. Xebraska

1862

~Iinncsota

1872 1873

Palo Duro Carlon, Texas

1862

~'linnesOia

Birch Coulee,

Lava Beds, California

1862

Apache Pass, Arizona Wood Like,

1860

ClearwateL Idaho

1877

White Bird Cailon

1877

Big Hole, Montana 1866

1867 1867

1868

1877

Bear Paw i\lolintain,

~lolltana -

Birch Creek. Washington Milk Creek, Colorado

1868

1877

Callan Creek, MOlllana

1877

1878

1879

Cibiell Creek, Arizona - 1881

Beecher's Island. Colorado

1868

Big Dry Wash, Arizona

Summit Springs. Colorado

18Gg

Skeleton Canon, Arizona

Salt River Cailon, Arizona

1872

Wounded Knee, South DakOia - 18go

trousers. The swordbclt was worn under the tunic, with brown sword slings hanging out. A black sabretache with a regimental badge was carried with the sword. Other ranks wore scarlet dragoons' tunics without facings, trimmed with yellow braid. Trousers were bluc wilh a )cllow stripe and their boots were black. In the field all ranks prefcrred black slouch hats, although these were not regulation. First wcapons wcrc a 0.577 Snider-Enfield car11

1882 1886

binc, a brccch-ioading, single-shot weapon; and a 0.45 Adams revolvcr. As Indians gOt more magazine-fed anns, the N. \V .M. P. became out-gunned, and eventually replaced their old carbines with 45/75 \Vinchesler cal·bines. Possibly the most famous N.W.M.P. action was aflcr Little Bighorn whcn the Sioux fled to Canada for safety. Red-coated Moumil'S met Ihem al the border and safely guided Ihem 10 a new home Ihcre. It was an aClion in Ihe organisation's highest traditions - maintaining order peacefully.

1 neP/f1tes (Detailed uniform descriptions will be found body of the text.)

In

the

AI Chtytnnt warrior, 1878 The Iypical appearance of a Plains Indian warrior, carrying a cased bow, quiver of arrows. tomaha\\ k, and buffalo-hide shield.

A:I

Siou:c u'o";or. 18]6

Generalisations on the subject of the decoration and painting conventions of Inelian tribes are usually unsafe; bUI it may be said thaI the full bonnet identifies this warrior as a prominent member of his communit)" though not ncrcssarily a chief, in the sense understood by Europeans. He carries a lance and a large horn-handled knife; a carbine and a looped cartridge bell arc either trade items or trophies of war. Shortage of ammunition and the almost complete absence of skilled repairers offirearms were major handicaps among the tribes. Handgulls were quite often observed among Ihe armament of warriors.

A3 Ghost Danar, lagos The ghost shin appeared in many kinds of material, and widl decoration of every sort.

This ,.od CaVll.lry R"'8;m,ml priVllI'" w",ars ,88,. full dn:s", compl...", with carbin'" lI1in/J' Indian War S",rvic", m
8 I Sergeant Major, US Cavalry, /866 The familiar laced shell-jacket bears chevrons of rank on both sleeves, and the trOllsers, yel1ow- 83 Ca/){aifl, US Cavalry, /866 striped for NCOs, arc lucked into the bools. Car- The officer wears his frock coat over a checked bine and cartridge box arc carried on a broad shin, quile' common 011 the plains. In the background is a trooper wearing the ('aped sky-blue leather cross·belt. O\'('I"('oat and a black slouch haL 82 Corporal, US Cavalry, /866 Theshcll·jacket seen from the front: it was popular, /14 Sergeant. lIS Infantry, 1866 and often worll in place ofa fatigue blouse, minus This NCO wears absolutely regulation uniform, its full dress scale epauletles. The company letter down to the sash and s\vord of his rank and thc appears above thc branch badge on the crown of back-breaking 186.... contract knapsack. the cap. Note cap pouch for the percussion wcapOilS, worn on right front ofbch: 'butcher knifc', a C, First Sergea"t. CS Artillery, /875 pri\'ate item carried b~ mOSI ...oldiers; and snap- Following an old and still-practised Army cllstom. this light artil1er) :\CO hands out cigars to celchook attachment on cross-hdt l()r the carbine. ~5

brate his promotion. Service chevrons wereauthor- vided with hooks and eyes along the edges of lhe ised on dress coats only at tllis period, butthis NCO brim so Ihat it could be worn as illustrated, reis apparently proud enough of his Civil War scr- sembling a dW/)(flI/-de-bras. The trooplT (3) wears vice to wear his on the sleC've of his 1874 piped the same hat flapped down, and a fatigue blouse fatigue blous(' the kind ofdeviation from regula- mad(' frOIll an old 1861 dress frock-coat cut down tion dress frequently observed. AulilOrisation of note the nine buttons. The trousers arc hea\'ily this practice in 1882 indicates that it was already reinforced on the inside leg, as was normal for established; in 1888 authorisation was re\"crsed mounted troops. The carbine is the .4-5170 issue agam. wcapon, still carried clipped to a cross-belt. :\"ote that bandanas \\ere personal it('ms, and were of C2 First Litufmant, L'S Camlry. 1875 man} different shades and panerns. The straw hat was popular in hot climates; great latitude was observed in the manner of campai~n FI F2 F3 Captain, Strglant .\lajor and Trooper in headgear. The fancy braided shin, a personal pur1872full dUll uniform chase. is also typical of the officers of the period. The officer's helmet cords are ofgold. those or non.\"ole the locall}-made canvas leggings, the ficld- commissioned personnel yellow. Th(' officer wears glasses in a slung case. and the 'butcher knife' in a the regime-nlal number in while metal between two sheath decorated with brass rivets. sets of rank bars on the- branch-colour escutcheon of his epaulellcs, and the non-commissioned and C3 Quartumast" S"gtant, CS Infantry, 1875 enlisled men worc it on the branch-colour collarThe pleated 1872 fatigue blouse was suppressed in patch. The 10\\ er of the Sergeant ~Iajor's service 1874 officially but continued in usc long after- stripes on Ihe forearm indicates service during the wards. The non-regulation grey slouch hat was more popular Ihan black items. Bullelloops have been sewn to an old leather :\,CO's belt; such belts were widely used, being more capacious and much easier of access than the regulation pouch.

D & E: Ojfilm and men oj tilt 7th US Cavalry in the fitld, 1876 This group displays the far-from-uniform appearance of the Indian-fighting cavalry in the field. The corporal (I) has tied his blousC' to his saddle, and rides ina n old issue grey f1a 11 nel pLt llover shirt. His belt has large loops for carbine ammunilion, and a small extra length of belting attached with loops for pistol ammunition. Trousers arc worn ovcr boots. Note saddle fixtures, including rope and picket-pin, and the slung canteen which has been re-covered with old blankctcloth. The second lieutenant (2) wears a fring('d buckskin jacket, of the kind popularised by the 7th's commander, Gcorge A. Custer. Note ficld-glasses, issuc holster worn butt-forward on the right hand side of a privately acquired looped belt, shoulder straps attached loshoulders oftbcjackct, and fancy shin. The odd-looking hat is the 1872 issue campaign slouch. a disastrous piece of design which rapidly nO! "Iouch ...., lost its shape under field conditions. It was pro- 'Monlan. peak' 16

...... <:onunonly _0 .... in • point, called •

Civil War here. in red, indicating that hc selyed with the Artillery. The Negro trooper of the 9th Cavalry has the same tunic as the NCO apart from rank chevrons, but wears unstriped trousen;.

G A/Hlche SCOI/ts (llId CllValry officer, 18805 The US Army made great useofl ndiall auxiliaries, and one of the major reasons for the defcat of the tribes was the willingness of warriors to fight alongside the white man against other clans and tribes. Scouts usually wore a mixture of Army and native dress; Ann) jackets were common, but Arm) trousers drtually unknown. The s('nior SCOul J) wcars thc chevrons of a Sergcant ~Iajor in Ca\'alry yellow, and the rcd head·c1Olh common among Apach!.-'S scn-ing with thc Arm). The scout in the background :1 has obtained a recruit·s lined Fatigue blouse onl) recruits received lined blouses and has rc\cTSed it ror camouOage in the

AliSi!lltaDl Commiu;oner Ja.nes F. Madeod, N.W.M.P., with

hi.. hand On hili horse's lIaddle, with two of his inspectors and aconlitahleat Fort W.Ish in 1878. Notehow tbe undre!lllljackds ra8ten losether without bUlIO"1II (Royal Canadian Mounted Police)

bleaclu:d landscape of the south-west. The renegade prisoller Wl'ars typical native dress (3); the officer (./ w('ars a fancy shirt with a plastron front. Indian kgging,;, and a straw hat.

III O.fficen ill winttr fitld dms, 18705 18805 Officers prodded Ihemseh'es wilh a wide variety orrur and hide garmClll$ againsl the cold. H:1 Troop", loth l'S Cam/'..)', U';nl" fi~ld dr~ss. 187°5- 18805 A 'buffalo soldicr' of the Xcgro 10th Cavalry. weari nK t tit: issuc bu rralo-hide winler coat over an old piped 1874 blou$c and a privately acquired nC'ckC'rchier.

47

r (

•

Sioux etu",rB;! Foo.li" dead On !..be 6.,ld .fWounded Knee af'ler tbe lu,t ....jor baul.. of tbe Plaia.. Indian ....ars, 1890 (U.S. Sipal Corp.)

H3

Brigllditr Gtntral

G~orgt

Crook, 187°5- 1880.5

The ArlllY'~ bcst Jndian-fi~hling general had an individual taste in clothing for field dUlY. Here he wears his modificcl sky·blllc cavalryman's OVCTcoat. lined fl'cI and with a collar made from the pelt of a wolf h(' sho\. In hal weather Crook oftell wore a weird-looking sUIl-helmet and a canvas jacket; giwll lhal he frequentl) rode a mule, and armed himsclfwilh
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. G. Burkc. On

Tht Borda With Crook, New York, 189[ Gordon Chappel, Tht Star(hfor the Well Drtsstd Solditr, Tucson, Arizona, 1972 Charles Hamilton, Cry !if the Tlllwdtrbird, The Amtncall "if/ifill'S Own Sfory, Norman, Oklahoma, [972 Official, U.S, ilm~~ Dress Rtf(ulalions, 186[, r872, 1882, 1 B88, Philadelphia & Washington Don Rickey, Jnr., Forty Aliles II Day on Bellllf and lIay, Norrnan, Oklahoma, 1963

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