Rome's Enemies (3) Parthians & Sassanid Persians Firsr pllbli~hed in Crc,ll Bl'itain ill 1986 by Osprey Publishing. Elms Coun, Chapel WilY, Botley, Ox...
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Rome's Enemies (3) Parthians & Sassanid Persians
Firsr pllbli~hed in Crc,ll Bl'itain ill 1986 by Osprey Publishing. Elms Coun, Chapel WilY, Botley, Oxford OX2 !.ILl'. United Kingdom. Emllil: inju@/IJ/m,lmblbhing.wlII © 1986 Osprey I'llbli~hillg Ltd. Reprinred IgR7, 1989, 1991, 199:!, 1993, 199·1, 19%, 19\)7, I ~19R. I !)~m. :.!<)oo. :.!o(> I
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\Vikox, PI'tel' Rome's ellcmies. -(Men-at-arms series; 175) :r Parthians and Sass.mid Persians l. Arms and armor, Ancient-History r. Titlc II. Series
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Gill rJll%g)! 250 BC
220 BC
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B
197
B
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BC
170-68
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B
135 BC 95
B
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53
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BC
Province 0 Parthia and reBa tria' > ed rom lucid Empir . P nhian' v rrun ral e~ I rn pro inces of c!rucid mpire. nLio hu' Ill, King of I u ia d lcat Parthian halt the GrecoBa trian e pan i n. R man. defl at edonian at . nosccphalae, Thessaly. R man I fI t nti hu III at 1agn . ia Lydia. lithridatc I I ad Parthian. to 'unqu 'S f Iymai, P dia and Ba tria. Parthian tak control of OpOlamia fr m. I'u id . madi Iranian aka b gin raiding a t rn provine s of lr n. Panhians re ain ontr I I rail" s lm aka I' main mar hmen of Parthia. W· .tern A i n o t nn x db, R ol fr m P ntu in I rth t Egypt in south; kingdoms of the interior arc mad vas a. th r ta bow to R man uz r inty. Parthian' cI ·tr m t of Roman army of lh> east und r 1ar ·u pr n ul of yna, >
52 BC
auca ia I ave
AD 20
aim rm nia asia. R man randaI'd ar r turn d by th
anatruqu King of Hatra, a tatue shomng Parthian court dns of the 2nd enl"Ury Be. (Stat Organisation of Antiquities and Heritage Baghdad)
AD
53
AD 115 AD 117
AD
u8-g
AD 226
AD 260
AI)
297
AD
372
AD 410
AD 440
AD 552
AU
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AO
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A ten-year war begins between Rome and Parlhia over control of Armenia. Roman army 0[1I1e cast increased by twO legions, one from Spain, one from Dalmatia. Parthia invaded by Roman army. Roman forces pulled back to Euphrates line by Hadrian. Roman advances in Mesopotamia. Parthian monarchy overthrown by Sassanian Persians. Sassanians capture Emperor Valerian and successively reduce Roman fortresses in Mesopotamia. Successful campaigns by Romans in the castj Mesopotamian tcrritol"ics return to Roman occupation. Roman EmperorJulian dies in baltIc against Sassanians. Many wCStern units of Roman army transferred to the cast. HUlls (Mongoloid nomads or the Volga) destroy Gennanic occupation of western steppes. Northern li'ontier of Roman Empire caves in; Germanic tribes paUL' into the wCSlern provinces, Kushans (settled Iranian nomads) wiped out by 'White Huns' (Mongoloid nomads of the Altai), who proceed to tCITorisc eastern Panhia. Sassanian king Pcroz killed by White Huns. Turks (non-Iranian white nomads) defeat their overlords theJwen Jwcn (Mongoloid nomads) on Ahai plains, Mongolia. Turks break army of While HUlls. Sassanians claim the victory, quickly move into White Hunnish territory south of Oxus River. Jwcn Jwcn and White Hun remnants become lhe Avars. Sassanian king Chosrocs II Aces from internal dissension to Byzalllium. Chosrocs II restored to thronc by Byzanunc Emperor Maurice. Iberia and much of Armenia ceded to Byzanuum.
AD
616
AD 623
AD
628
AD
629
By-.lantine forts attacked in Mesopotamia by Sassanian forces; Armenia occupied and Anatolia invarled. Egypt occupied by Sassanians. Byzalllincs and their Khazar (Turkish nomad) lllcrccnanes march through Lazica and Georgia, attack Persian homelands. Sassanian capital Ctesiphon capwrcd by Byzalllines; Chosrocs II killed by Sassanian nobles, who sue for peace. Byzantine tcrritoril'S in the cast restored. Arabs destroy Sassanian army at Qadisiyya. Imperial Sassanian army defeated at Nihawand, known among Moslems as the 'Victory of Victories'. Sassanian Persia completely overrun by Moslem Arabs.
Illtroductioll Between 334 and 330 Be the huge Achaemcnid Pcrsian Empire tOllered to destruction at rhc hands of the highly professional army of Alexander the Great I. Soon aller the conqucst Alexandcrsct about Hdlcnisillg lhe Mcdo-Persian aristocracy. His conquests were only half consolidated into a rational organism when, in 323 lit; he died. Within ~o years his Macedonian generals had taken Alexander's empire apart: Cassander was king of Macedonia, Ptolemy of Egypt, Lysimachus of Thrace, Antigonus of Anatolia and Scleucus of I ran. (Collectively these monarchs arc known as 'the SlIc(cssors'.) A reduced versiull of the uld Ac.haemcnid Impcrialtcrritories felllO Seleucus. He and lhe later 'Sclcucids' struggled to regain lhc lost unity of Alexander's empire. The overwhelming political and military problems of the Scleucids wcre increased when in 197 Be Rome, disturbed at the growing alliance between the Sclellcids and Macedon, despatched two legions to Thessnly in eastern Greece, where they broke the phalanxes of Philip V of Macedonia at Cynosccphalae. When ISe~
1\1,\/\ 118. Tkt A"I!Y oj ,Ih.nmdn tkt G'rol.
the I u 'd king nLio hu III attempt d to prot ct hi int r t' in Ionia and Thra e th R man nat d e1ar d w r in I Be b tie mg leu id interest w ram r hh ad for the in asian of urope. he arm wh.ich nti s nlt rewa spe dily fried ut a Roman rmy, whi h in due Durse eros j finar and routed the leu id mlY at L dia, in 19 (lC. Th r' ultin and I s of politi al power u th 'cleu id. initiat d th ris 0 Parthi n dominan c in lhe ea·t rn pro in c of [ran. 1 he leading Parthian famil b long d to he paramount' tllian dan of the Parni. During their rei 1 th Parthian: I am a militar to ra rulin a vast Iranian cmpir with influ'lK tr l bing far b nd its b rd . Th's north m [ranjans r n v rapt d b th ' ttl 'd 'outh rn Iranians though lh pa m ot of homage and reasonabl' tribut w 're th anI d mand' mad of th ir ubj t b these raid P rthian . h H II 'ni. d p ·tty state wer never br u ht
an
full' under antral, and 10 al ruler eiz d any opportunit to id \ ith th I u id· lat r Roman. It i not urpn mg th r f4 r. th t Parthi n rul rs w rapt t I k f4 r militar help from the Jr nian n mad trib th had I [t behind n th reat plains b y nd the \ here link. with their kin men r mained trang. hin military tivil nd inftu n e among th n madi tribe [th stepp' play d a C 11. id rable pan in th pel-iodie disruption of the north- a lC'rn [ronti r of Ir n throug-h ut the Panho- ass nian p ri d. n id rabl trad wa arri d Ul 1 t\ e 'n hin and Ir n with little interrupti n. the di1ncul overland rout involving I n thy p r . lh high t pp and de rlo bC't\ e 'n n nil rn .hin and Iran. lune e cmbas i w re cot t the Parthian mpire her Hellenic cuirilsses of the 1St century AD. These are depicted being WOnl by Palmyrao god in higb-r lief carving now;n the Louvre. They show types oflate Greek annours available to the cities of the ear East· one i or l:unellar construction, and tbe other or large overlappin ptate. Both are worn with ptertl/fe., or Roman type.
they wcrc able to trade gold and silk fol' Fel'gbana horses and othcr local products. I t was from Panhia that knowledge of silk spread to the GrtTo-RoOlilll world in the 1St eentul'Y lie, and Panhia \\as well placed to become the middle-man all the great silk road. Tht" routl.' from China passed along the foothills of the Alt}'ll Tagh-Nan Shan mountains to Lop-Nor, continuing across ChinesI"' Turk(:stan lO Kashgar, skirtl.'d Ihe Taklamakitll ck:.ert, crosscd the P:unir high plateau. entered the oases of Fergllana through ~lcrv, and thus into I)anhia. {In \1l 224 the control of thc silk road fell to the Sassanians, and in the 6th century Ihey wcre able to reach an agn:cmrnt witb othcr importers which enabled them 10 en·all.' a lIlollopoly, rcslllting in a stcep ris(' in the silk price Ull the Roman market. until ill ,\ll 55'2 some eggs or the silk moth, bomb)'x mori, wcn' smuggled illlO Constantinople in a bamboo cane. This incident, in time, gave the Romans a nati\'t' silk industry,}
Tile11m/liftlls .Ol/horsts Illey go 10 wm, to bOllqur/s, /0 pllblir II/lfl/lrivult Ituh ond
011 Ifum tilt,) Imotl, sta)' sfill, tlo business and dIU!.' (Justinus, on the Panhial1S. ~nd century \0)
The P.trthialls \\Cl"e a Scythian pt:ople. From about 700 li(: the Scythians proper occupied an arca nonh of the Danube and cast of the Carpathians, acros.~ the grasslands of cast central Europe and southern Russia to the Don. Bc}'ond ,he Don and stretching to the Chinese hinterland were other mounted Iranian nomads such as Salmatians, Massagctac
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north-west Europeans. The Parthians wcre typical of Iranians unaltercd by admi:>:turc with another Caucasoid or Mongoloid group. The Parthians belonged to the Parni, a brandt of the Dahae conf(.'(leration of Scythian tribes. The} were not ncw arrivals in the Persian arena. In the scventh book of his history Herodotus lists til(" contingenl..~, weapons and dress or the Pt'rsian 11IlJ>t:rial forl:e:. illVolvl.'u ill the iIIV'l.Siull orCrcl:ce ill the 4th century 11(: during the reign or Xrrxes: the Parthians arc listed with the Choriasmii under the command of the satrap ArtabazliS. They wcre armed with a bow, short s\\-ord and spcttrs, no shields werc carried. Dress included a tall bash{l'k cap with long tail and cilJ'pinTs. close filting tunic, trousers, ankle hoots, and a lidded quiver slung from the waistbdt on the left side. Parthian tribult·· bearers appear on the staircase bas-reliefs leading to lhe Apadana of tile palace at Persopolis in Fars buill by Darius lhe Great in the 5th century lie. They are shown in thimhle-shaped enclosed hats, long belted coats, long trousers and ankle boots. The Parthian Army The feudal system orthe Panhians had a Scythian as well ilS :1l1 Achaemcnid background, and roughly n:Sl.'llIbled feudalism as t1c\'dopeu ill Europe during the 'Dal·k Ages'. Society was headed by seven powerful clans. This upper stratum supported a pelt)' aristocracy of varied socioeconomic status who, togcther with their retainers, enjoyed status well above the peasants and serr~, who wcre nalive Persians. Lo)'alty was strongcst between the great clan leaders and their small vassals. The king, as a member of one of the dans, could usually command complete lo)'alt), from his own clan and its vassals, less from other Parthians. The crown did not pass from father to son a.~ Qr right. Worthiness to lead was weighed and opinion expressed by the aristocratic clan leaders in council. \Vhilc the monarchy was Ill'W the greal lords weI'(' its strength. During most of lhe Parthian history, howe\'er, thc nobles were allowed 10 dominate the monarch)' to such a degree that internecine warfare was endemic.;. Kings wcre made and unmade, sometimes with outside help from either Rome or the nomads. The Parthians were a warrior people. Thoug-h possessing no regular army they were supcrh
.. ------
Drawing of iranian hor~",nen. The larger 6gure---one of the beuer.known puule ofandent military detective-work-is a crude graffito fo ....d at Dura Europos and is of great intere t. It depicts a C..lJy-a.nned C/ihu#ar;/o oC th 2nd century . He wear a conical hehnet con tru ted of m tal plate and plumed with lream ; an aventail of mail hangs from the lower edge compl tely COy ring th face except for the eye .
The upper tor 0 is protected with mail, below whi. h are two rowS of vertical plate the top overlapping th lower, from which a JUrt or m.ail is s"-"pended.Bis llinbs are enca ed in metal rings or hoops. The hor e is covered with a trapper of cal construction. What appear" lu be a mace i.s carried above the rider' right thigh. The other cav-.s.lryrnen ar equipped in the fashion of light Parthian hor e-archers. ee Plat C ..
Mounted Iranian bOWlDI!D. Tbe central figure sbow a borsearelle.. booting at ll...: gallup; it i.. takeD from a graffitu at Du..... Eu,ropos, and probably depict!> Lbe typ ufborseJIlan found in the ligbter of the two great divisions of the Parthian a ..my. Tb boUOIR figure is a dynan:lic little terra cotta of tbe Parthian period now in the taatUcbe-Mu eUD> Berlin; be is at the full draw, with tbree ar..ow beld ..eady in hi bow hand fo .. rapid
fire'. We a ..e ..eminded or the way C ..assus' t .. oop_ at C rrhae we..e peppe..ed flrilh a ..rows for hours on end by the archer of Surena. The small ..ketch at top i laken C.. OID a silver bowl of the Sassanian period, bowing King Chosroe I making a 'Pa..thian shoe while bunting Argall rams--6th century AD, (rom the Hennitage Mu""uD>, Lenin rad.
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to
om 1 to
Horse trapper from the Dura Europo find. The foreground pi""e is th" iron trapper: the laid-out piec ill the bronze exarnpl , of deeper ""tent and without the e"tend d flap to UlCer in front of the chest. The wiring systeDl is shown in the top detail: convex plates are punched with four hole at the top, arranged in a quare, for curing to the fabric backing; two holes at each side enable the plate to be atl:1lched to one another with wire loop .
Body armour is often found in Scythian graves, made up of various shaped plates cui from sheet metal and mounted on a fabric backing; some, particularly later graves contain complete suits of Ihis armour. This increasing usc of armour by cavalrymen was brought about by a number of faClors, the most important of which was the hre{:ding of a wright.carrying horse using the Nisaean breed of Persia. The eastern neighbours of the Bactrians, the settled Turanians, kept these horses carefillly behind the walls of EI'-shih. The breed was destined to carry super-heavy cavalrymen throughout Asia in the cclllurics to come. The nearest living example is said to be the Akal-Teke, a sub-breed of the Turkoman standin~ between 15 and 16 hands. This horse, although tall, docs not compare wcll with those depicted 011 Persian reliefs, which apJkar llluch I.nJlkicr. (Opinions still diff!;r regarding the type of horse used by heavy Iranian cavalry. The examples shown throughout Iranian art associated with noble warriors arc thickset, but reduced in scale. Iranian artists were quitc capable of depicting a lighter horse, and convention may havc dictated the thick-bodied look; but it is IXlssiblc that the powerful chargers depicted were indeed being used by our subjects. The horses strongly resemble some modern medium-heavy breeds, especially the Irish cob, standing about 15~16hh, with a convex face, strong archt"d neck, powerful shoulders and hindqual'lers, short, thick boned legs and neat, strong feet.) Soon, armour for tile new type of heavy cavalry was bcingconstructed rrom rawhide, horn, iron and bronze cut into scales. Some horse-trappers were of thick felt, which was possibly dyed in colours somewhat similar 10 those shown in medieval Persian graphic art. In his Annbasis, Xcnophon describes Persian cavalry armOllr of the 4th century lie: he says that the troopers had a helmet, cuirasse and thigh armour, and that the horses had frontlets for the head (cham frons) and chest defences (peytrals). Greek cavalry armour included many pieces known to the later Parthians and Sassanids. The Aualid bas-reliefs 011 the tcmplc of Athena Polias Nikophoros, commemorating lhe victories over the Gauls and built in the 2nd century 11<; include a masked helmet and laminated vambracl.'S.
The panoply of this super-heavy cavalry was extremely expensive, and varied h('lween individuals. Any degree of standardisation may only have been present among the royal guard and retainers of some of the greater nobles. Broadly speaking, more easily obtainable materials were used for armour by early Parthian .md Sassanian knights, as wel1 as by those throughout the period who could not aflord the morc expensive metal armours. The standard turn-oUl would have included helmets of bronze or iron, sometimes with a neck gua.rd and/or an aventail oflamellal', scale or maiL sometimes sporting a. small plume of horsehair, either dyed or left natural; and a corselet of lamellar. mail or scale for the torso. Arm guards, vambraces and rerebraces of laminated armour wcre made up of strips of varying size usually riveted to inner straps (as wert Roman armours of segmented type). Complete laminated arm guards (monica), encasing the arms from the shoulder down to the knuckles, were also used. Gauntlets, reinforced with mail or small platcs ofmctal, were worn with some annours. Thigh guards (cuisscs) were ofJamellar or laminated armour; leg defences (chausses) of laminated armour, though some rulllength chaUSSe:> were of mail. The feet were often protected by laminated armour over mail 'socks' (jambs). Mail W'L~ oftcn us{..od to bridge deft'nces at limb joints. A small fabric tabard and/or cloak might be worn, and this was very likely 10 be made or a rieh material such as silk brocade. The primary weapon was the 12-foOi lance known as the kontos. It had a large sword-like blade and a bUlt spike. Secondary weapons included a long sword, axe, mace and dagger. The kon/os was used in a downward-stabbing overarm motion, or in both hands, as in bayonet fighting. The panoply could be completed by horsedefences sllch as those previously·mentioned Hel· lenic armours shown on the Attalid bas-reliefs on the lemple of Athena Polias Nikophoros. There is evidence 1'01' both the half-trapper, covering the chest and shouldt"r only, and the full trapper defending: the animal's whole trunk. Neck and head were also armoured. It should be stressed, however, that horse armour was not always used by these heavy troopers.
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f th tw gr at c1i\"i ion f ParLhian anni ., Lh . h 1'$ - reher W re th m st 'p ta ular and tradili naJ. ht e fOl~mation r manned b . the I. \\>'II-ofT P LL n bili t· and their fall WI'. aryil g number m unl d b "'m n fr m th Iranian tribe r th 'lepp were al u d fr m time [Q im . Parthian h 1'5 '-ar h rs w r dr _ d In a v riation of I hian ostumc onsistin ofal ath I' r r 11 kaflau neatl fini h d ff \ ith a plain I'
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Major areas and chi.. in anci..nt Iran.
ornate b I'd I' of varyin width embroidered or in appli lU" lhi wa fwrap-over d ign held b a wai t bell. Ri hI decorated trou w I' tu k d into ankle boot whi h wcr al ad orat d in m . \ id chap-lik I' trou cr were ana -h ·u u p nd r at th back- they weI' \ cry baggy, and hung to form Lightl draped fold around th leg. Ths rna hav' b en worn as prot ti n for th patt rn d ater P rthian 1'1' m b UI Lh I I cntury AD, e rn to hay pre erred 10 'how off their car fully too. ur 'd hair u uall nl \ arin a fillet of thi k ribbon; befi r' Ih n, the cythian cap or bashl;tk w \ rn
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mor fr qucntl . The bow was lun fr m U1e wai t belt on th left side in a ca ,together wilh a uppl ofarr w. Li hl hon; '-arch I' uld alta k in ali 1I. wa : arrow I' carri d in Ih I fL or I \ kno ked re d r fm rcle~ e. I (l ignal th as aull would begin I a walk, later br akin. im a cant r and gallop. Th arrow \ cr I' lea ed at lh all p when within range. I about 45m li'om th en m front the ar hers swerved to the right and gallop d ut La Ih fiank ho tin into the 'n my lin s. mol' sp' tacular I Ii \ as perG I'm d b bringing th mount to a 'kidding half-Iurn: a the 00\ men gallop d a\ a arr w w I' h I u\er the hor:c'. rump. Fitiug fr m this po iLi n b amc known a 'Parthian hal. If ir umslance w re u h lhal lh auld burr unded, as at 'arrha ,h I .. I' h' . w'r abl t kill at I i ur , if w II I d. Jslami ar·h ry manual. gi e quil a numb r of firing e1ir ti ns and positi ns p .sibl for mounted bowmen and it i I' as nabk to uPlo. that arlj r b wm'n us·d th am meth d· pJi I' t th rab c nqucst . The primal' weapon of Liles light ca all' m n was Ih' P \ reul. 1" ur cd, c ml asite b w on lru 'd fla r. fh rn. wood and in w.Th wo d 'n orc G I'm d th fram and wa rdati I 'n ulral". The trip ofbuCral h rn w r laid nIh in. id ~ to resist mpr sin. Th· 'in w-dri el, brok n int fibr 5, 5aturat d in glue and layer d n th utsid I' i t d ten ion. In this wa tr m ndou nergy a tor d clul-in the draw and unl h d at ilie release. The ears f Pariliian and nian bow were xl nded and Slim n d wi lh horn whi h in I' d I 'nsiOH ancl ontrolJed the r I a '.
Th I'm were made of v rious liard mat 'rja] " and man later example ar minor w rks of art in their own ri hl. h rt . word. daggers and m lim I n, w I'd w r conc!ary \ cap n ~ oro at th bell. I 'lamie an of a later peri d how drum carri d and am I, \ hi h may hav' follo\ cd b a Parthian and a sanian traeliti n. though I phant m t pia no pan in th P rthian arm th WI'. rt n u ed b the a sanids. tanclard. were ora wid \'ari t f h pe and iz . Parthian xampl w uld m 1 pr b bly include th dra on stand rei de i ned lik a "vind k; ili rs r pr du 'c! fi r PCI'. ia ': 2,5 0 annivrr ary c I bration durin th I' i n th' latc hah inclucl d hoI'. c moon and. Lar a I r ear of rn. a fithra' and a un ·tandard.
or
Iraman costume, these ketche are tal. D f"om mall bonl' pl. que rved in low relief 2nd ntury O. They "erYe 10 show the basic dr of Jrani n nomad on the centra! Asian steppe' north-east of the Black Sea.
Parthiall GalnpaiJ(JlJ he \ eaknes of"lhe I u id I f"t th m p erl to dcaJ with lh gr wing str ngth and n.tam nero hm ntofthcTranian in the at or with the Roman pre ence in we tern \sia. During the reign of ntiochu II (261-24 lie) Bactria b gan t h w .i ofl rf' kin awa from th I u id.. B t n 249 and 248 II Panhia and H yrcania s ded from the mpire. In oJved in the w t th king" llnabl to enfor hi authorit. Th tr p f Bactria \ as a huge fronLier 'march' wilh a b rder tnding north of the 'u, ( mu Daria) Ri er. It Two pairs of segmented ann defences carved on the ballu trade of the Temple of Athena commemorating the victories of Attalos lover his Greek and Gaulish enenties' and inner and outer iews ofa bronze thi b defence reconstructed from the sbattered plates found at the Roman fort of ewstead in Scotland, by RusseU Robinson. Tbe fonner are part of a di. play of Gr k cavalry ar
had b n ·tabli·l1·d LO guard agaillsl lbe CUlIstalll thr at of" th Iranian n mads: I xandcr h d j k and wounocrl ,oldier'S in nc ettled '2 town in the province during th 4th nLUr B', Wh n Parthia ec ded rom lhe empir' the B trian, n w ut off [I' m central authority aJ a d d (248 B '). Wh n I u u II (24 226 Be) mar hed ea 1 La re tor th ituation he "Parthian" a Allid and f1 xible p opl retr ated in good ord r at hi approa h' ri u upri ing in yria fI rc d th king to abandon hi ampaign and return \ cst, an the Parthian r turn d the ·victor'. ftcr til death of I u u 11 in 22 11: th hrinking clcucid Empire alo lost t rritorie in ia Minor. ntio hu III (223-187 IK:) \ an n rgeti and suphi~Licat d ruler. n hi a cion t the 'cl u id thr n he wa fac d with a I' volt b the, atrap, of M dia < nd Prj, and by the threat of the Parthians. now all i d to Lh Ba trian hanging 0 er M dia. Antio 'hu t ut from nti h. m.h d tll 'atrap and march'd c t on an armed progre that last d ei ht year. Aft'r ring th whole of Iran from north to outh he I' turned to batana to harry the Parthian (20 BC)~ th Parthian king rda an rtabanu I (214-196) led hi people in the time-honoured order] Parthian retr at hut finally, ubmitted and brought tribute. Bactria \ a attacked but put up a tilf d ·C4'n . at the border, leading- to a treal of friendship. nlio hu marched En ourag d by hi ue es w st and ero d lhe trait t Gr c; but Roman for e dro c him back La L dia-where the I troy d hi all11' 111 the cru hing de eat al Magn ia in 1 HC'. The ubs quent treat, agreed in 188 B.. deprived ntiochu of Jeu id -ia inor and impo.ed a mas I\le tribute. ntio hu HI di d th fI II \ ing y ar. The la, t eleucid king of any note wa Illiochus (175-1 4- Il :). hartly aft I' his d ath the ori ntal Lh ~I 'u ii' 11 pir b· an to fragm nt t rril ric illl p tty tate, lacking cohe ion and op n to Parthian onqu t. Roman polic had de tra ed Sci ucid pow I' but had indir tly pI' par d lh wa for lhe rapid gr wth of th Iranian thr
and Seistan in the c~sl. The great comlllcrcial celllrc ofScleucia ri ty 011 Ihe Tigris coni rolled much of the Iranians' international trade, and during the Parthian wkcov('r the Creco-Semitic oligarchy seem to have reached a mUlually satisfactory agreement willl their nt'W masters, persuading the Parthians to avoid settling the dty. Instead, a huge Ilomad-typt., camp \\ as crt'etl.'(! on the opposite bank of the Tigris; in due time this lx:caml:' Ctesipholl. capital of Parthia. The old Iraniall t('rrilOrics om'red stifl'rtsistance, and newr full) accepted Parthian supremacy despite the .ldoptioll b) ~lithridatL'S or the ancient title of King of KinKS. Crcrk misgivings were soothed by the inclusion orthc \\oro 'Philhcllenc' on Parthian coinage; but the )'Mthians had no friends in )'crsia. Whl:n Demetrius II took a rL'Surrccted Selcucid army of 'iorts into the ne\\ Parthian territories in 138 I\( lie .... as offered help b) Scleucia city, Elymais, Pc"i<; and CrN:o-Bactria, Demetrius ....'3.5 defeated in the .... ar which follo\H-d, hut when captured he \\a., tre.tted .... illl rL'Spect, and sent to Hyrcania with the Parthian king's daughter as his wift:, Elymais was made the scapC'gextl for this tpisodc, and in re\{'n~c its richer temples .... ere put to sack by the' P;mhians. Mithridatcs I dit'd in 137 IK_ III 129 IK: a bL~l allempt to rt·gain thc· lost pro\ inces and free Demetrius .....as made \\hclI his brother Antiochus VII Sidau.'S look a strong, wcll·trainl-d S(·Il'ucid arm~ into l\lesopotamia.I lerc IIC was successful in a series of tluet' pitchlxl battles against the new Parthian king Phraates I I. whose semi-professional feudal army proved no match for the trained Scleucid troops. Howcvcr, the predatory behaviour of Antiochus' troops antagonised thl: local population of the city and HII roundings of Ecbatalla where dwy were quartered. Encouraged by Parthian agents, thc people rose in revolt: a simultaneous Parthian attack rOlltcd the Scleucids, and Antiochus was killed. Eventually, clemcms of his arlllY were inducted into that ofth(' Parthians. Seleueid influence ill Iran was immediately forfeit, and I>arlhi:'l stood fully armed al lhe Euphrates. At this point Parthian attelllion had to be switched to the eastern flank, where Scythian nomads final victims of it vast movement on the steppes, which had forced Iranians to move from territories in Chinese Turkestan began to pour
P .. rthl1n iroD h~bn~1 Df Ih., :Jrd uaulry "0, Df 'spa.aIt~Dbclrn· CO_lnlet;D'" il iii mad., up Df(our iroa pial" ~rftl 10 four iDnn...t 'T'-fih2ped pi~ ....ith domftl ri,·",,,;:. maD ohloa, plal.,.1 tb~.~ t1oldli. "mall rouDd 6J1i.a1. Th~ t1n.dba.ad i ....... pped ...o....d Lh~ lo....u HelioJl ...d ful~ orltl~ BriLilih M",""m)
illlo P:lnhian territol) in aoout 140 IN.. Dill' group headed towards ~lcn.. Hccatompolis, and Ecbatana. Their h"t allack caused the newl)incorporated Creek (roops tode.t:rt, bringing" about the defeat and death or Phraatl'S 138-1:.'4_ Il(: . Artaballlls II, his uncle, Sllcc('t'(kd him, but was also killed b) lil('" Scy thiam in 123 IK. The gO\'ernor or Babylonia. declaring himself king of Characcnc, broke away from Parthia. In 123 1((: ~Iithridates I I became king of Parthia. and quickly brought the gO\C'rnor of Babylonia to heel. In the cast he rolled lhe S(,"ylhians back to the Oxus, beyond which the nomads l)culed 10 become marcher tribes of till' Panhian Empirl', \\ hcrc thc)' functiuncd as bullers against their nomadi('" brothers, the Sakae tribesmen. Creco·Bactria was obliterated. The middle Ox us was nuw occupied by twO great Iranian 'supcrtribes·, the Sacaraucac and tIlL" Yuch-Chi (Kush· ans) who had been dri"rn from Ihe Chinese frontier. By the 1St ccmur) /K.: both groups were established in Ractria, where they became closely linked with Parthian culture and politics. In the latc 2nd century IIC Mithridatcs I I rc-cci"cd an important embassy from thc Emperor or China. During negotiations a tr('al) \\t1S concluded for the
free m mcnt I'm r handis' throughout r at r Parthia as a tran it tate for imernauumd trade. Th on lidation and organi ation 0 Parthian Iran during th r ign I' ilhrid t s II v fI Jl v d after his death in 87 a . by internal trife. Tigr n th puppet king rmcnia eized the 0 casion to d clar him If I' Kin . and annex d th r pro inees LO me S lith, including ebatana. he yrian b r d with leu id quabbling, ffi r d th I u id rown to Tigran, ho ace pted and prcpar d for hi n xt politi al mov . Rom uLl anxiou. t kc p th Parthian ut w t rn ian p liti . I ok d for neutralit treaue.. Th. w re gi n b Phra t II I and w r
or
Detail figure of a barbarian returning an aquilla tandard 10 a Roman officer, from che
Parthian in c,
20 Be.
(Vatican Museum)
crupul u I h n ur d. \ iiliin a few year P mpcy had violated til· tr aues, eizjng the we t rn provin'e of Parthia and plotting ith th prin of v 'al tat . When Phraate obj eLed h w insulted by Pomp y. allowing the as 'assinauon of Phraate II inS7 Be: lh Roman intrigued LOa j t Mithridat TIT (5 5511.) to keep th thron from OruJes I (5 37 R') but eventuall they failed. h rapa ity of R m was 11 d mon trat d wh n, in 5 Be a th a I' 0, ar u Li inius ra sus t ok up his pr consular dulie in . ria. Ex it d by hi n \0 a qui iuon and h t from th pow r politi of R m , thi ambitiou ari t rat accept d th c mmand of the ann of the e t and pr par d for a en f onq u which would qual tho. f' of Ie. and r th r at. H wa ind d to aeme a ecure pia e in me hisLOr book: but for rath r diIrer nt r a n .
Carrbae, 53 110 war with Parthi c ntcmplat d b th tam d 'eoate but obj lion the rai ed against .ra. u ' plans \' er bru 'hed a:;ide. J uuus 'ae ar was full of encouragement· but r u had left Rom with reu iou urs from etiu, a tril un , ringin in hi ars. It \ a argu d that th Parthian were prot t d b a alid n utralit tr at \' ith Rom , and c uld th ref re exp ct t b afi from
R m n tta k. Th fir t ffi n.iv a t b ra us was to r s th Etlphrate and I a e Roman garri on in everal 1 p tarnian ciu , which gave him iJJin all gian . Th it r Z nod ria re i ted but it. defen er d troy d, the ciuz n plundered nd -ia and ensla d. ras u withdre\ to winter in to await hi on Publiu' ho w . n hi wa with 1,0 0 ra k Gauli h avah-ym n. 10 th prin Gras us rna ed auxiliar infantrym nand 3 auxiLiar avalrym n, wh w r j in d b th ',00 GalJie troop r. Di turbin reports uf Parthian military em i n y b gan arriving at th oman maruaIljng ar a fr m the arri n: I ft in th Mc::supotarni II ili '. Th y w re mostly xag rat d but, in n , w r to pr proph ti . Kin rtav d of rm nia arriv d at lhe Rom n amp with 000 trooper and a promi e of 10000 avalrymeo and 30 00 infantry. h king advi d ra u to mar h into Parthia b way of the
foothills of southerll Armenia where enemy Crassus to take the desen, rather than the securer cavalrymen, particularly of the cataphract type, river route to Sdeucia. He argued that no Parthian could operate only with great difficulty; the region force of any slrength was nearby. and that forced was well \vatered, alld supplies would be guaran- dcsert marches would enable the Romans to catch tced. Crassus, however, decided to take the more up with the Oeeing enemy who had left the tracks direct desen route into Panhia, with Scleucia city fOllnd by Roman scouts, and who would be and Ctcsiphon as his objectives. Evclllually, in the burdened with slaves and impedimenta. The spring of 53 llC., the Roman army of the cast crossed Romans were told that the only troops who might the River Euphrates ncar the tOwn of Zeugma attempt to bar their way were an advance guard during a heavy storm. under Surena. Crassus decided to allow the Arabs Aftcl' a difficult crossing, and dogged by bad to lead bis army into the desert (Ariamnes and omens (the Romans were extl'emely superstitious), Alchaudonius, another chieftain Irom £dessa, had a they marched south closc 10 the river while the area following ofG,ooo Arab light LI'OUpCI'5), 10 the eaSI wa" recollnoilred. The SCoulS reported no 'file Parthian king, Ol'odes II, had decided to troops in lhe immediate vicinity, but found tracks of split his army ill two. The king led one contingent many horsemen. into Armenia, where he burned villages and harried While Crassus considered alteJ'llative routes, A tc:rraeOlla ptaque !lho",ing a Parthian c:ataphraet hundng Ariamnes, a treacherous Nabatacn Arab chieftain Bon, holding hi!! Ilinee in both hand!!, (Truslee!! "r Ihe British from Edcssa, set about his secrel task of getling Museum)
but this v g tation gradually dwindl d into de crt, and mar hing ~ I' lh infantry b am in r a ingl diffi ull. t thi tim flow moral me ng rs fr m King Ana sd broughr th n w thar lh I'm nian u· op promi d t ra u uld n l b sent du to th pr ure of Orad ' atta k on ra u wa tr ngly ad vi ed to join for d in m nia or failing that, t take rou. . c nd warning k p awa fr m th open countr whi h favoured Parthian a aIry " as bru h d asid b wh told th m ng that h n h had m I' time he would m k Lh '1' king pa for hi trc hr. 1h puni hing march r um d lh rab chi ft in riamne put the finishin lou he. [0 hi· dupli it b hiv ing the Roman Lr pVCI' lh eauliou pa th ir advan e' th n convin in th Roman offi cr that tl1 y wish d to di. rllpt and nfu the Parthian arm ,the ab lead rs rod away with their 6 a fI 1\ WI'S. Plutarch a that at thi point ra. u m d his infantry mar h at Parthian hor e-areber on a terraootta plaque. He is hown at a all' pa . ha1I-draw, hi I gs clenehed tightly 10 hi pony' belly with an th y near d lh ancient to n of alTha' (n w intere ling bowc:as slung [Tom his belt: it hold a pare un lrung bow, arrow ,and a short word in a cabbaro at the kno n a Haran) Roman edettes began to r turn frout of lhe . ee Plate 83. (Tru tee of lhe Unci h from th ir po ts in ad an ofm c lumn, reporting Museum) that am of Lh Roman ca aIry r n had b n kill d b Parthian who e main fore as no\ the auntr. id to punish King n agem nl. d pi in ah ad for an imm diat involving m to ha\ e been ordin to Plutarch, ra su au ht mpl L I unawar and beg n to h ign f panic, In ha ty and une n id red order. as ius a taff officer, tepp d in LO advise him t xt nd [he infantr in it lin of batt! a 1'0 the plain. dividin th a aIry b tw en th wing. he e man euvre ere underwa when ra.. u hang d hi mind an a ord rs [or lh legions to oint h 1\ w qual' with 12 cohort on a h id ach with cavalry and light infantr uppor\. ra U 0 k position insid lh hug SqUill" tog th I' with hi guard and th 'aUk ca alI' ommand d b hi son Publiu and th ba a train. 'In thi formation I' sus gav th I'd I' to ad an . fter m tim th litt! Ballisur lr am wa I' a h d. rassu was advi ed to stop her for lh night, ngaging Lh n my the ne t da m Lh uphrat s as 'ing lheir trength· but PubLiu and hi w I' impati nt for a tion, and ras u wa I'd rs for lh m n t persuad d I pres on. H a
b Gd and water d as the toad in th giganLi quare, but rna t had not finish d their m al when era u ga e th ord rl advan without I' l until th enemy were sighted. Wh nth Parthian arm ame into full view they m d t lh R man neither impr si enol' numerou . Plular h ay that urena had hidden hi· main fi I' b hind lh fr nt ranks. It em lhat the Roman tro p had xp t d to e Parthian 'alaphracts in complete armour, and weI' pleantly urpris d wh n n ne m d t b pI' nt. urena had evidenlly told hi cataphra to ov r tit ms I with coat and hid a a to hide their glilt rin arm ur. th· Roman rr op rea hed tit baul ground and to d r ady for action Surena gay a ignal and th air wa fill d with the loud !hI' bbing rial' drum, with a tached bronze
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b 11 from posi tion all over the battlefield. t this moment t.h araphra t dropp d lh c ers from th ir armour. PIUlarch ay: lh could be n I arly lh . I' h Lm ts and brea tplal S blazing lik fire, th ir Margianian tee! glitt rin keen and bright their horse armour d with plates of bronze and teel.' (r 1argiania was an old atrapy of the arli I' ha m nid Empire 'traddling lh trad route ben cen M rvand I u ia ity on the Tigris. Plutarch alo call Parthian armour the arm of rv : it i· almolil . nain that er was importing th high-qualir steel ofPliny s famed ere the tall, flaxen-haired blue-e d nomad 'who p ak in ha: h lone' and u no Ian uag and that The Eastern Roman Empire 'ltb century AD, bowing the prefectures of lliyria and the East. Black quares show tegionary garrisons; larger square mobile 6eJd anni .
Margiania gave the steel a gcographical name.) Surena scems to have planned to break the Roman square with a charge by his 1,000 cataphracts, so that the horse-archers could attack a disordered enemy. This plan was quickly changed when he discovered the depth of the Roman lines: the cataphracts withdrew, and the horse-archers began to envelop the square. A charge by somt Roman light infantry achieved nothing; the horse-archers merely withdrew, peppering the auxiliary infantry with arrows and driving them back into the square. The Romans be<;ame aware that Parthian arrows could punch through their armour and shields as the arrowstorm began to fall among the packed ranks of the squarc. The Romans clung to the hope that this phase of the baltic would petcr Ollt as Parthian quivers emptied. Hope was shattered when it was scen tbat some horse-archers were rcturning from ,111 ammuniliol'l train of camels wilh replenished qUIvers. Seeing his rear about to be attacked, Crassus pUI togcthcr an assault forcc of the Gallic cavalry, 300 light troopers, 500 foot archers and eight cohorts of the legions undcr the command of his son Publius, with orders lO attack the gathering Parthian bowmen. As thc Roman force advanced the horsearchers turncd and galloped away. Puhlius was taken in, and followcd in pursuit, losing sight of the Roman main body. After some time the Panhians wheeled about, now joined by a larger Parthian force including cataphracts. The Romans hailed, A P .. rthi.... Cllt..ph.....el resting; this ..... Iher ambiguous lillie lerracolta figure .howa Ibe _Id.ier in ruU .r"'our bon bareheaded. (Tru.I_. or Ibe Brili.b Mu.eu ... )
and wen: promptly attacked by horse-archers darting in and oul. Publius led the Gauls in an attack on the cataphraCts. Although the Gallic spears failed to penetrate Parthian ar!flour, the Gauls bravely presscd home their attack, grabbing the enemy's long lances, pulling the riders to the ground, and scrambling under the horses' bellies to stab them. They even drove their own mounts on to the long Parthian lances. The. Gauls were eventually forced to retire with the wounded Publius to a small hillock, where they were surrounded and attacked. About 500 of them were taken prisoncr; Publius was killed, and his head was cut off. The Parthian troops rode back to Surena's mai n force. Crassus, noticing that pressure on his square had slackened, and unaware of the disastcr ovcrtaking Publius and his force, relocated his army on sloping ground in conventional battle order. After several of Publius' messengers had been killcd, others got through to tell Cra~us of his son's predicament. Crassus sent no support, but began an advance. Again Parthian drums began to throb, and Surena had Publius' head paraded in front of Roman linL'S on a spear. The advance was slOpped by the bowmen and cataphracls. When night fell the Parthians offered CrassllS his life if he would surrendcr, giving him the night to mourn the death of his son. During the night Crassus lost self control, and it fell to his two subordinates to cal1 a staff meeting. The agreed action was to leavc the wounded and retreat under cover of night. The cavalry, on hearing the decision, decided to leave forth\vith to avoid the chaos ofa night retreat. As they passed the town ofCarrhae they told the sentries on the wall of lhc disaster, and rode on to Zeugma. The Parthians quietly watched the Roman retreat without interfering. They slaughtered the wounded left in the Roman camp. Crassus ane! the remains of the Roman army reached Can·hac, and were taken illlo safety. Some time later four legionary cohorts commanded by Vargontuis, who had strayed from the main Roman column during the retreal, were surrounded and destroyed; '20 survivors were allowed to mareh to Carrhac, in compliment to the boldness they had shown in attempting: to hack their way to freedom through the Parthian ranks.
accept b thr atening hi Wi. During a struggle will h took pia e at th· 'ub qu nt me ting with Parthian leaders Crassus was killed. Hi head and t'ight hand were c:ut off. om of th tr ops
urena 0 n di 0 er d th t ras u was III arrha with the urvi or f hi arm. Th Roman eho c to es ap from the it, again by night Their guid ,wh wa in Par man pay entuall I d th R man lUInn into ma h gr undo Th b wild red Roman were offi r d lh chan . of tru c and [ri ndship n b half f the king by ur na. h R man tro p forced ra us to
Reflexed COlDpo ite bow bowing n>a.in components. The in w fibr wer oaked in glue and built on to th back oCthe wooden C.ore; the born strip wa.S glued to the beUy. In the diagram of the draw (a) i un (rung bape (b) i (rung, (c) ; the draw.
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80 mil s n rlh- a t f arrhae Roman troop had t cataphra ts of th Armenian arm and defeated th m: Lu ullu ' legions had lak n he h a tr p rs in flank, b ying ord r to ut at th expo d thighs of the horses. Th Arm nian had hurz'i dl r lir d, Laking tbe r l of tb army \i ith h m. \, aL C rrha a Roman arm had n methodicall destroy d b ho oar h rs uppoTted b a r lati el mall force of heavy cavalry. The emiti mer han of th L ant b an t e in th hOI"Sf'men of Parthia aviour li'om t.h oppr si d mand. fth R man tax collector and graduall t ok on a pro-Parthian tan c. In 51 lie a Parthian arm commanded b Pacoru a prin of th royal h u made a hon and di tr us raid into yria. Wh n a n d raid lastin se eral monlhs was at empt d I t r LhaL y ar, c nomic chao r ulted Lhrough ur w stern Asia. Pa orus was r all d La pr v nt furth r counter-producti e damage; falsely aeeu ed or plotLin against hi fath r h narrowl .'leaped with his life. p ri d f qui t on the Euphrate fronuer la Lcd for about tcn ear. In IJ • th Parthian arm was a ain ·plit. Pan wa command d b Labienu a form r Roman amb s dor from Brutus who had wisel ho en to ·ta in P rthi a. h oth r di vis.ion of the arm was led b the kin' on Pacoru . Th for led b Labienus rna ed to ontrol most 01" ia inor' Pacoru pu hed outh into a larg ar a of Roman
ill
cataphr
*
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arrha \i • a lraumati sh k for R m and h r arm. iXle nears 'arli l' at Tigrano rta out The defeat of th Parthian 3rd nlury AD: the e rock ca.rving from irusabad, Iran, bow the Per ian monarch Ardashir I (AD 22
1a. ub quentl th Parrhian found it an impo .j I ta k t d fc od th c nqu red I rritorie in lh fa of large numb of Roman l' illIi r em 'nLS. I aum Ih foll wing aI', 3 liC Ih Parthian h rs -aI" hers w r h Id al bay b mass d tinge . Th cataphracl were unable to br ak th II Ie 'on dra\> n up n ri in ground. The next ar, 38 B , P coru . utrer d an ab olut di t r 10 ing hi liG wh n he alla k d what h thought to I an und fend d R man amp at Gindarus, Hi alaphra 15 v h w r withoul hal' -ar h'rs \> l' again fought to a stand Lill, and r tired in om ha't . The a ing rod If wa v ntuall kill d by hi' remaining son in 37 n. hac i n ofPhraat : TV v a fI lIo d b dang rous in-fightin bet en th two at divi ion f the Panhian rm-th Ill' fc rmati ns, mann d 1 th gr at landed lan, and th hors -ar h rs riginall mann d b omen Parthian arm dest m an but now dilut d b· landl non-Panhian Iranian nomad, hi h el ment was probabl l' pan ible for the unrest. In 3 B a Roman exp di tion I d h rvIark nton foil w d the plan laid d wn by Juliu a . ar 12 al arlier for th onqu t of the east. h b gan with an in asi n of ran aucasia. m nia b am a v 'al t Ie and th Roman f rce mar hed into M rna lropaten to lay j ge I the capital, Phraaspa. powerful i train trundling along at a more measur d pace, a burnt and the baggag plund r d wh nih olu01I1 wa. alta k d b th Parth.ian I d by Phraate I . h i g f PhI' pa fail d' during th Roman withdra\ al th w I' n tanll hara' d b ark nton m d anoU1er Parthian b m n. att mpt Lh following y ar with m man hlp' but the Parthian. w r again abl to d (; at hi· force. In 27 RC ra lu Ca ar lh mperor of the \ t, b . me at Ih age [3' lotal hegam n of th Rom n \ orld and h n d hi n m to ugu tu . as Hi umm ry f Parthian mililar ap biliti that lh y \ l' capabl f n ustain d ffi n 'i\, warfar and h resolved to compromi and r ·a. h om kind f modus viv lIdi .....jth th gr at ian n ti n. 'trategi perirn te w r I' ulari d b ia and r - . rLing uz rainly 0 er I'm nja. and m ni alion programm \ s t Liati 11' with Phraat I for th in moLion. J' turn of th .landard aptuT d at rrha b J'
Pe ian knight wr"tling Part.hia.n noble out of the addle; carvin from Firusabad, Iran. cr. Plate D. 02,
fruil in \D '2 • Durin the 1 Ie ntur \.0 Parthia 'perienced a gradual P r ian ullural r urg n . t Ih nd f 1h ntury th br th r r the Parthian king 01 ga 1 was mad kin f Armenia, re ivin hi rown from r. ith irid 1 n the menian throne, th r cid d nast controlled both. trong ian nali n . Trajan'. nque t of merna and Tran au asia hi h h in I\LI 114 brought mm to the Euphrate r s d th ne t ar. Adiabene and were onquered, nd t iphon w taken' The Parthian king and hi. daught r w l' aptur d. Trajan de ided to nd hi onqu t on r hin harax and in \1) 117 he di d. The Emp r l' Hadrian pull d th Roman tr p ba k to lh lin of th Euphrat", te iphon th Parthian apital was sub'cqu ntly aptuJ' don tw oth r in, In .\U [55 th pala e \' burnt d wn, but Rom n tr ops retir d hen an outbr ak ofplague b gan to ra thr ughoul Iran. In ,\.0 17th ro 'al l' id n
was again burnt down. Aner a series of victories over Roman forces in Panhia Artabanus V drove them back to the Euphrates, where hc was able to impose a heavy tributc on the Emperor Macrinus. The atlemplS to bring Parthia under Roman control had failed, and a Parthian invasion of Asia Minor was imminent; but in AD '224, at Susiana, Artabanus was killed in battle against the army of the Sassanid Persinns. Within two years the Sassanians had completely overthrown the Parthians. The Parthians had ruled Persia for nearly 400 years. During their paramountcy Rome-apan from a few Reeting sllceesses~had been held at bay for three centuries. The Panhians had also revived Iranian martial ardour, lost under the Seleucids; and acted as the vital Iranian link betwecn the Merlo-Persians of old and the Persian Sassanids.
of the livestock of land and village. Ordeal and tonure were tools of thc state, and were of great refinement and cruelty. Sassanid administration was headed by the Grand Vizier, who was in charge of political and diplomatic affairs. On occasion he commanded the army in the field. He also headed the divans (ministries), which were directed by secretaries expert in their various fields. As with the Parthians, the economy was basr..--d on agriculture. Revenue increase during the Sassanid period ted gradually to a fairer redistribution of goods. Banking was well advanced. Trade was vigorous and well monitored. State monopolies rivalled private concerns; in particular, raw silk from China was woven at workshops in SUlia, Gundeshapur and Shush tar. China and glass, textiles, garmellts, amber, papyrus and spices were imported; pepper and nard from Media, COrll. cattle and manufactured goods were exported. Controls were extremely stringent where industry dealt with state organisations such as the army, court and administration. The power of the nobles during the Sassanian At the head of Sassanjd society was the King of period grew at an alarming rate. Towards the end Kings. Below him were grouped the vassal princes of the period their position was so strong thaI the who, aftcr recognising the authority of thc great king was totallydependellt on them, financially and throne, were allowed to keep their respective militarily. As in the Roman Empire, the great thrones. This stratum was duplicated by Parthian estatcs became enclosed enclaves guarded by princes of the blood who govcrlll.. .d satrapies private garrisons against the possibility of an (provinces) of great importance, such as Kerman uprising of the peasantry. Life was good to the and Seistan. These vass."11 princes were required to cultured, land·owning nobility. They clected the supply troops to protect the territory. They were of king, and enjoyed certain hereditary privileges. particular importance on the periphery of the Their lives were filled with martial training, empire, where they pelfonned the same bufler hunting, feasting, the enjoyment of women, fllnClion as the settled Germans (jeoderates) on the litcraturc, chess, tennis, polo, music, singing and graphic al't. The descriptions of carl)' travellcrs and northern frontier of the Roman Empire. Next in status callle the heads of the seven great historians, and thc evidcnce of archaeology, agrce clans, who followed the feudal system of their in ascribing to the Sassanid monarchy and nobility Parthian predecessors. The Sassanid kings were a dazzling richness of architectural decoration, conscious of the part played by the Parthian costume, and jewellery. aristocracy in the downfhll of the Parthian Empire, and tried to curb the power of their own Sassanid The Sassanian Army clans (who would, nevertheless, evelltually play an During the first three cemuries ofSassanid rule the almost identical role in the destruction of Sassanid Persian army was headed by one commander-in· Persia). Some way below the noble clans, the chief: a hcn..>ditary office held by a membel' of the yeoman nobles and village hcadmen were re- royal family. The great clans filled the postS of sponsible lor the supply of peasant soldiers in time of adjutant-general and commander of cavalry. wal', and for the collection of taxcs. The peasants Chosrocs I (M 53 t-79) eventually undcnnined the had been reduced to serfdom and were sold as part power of the army commander by placing the four
.soSSflllitlPersia
1,2: Parthian Clll.aphraCtS, 1st century Be
2
3
1: Early Parthian horse-archer. 4th C. Be 2: Parthian horse-archer. 2nd century BC 3: Parthian horse-areher. 3rd century AD
1: Early a anian cataphract, 3rd C. AD 2: Parthian cataphract, Srd C. AD 3: Sas anian standard-bearer
1: Susanian clibanarius, 6th C. AD 2: 8nanian war elephant
1: Sllssanian levy spearman 2: Syrian foot-archer 3: Anatolian slinger
1
:.
4: Kurdish javelineer 5: Sa9Sanian cillaphract, 5th C. AD
~
1: 11 8anlan cllblllllll'lull, 7th C. AD 2: Sll88llnian 8tllndllJ'd· bellrer
fardinal divisions of the empirc under the protection of four local commanders, each with a deputy. The Sassanid army was divided into corp:; \\ hich 'f'itre split into divisions and these in turn wcre di\~ded into brigades. The military system il1hmtcd from the Parthians was based 011 Ihe heavy, anTloured cavalry provided by the aristocracy. and the lighl horsc·archers provided by the minor nobility and nomad merccnaries. Elephants were usually placed in the rear; they would havc been of Indian type, with hOWl/ails carrying armed soldiers llld a driver. The bulk of the peasant infamry wcre ilrced into the ficld, and formed the rear guard: lhey were next to useless as soldiers, poorly armed llld of low morale. When they were not being used asspearmen they were engaged in duties around till' (amp. Bctler-quality infantry were found in the mnks of the slingers and foot-archers. The superb horsemen of lhe steppes swelled the ranks of horsearchers. These auxiliary formations werc sent from the-northern and eastern borderlands oflhe empire, including Iranians from Seistan and Kushan, Albans and Mongolian Chionitc-Ephthalites. AI'· menian lroops were highly regarded; their heavy 1J1d light formations occupied an honoun:d position Ul the Sassanid army. The Sassanids were very good al sieges, a skill not possessed by the Parthians. As mentioned above, me frontiers were guarded by colonies of warlike Rlbjects, peoples seltl!.'d in a given area who would take lhe firstshock of any invasion attempt until the rtgular army look the field. t>.JilitilrY technical titerature was produced, and is known indirectly m Arabic sourees; treatises dealing with organisation, care of horses. riding, archery, tactics and lClUalling are known to havc exisl(xi. Elite units of the Sassanid army \\erc probably mled in the full panoply of the dibaflan'IIS on the attleficld. The unit known as 'Th<: I mmortal~' umbered about 10,000; a deliberate emulation of unit of the same name and function in the chaemenid Persian army, defeated by Alexander be:' Great, this seems to have been instituted at an rly date in Sassanid history. Little is known of not her unit bearing the namt Gyanarspar 'Saerificers of lheir lives'). The imperial bodyard, the Pushtighban, numbered 6,000 at the ginning of the 7th eentury \\1.
During the period from lhe beginning of the risc of Part hi a to the Arab conquests ofSassani an Persia there seems to have been no significant change in the armament of the two classic divisions of the armies of Iran. The acceptance of Persians within the ranks of noble Parthian heavy cavalry, at least towards the latter part of the Parthian period, is evidenced by the military preparedness of lhe nobles of Fars who were able to challenge the Parthian army on an equal looting, fully armoured and oow-armed. To what extcnt individual Parthian nobles were removed from power in the new Sassanian Empire cannot be judged. Some powerful Parthian nobles willing to accept Sassanian overlordship were left in possession of their estates and were ranked \vith the princes of the royal blood and high Persian aristocrats. In time of war both Parthian and Persian nobles would present themselves and their vassals for service as pan orthe metropolitan army of Iran. As mentioned above, the arming of Iran remained unaltered in its broad aspect forcenturies. Variations, suc.h as the absence oflrappcrs for the mounts of Parthian or Sassanian dibanarii, did not always signify lack of funds, although increasing affluence would allow for a proportional increase in the quantity and quality of armour. ~Iilitary fashion did vary slightly in the 4th century AI), when formations of heavier armoured troops were developed to operate with Sassanian dibanarii, but these do not seem to have: la~ted beyond the 5th century. Armour In his AtlhlOpua. wrillen in the 3rd century An, Heliodorus says thal Persian heavy ca\'alry were encased completely in bronze or iron, with a one· piece masked helmet entirely covering the head except for the eyes. Thc description is repeated in thc \Hitin~ of Ammianus i\Jarcellinus, who lived during lhe .\th ccnturY\Il: ' ... Moreover all the companic:> wcrc clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiffjoints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms ol'hllman faces \....cre so skilfully filled to their head that, since their elltire bodies were covered in metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could sec a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or wherc
assanian helmet of3rd nrury AD' this orucaJ iron headpiece i v ry sim.iJar in hape to those us d by Assyrian troop . It is constnlcted of four trianguJ r iroo plate brougbt together IU1d reintorced by four wai ted pelU'-sbaped iron traps secured with ball rivets. The ape>< ba not urvi ed, bu:t may bave been a rOUDded point, ora hollow finial housing a plUlll . Ru ted rin of iron mail ba e fused to the rim. (Tru t es of th Briti b Mo eum)
Lhrough th tip ofth
IT
n
little br alh'; erri d band
were fl und: aLI
r
ar trapp'r
or
auxiliary unit attached to the Roman garri 'on at
In
VI
Ih(' tlm fDura s izur b' the Persian in An 25 . Ih ar tim d wit! a. ander I 'Ill r lilli. It, ne reel. OJl(' black; I th arc urfa -laced with red rawhid th n . Eviden e ~ r tit ' n tru a metal cui,' w found t ~tr nghoJd on Tw d id n ar M Ir in tland. The cry t Ilin pi ces w r pia cd tog ther and th ui e w s r 'onstru t d b Ru ell Robin n. II i I uilt up fthin br nz laminations ri\" eel L four g at kin I alh r strap.. Th upp r and Jar e t piaL i fin' h'd by having it upp r dg knocked ba k and roll d. Perhaps ur last glimp e ofa warrior quipp din a ani n f; hi n m', fr m Ih paint d lealh r .urfacc of a w ad n Judd found among- the debri uflhr ruin' a. tl' f Jug, easl f.
The Sa
anid Per ian Empir • 5th century
AD.
Chosrocs I, thc Parthian Arsacid king of Annenia, confronted the ncw Persian Empire will} the dangerous coalition of Armenian, Roman and The native I>ersian revival was focused on Fars, a Scythian forces, together with the army of the province of sOUlhern Iran, where the original Kushans-the king of Kushan had become host (Q nomadic Persian horsemen had sCtlled nearly 1,000 the Parthian royal family. The only noble Parthian years earlier. clan to join these enemics of the Sassanids wcre the Sassan was a high priest or the temple of Anahita Karens. Armenia fought for ten years before at Persis. His son, Papak, whosuccccrled to the post, admitting final defeat. The Scythians and Romans married the dauglllCT of a local prince whom he withdrew aner severe defeats. The Kushans dislodged in a coup d'etat in AD 208. The Parthian gradually ceased operations as their troops wel'C king refused to recognise the seizure, and later bribed to give up their losing fight. would not ralify the succession of Papak's son, The Sassanid king now turned his attention to Shapur. When Papak died, his second son, the frontiers of his empire, and decided thal Rome Ardashir, who was an officer at Darabgcrd in Fars. had lO be attacked wherever she impinged on refused to accept Shapuf as king of Persis, and a Persian territory. The fortresses of Carrhae and serious confrontation between the two brothers Nisibis were seized and reoccupied by the Persians threatened. The accidental death ofShapurclcfuscd after intense fighting. When he died in AI) '241, the situation, and Ardashir proclaimed himself Ardashir was able to leavc a stable empire defended king, bringing Fars, Isfahan and Kcrman undcr his by a powerful army lohisson Shapur, whom be had control and forcing all the pClty nobles ofthe district trained in kingship for several years prior lO his to recognise him as suzerain. The Parthian king, dcath. The lale Parthian feudal sYSlcm was Anabanus V, ordered the king of Ahwaz to bring improved by increasing central control. this Persian rebel Ardashir to heel. He was quickJy Shapur's attention was drawn to foreign affairs defeated; Ardashir then marched against the soon ancr his accession. The Romans, Kushans, Parthian army, which he defeated in three Armenians and Iranian nomads were a eonstalll successive battles. The last ban.le was fought in AD lhreat to the frontiers of the new empire. He moved against the Kushans by seizing Peshawar, the '2'24 at Susiana where the Parthian king, Artabanus, was killed: his head was hung in the temple of Kushan winter capilal; occupied the Indus valley; lurned north across the Hindu Kush; took Bactria; Anahita at Persopolis. Two years later Ardashir was crowned at crossed lhe Oxus, and rode into Samarkand and Ctcsiphon, the capital of Panhia. Hc gave his Tashkent. The dynasty of Kanishka was deposed, grandfather's namc Sassan to the new Persian and pro· Persian princes were given a much reduced state of Kushan to govern (AD 241-'24'2). dynasty-the 'Sassanids'. The Sassanid army had suffered many defeats at Sas nian Ilword;!.he la""le carrying brackel" on !.he lIcabb.. rd the hands of Roman forces in Syria, though they " e n.ple-li.ke lIlrap .nachmn" loops on the .e.rer face. The had advanced as far as Antioch. Shapur was railled medial rib h.ll$ three embossed curlicuell llbo...e llnd below !.he lowu hl"llclo:el collar; the hill ill llpurrftllO make a preparing a withdrawal back La Iran when ~s for Ihe indu finger, and has a pommd piucord for a Gordianlls I II, the Roman Emperor, was mur· wri"l loop. (Truslee. of the British Munum)
SOSSOlliOJl
CampaigJls
J
J
7?-
dered at Zaitha ncar the Euphrates, probably at the instigation of Philip the Arab, who succeeded him in AD 244-. Philip immccliatcly sucd for peace: he abandoned Armenia and mOSt of the small principalities, who were still pro-Parthian in ~Icsopotamia.
War broke out again between Persia and Rome in AD 250, and the Persians look a number ofSyrian towns. Antioch was captured by Persian forces in I\ll 256; Dura Europos was placed under siege and its walls undermined in AU 254. After a great victory ncar Edcssa in AI) 260 the Roman Emperor Valerian and 70,000 legionaries were captured by Shapur. The captives were taken to Khuzistan, where lhey buill cities on the lines of a Roman military camp, and settled down with local wives. Evelltually they ercctt-d a large bridge across the River Karun, wherc the remains stilt stand at Shustar. Valerian himself disappeared without trace. Magnificent bas-reliefs carved into the rock cliffs of Fars to celebrate the victories of Shapur show the Emperor Valerian at his feel.
(
.,
S.ssanian chivalry: 'Bas-relief of. king charging an enemy', d wn ill si," al Taq.i.BuliIlan (Naqsh_i_RuJllem) by Sir Rob"'<1 K"' Po<1er. The relief show. VlIrham II (AO 276 ~3) atcllcking an opponenl who ha. broken hi. kQIlIO$. (By perDlillfiion the Briti.b Library; MS Add_ '4758)
The Persian army took full advantage of its victories, harrying Ihroughout Syria and Cappadacia. During their return march the Palmyrenes made a determined and successful surprise attack on the Persians, capturing huge quantities of booty. Varham II came 10 the thronc in AD 276, the same year as the Roman Emperor Probus. War was resumed again in Syria, but a peace was quickly negotialed by Varham, who ceded Armenia and Mesopotamia. Thus rreed rrom problems in the west, he was able to deal with his brother, the viceroy of Scistan, who was supported by the prince of Kushan, in an attempt to seize the throne. The resurgent Kushan Empire was destroyed by Shapur II (AI) 30g---79), and its territory was annexed to the throne as a new province ruled by Sassanian princes from Balkh. War with Rome in lhe west to regain the
p
cd d I
arham II and h a ucc'sor was rclentlcs and prolra ted. In a battl fl ught n lh R-iver igri in \[) 3 3, Pian bowmen limcl the b nk oppo it th R man. t r n the main crsian army \ ho w re forming up at m di tan c bhind them. Th tir llin w s f hea , armour d troop r upp rted by rna ed pea anL spe I'm n. Th third lin wa mp d f pr
in
lephat1l . Th R man mad midni hl ring: di persing the bowmen lining' th bank, they pU'h d fi rward l nta l th' main P rsi n army whi h th rea hed b) mid-m min. It ill R man d in b HI ~ rm ti n ere ned b' j lin r t k the Pial } urpris ,minimi ing
v 'al ta
in
assanian belm t of th ~th or 5th centuries AD; II 'spangenhclm' of copper-faced iron, it i in the hap of the traditional Parthian ba. hi)''' p. The beadpie is constructed of four oval plat and wide b adbandjoin d by four narrow plate of inverted 1". bape, all cured with ball ri eLB. iewed from the front th belmet appear conical, the ide' b ing brougbt into the ape in weepin curve, ( ru t of the Briti&h Mu eum)
loid phthalit .. and a body uard of their troop' wa I1l with th Iazd kit, as d '" hen the' ppo d the nominati n of hi .. n :ho ro as h ir pI' umpLiv, Kavad di din \0 31 and eh or 'am t th thron atlht, u ts t ofa trial of trength b tween the J d p pie. The prine m rg d from th n bl I n 'tru gl mar p werful than an of his pr de cs ors. Th arm' w 'r ·form >d to gi h rthe r ur divisi n' th mpir' it· \l\n unit, with a . p rat' ommandt')'" ompul' ry rvicc for pant oldier reat d a militia opp d t P an bing con. ript d and h til armed nl' for a pe ifi campai n. Barbarian tribes w r ttl d n the frontier forward d ~ nee ag in t nomadi in ursion. w r built alon th crband pa ,and wall c10 d the mountain gap LIth \\ l f t.h pian ea. [n n 4 eh r fu d the L1. ual tribute to the EphthaLit ~ wh w r' unabl n~ r th agr ed u't m. w d d later ",hen th Tur' <
xp n 'i" ly r't in d. Th king' involv m
111
1
In
cI
t'm'nt
ilver plate 6th century AD, showin a aniA.n monarcb (probably arbam ) d _lJ'oying a family of lions. (Tru tee of the British Museum.)
rn narch', 'upr rna y OV r th an to rats and po the d, and wa:. on in 01\ d in inter-fa Liana! dim ulli . Byzantin diploma y began 10 how p sitiv r 'ul s, and P'r ia wa ed wilh war on thr front:. \ arharn :hobin, a gr al P r, ian arm I d r. alofT'lh' Hun in th north and th urks in the ast but failed again t B zan tine tr p in th W l. Horrruzd hawed hi d' pleasur with Yarharn. and the army declared again t th kin. he gr at clan iz d th 'r h ur; King Hormizd wa. thrown into pri n wher h urn r d rnutilati{ n. Wh'n 'h 28). th on of 11 (.\11 59 Hormizd. t throne he w h llcng db·
r
Ii tion
l \0 57
\'arham Chobin; the adventurer took the capital and the throne. Chosroes ned to Byzalllium, where the Emperor Maurice gave him troops. Varham \\'as defeated and assassinated, and the throne regained. Maurice was rewarded with nearly all of Armenia and Georgia. Arter several years ofpeace Persian armies mo\'ed into Armenia, Edcssa and Caesarea, reaching &utari in \0610. Persian and Syrian troops took Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem the following year; 50,000 Christians were massacred, and relics were stolen from the holycily. Gaza was taken in All 616; the army advanced into Egyptian territory overrunning old Cairo, Alexandria and the Nile valle) as far as northern Elhiopia. TurkoEphthalite ad\'anees were rebuffed in the cast. Ankara was taken, and Constantinople was plac(:d under siege. These conquests, unparalleled in Sassanian history, crumbled away when Byzantine counter-
conquests liberated Asia Minor and Armenia: Khazar nomads were brought over the Caucasus by Ihe BY-Lantine Emperor Heraclius. Persia's most important sanctuary at Azerbaijan was seized. In 627 the ByzaOlincs fielded an army of about 70,000 men at Nineveh, where lhey were met by a demoralised Sassanid army commanded by Raza· tis. Both armies encamped for the night, and a continuous flow of Sassanian reinforcements :\1". rived till dawn, throughout the engagemelll and after. The Sassanid army broke camp at dawn and deployed in close order oflhrce columns with crack assault troops, probably dibanan·i, forming the first two ranks. The whole army faced the rising sun. When the Byzamine army were deployed Razatis Rod< ~Ii~f of • S"ulu"an nlonarc:h from Taq.i.B....I . slo.elched in lIepi.a by Sir Roben Ke...Porlu for his ntlUl ... c:ripls TrlHth i,. GeorgiQ. Pn);Il. Arm,.NIlIl,.d And,.,., &hyl"", ,82 •. Thill dy is marred by only one Or lWO minor di.c:ril'panc:i.,,, on lhe lIhi"ld and q .. iver baroesil. The king ill a ..n.o.. red all a rli/lwwriu$ or Sa.SlInian heavy avatry. (By permillsion the Briush Lib...")')
1I,..
hall ng d H radius to ingle ombal. H radiu . pt d and th ugh wound d him If final! mana d to kill Razati. Th Byzantin: imm diat I ana ked with th un at th ir backs. During th hard-fought b ttl , whi h I t d nin hour th P r i n lost 50 000 m n in ludin a high proporti n fficer tog th r with 28 standard. Th urviv r retired in go d I'd 1', unhar ed by th B zan tines. The B zan tin aman troop follow d th r treat t the new capital of De Lig I'd, whi h th Y w re ble t apturc r a ring a f their m n military tandard . arly in th following pring (.'l.D Byzantin finall laid i g to .te iph n. who had b ome a si k man refu 'ed to ign th SlllT ndf'r do urn nt. and was assa sinated b hi' Detailed drawing from a photograph of Ute 'awe carving at Taq.i.Bu Ian; 001 th veot in the nnour al the hor e's throat, aUowin fr e head movetne.ot, and the full-face a e.otail leaving only the ey expo ed.
half-Roman son. Th king had b en unpopular at hi wn url: h was surly, cunning, cowardl , u pi iou", di 10 al p mpou and gr cd and hi un a ing demand for troop' brought about a nati mvide drain on the untry' manh ad. P ia w a! 0 exp riencin natura! disa ters at about thi tim : th igri broke it banks turning agrieulturalland into wamps and flooding a large part of t iphon. P rsia Gil furth r int anar hy; th "arnn fa Lions were rul d ov r b a doz n king in '3 ea . a many of th mal m mb I. of th r al hou w r kill d lfthat th d ughtcrs f h r e. II, Baran and zarm dukht had to tak th throne. Ev ntu By th imp rial 'ant b gan t stagg riot a ongl m rat ofp tt 'tat . Th n w r at d by ho I' I1 wer n t .trong ari I ra n u h to pI' entth on t f ial di im grati n ur to resi t barbarian in asion from the de erts of rabia. In 637 an I lami arm infli ted a defeat on the a anian at Qadi i a; in thr fighting the Pian w r rout d th r al standard wa aptur d and th ommand r-in-hi f, Rustam, wa killed. The final battl against th I 1 rni tid wa' fought at ihawand in 642. ~ anian peasant in antI' ar r port d to h ha b n chain d together to force th m to land their ground. Both B zantium and P ria had b 11 ri wi eakened by th exhau ring war they h d foughl b tween and 2 . but P r ia- hak n b d feat ruled by an un tab[ d na·t , h r ann and ivil rvi e di rupted h I' peopl ali nat d b cru hing ta -ation and para iti landlord -wa th w ak r. , h n the vigorous n w impulse of Islam tru k th m b th it wa Persia which ollapsed.
The Plates AI, A2: Parthian cataphracts 1 I century BCh nobleman r has a trumb! '-shaped bronze helm t with an a entail of iron mail held to the face b a h atb d tie. He has a br nz scale c I' I I; laminated bronze ambrace prot ct hi arms, and ui f br nz cal his Ie s, th lall r susp nd d fr m th wai t and ured to the Ie by trap rather in the manner or the merican whand'
hap '. Th ir h p i d dueed [I' m lh rawhid' c:ample (rom Dura Eur po and £i'om a terra It plaque; although this vid nc i r a latcr period, the t:S 'cntialLy imilar lhian exam pi . I' C \('1' d lrom mu h aru r gra\'('~
Sassanian sword; the blade of thi weapon j fu ed into the cabbard b "' t. The rai cd 'honeycomb' paUem is gilded; two bracket upport U· baped ,taple for th attaclun nt of the upend r lings and arc mounled on ollar. The w apon m aSUre jn t under On m t:r from pommel to chape. (TrWile of th British Mu ewn)
lte, t th ir usC;' (or '('v ral
ccntun ,Th knight. ~' at ,word i. lung at un lrun r b \ , a 1'1'0",", and a hart W I'd in a buillharp angle b low the heav bronze-fa ed waist in cabbard. belL. B Lh m n ar arm d with llw long kOlllo In. Til rid 'I' 2 i rmour d almo't nUl' I) in iron: 2nd centur;r AD Lhe thi k fabric tabard h laminate 'hould I' n th w U-known and ~lard' and 0 I' lamellar co cl I. Hi h Imel of at Dura. h ani I 'spangenhelm construction ha, a hronze lamellar h onj tural show th a\' ntail. oth h rses have thre -pie e s al f th riginal att mpt d in arm urs, on ofla quered rawhide and one ofimn. the e)' being prolected b· de p hemi pherical 'balkc ' fbI' nze,
8/: E(lrD' Parlhiml horse-archer, ph (1711111)' 8( Thi n 'U'al figure i· dr s d in t 'pi al cy hian r hion: a fell basldyk, leather kaftall. lrouse and hon I , \ iLh d raLi n r ppliqu' -w rk nd m tal plaqu . . nd r' d - trun b w i carri 'd in th gOl)'tOJ the combination b we c and qui\' 'I'. 82: Parlllla1l 1101' ~-ardlf7. :md &eTllIl1)' HI
1 hi figur i· ba' I th 'latu of a ung n bl found in th ruin d tempi al hami, I 'mais. ell] d Parthians eem t ha\,(' pI' f rred n 1 to cover th ir car full arranRcd hair-when shown horse-aI' hers lhl' arc generally depi ted bareIt aded. His kanan ora fine, . oft labri has a fcll or Icath l' dccorati c b rder' the h a\ it.,.. decoraled trou e, ar' pr t led b· [hi k. tubular fabri 'chap' lung fr m the v. ail.
83: Par/Ilion horu-archel. Jrd cenlUl)r w B, dna 1 rra It plaqu and a wall painting from ura, thi rid '1' has a low, pointC'd felt ap. a \110011'11 'pullover' luni', and pall rned trou ers again prot· t d b} baggy overlr u cr. ol lh IIC ( leather gO~lJlO • a c mbinati n case for apr
Anntnian catapllracl Jrd century .lD \\ h n \' th' [ k th fi Id v ith lh armi f Iran \rmenian tr p h Id a po irian of han ur. hi n bl man h a ry ri n-Iooking helm I of earl' S ani n pall rn. Hi al f armour mad. up fl m Hac la cd in counter-r ers d r w i' w rn r a long- I v d mail at, and hi legs I' prot 'Cl d b mail hau . Thi figur I' pI' nts prob bl liken of th ubj t ugg I d by th ba -I' Ii f of oliath at agi Lak \ an' lhough dated to the J I ill century il SCI' ' t giv m id r I'm ni n hea avalryarm ur 2:
um
f arli I' Hi mount prol Lcd b a hamfron n k guard' nd pc lral, a typ half-arm ur u· d b th lat'r a' anian in th ir formalions of clibanarii. Th Parthian in lh background carrie an p 11-
Sailsaftiau ~word; as wilb mOfH l>urviving pieCH of Ihill Iy~. the scabbard is Oflilupo:orior workmanship. Tho:o ~cabbard bali a ..... iso:od medial rib, IlDd three eurlicun o:ombosst'd bo:olow lbe co:onl 1 collar; Ihe <:un'o:od bill hall a .....i!it'd 'honeycomb'pl&lIe grip, (T....lI.eel> of Ihe Bril;l>h Muso:oum)
heavy cavalry mounts, Two large tassels hang from the breast strap, and metal ornaments adorn the rump; the tail is hung with pleated fabric streamers,
jawed, bronze dragon standard with a tubular silk body; it is suggested that this type ofstandard, later so widely copied that it was seen in the ranks oflate Roman armies and even reached Britain, may have been used by bowmen as a guide to wind speed and direction.
DJ.' Sassania1l sta1ldard-hearer This is the standard of Fars, representing the sun orb, moon and wings of Ahuramazda; we show the bearer as a mounted noble, bill it could equally have been carried by a lowlier infantry officer. He wears a 'spangenhclm' helmet of Assyrian appearance, a long-sleeved mail shirt, and baggy trousers over leg defences of laminates or mail.
D I: Early Sassanian cataphracl. 3rd century ,IV The Sassanians' great victory over tbe Parthian king Anabanus at Susiana in AI) 224 is. commemorated by the great reliefs of Partho-Sassanian chivalry carved on the rock eliffs at Firusabad, This young squire is based upon the figure of a Sassanian knight pulling a Panhian knight from his mounL He wears a 'thimble'-shapcd iron helmet with a bronze motif on either side. The long sleeves of his mail coat reach below his knuckles, a feature clearly shown on the reliefs. A shon, liw;d tabard of thick fabric is worn over the mail; since the carvings show no folds or creases, some authorities interpret them as breastplates of metal or some other hard substance; but while this is entirely possible, the extreme rarity of such one-piece torso defences throughoUl western Asia inclines us to the idea of fabric. lfwe are right, these fabric pieces may well have included built-in protective plates or padding. The horse is armoured in felt, the elan badge being displayed all over the surface, and also on the bow and quiver housings. D2: Parthian cat(lphract. 3rd century .w Based on the figure shown wrestling with the young Sassanian 0 I in the rock carvings, he wears a plumed iron helmet with a scale aventail. The sleeveless coat of bronze lamellae is covered to the wajst by a thick fabric tabard; the limbs arc protected by iron laminate defences. The horse is unarmourcd. as were many Partho-Sassanian
Sassania1l clihanarius, 6th cmtury AD Based upon the figures of two warriors in combat engraved on a silver plate, both of whom wear a peculiar kind of helmet: basically conical, it has a secondary point on either side of the shell and a small globe at the apex. We must here admil defeat: lhe helmet construction is not undcrslOod, and we substitute for it here a known Sassanian style. The coat of bi-Iobed lamellae covers a shoneI', longsleeved mail coat, and the legs and feet are protected by laminated armour. III earlier times heavy cavalrymen of this class were not equipped with shields, but they were evidently introduced by the 6th century. Half-armour for horses became more popular in the later Sassanian period. £1:
£2: Sassaniall war elephant A hypothetical reconstruction based on sevcral relevant sources, including ancient representations, The Indian elephant bears a crenelated wooden howdah holding two mercenary bowmen; the mahout is Indian. The tusks arc sheathed with bronze, Despite their unpredictability on the battlefield, the fact that war elephants were used throughout ancient and Oriental medieval history right up ulltil the widespread introduction of gunpowder would seem to argue for some degree of success although'tradition pl'Obably also played a part in their retention,
FI: .\romadic Iraf/ian horse-archa These troops were raised by the Sassanians from tne nomadic and semi·nomadic tribes on the nonneastern borders of their empire. They were subject or allied peoples. related to the Panhians. The ponies' manes were CUI in many different patterns: we are reminded oftne 13lh·cclllury Mongols, who had a whole system of cuts relaled 10 age and sex.
/<2: Chionill-Ephtha!ite horse·archtr A ~Iongoloid nomad people. relaled 10 the Hunnish tribcs which followed the wcslerly migralion of Caucasoid Iranian tribes such as the Scytho--Sarmalians Offlhc steppes and into western
Asia and eastern Europe. He is equipped in the same way as the lranian horse-archer, though with a larger composite bow, and carries a lariat.
F3: .VQnuu!ir slandard·bearer Nomads were given to using horse or yak tails as standards; and as with Ihe dragon standard, they may have been useful as guides to wind speed and direction for the predominantly bow-armed riders. This man is from one of the Iranian tribes whicn
or
The o;onquKui Isla... in wKtern Asia' b ....k"D linn indialte "onqU"'$ und"r Mohammfti, &.tll 6.)l1; dOlled "h.ding in_ di"ate. conqu"u under 'he a1liphs, 6,1I 66.; and cit'clu i.ndialle cnoqUelIilfi und"r thf" U.... yyads. 661 ?so. See a15<1 MAA 11I 30 1M Armit.< "f M(Jm 711t J CtfflUritS.
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drift d ab Ut the great Eurasian plains; h would I ad a di . i n f m lint d archer a ting a. a rallying-point in battle. His corselet i made ofsplit and p lish d h rn or hoar mounted in lo.e-s t row f s al s on a bric j rkin; tuni and trou rs are of I and b ots of soft I ather. Th stri ken R man i a member of one of the ne\', elite u. ilia Palatin um rai ed by Con. tamine in the 4th n ury. l
GI.'
aSJaf/ian
indicated b th fact that th y w re chain d t cth r b the ankJ s n th fi Id f ihawand in 1+2. Thi spearman has a I 'alher-cov 'r d can> shield a. im I spear alld a sh rt w rd. G'2.' t),riarl Joot-archer
m r nar rom n rth rn yria, h i arm d wilh a larg ampo it bow, an ax and a bullhide shield. H w a a GIt 'ap and a \' oollen tumc and trous rs.
levy .Ipeannall
The epa ant I vi rr m tl auntrysid f Iran were fore d into militar. rvi at n d' hardly train d, th w r u d a g neral duties per onnel and ba ag guard as U a acting as a p ar phalanx in battlc. Th ir indiffi rent quality is The blazon from the rem in of a round, leathe .... over d wooden weld found .in the ruin. of the stronghold of Mug in Ferghana, which was destroyed in tbe 8th entury AD. TIle painting hows a horseD1an wearing lanlinated armour, and what may b the earue I r presentation of the arm defeoee of plale knOWD a haslJbU/fd. (Hermitage Mu e11m, Leningrad)
G.'3.' Ana/oliall jlinger he tough hiUm 11 of we tern ia were hired by ea t rn Roman, a anian and B zan tine alike. This highland r arri s a maJI target 'hield L knock aside mis iles or blows and carries hi ton in a .~oat 'kin bag. Hard to deU"cl in lligh , and difficult t d d e, ling pell ts could 'tun maim or even kill and were extremel dang rou. ven to armoured troop.
G'-I: hurdi II javelinm . tum f II n tuni and tr U' rand hon boot. is upplemcnt d by a h p kin j 'rkin; Ih targ t i lain d hid. 1'h hiUm n u. d javelin-th n to inere" th power f the thr w and I pin the mi ile in flight, ~ r a cura Typi al
G.;: 'a sanian cataphrac(, 5(h century'
lfJ
ome a anian h a . cavalry unit, w re quipp d in the Parthi n tradili n, c mpl t ly armour d,
man and hor . h \ ere not howmen, bUl " ere arm d with th kOllloJ J ng. ord, and a rna I' ax, h ir masked helm mu t have limit'd vi ibilily nd thu agilil in battl, h ir r lian fo upp rl up n Ii hI f tf P f in lh rank fth dlhanoril \ a a c ionall mi pia d' this rna b' Ih reas< n lhal lh e uni flat f di ntinu d.
III.' 'assanian cliballon'w, 71h cmlur' ,W Tlli rid f i ba d n what i probabl lh b lknO\ n high-r Ii r 'arvin f an Iranian h av cavalr 'man, m unt d on a p werfuJ half-arm ur d ho . ,1'h h ad n k nd ch t d fen are mad of r " f I '- t \' r1appin curved-sid d lam Ila aua h d t I ugh abric backin. h rc. mblan e between this h lmct-taken like lhe rc I of !hi ligur If m th lull -armour d king arv dint th r ck at Tag-i-Bu tan n ar Kerman hah-and th s re a r d from andinavian ra 'al end I and Val garde in w cI n ~ remarkable. h mail avcnlail, lik B zan lin exampl " m h b n r lripl thickn " h long-- I d mail a t i· uppl m I1l d hand p;uard' and a . mall r und hi Id; hi. I g' ar pr babl armour d und r th I ng kirL Th aq-i-Bustan carvin how lh' d a t i n pr p f lO m nar h.
fl2: aJJanian standard-bearer h .tandard, with fi" pam granal ymbol nd fabri lfeamer mu l h v b n diffi ull to handl on h r back: w ma gu thaI il uld ft n ha\' een carri d b eli mount d n bl man. Th Parlhian- hap d h 1m t b ar a motif n ither id o th kull v hi h ma h v I n n id ntili au n cl vi 'i h 1 a th r n k nd h k uard.
anian word; ODce mOr the 'honey omb' pattern. On ru of tbe cabb rd is CODtinu d up on to th hilt and t.b bulky collars and bracket of this hand om weapon, and the pommel' pierced for a wrist loop. (Truste of the British Mu eum)