221
OSPREY· MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES
mrs
Ontralufmencan 1959-89 ~-
TextiJy CARLOS CABALLERO JURADO and NIGEL THOMAS
CoIOllrplates iJy SIMON McCOUAlG
Publi"hed in 199<1 b) Puhli,llillg' I.td
OSPlT)
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Thon1;\". :"igd. /9tG Cenlral ,\nll'rit';111 wan>, 1959 B9. I. Cl'nll~ll.\rnl'rica . .\Iililar) e(luipnwllt histol)' I.Title II. Sl'ries fl·.Q',097o;t1l
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Authors' Note and Acknowledgements 'I'hisstlr\'ey Ofef'llll'al Amel'ica and the Carihbe:lll would llot ha\'l' h"cl1 possible without the kindness alld unslintin~ ;\ssistal1{'t' ora numlX-f oreorrespondellts ;lIld II-il'nds. man} O\cr mall} }t·3rs. :"il;"e1 Thom.1S \\ollid like to th;lllk Peter .\boolt al\\3\"s a lo\\eTOr ~11'('n~th :Jean- '",es Coni: Dr. .\larc I";'ndr); .\1. .\lIlt'rl .\lcndel:Julio ,\, .\Ionlt"": Frank Slcff; 1.1. Cdr. 1'('1. W. .\l.lidand Thornton OIlE: and hi, [lInil}, 1leathel', ,\1('x.lnd(·1' ;Ind Dominick. Carlos (;ahalknl aCkllt'\\ Itxlg{~ gralefull) \'it'('1l1C' '1'011011, edilt,rof'Ol"fi'lISa' mag-azillt" fiJI' hi, help III pro\'idillg a ,l{re;L\ deal ofillfi!rmatioll, dlll'urneniation and phtltl!1J;raph,..\n> nHTI'ctiOll,.llld addilion;11 infi,nnalion \\ould Ill' \\e!conw(! rrolll readf'r... .\s \\ ilh an~ ren'nt or currl'nt conflie!. the authors .Irc' n.llurall~ ;1\\,11"(' tll.ll t1Il'Ct'Il\r.lI.\nlt'ncall "illl...ion arou'C... lInder.;,taIJ(Llhl~ ... tfOIl~ politi,.ll Ilpiniolh amol1.~ nl.lll) dilfel'l'1I1 J.(roups. E\cq dlo... h"" IX'en made 10 :\\-oid Set'mill\{ to rnakt, polilical judg-c1l1ellls in a Il'xl \\ hich is illlf'll(kd solely a.~ an objlTti\T rccorel orract~
Artist's Note R(',ldt>r-- Tll;\~ cart· II) nOIC Ih.u the origin;ll pairllirll.,ns fl'olll \\hich the (IIIIIUI" platl'S ill thi:- hook wcrc prl'l>.lrlxl are .I\,lil.l1)11' ror pri\ ;111' s;lle.. \11 J"('pl"(lllueliol1 nIp) ri,ghl \\ haL'Clt'\l'r is retainl'd b) the puhli:.her. .\11 t'nquiries should he addressed 10: Simon \!cCouaig I YL'()lnall'~ Clt!~e Stok.'l\i,hojJ Bl'isl(,1 BSg IDII The publislwl1i n'~I"('llhatlhe} e;1I1 enter into 110 ('orrespondcIICt· upon Ihi" math'r.
Cm/raJAmerican Uirs /959-89 111trot/II(fio1/ In the conflicts covered in this text we \dll not cncounll:r huge tank battles. savage aerial COlllbals nor bold naval operations. \\'c arc concerned here \\jlh less spectacular ~ucrl'illa wars, where most fatalities arc c:lu~cd by bnllal aets Orlt'ITorism or reprisal rather than b) rOl1\clHional \\:11"fare. However, it would be a sl'rious error to underestimate the importance of these disputes ill Central America nnd the C:lrihbcan, sOllletimes called 'the Korth American :\It:ditcrrnncan', In fact malty analYSiS rdcr to the region as 'the United Stales's secQtlc! Vietnam', and predict thai Gener.l Fr....dOfcO T.be....ill•• Army CIoid" or StaIr, ~ Conlr.lmir.nl.. Julio Rodripu C.ld..ro... ~.V) ~ . il will become "the :\liddle East Drill(" Year ':.1000', 51.rr, ;n 8:.t;51.'. Armed Force.., 'g.s& T.btrwilla _ _._.. eM An examination of these conflicts suggcsts 1\\0 IIland.rd Cuban tiShl I.n H.rv;ce dre Of_ types or problems. In almost all these countries lheft' are serious divisions in sHciet)', combined 01" lo('al armies, to diplomatic i-<;o: iall! n .me! with the pressure orlarge foreign interests, notahly ecol1omic blockade. Part orlhis stralt·~~ h" ber'n thoscoflhe Unitcd States. These factors encourage Ihe trainin~ of tens of thou~al1ds or Latina desire for social and economic change \\ ithinthc Amcrienn soldiers in anti-guerrilla \\arfare techcountry. St'condly, in most of these COUlltries there niques at the 'School of the Americas', fUllctioning ("xist po\\erful intlTcsls which seek 10 prcvent in t he Panama Canal Zone since 1946. peaceful political cvolution. FUI·thermort', the For the first time in their history, Latinarmed IOITes have usuall) tri(·d to prcvent a Amcrican states have recemly established a dipdemocratic solution 10 these problems by eoups lomatic framework to head off the dangeroffulure d·ctat followed by military dictalorships. United States military interventions in the region. \\'estern countries have not adopted a uniform In 198~~, when tht' US invasion of Grenada seemcd policy towards this situation. Europcan statl'S tend 10 presage the imminellt invasiOIl of Sandinist;l to prclcr a dipfom:llie Solulion linked to a pro- Nicaragua, the states of ~Iexieo, Venezuela, gramllle ofe(onomie developmelll; but the United Colombia and Panama SCt up the 'Contadora States, \\ith impOrtalll stratcgic and cconomic Group·, later joined by foul' morc South American interests in the region, has llsually opt<"d for a coulitrics. This diplomatic pressure group bas military solution. Sinee Fidel Castro·s victory in soug-ht 10 prevent the escalation of conflicts. and Cuba in January 1959 the Uniled States has been cncouraged peaceful solutions, as in the First and concerncd that :lI1Y change of governlllent in a Second Esquipulas Accords. Central American COLIn try should not usher in a In(]uellced by the 'Vietnam syndrome', the similar Soviet-backed communist regimc; and to United States has adopted a Strategy to deal with prcvent this it has developed a range of responses, the low-intensity conflicts in the region. In aceorfrom dirt'ctmilitary inlervention, through support danee with lhe 'domino lheory', it works to
prc\'ent the inSlallatioll of revolution'll'} n:gimcs \\hich might trigger off a chain-reaction il1lleighbOll ring coulltries. Although all the \\ars under stud} ha\'C origins predating Castro's victory in 1959 dating from al least 1926, in the case of Nicaragua), \\e concenIrate here 011 lheir evolutiotl ~irln.· theil, II lVas to take 20 years, until July 1979. lor a left-wing movemcnt to emulate Castro's achie\'emcllt, \\ith the establishment. not )et consolidated. of the Sandinista regime in ~icaragua, but theabscnccof victory b) l'e\'oIUlion:u'} forces do<'''' Jlot mean that the)' havc been eradicated, Fol' the forcsc(:ablc fl11urc Celllral America and the Caribbean will remain a powder ke~.
C/fba Ca~tro's vinor)' in Cuba in 1959 opcn~ our histori('al pcriod, " charismalic kader, Fidd Castro Rlliz. a la\\ student. \\as ahle, \\ ilh a small force \\ hich 1l('\'C!" exceeded 3,O(){) guerrillas, to clcfc,at Gen. Fulgcncio Batista',; 1'1",,;16 (;0".51;lur;OIwl (;ollstitutiollal,\rm) \\itI138,ooosoldiers and Ilwmhcrs of the Guard;a Ruml, His aehic\e1l1t'\lI eontradicled Ill(' ~ larxisl-I.t'ninisl tlu'lois thai
onl\ a ma....' mO\'CIlH'llt under a revolutionar\' \\Ol:kt.'n;' part) could !>eil.e !>o\\{"r. and this onered Ilt'\\ t'hanll('!, ufrC\olutionary possibilities, Cuba. nominall) indepcndent on to December 1898 \\ith the L'nited States' defeat of Spain. the colrJllial occupier, wa~ 10 bccome a virtual Americ;lll ("olol1~. The Unitcd States, under the Pial! AnH'ndrnClit 01' 1~.JUllt' 1901, unhcsitatingl} inter· \('Iwd militaril) in 1906, 1913. '917 and 1933, l,:n~lIring" that 1>oIiticai po\\er remained \\ith proL'S politiciam. in spite of nationalist and !eft-\\ing" opposition. From 5 September 1933 Batista, ori!-;inally an afmy scr~cant, effecti\'c1y ran lhe cOlllllry lhrollg:h a s('l"ies of puppel presidellts bdiwe final!) becoming president himsclfin 1952. III{Teilsing opposition to his corrupt ruk produ('("(1. on .!6.Jul) 1953, an attack b} III armed 11l('n It:d b} C;blroon ~Iollcada barracks, Santia~o de Cuba, Ol'i"llt(, PrO'ince, The attempt failed and Castro (led 10 ~lcxic(), establi,hing Ihere Ihe ··..!(i.!ul} l\10\','I1Wnl', On ~ Decemher 195611\' and fI'1 mcn Jandl'd from llll' ship (.'r(//I11/(/ 011 Las Coloradas h('ach in th(' Sicrra '\[aeslra, Orienlt" I'ro\inec, a l'('g:ion or rnoLllltain~ and jungle" to illitiate.t ~u('I'l'illa "OIl' \\hich culminilt("d ill hi~ Ca",lro lIIn1t;cu!lu"" durinlll hi. victory .~ch at Sanla Clara, January '!tS9. afler Ihe caplure oftbe lown by 'Che' Gue... ra,
\'iClorioliS Ctllr~ inlo Ha\'ana 011 8.Jalluar~ 1959, Ca"tro \1
h with rl:gular troops 011 5 Deccmb..:r 1956, but he rq.;-roulx'd \\itlt 500 r('cruits till' roundation or his fj'm'ifli R,bdd, Rebel .\rm~ . In c.arl~ 1958 C:;l.'~tl'O 0llClled n, plus tank and artill(.... ~ dewdlll1('lIh at Guanianalllo, In ~liI~ Batista unl(.'ashed a general oni·nsi\,e. \\hi('h Kround 10 a halt inJul~, \Iilh Castro wclI t'Slabli~h(-d ill alltht' prO\inccsexcepll-la\ana and ~Iatanzas, In ,\ugusl 19:;8 the t\\O be~t guerrilla commandcrs. Camilo Ci('nruegos and the .\rgentillian Ern..:slO 'Chc' Guc\'ara. scnt thl·if columns racing towards Ct:tl\ral Cuba from Ih(' wesl and casl r('speni\'c1y, and 011 011C occa~ioll 'Iool{lIerrillas dcfc.:att'd 5.ouo c1crnor
...,.
Th.. unil palch and lab or '2506 Brird..·-...... Cuban ..xil... who rOuShl aad lost at ~bi"011 Bay ("Bay or PiS_') in April
1959 b) the ne\\ FII'f:::.as ,Irmadas Rn'oiliciollarias Rt'\olutionary .\rlm'(l Forces'" 25.000 strong, Xa\) and Air Force, backed by ~lililia re~imellls, Labour Youth Arm) and Civil Dt'Ii:'IH'(' Forct'",
compri~in~ .\rm) ,
The Bay of Pigs On 17 April Ig61, 1,'H3 CIA-backed Cuban exiles in,~ix 200-man 'b"llalions'-Ist (Paratroop), 2nd (Jnf;ulIl'y), 3rd (ArlllolJrcd)~ 4th (Heavy Gun), 5th (Infhntry). and 61h (Inranlry), collectively called '2506 Brigade'-Inndcd in Ihc Bay of Pigs on Ihe soulh coast of Central Cuba, They were confronted by a fierce counterattack by Castro's lroop:. and militia. and on 19 ..-\prillhc surviving 1..100 exiles surrendered, Castro then signed a milil:!r) alliance \\ ith Ih..: Soviet L;nion. \\·hich was 10 lead 10 the Cuban missilt' crisis orOctobcr 1 gG'2. One of Castro's dedared objectives W
1Is06 Brisa.de pri5Ofter_f_war, .ome •• m wearin,; the brilllade'" camouOa,;e field uniform, under Ibe watchful eye oCCalilro'. People'. Militia, wbo helped defeat the ia....dlN' •.
Conrerellce in Havana. Rcvolutionar) groups in Lalin America sought to clllulatc the Cuban victory, and Castro was implicatcd in sC\'cral attempts to CSlablish gucrrilla mO\'cmcnts, thc most famous beillg in Bolivia in 196i under 'Che' Guevara. Howcver, his prime conccrn was to dclcnd Cuba against counter-revolutionary groups backed by the United Statcs. 'fhe US government, lor its part, sees the hand of Castro behind all len-wing movements in CClltral America, hence the Grcnada invasion (sce ~IAA 159). These suspicions arc diflicult to prove. but there is undeniably a large Cuban military prescnce overseas, from military missions in .\Igeria, Ghana, Guinea-Uissau, Somalia, Libya, Tanzania, Zambia, S} ria and :\rghanistan. ~':~zeable contingcnts in Angola (at its peak 50.000 soldiers, 8,000 civilians), Congo (500, Ethiopia 19i8-Rt(4,000), ~Iozambique (600), South Yemen 500) and Nicaragua, 500 soldiers, 3.000 civilians).
Current forces .\t presCllt the Cuban Arm} has threc armourcd. thrcc mechanised alld 13 illl;\lItr} divisions in \\"esteru AI'Ill} (Pinal' del Kia, Havana provinces)-onccorps; Central Anll) (l\latallzas, Las \'illas)-ollc corps; Eastcl'll Army (Camagiiey, Oriclllc)-I\\O corps: Isle of Youth (formerly Isle or Pincs)-ollC inlhntry division. Each corps has three infhntry divisions (lhree twobattalion regts.; anillery reg!.; recce. bn.; services); and each Army HQ has one armoured division (one anillery, one mccb., three tank regts.) and OIlC mechaniscd division (one artillery, aile arme!' rccce., one thrce·ballalion tank, three t\\'o-ballali01i mcch. regts .. services). There arc 26 independent AA regts. and SA~I brigades, eight infantry regts., one Special Force Brigade (two bns.) and one i\irhOfliC Urigade. There is also a 12,ooO-strong i\'av)' with a marinc ballalion; an 18.500-strong Air Forcc; 17,000 State Sccurity troops (like SO\ iet KGB.; 3.500 FronLicr Guards; and in rcservc, 1,200,000 ~Iilitia. 100,000 Labour Youth and 50,000 Ci\ il Defence.
The long (three-year) military service period; eflicielll, well-trained armed forces; extensive combat experience in Africa and o\sia: and a \ igorous rescrve force, make Cuba the greatest military I>o\\cr in the Caribbean after the United States. 1-10\\ ('\'er, an analysis of its ('(Iuipmcnt-\\ith few amphibious landing-craft or transport aircraflsuggests that the FAR is primarily a dctCnsivc forcc, permallemly on alert for a US invasion,
J11exico Despite its turbulent histor), culminating in a rcvolution lasting from 1910 almost to 1930, i\lcxico, the northernmost counlry or Central America, has escoIiticai
party, and the social system created by the rcvolution, havc prcvcnted the emergence of an effecli\·c rural guerrilla force in spitt" of scvcral aoorti\c altempt:> in Guerrcro State, 1967 741 or any sign of urban guerrillas. The decelllraliscd Army and police fOI'ccs ha\'c IX'en able to stop :In) such activity at sourcc, Evcn so, i\le:.;ico's foreigll policy is traditionally opposed to lhe United Slales (it has nOI forgotten t\\o defcats by ils northern nloighbour in 18+6 8 and 1916 17. and ~Icxico sUPl>orts 1>OIh politicall~ and diplomaticall) Castro's Cuba, Sandinisla :\icara~ua and the Salvadorean guerrillas. In IgBl ~lcxico announced all cxpamioll pro~ramnll' for the armed forces. \\hich had declined Th~
and
M.,xican Mini.l.,r of Dc:f~nc:e, backo:d by otll~r s~n~ral black dr.,.. cap beau 1Il0td tac~ p_k
fi~ld offic~r•. Th~
b;~iJ:~~~;::~~~::::::-:~';~~~:1:~j~:/~:1:~t8.,:}::~:~:
cn<:k"d~. Th., pat., IIln uniform 8hiN worn with a whit., und.,uhirt h . . lIlold ooll;o.r inllilllni", and black .hould.,r board. with 'ill".,r "tarll, lIlold bUllon, lIlold 1D0tif and lIlold lace. Th., national .houldcr titl., i. sold "",d ....roo... In faci the Mex.i<:a1> Army unifOnD ill impr.,. .;""" ... it. adherblc:e to a COlllinUO". tradit;o.. of d.,,,,,,,lopmtnt, "",d by LatiD.· American llandards i. ",o:ry reslra;,'o:d in its oraalDtnlau-.
(ECPAI
The :.!3,OOO-strolll.:" ~a,·~, Kcared lor coastal delrnce. int.'lude:. 3.800 .\(arines in on~ airborne hri~i1de, olle Pre:.idcnlial Guard bn" 13 groups and 3.! securil~ companies. The 6.500-strong Ail' Forct' (\\ ilh a parachule hrig-adc Of2,OOO) cOlllaill.~ a, a priorit} COIN all
ClIflteJlldfi In Ihe mid-t96m Guatemala looked set 10 l>C1:omc a ~('cond Cuha, alld indced has hccn ill it Stalt.· of virtual civil 1\,lr lor 30 ycars. III t9.')0 the thell pr(·,idenl. Col. .Jacoho ,\rhell/. Cuzm:ill, carrief! A G ..ate.....lan Special Fore.,.. Irooper p .....d1y w.,.. ..... Ioi. r .... berelll." he .,.1. h..i" lasl!;ood ..."",t bdore t"",vln!; on ajun&le ro:<:onn.a;.....nee palrol. NOie 'Kaihil' qualifie.uioD lab1l on berel and left .houlder, (Peler Abboll) Troopers of the :lnd Dngoon R"llirn"nl, M",.iClI.n ClI.vlI.lry, In field-plI.rade drns wilh while pll.nd" neck_lcarv"", olive llr.,.,. unifornu., and CIlvalry ~bro:l, (Vieenle T ..lon)
ill cm"cli\,('IlCSS Ihrough IIl·~k(·t, in ol'dn 10 promotc itselfa .. a rC.l{ionall>O'\Cr financed h) hugcoil rc"cnues. Thc ~ub~(:qu(>1ll ,ollapsl' in Ilorld oil prices broughl serious financial problems whiLh forccd ah:lrldollrl1l'nt of the expansion. and so tbe Arnl} rcmains rdati,d~ wcak, Current forces The .\lcxil'an Arlll)' is basil'ally organised Illr illtcrnal sccurity, It lias IJ'h500 IllI'II dispcrsc'd amongst 36 i\liJilar} Zones in inclqwlld('1l\ units6g inlantr} battalions, 2+cl\'alr} rl·ginH.:lIls some lllotoriSt"{1 and IIlrct" aniller} regimenI'>, There arc two infalllr) brigades each I\ith onc armoured r('C(T.. Oil<' anil1er}. tllO infillltr) batlarions) estabrishn! 1968, in i\lexico Cil)': but the most important unit is Ih(' dilC Prl'sidcnlia[ Guards .\lcchanised Brigade Ililh HQ. I-III inf:llur) bns., Assault Troops. anillel"}. tr.lIlspon. armoured recce, tllO armoured car. olle lank. 1\\0 SI)G companies) b:lIlalions. .\lonar Croup, 10g-islics. cngincer and Illedical companies.
Thi.. serae ..-peak....ol .. m ..... boul c.he 1......._ betweora the Crntral Amrrica_ . .Idiu .nd l.he rural popWati_, a G... t~ mal.... f.rmrr ..-landll riSId w;tlo f",.r a .. he i.. ;aterrosalm by Anny paralroopeu ..nrchins for s ..errill.... Note Soooth Korell" camo..O.se fali~e......d 1.... "'1i "rlmel. (V'C'II'III'" Taloa)
a l>cric~ nrl>()cial t:tblish llie Cual("malan guerrilla groups. t\tier Ydi!-:"oras came a series or militar~ or l11ilitaril~ ('otltrolkd gO\"l'rnmcntS, through fi'audukrll t'le('!iom or coups d"i"tal, unlil the fi'cc electiOn urthe Christian Democrat Vinic-io Ccrezoill 1985. OUI
'Machismo' (e"'.SSeralm m • ..-c.. I;"'ly)., alw.y• • powrrf..1 psycho)OS'cal force ;.. Lalin America, i..- partic..l.rly prono cm in the C"lIt",onalan Special Forces; Ihill .."'rs......1 w L1.,. playf..lly wilh. j ....gle pytho... (Peler Abbott)
Gualr....1aA
"'C... erymrn boel.... y;nS cI."ir lDdi... or;s;
firld
will"orm., (P"t"r Abboct)
th"ir
CUIU","
Thl' first gUl'rrilla '{roup. ronned in 1962 in Izabat PrQl inn', Ealotern Guatcmala, b) ex-Arm) officers,calted itsell'till" I:i ~o\en1ber ~Iovemcllt' Later it combined with various small extreme-len organisations choosing' thc armed struggle, as the 'Rc\'olutionar) Armed Forces' (FAR), "hich in 1963 con((~ived the over-ambitious plan of surrounding: the capital, Guatcmala City, and isolating ir li'OI11 the ITsr ol'lhc ('ounrr)'. The Army, tlOW expanded to 8,oou, ca~ily ddi.:art:d rhcm, bUlthey managed to estabti~h a ncw guerrilla splilltergroup, rhe 'Edgar lbarr;l FrOllt' TIll; Army's ~lIccess was compounded by political quarrels amongst the gucrrillas, Ilirh rhe disaOccted 'Guatemalan Workerll' Ilart) , (PCT) selting up ils independcnr guerrilla 11llih. In Ig66 thesc internal di~pllt(,S were resolved and guerriJla numl.>cl"s began to incrl'ase. :\leanwhile the Guatcmalan Army, under Col. Carlos
Arai'!;l Osorio, rrailled by 1,000 US Special Forces, carried our throug-hour 1966 7 ambitious operatiom 10 eradiratl' rhe FAR's Frtnt, Edgar Ibarra fi'olll its strong-hold in the Las ~linas ~Ioun«lins, Eastern Guatemala, 'I'll(' g-uerrillas tumed their attelltion to rhe 10\\ 1I~, a('hining worldwide publicit~ hy as:.assinating L'S diplomats, Evcn so, their efiectiw'l1essdeclirled alier 1970, \\ hen Araila, now preloidcnt, un!<.'alohl'
III Ig82 the four g:uerrilla groups-FAR, PGT, ECP and ORPA-formed an alliance, the 'Cuatemalan ~atiOllal Rc,'olutionary LTnion' UR:\'G. to ('(}-ordinate stratcgi<:s. TIl(: same year ~et another coup brought G(·II. Efraill Rios ~Iontl to p(mer, proclaiming a ~t.ltl: of siege in order to ·fini~h the guerrilla~ Ol]{'(' and for air. He \\;lS suc("('(·c!t.'d, also through a ("oup. b~ Gen. ~lejias \\ ho, in order to requalif~ for L"S aid. im·oh-ed Guatemala increasingly in tbe anti-Sandinista political campaign, and mo,·cd to\\arc!s grcalCI democracy This allowed President Ccrezo to win power inJ;lIluary IgtlB and. in February, toapply the 'Esquipulas Accords' which united Central .\mcriean president:. in ~Ia~ Ig8+ andJullc Ig87, and to begin negotiations" ilh the UR~G..\ scelioll of the Arm) ,d!>hill~ to continue the ,\01r ag:ainst the guerrillas rt.-spol1(led ,\ith an aborti,·e coup. After losing more than 2.500 men official .\rm) figures; guerrilla ('Stimates arc much hi~her in Ihe civil war, the Army stm \\ ished to prc,·('nt peace llegotiations. Today the 1.500 strong guerrillas arc confined to remote areas \\ hilst the Army receives increased aid from the U.S.A. .
Current forces Although Guatemala still has territorial d illls, Belizc-formerly a British colony, alld iIHr 21 Septl'lnber Ig81 an independent ComnUH1\\rahh state protected by a British Arm~ .wd R.\f garri~oll the Guatemalan Army is not prepafl-d for .. con\"{:ntional \\ar, but is or't3ni,t'd lor coulltl'r·insurgency operations. I t has expanded. from 11.000 in 19Bo to 38,000. dispersed throughout 19 ~Iilitary Zones. There are 39 infantry, one ~JiIitar) Police and one engineer battalions. one armoured squadron, 18 field and twO AA batteries. se\·cn reconnaissancc squadrons (with Israeli RBY·I and US i\18 armoured cars), 1St Paratroop Battalion (formed I January 197t) and tbe 'K,\IBIL' Special FOITes Group (two bns.). Tbl' last relllnant of the lonner brigade organisation is the two-battalion I'residential Guard Brig:ade. There arc fe\\ heavy \\eapons; most of the lie;ht \\(~apons arc hracli. TIJ(' 1.500-<;lron~ :'\<1\) including a 6so-\trong :\Iarill(' B.ltlalion offour ('ompanics and the 700~Iroll.l; .\ir Forcc arc of minimal valuc. The Rios :\Iontt ~o,('rnment orK;llli!)l'd a 'Ci,il Defence Patrol" PDC, to ddeml ,illages against guerrilla in(·Ul... ion~: tbough poorl) trained, it is 110\\c\·cr T15,OOO st rOllg.
The guerrilla \Iar has cost al It'ast 20.000 li\'es oflkial figure, . hut it has lost till' ilHellsit~ of the "hen it \\,., Central ,\merica's most '>('rious eonniet. .\lthoul.{h \I(·ak. thl' glH:rrilbs haH' not h('ell eradicated in ,pite of ,\rmy mcthods~ ma~~i\(' displaeclTH'llu of lX>pulatiolls illto 'model \illag:es' guarded h~ the PDC; raids agaiml retLlg:LT camps ill ,\!('xico; and ri\'ir ,u,tion progr;Immcs, e,llit'd '(;llllS and Bt'alls'-,lnd tll(:ir prnl'nee hasdi\'t'rtl'd the .\rll1~ fi'om a more actin: r(,le in Central AmtTiClll af!;lir" 1960~
E/Sfllvflrlor Thi, country. Ill<' ~mallest onl) 8.111 ,quare mill's) and n10~t dl'llSdy populated in Ct'lllral Amcrica, hassutlt'l'ed lrellll'lldollSSocial uplH'avals fi)!' Illany year>;. [II 1932 17.000 30,000 peasants I\('f(' killed by lhe dina tor ~laximiliano llern:"llcit·,. ~Iartinez"'ann\ aftn til(.' ·I/,.ko R(·\ult·. aft('r \Ihieh the eommu;li"'t k;tdl'r Farabundu ~Iarti \1;" executed, In dl'knding: their ,celional iUll·IT·..." lht· ruling 'Fourtt'l'n Familit.·.... ha\c relied OIl the SUPIXlrt of the C nitnl Statl's, "hieh II as n:puledl~ ill\OI\'NI ill tht' l'OUp d'bat olJanllary Ig61, Frolll 1961 to 1979 Ihl' 'National COlleiliatioll Party' (corllrolled b\ the Salvadorean I\rm)) dominated the political S~el1t" lim:in,!.\:;1 I.{ro\1 in,!.\: extrellli~lll h~ opposition ~Toulh,
[II 1969 EI Salvador conducted lhe 'Football War' :l).;'ainst Honduras, The ori~in oflhe dispute "a, 300,000 illegal !'lahadorl'an immigrallls in Hondura... and tl·n..iflll increaM'C1 after l\1 0 football mat('ht'~ inJulle 19(~} had each rcsulted in \i~iling supp0rtt·l.., brin!.;' aHacked b~ the local Honduran or S,ll\ ;ldoreall ptlpUlalion, On I J.J uly thcre \1 ('re hnrdn da"lws, and un the I ph the Salvadon"all .\rlll) (peace-lime 'itrl..'Ilg'lb ~,500 with Ihree sillgk-IJallaliOll il1lhlllr) regimellts, a Illcehanised c:nalr), anilln) ami t.·ngineer battalion, expanded to l~l'OOO b) muhilising I~ rt.'Sel"\T inr.'lntl·~ battalion.. cros'\4.'(1 into Honduras. occup~ ing :\uc\a OcOtqX'qUl' :\onhcrn Honduras and EI ,\ll1atillo and Xac:tOI1t:' Easlern Honduras', The 3,jOO-.,lrollg- Honduran ,\rlll} I't'laliatcd "cakl~, bUI iI' .\ir FOlTe t'\t'lltually ac!lic\(:d air superiority, 011 18.Jul) Ille OIWlIlisalioll of American Slatescallcd a t'l'asdire, finally illlposillgtTOllolllic sanctions 011 EI Sal\ ador alil'r further It)('alised fi).;'htin,I.{, and liwcinl.{ il lO \1 ithdr,l\\ from I-Iondurall ...oil h~ :} .\ugmL TIH' \1;\1' cost 3.000 de'ld and II()unded, ami intensified the hostile c1imatc b"'''H'CIl the t\lt>eulIntries, Thi.. milital'~ ;lchelllur('made Salvador's internal ,itualioll clt-teriorate, and 110\1 gucrrilla grOllp... l'll1l'rgt'cL In Ig70 a splinter group of Ihl: Salvadorean C:OIllIllUlli~1 Pany fllrlllcd the ']>upubl Liheration Forn" Farabulldo ~Iani' (FPI.F~I , huildill.l.{ 011 experiCl1Cl" gained ill all altl'mpted rcvolt ill the 1960s. III 197~ the 'Peoplc's Rt'\()lutionar~ .\nll~' ERI) \Ia.. t'Stab1i,ltcd b~ Idi-\I ill!.;' Chri,ti,1l1 and ~laoist groups: in 1975 the '.\rllled Forc<-'S ofXational ResislS F.\RX 600 guerrillas', FAL,500 and PRTC (250)~b<:ing Illuch Icss significant. There are also three foreign guerrilla grotlps~A!faro ,rive Car(~io (Ecuador), 7 II/mc Amam Weru) and SOl/dUG A member of the Sal"ador.,...n National Guard'" crack 'COPARA' rapid reaction anti-terrorillt company pose" with hi. ¥uIIOllta" Moo rifte-Srenad.,launc:her, Uulio A, Moat...)
Roja \'cnczucla -opcratin~ in EI Sah'ador. ,\11 A Salvador",• • • rmaur~ car ~w r",ias Hl"o.... IDovial .pinst !u",rrill. positialls aear Sum;IMo., July 1"1. nr..e groups arc supported b} political parties, trade «URDU (r;sht) i. r-.dlns Lh", Spa.a.ish .,mu- Dr R~~$ hi. compa.;•• i. th"'dri... u-ob.or....,."... (ViC>ftIu Tal_) unions alld other national organisations. 1980 sa\\ thc gucrrilla \\ ar e'«::dating from acts of tcrrorism. 'I'he governmcnt sl(~pped UI) the sJx)Ilding to the :\rmy's West, Central and East oppression and 'death squads'-s('('ret assassin- :\Jilitar} Zones: ation grOllp~ reputedl} under extfl'mc·right control-clllergcd. On 22 January an anti- 'Fdici:lIlo Ama' Western Front)-Santa Ana, gm·crnnH:llI delllonstration \\as put do\\n \\ilh Ahuachapan, Sonsonata PrOVillC('Sj ':\Iodesto Ramircz' (West Ccntral Front)-La '100 dead or injured; and 011 24 i\larch Archhishop ROlllcro, all outspokcn critic of the government, Lilwrtad, San Salvador, Cuscutlan. Chalathe extrelllC right and the ruling oligarchy. was t('I1;1I1,1.\"0; gunned dowll in cold blood. Now the entire lcrt- 'Anastasio Aquino' (East Celltral Front)-La Paz, wing opposilion united ill thc 'Dnnoeratic Rcvo- San Viccnte. Cabailas; lutionary FrOllt' (FDR), composed of political 'Frall("is('o SadlCz' (Eastcfll Frollt)-Usulalan, parties, trade unions and othcr national organis- San J\ligud, La Union, i\loraz;'tn. ations. In Octoher 1980 the guerrillas combincd as the 'Fambundo i\larti National Liberation Front' There \\crc 6,500 7,000 lull-time guerrillas in Fi\1 LN"), allying with the FOR to co-ordinatc «>gular units: local guerrilla groups. \\hose partpolitical and diplomatic action, \\ith the ambition time: Illembcrs combined fighting with their usual ofrepc,lIing the Sandinista victory ill ~icaragua in jobs: and support groups. providing information, suppli('S. evacuation and escape-routt'S, July 1979· In OecemlX'r 1980 CS Pr('SidentJimmy Cartcr The guerrillas divided their activit) into four suspcnd('(! militar} aid to the S
Di,,,,.,;
'3
\'incial capitals, Despite Army countcr·otlCmivcs the F~ILj': maintained the pressure through 1982 and into 1983,011 27.Janu;u") IgB2 it attacked the Air Force IIQ at lIopango Airbase. Central Sal. \'ador, dt'Stro~ in~ or damaging 12 aircraft and ,>('\'('n helicopters almost 50 per cent of .\ir Force str('ng:th -Im...cs imlllediately made ~ood b) the L-nited Statc,>, On 28Januar;. IgB3thcy attacked I Bri~ade IIQ ncar San Salvador, The) no\\ can· trolled ollc-third of the countn. but were dcnied final \icwr) b) continuing aid to the Salvad()J'{'~lIl ,\rm\, B~ lllicl-l!)H:~ the .\rm)'" po,itiOll began I() imprme. II'> numbers 15,000 1!)80 ,>trenglh. ].000 and L'S a{hi.. CI"i, ()fTi("iall~ limited to 5.'). \\ere Irall,filrmillg it ill to a l()l'ce \\ith three nllllpOlll'lll,: six brig'adc~ (f(Jl'merJ) three) fill' "t;ltic c!efelllT oftO\\ ns alld slr;lle!{ic
L-S
Salvador"aninfanlryonlhemarch,lhellold;er(righl)c:arry;ng a morlar tube. (V;c:enle Talon)
Arlll) , National Police and l\ational Cuard; and inJallUar) Ig81 the guerrillas Iaullcht·d a COuntry· \\ide ~(,Ileral oOensivc. The .\rm). "ithout the resourn"'l0 retaliate. had to "ail until.Jul) when Ronald Reag:an's Republican admini~tration, seeill~ in the g:uerrillas a SO\ict·backed communist threat. resumed aid. The .\rm~, b) stricti) applyinl{ the draft la\\, cxpandcd its Ilumbers and established 11('\\ countcr-insurg:cllc) units: the 'Imlll('Cliate Reaction Infantr) Battalions' BIRJ.\, of\\hich the ',\tlacalr Battalion foug:llI in the.Jul) coulller-oflensin', and in late 1983 the ·Cal.adorcs· Ralll{ers). The f.\"uerrillas achieved SC\Tral diplomatic successes, notably Ihe Franco·:\!t'xican declaration of August Ig81, recof.\"llising the FDR.F:\ILN as a legitimate force. In June Ig8':.! F~ILN guerrillas had st'ized control of Chalalenango Province (Cetltral Salvador) and J\loraz;in (Eastern Salvador), and established strong enclaves elsewhere, such as Volcan de Guazapa (San Sal\'ador), \\ hich the Army scarcely dared enter. Guerrilla tactics included s.'lbota~ing lines of('ommunication, public utilities, electrical and lelephon(' lines; attacks on militu) bases and brigade I-IQs, often successful; and tcmporarily occuprin~ to\\ ns. even prodorean lroopeu or llo.e 'EI Pilpil' Special Forces &1.1DO d,e onarc:h, proudly dU;play"'~ lb,,;r maroon MreUl w:illo. baltalion bad~e. (V;c:eDte TatoD)
Sa.l
tali
pro,inC(', Irain('d ill counter-insurgcllc) al a local Ind, The:.e troops were wpponed h~ profrom the 'Ci,'ie-:\lilitM) ,\clion Illsli· lUI' and '~aliOIMI c:ommi...."iOIl for iiI(" Rehuildin~ of ,\rea:.', l'olilic;i1ly, Ihe d<'Ttion of Chris Ii an [)(omocral JOS(' :\apolcoll Duarte in .\Ia~ 1983 a\oidcd an illlt'l1~ificatioll or hostilities hC'tllccn ('. trcllle-rig-ht p;ll'arnilitar) g:roups and tht, g:ucrrillas, Kew 'loll illtCllSity \\,lr' lactics p1'Opo~cd by C. achiscrs IICl'(' i11lcndcd to ("ontain tile g-ucrrillOll> in certain pnH'inces II hen' Ihe) \\Otdd 1)(' deitro~ed b) th... \rlll) , and to promote ci"ic aClion projech to di'>Collra~e IO('al \lIpport lor tIl(' ~mmN.
~errillas,
Since IgBl L'S ~hipm{'llt\ or 1I11glJ('~ ,)Oo.\ID attad. helicopter,. Bell L'II-I:\1 hdim}>t<"r HUllships. Douglas (:-17 'putrtlu' .\Ia!-(ic Dra,~(Jn' and ,\·37B groulld-att l;l\ollr ~ill('"(' 1985. and thu'> brillE;"in~ the I\ar to a stalem;ltl'. Onc(" in 1>01\('1'. Duarte 1)('t.:";Ullle~otia,iOlh\\ith FMLN I"urillall proudly display lh...ir red and while bauJeIbl 10 lJr,e v;nall:en of San .'ra"ci"co Javier, U.ulu(an Pro"inc.., caplured fn>rn lh.. Salvador..an Anny Ihe pr.. "iou~ cby, 25 January '983' Two of Ihe ,uerrillas w... r complete _Uil.ry uniform., only lack of ;n.ngni. distinguilOhing I.hcm from Il:0v.,rnm..nllroups (VicenleTalon)
A Salvador...n armed e.cort for ",uppl.ie. bound for Sanl. Clara, c.,nlr., of an op.,ralio" againlil FMLN gu.,rrilla. in AUllu.II9811.(Vi«nt.. Talon)
lll(' FDR-F.\I L:\ li'om the end of IgBt: lhe\l'l'lldl·d \\ithout ~U('Ce,,~. but \\ere fl',>utlwd in .\lI~lISt IgB7 aft('r the :wd E'>quipulas .\ccord. \\ilh Ihe saml: di~.lppoilltin~ re'>ult .. \t pre'>Cnt the F:\IL~ cannot retaill control of Iar~c arCilS, a<; in 1980. but ldll operate fred) throll~hollt the country. atl.ld.inl!, lhe Arm) and til\' economic infrastructure. ilnd i, now \t rung- el1ollJ.:h 10 carry the wars to the lOll us.
'5
Current forces The .\rm) has, ~3.(x)O men, dividilll.\' til(' l'uuntr~ into three ;"liritar~ ZOlle,> \\'l'~1. C('ntral and East. g-arrisollcd h) six I nlhntr~ Bri.l.\'adl"s (for1lll'l'ly rl",l..(irncllts): 2nd Brig-ade (HQS
ided I)(,t\\e('n Ilopang:o .\irba<;c and 3rd Brigadc'; lht· C'l\;\lr~ Rt,l.\'!. t\HI mechani<;('(1 bm .. HQ CU).. Rccondo Group: the ,\irhonll' Bn. lIopan~o "iIlCC I9BJ n'\erting: to ,\nn) cOlllrol: al)(I t\HI hig:hl~ cl;,,~ifi{'d 'Sped:tl Forn'" Groups' COESJ-l,t 'Prial' rJ.RRI' unill, :.!lId 'llacha' S,\S-t~pt' unil . Tltere is a i,50o-strollg ,\ir Forc(', and the 1,500strOllg Navy includt'S tht' 6oo-...trung 'l'l de Octobre' ;"larine 1311. (BIi\I) at Usulutan, alld the 'Barracuda' and 'Piranha' I\a\-al Commando companies each 100 men at La L:nion. There arc also ],600 :\'alional Guard Rural Securit) I, 6,000 :\'ational Police L' rhan Sccurity ,2,-100 Treasury Police Frolllier Guards and 1 ],000 Civil Defelice \'illa~(' militia. All af(' hea\ily involved in the \\ar. Although trainillg and morale has improved since 1980 Ihe Armed Forces do not appear to be able 10 defeat 6,500 7,000 regular Fi\1 LN guerrillas. EI Salvador's futurc remains unclear, Duarte's terminal cancer forced him to withdraw /i'om the ;"larch 1989 IlresidClllial EleCliolls, which were \\011 b) Roheriod'Aubuisson'sextreme right-wing 'Nalion:lliSI Repuhlic:tn Alliance' p:trl), (,\RENA). In Septcmber 1989 AREi\A initiated ncgotiations with th(' F;"IL~, but \\ith little succe:ss. The war has COSI iO,ooo liw'S (mostl) reprisal victims rather th:ln casualties of the fighling), and thecxileofollcquarlcrofthe population. The go\ernmelll rcmains dependent 011 Uniled Slalcsaid.
HOllduras This thinly populated, impoverished country is
The expansion orthe Honduran Army (10,000 in J980; 14,600 tOday) is not due to the guerrillas, but to a finn military alliance concluded with the Reagan administration. The United States has decided to transform Honduras into the 'aircraft· carricr' of the region. There are virtually continuous large US-Honduran military manoeuvres in counter-insurgency. The United States military presence is permanent in large bases such as Palmerola, and the Americans have financed a large road and airfield construction programme, with dear military implications, Although Hon· duras is traditionally hostile to EI Salvador, the J\\'O armies collaborate in operations against S"Ivadorean F?\ILl'\ guerrillas on Honduras's southem border, permitling the establishment of the 'Regional ?\Iilitary Training Centre' (CRElvt) in .\Iay 1983 to train SalYadorean battalions. Finally, Honduras hosts the main operational base of the Nicaraguan 'Contras', with thousancls of men
Honduran Artned Forces Cotntnander Gen. Gustavo Alvarez Martinrz in '986 with Honduran cotntnandeu in fidd uni. fortn. Note the tni"ture of tnual lind subdued insignia, now unifortnly subdued; and th., 'duck-hunter' Clitnouftalle fat_ igu.,s worn by the officer displaying jUtnp-winlls on his cap. See Plate E.
'7
HOJ1dura~ dt'cided to IJt'gill expelling- the COlllraS fi'om ilS territor).
A!varelr.:o.I. p~•• conferel,,:e 0" .6 "USUSI .g.8:J, .nnounci..s H
along the eastern border. \Iho regular!} lea\'(: for offensi\c mi~ions in :\iearagua. Since l!)Sa there ha\{' been hundreds of border violations: the Sandil1i:-.ws complain about 'Contra' incursions and unauthorised o\'erOights ill i'\icaraguan airspace, the IlandurallS about San· dinisla L1nilS pursuing 'Coillras' illlO Honduras~ operalions thaI \1 ('I"e onl) opposed b} lhe Hon· duran Arm} from tilt' end 01'1986. In Oetolwr IgHb tIll' Iionduran Arm}. L:Strained and equipped. I\as easil) able to mount iI 2,500-l11an operatiOll to pI'nellt FPL-(: starting a guerrill;. \larlHlthe norther'll coast IlI'ar La Cciba, and b('tll('('ll 7 and I I DeCl'mber 1986 itl'epcllt:d a Sandinista il1cllr~iol1 into £1 Parai:,>o (South-Ea~t Honduras). Tl\('sc ('o-ordinated air-ground operations dt:lllollstralcd illlpru\'('d Army dli..'cti\TIWSS since its humiliatioll in the I!)69 . Football \\'ar' 'I'he HOlldurall-i'\il"araguan ~itualioll bas IJecn called 'undedared II ar', ami horder incidenb arc inuea:-.ing in ~eriOll'lll"S. culminating ill the :"Ibrch 1988 il1cidellt \"It'll L:S i·lilt' troops were rushed to Honduras to help rqJeI Ilhat wa:-. Ihought to be a full-,>I',t1e Sandinista ilH"a...iOll. and a large operation \Ia,> mOUllled 10 t'xpd the intrudlTS. ;'\Ie\('r 11('1'(' I-Iondura~ and Xicara!;"ua c1o~er 10 II ar. In summl'r 1969. r(,,~lIhillg li'om the a~r('l'm('lItS b~ the Central .\mnic
•8
Curren I forces The 11.6oo-~trollg Ilondur,lI1 Army has thrcc illl:llltr) hril{adt'~, ca(']l 1\ itll olll'aniller) and thrt'(' inl:llltr~ baualiom; Ii\(' independent illl'amfY haltalioll~: Dllt' anllollred ea\alr) l't'gillll'nt (British Scorpion and Scimitar tank". Saladin and Israeli RBY-I armoured cal' : 011(' il1dept'ndnll artillery rc~imctlt: olle (·tll{inCl'f haualion.: til(' 'SptTi,ll Force' a baualiOll. fonll('d 1~)73 .: and til(' Pn·sid· emial Guard COmpilll). The 'Cobra Police Squadron' an airborne ullil, silll'(' 1!)S3 baltalion~i/c i:-. llndt'r Xational Police control. The pn'~cnC(' of CS trl.lOlh and 'Conlras', the alliancc \1 ilh the traditional t:tlem~ EI Sakador, and Ihe COlhlant ri .. J.. of a damal{in~ \1 ar \\ ith Sicara~ua, ha\e ,.11 ,~elll'ralcd much tension in Hondllra~, c\ idellced h) the ho,>tile dt'lllomtratioll outsid(' thc Ll1itt'd Statt·,> Emha'>.s) ill the capital. TCl{uci~:.lpa. in .\prilt988.
Nimmg/{{f The \'icarag:uan Ci\ il "'ar, the IOllgt·'" and mOSI inlenst' in Central .\nl('ril'a, call he tr:HTd hack to the relX'llion al.::ainst tIlt' 1011.1{ L'nitl'd Statr<; OCI"lIpatioll, t9'2 33. The libnal populist Cen. Augusto Cesar Salldino led his I,OOO-Strong 'National SO\·cn.:ig:nIY Defellce Army' (EDSN) from EI Chipott', North-\\'est Nicaragua, from 1926 until the United States withdrawal ill 1933, when elections were hdd. III 192:) thc United StOites had estahli<;hcd the Guardia. \'(frio/lal witll An;l:,>tasio 'Tacho' SOl11oza Card;. as Chief Diret'lor. III 1931 SOlllOza had Sandino killed and 011 2.Julle 1936 appointcd hi11l~elfpre~idellt, depo~illg Pn'sidelltJ uall Sacusa: Somoza ITtainnl ("011lml oflht· Guard ami crushed thc EDS.\', installing a corrupt dictatorship linked 10 CS business illt{·re~ts. I Ie died in 1956, and his elder ~on Luis SOlllo/.a Deba) 1e ~lIccel'ded as Chief Director and Pre<;idl'llI; he died in t962. and ·Tacho...· ~lT()nd SOli .\na~t:hio 'Tachito' SOTlloza DeIJa}1t- ht'CanH' Chid' Diret'lOr and ill 1965 Presidelli .
This gan,{{ster regime soon earned dw hatred of most sections of the population, leaving the Guard-which combined military and police functions-as its only powerbase, Efficient, bnllal, cOIBtantly modernised, the Guard was the per~onal instnllllt:lIt of the Somoza I:unily, 'an army OCCUP} illg its 011'11 cuulltry'. [n 1962 Sandino·s memory ,lIld Castro"s success in Cuba led to tht: lormation of tht: 'Sandinista :\'ational Libcration Front' (FSL;-.r), whose illitial rllral in thc final campaign of the war. (ViceoteTalon)
much of the international aid sellt alie!" the J\lanagua earthquake 01'23 December 1972 The crisis of the J970S Oil 27 December 1974 the FSLN scored a huge propa,{{anda coup by taking hostage, and ransoming. some top go\'ernment offi.ials and Turner B, Shelton, the United States Ambassador. The Guard responded with increased repression in the period 1975 6, In January 1978 Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, editor of the main opposition newspaper I.a Prensa, was murdered by the Guard; the resulting public indignation led to demonstrations and an unsuccessful general Slrikc organised by the FSLi\. In August there werc popular uprisings ill provincial towns. including i\[atagalpa,Jillotepa, Estcli and l\lasa\'a. The FSLN, 500 1,000 scrong in 197G, I1llmbered in late 19783,000 regular guerrillas. It was dividcd into three 'tendencies'; the pluralist Terceris/as (Third Force), including Christian, social democrat and middle-class opposition, lormed in 1976 by Daniel and Umberto Ortega Saavedra and Eden Pastora Gomez, was the largest (2,000 gucrrillas) and boldest, operating in southern Nicaragua. The i\larxists-Tomas Borge's pro-
'9
A lroope.. or d.e
Hit~ Irn~utar
W.rr...e Ban....ion eoro de
="::J~~:~~,:':''::;:r~p;~c~~:S~:':!yc~~;:
Ib"'926-33'" urreetion). H..........,. t.he dill....cti".. SandinillUl 6..ld lUll d.. ri"otd rrom t.h.. So,,;.. t tropical hat, ...d carriu .... AKM.
Cuba 'Prolonged I)eoplc's War' (GPI»), formcr rural g"ucrril1as, and Jaime Wheelock's ~laoisl 'Proletarians', formed in 1975 from forrner urban guerrillas-operated in the north. In cady 1978 the 7,ooo-strong Nicaraguan National Guard was organised for illtcrnal security with 16 inf:lIltry companies, the Presidential Guard Battalion, one mechanised company, one engineer battalion. a field artillery ballcry and an A1\ ballcl'}'. The only tactical unit \\as the elite 700-strong 'Somoza Combat B:H1alion' under 'Tachito's' son, :\Iaj. Anastasio Somoza POrtocarrero. B~ July 1979 ne\\ recruits. trained at the 'Infalltr~ Basic Training School' EEBJ!. had swollen theGliard'sstrength to 14 15.000. somc in new 'Special Countcr-insurgenq 8ri~ades·. These forces. adequate to crush earlier revolts, could not
now entirely eliminate the FSLN. Sandinistas date thc beginning of the final campaig:n from 22 August [978, whcn 25 T,,(~r;s/a guerrillas. under Pastora ('Comandantc Cero'Commander Zero" occupied the N:ltionall)alaee. took 2,000 hostages, and escaped to Panama. The Caner administration in Washington tried to crcate a bl'Oad anti-Somoza political front from the FSLX and consen"ative UDEL and FAO political groups. bm this plan foundered on 31 :'\ovember 1978 \\hen Somoza refu:.cd to stand dO\\I1. ~o\\ there was noahcrn:lIivc to \\ar. On,~ :\Ia) 19i9 there werc morc armed uprisings in to\\ns such as Leon. ~Iatagalpa, :\lasaya and cvcn ~bnagua. The FSLN \\:lS now better organised militarily. and the Guard was fOrced to retreat to the 1111;lI1try Training School and Managua airport, Air Force HQ, where the FSLN besieged it. After 30 days the Guard regained control of ~Ianaglla, but this could 110t aller the course at" the war. Other !Own$ were under siege, and more guerrilla columns moved from bascs on the Costa Rican and Honduran borders and liberatcd area.s in CClllral Nicaragua towards ~Ianagua, \\hich 5.000 guerrillas :lnd 15,000 supporting militia attacked. On [i.J uly Somoza and man} Guard officers nt.'d; Ihe undefeated but demoralised Guard disintegrated, man)' cnlistt.'d men being taken prisoner \\hen. on 19J1Ily. the FSL~ took ~Ianagua. The Contra War The figllting" \\a~ not o\'cr, for a ne\\ guerrilla war, this time against the FSL;-':, began almost illllllediatcJ~. Tht'!"c \\cre t\\'o reasons for this. \"hen the Sandinista.Jullta tried to impose its radical ~larx ist bclicli; on the broadly based Government at" National Construction the non-FSLN panics opposed it. lIot \\:lIHing another dictatorship to succeed SomO/.a's. Then some non-~I arxist leaders lcfi th(' FSLN itself-in April 1980 \'iolela Barrios de ChOIllOl'rO, \dfc of the I,a Prmsa ('(Iitol" rnurderl..'(! b\ the Guard. and Alfonso Robelo who. \\ith E~lcll Pastora who rcsign('(! in 1981), founded the .\RDE 'Contra' group. Secondly. the Reagan administration sa\\ the Sandinistas as a hardlil1C commllni:st regime sllpponilll;" ckstabilising ~uerrilla mO\"Clllents in Cclltral.\merica. and stopped the 118 million dollar aid programme
caler n~
tn
lee
a,.
,'s lIlI
In
~~
\'oled b) Con~]'ess in 1979. "Regional Commands' (e.g. 'Regional Command Sornoza's followl.:rs in exile. called 'Somocistas' Quilali'; and lllt" largest. 'Jorge Salazar 2", c1aimb) the Sandin]!>!as. organis('d ,hr<:c groups of ing 6.000 mell ill I 8+}. The 'Armed Forces of '0 . unrics In tg80:tllc 15 ~atl()nal Kt'sistallc{' .~ , , und(:r ternal September Legion', \\llh "cniol" Guard officers ChamQl'fO. an.' alIiI'd to fDA. under Col. Enriqul' Bermudez "arela. former In IgBJ a second frOll1 \\as opened on the Co mililar) altadu::' in Wa_"hilH.;-lon: the 'Xational Ric.U1 fronlln \\illllhdi:>rll1ationofthc 'DemO( Democratic RC\'olutiOll:ln .\ssocialion' tit' Rc\ohllionary .\lli.met·' .\ROE group Ullf .\DRE:\" " with junior ofliccrs; and the ':\ational Rohdo, and its milita~ \\ill~, the 3,ooo-~tf( Liberation .\rmy' EL:\, with enlisted mcn, 'Sandini,ta R(Tolutionar~ Front', kd by E( HO\\l'\'("r, it wa~ not until Ronald Rea~an's prcsi· Pa~tora and organi~cd in ·ZOIH..~' (it'llq in JanUiu'y Ig81 that the~ had the backing 'Comanclant(";, column.., platoons and squa toconUll("nC(' operation,. In f;\ct the Contra war is The ,ituation is funher compli('ah:d by the ,I da~~ic example of illdin'ct e:'\ternal military tahli..hm("nt ill Ig81 oftwoguel'rilla armies arne illlern'ntion. the \li"kito Indians ol"thc (",hi coast. a COllllllllll In Ig82 tl1('se groups tiwllled Ihe 'Nicaraguan \\!lith had suflcred t;xces,~('s at 111\: hands of Democratic..' Forcc' (FDN) \lith t\dolfo Calero Salldinistas-St('adman Fagoth ;\ILillcr's 'N. Porlocarrero as political leader and Bermudez as 111';\', allied to FDi\)FAR;"I, and Brooklyn River military commander. They establishcd training ';\Ii"urasata', formed Ig82 as a splintc!' group r ba,es ill Guatemala and Florida and operational ':\Ii"ura' amI alliecl to '~\RDE' ulltil IgRj., bast'S in Honduras, 'I'll(' FD,~, 5,000 strong in September 1985 a third ,\liskito ~roup, 'f<\.isa lC)S:.!, 10 15,000 in mid-lg81, operates in 'Dcwch· \\ ilh 1,000 ~,ooo guerrillas, \\ as formed by Di( nU'llis', Forn','
'Groups' and zoo 2:io·strOIl~ 'Ta~k "l';lsk Force P;llI,a...lll "g-rouped illlo
('.~,
Saadiai.'. MW(a.
(orapho'ovaplo.
u. clo.araetuinic liS....... .-ifon:n••
\\'~clilr after Fag-ulh ~llIToslldl~ and Rivna L1tlsLlccessf'ull} held pean'·lalks II illl til\' Sall{lilli~las. .\Ithollg-h lhe COlltras at tempI 10 presl'rlt a good public image, their gt'lluitld~ lilwnariall demcnlS arc cum promised I») ass\)("iatiIJlI Ilitll tht: proSorno!.a gruups, TIlt"ir Inel of ;u'ti\it~ ill("J't:ast:d li'om 15 altacks '9K" jR (19R..! , to owr 600 ( 198:J . 'l'IIl'~ ("oncelltrall' on tTOlHlInil' targt:b, the most 1I0lOriOllS altad. h('inl{ the minilll{ of" ;,\iearag:u;\Il IXln, ill 1983, II hich threalt:llt'd to destro~ lhe coulltr~ \ t'conUlll), ,lIld in 1\ hidl, aceordill\{ to the Intemational Court in the lIa\{llt" the CI.\ Ilcreill\ohed. Tht'n' ha\(' hl't:n 111<111\ \iolationsof :\icarag:uan ail1>pare h~ ,lirC1"i1n 'UPI;I~in1{ Contra lidd units, but including: the homhing:of\lanag:ua .\irport inll)8:i.
As ... Cuba, wom .... Ii......... in Ih .. Niearllpan SandiniSla l'olilitia 0 .. an ~ual (oolinS with m ..n.
The S;l1ldillistas hal't' n;:H'lt'd to this threat hy massil'Cl} c:.;pandillg lIlt'ir arm) the Hjnc/Iii PO/Jil/II/"S{//ulilliJ/fI, (EPS),ltll"llll'd "" August IqHo, and the Milieia /~o/JU/ar /-,(ll/dillisto, lormcd 20 Fcbruar~ IgHo-alld I») (1IJtaillirtg' IleapOlls li'om France from De('t'1l1ber 1981) and the Soviet L'nion o!iell Ii" Cuha} a!in United Slates :lid ('(·ascd. t983 wa~ undoubtedl} thc Salldinist:ls' worst year, \\ith constant Contra pressure from lhe Honduran and Co~ta Rican IXlrder :lreas, and Lnited States intervention in Grenada October 1983 ,\ide!} interpreted a.., a rehearsal for an illva..,iOIl of:\ic3ragua. B) 198.~ the FO~ alone had 3,000 of its 15,000 men l>erlllanentJ~ stationed in Zelaya Oepartrncllt, Eastern Xicaragua. Attacks increas(..d to 9-~8, but thi.., was a 100\er rate of increase than in 1983, and 1981 cannO\\ be seen as a turning point \\hen the Sandinistas gained the initiatin-. Thc gO\ernment made a paC! 1\ ilh some of the \liskito Indians, \\ho nOI\ surrendered their I\eapons. On 30 \Ia~ 1!)8+ Eden IJastora escaped an assassination bomb. bUI I\as expelled from .\ROE \\hell, as a 'truC' Sandinista', he refused to all) I\ilh the 'Solllocista' FD;\', as n.·quired by the L'nitcd States. Rol>elo look ol'er ,\ROE command and made Ihe alliance, hut ARDE's strength declined. It was now ol)\'ious that, notwithstanding massi\e CS aid, the Contra 'Freedom FightcTs'-as Cnitcd SlateS omcials called thclllcould not delil'cr lhe military success required in return for sllch a huge invcstlllcnt in training and equipment, i\tean\\hile the FSLN performed well in nalional clectioll~, defeating Ihe 'Democratic COlll'ergcncc', a union ofopposition parties. The Sandinislas expected;lll increase in Contra pres~ure with the ~ccorld Reagan administration starting January 1985, as the US president broke on-the United States·Niearaguan bilateral talks in \Ianzanillo (i\lexico). imposing a trade embargo in April. In spite of the US Congrcss'ssuspension of Contra aid in Ig8.~ the administration deli"ered 25 million dollars of aid, increasing to 100 million in IgS6; but there I\'as no corresponding Contra breakthrough. although atlacksjurnpcd to 1,367 (lgS5 and almost 3,000 (1986), .\RDE guerrilla activity dwindled to virtual!) nothing. mainly due to a stricter interpretation of their lleutrality by the
~
Co~t:l Ricans. In the north EI)S units Ilcre rcsisting- COlltra attacks and ]JllJ'511ing them to their Honduran bases, le:lving a few small FDN groups in central and southern Nicaragua, entirely dependent on air-dropped supplies. FromJulIc 1985 It'miDlI' arose bctlle('n ex-National Guardsmen cttkntellt. The Sandillistas lIrgelltl~ nceded pean" as the war (and gOI'eflllllent incompetence) had provoked a seriollS cconomic crisis al1d tlu:
.
FDN Conlra llu.,rrilJa", in '9&1, 80m., wear Ihe blu~r«n (atilluell, olhen camouflalle uniforms and w.,hbinS nOI di..i. miiarlO Iholle orlhe Sandini"'I'" en.,my, They carry a mo.lure o(US.!iuppli.,d M.6 and Caplur.,d A.KM weaponll'
pl'opk, increasingly discontented, were turning to the opposition Democratic Convergence. On I ,\pril 1988 the Sandinistas and RN conclud("(1 a ceilsdire at Sapoa, valid for twO month.. "lid nOlle\\ .. bl(', This agreement \\ as not \\ekollled b~ th(' CS gOlcrtlment nor by Bcrmud('"l.. but I\as acct'j)tt'd b) the rest of the RN and the Dl'mocratic COll\ergt'nce. Talks about a permant'nt peace, held in ~Iall:lg-lla, \\ere suspended in .June through the intr:tmigence of Bermudez's !ollol\cl's, and the S;tllditli~ta.. now considered reopenin~ hostilities to deal the final blow to the COnl1';tS bdore talks lI't're re'>L1llled in Guatemala ill Septl'mher 1988, During 1989 'Contra' strength declined, as thc 11('\\ Bush Administration backed Honduran effort'> to expel them from Honduran ha:.~, and the Sandinista gO\crnmellt began to Iilxralise, Current forces :\icaral{uteli {'olefing E..teli, .\ladriz and XUl'v:. Sego,ia Dl'partnH'l1ts; 2nd (:hin:lI1dega)-J,l'on, Chinanck).{a: :~rd (.\bllag-ua) :\Ianagua: ph (i\lata-
Ed",. P...IO.... ia 19a.., boll! phy.ically and politically a ..hadow or hi. rOrnH~r lieJr, we.rias • aewly srown 'CalJlrO' beard., bUI rel.ininll; hi. cap badge in Sandin'''la <:oloun-rfli >lIar on black di.c, indicalinS hi. continued allesiance to Lhe ide.11i orCene",) Sandino.
galpa)-.\Iatagalpa, Uoaco Jinotl·ga. wcstem Zelaya: 5th PuCI'lO Cabcza~}-llurthel"ll Zebya; Gth (Gralladal-Cll';lZO, \[asaya, Ri\'a~; 7th (Bludields)-Chaut;llcs. Rio San .Juan. southern Zelaya. The EPS has 67,000 mcn, with I 7.000 rq~ulars (Acti\'c \lilital') Sen'ice S\IA) and ~o,ooo tll'O)'carcollScriplS (Patriotic \lilitary 5('1'\'i("e-5\1 P, imtitutcd late 1983), TIlt'l'c an' foul' armoured battaliom (Soviel ""55 and PT-76 tanl.;s), one mc{"hani,ed ballalion. olle field aJ'lilkr)' brigade four bm.), f()Ur field artilkr). om::\.\ ;llld four ellgineer batlalion~. and 'Sp('cial Out)' Commandos CODEI. The 2~~ infantr) battalions include one Airborne formed 1982,; at least nine 700man anti-guerrilla Irregular \\'nrfare Battalions Ba/al/oll dr I.ud/(! Irrt,f!lIlar, 'IlU' -'Simon Boli,-ar', 'Com de ,\nKd(os·. 'Ramon Raudalcs·.
'.Jerman Pomares'. '.J uau I'ablo Umallzor', 'Santos UlPCZ', '~ligucl Allgtl Ortez', 'Farabulldo l\lani' aud 'Socratcs SalldillO' ickll\ified so (hr; and some Ligln Rallg"er BaltaliOIl\ (Jja(f1l/olll,igtro Cf/::.adorrs, 'ULC'), e,g, 'ULe Gaspar Garda Laviana·. Some of the abO\c units forl11 the tllO mechanised brigades, each \\ilh aile field artillcry and threc infalllr~ battalioth and t\\ 0 tank companies. The 3°,000 reseni.,ts are on.;:anised in I Go und(Tslfl·nl.\"th b:lttaliom. including Reservc Infalllr~ HallaliollS u~ing the Cuban lour-digil numhering ~~,Icm. ('.l{. ~5 21, 25 23, -t7 10, 50 09, jO I 1 orgalli~ed in brig:ldcs e,g. 31S1 Brigade and Pennan('1l1 'I'crritorial Companies 'COPETEs' , Th('l"e ;If(' 7.000 HordeI' Guards Tropar(.'uardnjrollltrflJ, 'TGF' in s(-'\ en batlalions: a ~.oO(Htron~ brigad(' 7 ropas Pablo Ch~da cqui\a[elll to So, il'l \1\'0 troops. under the 'Oin:norate Gelleral of Stiltt.· S(-,Cllrit~' DGSE; 1.000 Sandilli~la :"'av) Jx'r:.onnel. 3.100 Sandini,la .\ir Force, S'llldini~t:I Police. and 50,000 \Iililia in ballalion~ :lnd 'l'elTiwrial Brigades. The L'niled Stale" objcct'> 10 Ihl' "iz(' of lhe .\rmed ForCl·". al 13°,000 alm!ht nilll' timt..OS the formt.·r :"'aliOlI,11 Guard', maximum \\animc slrength: ~l'l Pn:"idcllt Orl{'ga Iillb of a 60.000 80.000 'Iallding anll} and 600.000 re· ~(·rYC". II ,11'0 point'> 10 l\"icaragua's 175 lanks, ~uitahle for an armoured thnht through the Cholotcca Cap into llundura,>. all sllgge~tillg all aggre.,si\(· ililent dcnit'd b) Ortega. The 24,000 COlltra~ (active strength 12,000 15.000) ha\"{' I :.1,000 FD~ amI 1.000 'Kisan' on the ~orthcrtl Front (I1(l.Honduras), and 1,5°0 3,000 FARN, 500 '~Iisllrasata' ami :wo ARDE in the 'Southcl'll Oppositioll Bloc' (HQCosla Rica), bUl i1H'~C Ilumbers ;ll"e rcducing as dispirited Comras abandon a calise II hich ~lTIllS lO have no fUlure.
Costa Rial This small C"OllJltl"\, the mO~t stable democran' in Celllral .\merica, 'h,h 110 ~criOlh political or s~ial lensi()l1~ and, ~inn' 1919, no COllW'lllioual army. III 19--1-811w Co.. la Rican ,\rm~, numbering339in one in["llllr} c()ll1pan~ and olle artillel"~ batter).
Cuba: I: 1st Lt., 1st Regt.. 'Cuptro de Septiembre', lnf. Div~ 1958 2; Conumdante Rebel Arm;): 1958 3: Coronel. Infantl')t FAR. t968
A
I; Cuba: SgL.ln(antl'): I-"AR, 1988 2; Cuba; Warnl.nt Offker. Marine Bn., 1988 3; Mexico; Sgt.., Assault Bn., Presidential Guanl, 1968
B
1: Guatemala: Sgt.. Special FbrcesGp.• 1988 2: Guatemala: Infantryman. 1st Military Zone. 1988 3: EI Salvador: Col.. Cavalry Regt.. 1988
c
EISahlldor: I: Sit- National Guard, 1986 2: CapL, lnfanlr'): 1968
Cpl., 'Jiboa' Ranger Bn~ 1988 4: Sgt., Marine Inf, Bn.• 1988
3;
D
Honduras; 1: 1st Lt., 2nd Airborne Bn.. 1986 2: 2nd Lt., BOth Inr. Bde.. 1986 3: Police paratrooper, Cobra Bn" 1988
E
Ntearngua; I; Cpl., Somoza Bn., National Guard, 1979 2; Comandante. FSLN, 1979 3; Capt., Sandinista People's Arn1); 1988 4: Sgt.. 'Simon Bolivar' BU, 1988
F
Nk:a.ragua: I: 'Contra'guerrillll,FON,1984 2: 'Contra', FON 'Special FOrces', 1988
3: 'Contra' guerrilla. ARDE. 1985
G
I: Costa Rica: 181 Lt., Northern BordcrSceurity Bn.. 1988 2: Panama: 2nd Lt.. 7th I'Usilier Co., 1988 3: Haiti: Sgt.. l:>residential Guard, 1988 4: Haiti: National Security \bIunteerti militiaman. 1985
H
theon.:ticall) supported by :13 ~Iilitia battalions, commanded by a Director (a colonel) under the backed I'fcsicknt Teodoro Pit'ado ~lichalski of the ~Iinisll) of Public Security. The force acts as an 1\atioTlal Republican Pan) Pj\R) in his refusal to ufban police fOfce (rural policing is carried out by Ican;" oflkc aftn an election ddt.'a\. jose Figueres. :,\.500 Rural Guards and a militar) force. The leader of the Social Democrats. e~tablished a 6,000 men arc organised in scven provincial 'Caribbean Lq~ion·. which m!'>c up in re\olt to companies practically small baltalionsl-San ("l1forcc Ill(" e1cction rC'Sult. and defcated the .\rm) jose, .\Iajuda. Canago. Heredia, Guanacaslc, ill a t\\o-rnonth ci\Cil war co~tin~ 1,600 li\C'S. The PllIllarenas and Limon: a baltalion-sized Presi19~9 COllstitution aboli5;hcd the .\rlll~. replacing dential Guard: ;Ind twO light battalions the 750it \\ ith the (;II(1rdi(l Cil·i! as thl' on" armed forcl.'. man ;\onhern Border Security 8attalion, trained InJanuary 1955 the Central .\;nerican dictators by CS Spedal Forces, 10 guard the border with Somo!.a ~icaraglla and Trujillo Dominican Xicara~ua: and a cOlillter·insurgenq baualion to Republic supported an ill\asiOTl of Costa Rica confront the estimated 900 anti-government guerfrom l':icaragua by exiled supporter!'> of former rillas (three groups). The 3,ooo-strong National Pfesident RaE.lel CalderOll Guardia, with Somoza Reserve \\ as mobilised in 1955, 1978 and 1979. supplying air-cover. This operation, seemingly a There is a General Stan~ equipment for 10,000 copy of the 1954 Guatemalan invasion which reservists, a small coastguard (four patrol-boats) toppled President Arhcll/., at first made good and all Air Unit (II light aircraft, threc progress, occupying Ciudad Quesada in the north; helicoptcrs). but Figtlcres reacted quickly, mobilised 16,000 mell and gained United Stoltes and Organisation of ,\mnican Stoltes support. He retook Ciudad Pfll/fIlII({ QUNiada and dro\'e thl.' invaders back into :\iearngua. In 1978 and 19793,000 Costa Ricans "ere mobilised to repel incursions b~ :'\icaraguan 1\a- The United States was directly involved in the tiona I GU:lI'ds against Sandinista bases in Costa revolt leading to I)anama's independence from Colombia on 6 ~o\Cmber 1903; and in relurn was Rica. Although Cosla Rica had supported the Sandi- allowed, under the 18 i\o\'embcr 1903 Treaty, to nislas. Iheir july 1979 \'iClor~ did nOI end tension build the Panama Canal opened August '914 "ith :\icaragua. The Costa Rican government. and bisect the coullIry with the 'Canal Zone', opposed to the radical excess~'S committed by the under CS garrison. The Unilcd Slates has reSandiniSlaS oncl.' they had ~aincd I>o\\el", permit- peatedl) intervened in Panamanian politics, and led Eden Pastora's ARDE Contras to operate from CS forces have been sent in on 26 occasions. Costa Rica in 19B2 4. This change of policy Cnited States Army Southern Command is based towards tbe Sandinistas can also be auributed to in the Canal Zone, responsible for all the Amcrican United States pressure: since the 1970S economic continent south of the US-~Iexiean border, while crisis Cosla Rita has heel! f('ceiving massive US thc 'Schuol of the Americ
33
\\t'f(' mort' critical of the L'niled SlaleS than "erl' Ihe ci"iliall politici,llh, e~lxTiall~ lho~ in 0PI>O,ilion, .\lthoul{h L'S trailH:d and ('quipped, it rl'">i,,ted L·nited St'lIt"., prcssufI,todtTlare an antiF:-'[L, lillt, ill EI Sal\ador 01' an al1ti-Sandini"ta lint· in l\'kara~ua, [n 1933 Gnl. Koricg-a became cOlllmander of tIll' Guard, "hi{'h \\,I-S in 19B~ rellamed 1-'1/((:;'(1$ d, 01''''$(1, and puhlid~ denoulln·d Presid('llt Reagan'" Celllral.\nll'rit'an 1>oliC) , In Ig87 tilt' L'nit('d Stall'" prl'\SUrl'd for the di"mi"sal ofXorie~a. I\ho I\a\ \\{'tl ranI..", Iwhiml him and ,\'oriq.:-a is "till firml) in p(l\\('r As in Cosla Rica, the Ddt'ncc Forces fulfil mililar~ alld polin' funC1iOll". especiall) riotcontrol and internal .,t:cllril~. The 19ii T .. eat~ charH"t."S IIw !(Jrce \\ith the defellce of llll' Canal alln 1999. and so it has shilied emphasis (i'om
or
ranamanian G"'n, Torrijos in 1!Jllo, w",a .. ;n~ oli...", gre",n f.tip"", gold br.n.,b (lh" ....nk bad!", now four .. I....) on P'"ft'n '.,ombal_l"ad.,r' IlhouJd.,r loop••
rq>laced the .\rlll) in 19"II-seiud I>o\\er in a coup, and rormall~ reqm,,>ted trall~r('r or Canal and Zone. t\lthoug-h the Cuard had defcaled a landing- by flo Cuhan gucrrillas in April 1959, alld ill the earl) 1960s had nushed an incipient rural ~uelTiJla I11m'elllC'1l1. it \\'as not polilk'lll~ rcactionar). Torrijos had indoclrillilll'ti it \\ith hi~ O\\1l ideolo~~ -"I'orrijism'. a mixtllrl' ofnalionaliSIll and populism. "nCr) cars of tough tlcgotiatiollS the Torrijos-Caner Treaty of i Seplemher 1977 provided lor tile traIL\!<:r of , he Canal Zone on I October 1979 and IOtal L'S \\ithdrawal on31 December 19lJ9, On 31 Jlll~ 1981 the dmriSlllatic Cen. Torrijos \\as killed ill a lll),,>teriolis aeroplane crash. H(: \\as st!cceedt'd as Guard Commander hy Florcncio Florez, hUI Panama enlered a period of polilit'al lunnoil. i'\ominalh under civilian COlllrol, tIlt' Cuard held the real'!>o\\er, and ilS Torrijist oflicers Poli.,..,..,...,.. of Ih", Paaamanian Nalional Gu.rd in staJldard wtiforon (g..-.. bat• •nd !.rOu...,...... ligbl g""'y ..bin.. ,old in.ipia;), on.lyth",ir wbistl.... piSIOI. and nighl_stick. ind •..,.I_ inglh",irpoli..",duti......
34
inti·mal sccurity to national ddeTl'c. still with US training and cquipmclll~allllOugh internal unrest. cspecially sin,e :"oricga took command. has rorced (·xpansion orallti-riot units. Current forces The Defence Forccs are \·ohll1tar~. \\ ith .5.l00 men on militar) dUlics. -1-,.500 men '>Cf\'C in SC\"C1l 'FusilierC'.ompanies inralHr~ Ist·Tigrc· airmobile I-IQPanam;i \'iejal: 2nd ·Puma.s· airportable Tocumcn .\irport. I)anama Cit ~ : srd . Diablo Raja· Chiriqui Pro\·ince< Lph ·LJrraca· Central Barracks. I)anarna City): 5th ·\'i,toriano I.orcnzo· FOri Amador, Canal Zone); 6th ·Exp(·dicionaria· Rio HalO); 7th ·i\lachode i\IOllt("· Rangn (Tocumen Airp()rt). There are also a I'residential Guard, c('l"ernOlli:t1 ,avalry squadron. Spc,ial Force camp.lny alld tW() 70o-lnan ill(;llltry hatt:llions. one jung-Ic-tr:liucd. There is a .l00-mall Navy; a :!oo· mall Air For,(' (two squadrons); and 3,000 perSOIlnel 011 police duties. dispersed
Haiti A black, French-speaking nation. the poorest in lhe Western Hemisphere. Haiti \\on indqX'ndence rrom :'\apolconic France on I.lanuar) 1804 under jean-.lacclucs Dt"SSalines l . From .lui) 1915 to!!1 .\ugust 193-1- it was occupied b) the US .\Iarine Corps. which replaced the Haitian Army on !!-I.\ugust 1916 with the !!.65D-man Gmdarnurj~ d'/lait; ror counter-insurgency duties, under .\Iaj. Smcdlc) Hutler. CS.\IC. Artcr scveral redesignations it bccamc iJrmi~ Haitim in 1963. From !!2 Octobcr 1957 ullliJ his dcath on 21 April 197' Fran,ois ;Papa Doc' Duvalier was presidcl1t, from 1964 'Prcsident fOJ" Life', a Ii tic assumed by his son and succcssor, .Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier, until his overthrow on 7 February t986.
n"
Pre.identi..1 Guard "rt:W
or the
and ...ire... rl
~n
th"
p .......oid ·P.. p .. Dol" Du....Ii"r h..d lOiled i .. Ihe !round" or th"
PnlOidentialp.. tal'e,I!l70·
35
the 15,ooo-strong ;\'ational Security Volunteers, from 1971 under nominal arm) control, as a cOlllHer\\'eight to the Army: and also the notorious 'Tonlons ~Incoutes' secret police, to eliminate political opponents. On 19 June [988 LL Gen. Henri Namphy, Chief-of-S(;lf[ overthrew the ci\·ilian President, Leslie ~Ianigat. \\ho had tried to dismiss him. ending a briefexpcrimellt in democraq. only to be ou.'>tro himselron [BSeptembcr IgSB by Brig. Gen. Prosper Avril, backed by Army NCOs and the 'D('~salines' Ibltalion. Although Haiti is poor and oppressed, there is currently 110 guerrilla
DOlllil/i(((11 Republic
Haitia.a 1 ~ U. .gBo ...oriaS .... irorttls ~lill e"rr".. I. Nou til" t..unplar Prnid""tiaI Guard ",b..u1du pale'" ...d eollar cyph"r.
The 7,6oo-strong "oluntar) Haitian Army fulfils military and police functions, but its cOJl\'cntional military value is very lo\\'. There arc ninc ~Iilitary Departments of which threc arc based in the capital, !)ort-au-PrinCC-lhe 5oo-man Presidemial Guard (one inr.'lntl") bn., onc armoured sqn.), the Dessalillcs infanu) battalion (scvcn companies) and lhe blue-uniformed Port~au Prince Pol icc (six cOll1pnnies). The North, Nonb\Vest, Ccntre, WCSt, South and Anibonite Depanments each havc a garrison detnchmcnt. totalling 21 companies, operating as district policc. There are also a Iwo-ba((el") art iller) battalion, Port-auPrince Fire Brigade, Prison Guard Company, Coastguard (325 men) and Air Force (275). Only the Presidential Guard, Dt:ssalines Battalion, and Hite 'Leopards' Ballahon three companies. formed in 197 I for anti-guerrilla warfare, directl)' under the Chief-of-Staff) havc any military valuc. In the late [950S 'I)apa Doc' Duvalicr formed
Like Haiti, the Dominican Republic \\ as from 29 .'\o\embcr 1916 to September 1924 occupied by the US ~Iarine Corps, which in 19t7 replaced thc Army with the Dominican Constabulary Guard, in 1928 renamed Dominican National Army, under Chier-of-StaO' Lt. Col. Rarael Leonidas Trujillo ~Iolina. On 23 Februal")' 1930 Trujillo \\ as elected I)resident, establishing a ruthless, corrupt dictatorship until his assassination on 30 ~Iay 1961. Claiming a possible Haitian invasion (Haiti had occupiedlhecountry I 794-[8ogand 1821 44but, although hostile, was too weak to invade) and thc precedent or Castro's Cuban rC\'olution, Trujillo built lip the most powcrful armed forces in the region (16,500 men), really intended 10 suppress internal opposition. He easily defeated an atlack by Cuban-backed exiles iuJuly 1959; and boasted of being able to bomb Havana to ashes with his Boeing B-17 bombers, and ofa swirl occupation of Haiti. After Trujillo's death the country lapsed into politicallUl"llloil. On 25 September 1963 a military roup deposed the left-wing President Professor Juan Bosch; but in April [965 Bosch's Army supporters, the 'Constitutionalists', rebelled under Col. Francisco CaamailO De110. Fearing another Castro-style regime, President Lyndon a.Johnson sent in '21.000 US troops on 28 April 196.'1. oOering
to prevent a civil war between Caam;\Iio's supporters and the bulk of the Army, uncleI' Gen. Elias Wessin y Wessin and Gell. Antonio I rnbert Barrera. The fighting continued: and on 6 \Iay the Orgallisation of American States sent ~,OOO Brazilian, ['aragua} an, Hondurall, ;\icaraguan :\alion'll Guard and Costa Rican troops to join the L:S Army now 18,000 strong) as the '1llIeramerican Pacification Force' F1 P), Fighting between rival rhctions and against the FIP lasH.-d until August 1965. The Fill \\ithdrew in September 1966, when Joaquin Balaguer\\as re-elected president and Caamai'loand Wessin exiled, Some 3,000 Dominicans died in this civil \\ar. Since the war successi\"(~ civilian governments have kept the Dominican Armed Forces oul of politics. In February 1973 Col, Caamaiio landed on the island to begin a guerrilla movement, but was killed in bailie after a few days. The Dominican Army, numbering 13,000 volunteers, is much less important than in Trujillo's time, There are four brigades (17 bns,), one artillery, one armoured, one Presidential Guard, and one engineer ballalion. The obsolete equipment is being modernised. The 4.6oo-strong iliavy include'S a 'larine batlalion and a ~a\'al Commando unit; the 3,j6s·strong ,\ir Force has light aircraft, transports. helicopters, a parachute battalion and an AA battalion; and there arc lO,OOO :\ational I)olice under an Army officer as DircctorGeneral.
Ti,e Plr/res .1/:
(;II/HI: 7t'llirl/fe
Prill/ao. IJ/'Cliall'l) de .)'I'/Jliembn'
Rl'gl .. hUal/fry Division, 1958
Cuban ofliccrs wore US-style uniforms copied by local tailors ill bettcr quality cloth, often \\ilh 18 carat gold insignia pri\'atcl~ purchaSt.'d from the San AmbrQl,io PX-the Cuball Harrods. Field ~('r.icc uniform was the CS olive drab herringbone-twill fatigues \\ith khaki-paintt.'C1 'II hclmcl. This oflicer's khaki barr:lck dress has C$ pattern branch insignia on the h:lt and collar points (\\ith regimelltal number) and branchcolour haH':"ords: infalltr~. crossed rifles ~reen
cords); c:lval1'y, (T()sl>ed saba's (ycllo\\ ; artillery, crosl>ed Call1l(Jll\ (red): engint.'t.'I'S. rastlt: (crimson), Clotll elllilroidered unit patt'lH's \lere solllctilllt.'S \\orn on upper arnb and metal rank im.ignia on ~hollklt.'r "U'.qh: three fiyt'-Ix,intt'd l>tars \cnically placed for (:mtral: twa-.\!I!.ror (;mua/; one(,'mtml til' IJriwu!a: thrt.'C bra.s..\ ,taN in a triangleCOlOUr!: t\\O hori,wlllally- Tmimlt Corol/tl: on('COII/a"danlt: three brass chevrons point do\\n(.'t1pi{tin; t\\o Tmimlt Pr;I1/uo; one-SI'.t:ul/tlo Ttl/it//it: OIW gap at point -Sublmimit eqlli\'~I lent L;:-:i Chit,f \\'arralll Oflicer); onc horizontal bar Slibojirial Warrant Oflicer , Enlisted ranks \\ort.' CS \11 !)O3 . I o-pollch' \\ebbing. trousers and canvas gaih:rs, CaIT) ing the \11903 Springfield rifle. or d\(~ Garand. They omitted collar badges and wore US-style bufrchevl'Ons point-up on olive grcen b:lrking Oil upper arms: three dleVl"Ol1S, two 'rockt.'l"s· Sal"f!.l'lI{o dl' Prillll'm; with Olle rockerSargmlo dt Sl'g/i/lda; three chcVl'Olls onl) -Sargenlo dl' rlu((m: 1\\0 chevrons, onc rocker-Cabo de Prill/em: t\\O chc\"I"ons-(,'abo; Ont: chevronSoldado til' Prillltm; 110 insignia-Solt/mlo RllSO. Offiet.,rs' St:l'\icc dre~~ \\ as the CS-st) Ie khaki peaked cap and tunic \\ ilh the same insignia: the cap bad~t., \1<1\ the n:lIional crest on a troph) of arms in a \\ rC
.12: Cuba: COII/al/dal/i" R,b,I,lmtl': I'-;scombrtl..' J/oul/· lains,mr{v l!jjlJ Conrormill~ to traditional \\orld\\ide guerrilla practice, rallk and file Llsuall) \\Ol'e civilian dotht.'s t'olourcd shirt, trousers, stout boots, straw hat or 'revolulionary' dark beret, with captured (11' improvised weapon~ <1nd equipmcllt, Cuerrill;l kackrs cllcouraged a mort.' lIlli/onnl)' mililar} appearance, with US Arm)' surplus clothing' oli\e greell latigue shirts and trousers, the i\11913 '\\'alker cap·. as lavoured by Castro, with or \\ ithout the stillcned cra\\ n. or captured \II 11I:lmeh. Brass Cuban .\rm) rank insignia W;:IS \101'11 on the cap only: a star-ColI/mula"l, comP;IIl~ commander: thl'ee chevrons point downf.apiJdn platoon leader: t\\O che\ rons- Tmil'llfe s
Commltlallle ha~ allu\\ed his hair and beard to grow, "to be sha\ed 00' \\hen Cuba is free': he \\e;:lrs captured :\11903 \\t'bbing and ~por,-,> a ·45 cal. :\13 't{rca.-.c-t{un·.
,'3: Cuba: Corollel, Rn'oluli01Ulry ,Im~l" "ifillllf)': barrack dress, 1988 In 1959 Castro illtroduced a greell officers' service dress, relaining Batista's cap badge, and continuing the olive green I:Higues and 'Walker cap' lor combat dress. Officers' rank in~ignia \\ere \\orn on jacket shoulder straps and field shirt collars: one star-Comalldallt~ the hi~hcst rank, later expanded to five ranks; and four-one chevrons point do\\n or olle bar, all in brass, for junior officers, XCOs retained Batista's CS Che\rOliS. On I December 1973 convelllional field and general ranks were introduced, and by 1980 the present markedly Soviet-style uniform. Officers and regular NCOs wear a drab brown service dress tunic "ith gold shield-in-wreath lapel-badges ,generals, a gold starin a wreath \\ith a laurel branch collar badge!: a bro\\n. black-peaked cap, "ith gold chin-cords black strap for XCOs" green band, and national cap badge above a gold star "ith the gold initials 'FAR' 011 red boss. On barrack dress red Soviet collar patches edged gold arc adorned with gold miniature cap-badge devices. The stifrSoviel-lype shoulder-boards have olive grecn Russia braid for generals. with gold Ica\'es below a white star on a f{.'d left Iblue right rhomboid for Comafldallt~ m Jif~ Castro, or gold five-pointed stars: fourGm~ral d~ t."jirdt6, three-Gmuol d~ Cu~rpo; t\\OG'mual d~ Didsio1l: one-Gmuol d~ Brigada. Field officers have olive green braid, two vertical red centre stripes, and small gold stars: three-COr/mel; Iwo-Tel/imle Corol/eI; one-i\/(~or; company olf~ ieers one stripe and four stars-Capiton; threePrimer Tenimt~; two- Ttflifllt~; one-SlIbltnienle. WarranlOfficers senior regular ~COs) have red piping and small gold stars \crtically placed: three-Suboficial Prim~ro; IWo-Sllbojicial, and Sargenlode Prim~m Stan·Sgl.) has four horizontal gold bars on a uniform-colour shoulder board, Conscripts wear an olive green blouse with field shoulder boards, branch shield on the upper sleeves and olive green '\Valkcr cap' Wilh gold chin strap and national shield-in-wreath cap badge,
111: Cuba: Sargl'1llo de Srgll/lda: combal dress, 19/J8 All ranks wear a Soviet-style fatigue tunic or shirt, trousers and service dress rank insignia: for conscripts astilfshoulderstrapslide "ith yellow 'FAR' belo" three )"ello\\ bars-Sargmlo d~ S~gund(lj t\\O bars-Sargento de Terum; onc-Cabo; IIOlleSolt/ado. Headdress is a plain ''''alker cap', and a Cuban-manuElclured Soviet i\L~o or Bulgarian 1'.172 helmet. A Soviet 7.62mm i\KM assault rifle is carried with Soviet webbing-ammunition pouch on right hip, first-aid pouch and g
JJ;: .\le.\ico: Sargtl/to Segundo .. lssault Troops Ballaliou, Prtsidellt;(ll G'uards Brigade: S~1/lry ulliform, 1988 Oflicers wear dark blue service dress (called 'Azul Z') wilh three·bullon plain ntfl"patches, The cap hilS the national cockade (green-white-red oUler) above the hat band rank insignia. Brass jacket collar branch insignia branch-colour for enlisted rank insignia are: crossed rifles, trumpet scarlctl-infantry: crossed sabres, helmet (bright blue)-cavalry; crossed sabres. tank (grcy)armour; crossed cannons, grenade (crimson)artillery; castle (cobalt blue)-engineers; national crest (cagle, serpent, wreath) on eight-pointed star-Presidenlial Guards, with appropriate unit numbers or badge behind lor diflcre!lt sub-uniLS. Shoulder board rank insi~nia: four vertical ~il\'er
live-pointed stars above gold national crestGmera/ de Di/lision (i\Jinistcr of Defence); three stars-General de Division; two stars-Gel/eral de /Jrigada; one star-Gmera/ Brigadier. Three brass stars only, in a triangle-Coronel; horizontally- TeT/ientf Corol/el; one-Afro'or; three venieal linked brass bars-Capitdl/ Prill/iTo; three (middle bar half-size)-Calliid/l Segundo; t\\"oTeniel/te; one-Sub/mimiI'. Enlisted ranks wear OGr07 latigues (shown here) with black horizontal shoulder-strap bars (Presidential Cuardsgold diagonal culTstripes) on branch-colour backing': three-Sargen/o Primem: l\I'o-Smgel//oSegul/du;
one-Cabo; one venical bar (Pres. Gd., stripe on left sleeve only)-Soldado dt Prill/era; no insignia!in/dildo. This Spcci
39
SalVlldo..-a C_~.... I Jose Cuilli:a Carda, Jlo1iai.I~r of ~ f_e~ .ad Securily, ;a srf:fl> • .,rvi.,~ d"'.... and l\o1iai"try of Defenc~ .hould~r palch (y~llow .tar in srC'eQ wrealh on redmsed blu~ di"e), Ian.. 10 yo ....S offi~u ... oljv~ S",~n fi~ld unito...... with ...bdum i...iS.. i., 19&1. (Vi<:~ .. I~ Talon)
ccn:monial scarf: g-IO\cs and bootlaces. Hc wcars US partial ',\LlCE' \\cbbitlg, and cnrrie.'s a West Gcrman G3 rifle. 11\ combat a camouflage.' uniform and helmet cover are \\orn, CI: G'ua/fIIw!a: S(//~ttfll/O 7 ,m;ro, ,S~J/!cia! Fora! Groll!): lomhaldffss,lg88 As in mOSI of Cenlral AnH.:rica, Guatemalan unilorms arc heavily US influ{'tlced" Oflicers weal a black ceremonial peaked cap :Ind IUltic with gold embroidered insignia, or a grcetl or light Ian service tUllic Wilh malchitlg pcakcd cap; the gold cap badge is a dovc holding an independencc· scroll over crossed rifles in a \\ reath. Generals have heavy red shoulder boards ('dged gold, \\ith vcr· tical gold stars abovc a gold cap badge: twoGm~ral d~ 1J;I';S;OIl; onc-G",mli d, lJr;gada. Ficld officers \I car verticall) placed linked brass stars on plain straps: Ihrce-Coro",/: t\\O- T€1Ii",lt Corond; one-.\la)'or; compan) ofllcer~ wear horizolltally placed linked brass bars: three \\ith brass Slar
superimposed Capi/till !>rimuo: three-Capitall S,gwu!o: t\\O T",irnl': one.' Sllhlmi~lIlt. Brass collar branch badg<:s an': cros~ed riflo-infal1lr); crossed ,abn:s armour: cro,sed cannons and grenade aniller); c:hllc engineers: Kold laurel leaf on a gold-edged rcd rhomboid-generals. Cnit shields appear 011 leli upper ~lct:ves. Enlisted ranks \\ear light tall ,hil'l and trousers, and unil shields abo\'(: US-~t)1e )e110\\ chevrons point up on both upper arrn~: fi\"t: chevrons and rockcr-Sar,g/'I/Io .\!(!)'or: four and rocker-Sargen/o TUI/ico; three ami rocktr Sm,fiell/o P,imero; three-Salgrll/o Sfl~ll/Ido; two-Cabo; one-Salt/ado til' Primem; no insigllia Soldai/o deSe,/!,lIlId(1. In combal oli\'e 1-;"l"Cl'n, US BDU 'woodland', or (as here) South Korean 'wa\'y' camouflage 1:1tigues arc \\onl with matching hl'l'l'l, 'boollie bat", bush hat, or Israc1i OR:lOI Kevlar helmet (camouflaged bro\\ tl and sa11d Ii)!' paratroopers). A national flag patch is \\01'11 on the upper right sleeve. and ofllcers \\earsubdul'd black collar rank insignia (laurel leaf for generals). Special Forces \\car a red beret \I ith 'Kt\lIll1: title above unit badge or (as here) rank badge; ,\brincs a black berel, paratroopers a black beret \I ilh sil"cr jump. \\ ings abO\ e a com pan) bacll{e: othel'\\ ise, insignia
are discouraged in the field. This SF lrooper, his neat appearance suggesting urban sccurity duty or a shon;l'ange operation, wears US ~11956 webbing, :lI1d carrit's the Isradi tlZI: till: Galil and the .\116 ar't' also uscd. (.'2: (;ual,,,,ala: l"ja1/lr..rmall,ISI.\Iililar..I''::olle: combal drm,ly8!J
This s
engineers; crossed flags-signals. The unit badge is worn in coloured enamels on a right pocket fob, and its design is repeated in lhe len shoulder sleeve patch. The parachute wings above the left breast pockct rollo\\ the uS shape wilh an added national cap badge motH: DI: £1 Soh-odor: Suh-Sargt1llo, Sal;o1lal Guard: field 5tn';u drus, 1986 Formed in 1912 as a rural police rorce, Ihe Guardia Sac;o1/a/isorganiscd into I,~ Provincial Companies
in practice. often batlalion-sized organised in fi\'e 'Commands': an ~IP Compan}; the '15 de Septiembre' IHI\T: a Technical Assistance Dept, (US advisers and 'SWAT); a Transpol'l Croup; and 'COI'ARA', a rapid-re;lclion anti-tcrrorist company. Until Army involvemcnt ill Ig80 this (.':3: }!,:/ Salvador: Corol/fI, C(!Valry U,gilllnll: service often brutally cflicient force bore Ih(' brutll of the dress,/gl)l) guerrilla war, Salvadorean omeers wear copies of thc US Army This obsoletc-looking uniform, inspired by the ~11957 Krcen dress uniform or the r..119_12 khaki Spanish Guardia Cit'il on which the torec was equivalent, but with the distinctive national cuffof modelled, is still worn; but US jungle utilities or pointed, buuoned design. Rank insignia arc worn BOUs arc on en seen in thc field. The gloss-black on the shoulder straps: gold cmbroiderc
4'
I.,n-
Two'COPARA' polic., 'r
\\hitc .\'ational Guard patches on both shoulders: rank insignia rollO'\ ,\rm~ sC'hape 'baseball" cap is also \\orn, \\ith miniature metal rank insignia alxl\e the same badge as worn on the collar. The \\capon here is the G3 rifle, \\ith which this has \\on the marksmallship badge on lIH,ldt breast.
slcl'\T
xeo
1J2: EI Sah'(ldor: Capildn. Pror·i"u:fir.ltIl)(Jrad,dr~ss,
"ifa,,/~)',
Sa" Sa/l'ador
/g88
Ficld uniform ror all ranks consists or US-supplied OG 107 cottOll sateen shin and 11'OUsers, or .\11967 jungle utilities, 'fhe 1\1 J helmet is often worn with loose string 1H:lting; the bush hat, 'boollie hat', and 1\1 J96,~ 'baseball' cap arc all worn, the lalter with subdued oflicers' or brass NCOs' insignia, or unofficial unit badges. Oflicers \\car black subdued nUlk insignia all (he right collar, black branch badges on the lert. The parade neck SC;lrris light bluc ror inrantry, Rangers and Special Forces: apple green ror General Stan; black ror armour: olive green lor paralroops: red ror aniller): }dlo\\ (or ellgineers: and or-mge ror signals, lJnit patch(.'S, \\ hcn \\orn, are appli<.'C1 to both upper arms.
D3: HI Sa/vadur: Cabo, 'Jiboa' Ca<.(/(Ior JJallaliOll, Sail FiUlIlt Provillce: combat drtss, /g88 Elitc units-Rangers (Ca;;:adortS) , paratroops, .\Iarine infhl\tr~, and Special Forces-wear a camouflage 'boonie hat' or .\11967 beret; USsupplied or locall) bought copies or) '\\OO(lIand·. or South Korean 'wa\"y' c;:tmollfla~t.' ratigut.'S arc normal. Standard .\rmy wdJbing is .\11956, but t1ite units ha\e received some ,\L1CE pattern equipmellt. On normal .\rm~ olin:: utilities USst}/e chnrons arc \\orn on both uppcr slee\'cs: three chc\ rolH and a rocker-Sargm/o; threc chevrons-Sub-Sorgm/o: t\\o-Cobo; noncSo/dado, In thc fidd, e1ile units discourage the use or insignia. like lhe gold-on-black 'C,\Z,\IJOK' litle and brass rank insignia seen on this Ranger's black bercI; lllelal battalion insignia ar't.' also sometimes WOI'Il below lhe Ranger qualirlcation title by privates, Note US jungle boots and j\ 179 grenadelauncher. D-/: I~'I Salmdof: Sub-Sargm/u, ,\lf/rillt IlIfil/l/~v lJalfolioll: barmd (IrtH, JgR8 Tht., JJa/aIl6" tI~ "uafl/tria (It .\larina, lonncd in 1985, is ha~l"(1 at L\ulatilll 1)11 tht.'s\\amp~ coastal border \\ ith Hondlll'a~, olx:rating rram L'S LC.\I·6 and-8 bndilll{ {"raft to PI'I'\"(.'lIt .\'icar;ll:;"lI;lII \\l'apons "hipllll'lIh rt'achin~ lit(: F.\I L.\' gut.'rrillas, I; ndcr :'\;I\al ("Olllllland, till' ill.\1 ust.' ,\rm~ ranks and clit(, unit ullirorm~. The bl;u"k 1>(."I'l't IX'ars Ill'rc Ihe lInil pall:"h ami rank insignia: till' shoulder or Ihe CS BDL'~ I~:al's a ~lIlxlu<.-d n'rsion ortht., insignia, sOIlH'lim('s \\OI'Tl ill combat. In thl' fidd the 'boollie hat" or a brad 'SE,\L-style' IU'adscal'f' arc \\om, wilh ~tal1dard US \\cbbing and \\capons. I~"I: IIIJl/til/raJ: Tmif.lllf, 2/1d Airhomf Halfa/ioll: (Ull/hafdan,ly/Jfi Combat dn:ss for 1110st Horlduralltl'Oopsconsisls of US-supplied OGl07 COltOll saleerl sllirl and lrouscr~, or 1\11967 jungle 1Ilililies, \dlh lhe 1\11 helmel or .\1 196~ 'baseball cap'; o(licers lIsuall~ \\ear sulxlucd black-on-oli\'e rank and branch insi~nia on ril;"ht and [en collars, and cnlisted ranks ~ ellow slecH,' ehe\ roIlS, This elile paratrooper, sent 10 the border in December 1986 to oppose SandiniSla '!tal PUI'SlIil' or Sicaraguan Colllra units, wears ;1Il apparently pcrsonall~ acquired relailorl'd H'ro;ion or CS BDL"s, (""lit ,,<; a lig-ht "hin
\\ith slanted pockets injullgle utility st)le, and il be1"et of the samc material. Insignia includc his rank bars on a branch·coloul' diamond patch lx-low L'Sjump-\\ings: a sulxlllt,'d ,\rm~ shoulder p:lIch in oli\'c and black; and slanted n:UlH: and national tabs on the chest. Hl' \\ea~ .\UCE \\ ebbing, tht' pouches pu~hcd back 011 the hips: note pislol hohler, knitc and grcllac!<:s, The weapon is the ~116, with a black slillg' ri~{gcd ass:luIHayle. Noll' also Ihe Israeli OR201 para· helmet, wilh a (o\'(:r of 'duck hunter' ramouflage. l:';t: Ho"duras: Sublrrtil'1lU, 110111 hifall(~" JJrig(ld~: combll{ drtjj, 1986 Photograph('d durill~ the sanl(' operation as EI, Ihi~ onicer \\ears a complete uniform of ~hirt, Immel's and I>('ret ill 'duck·lllllller' camouflage, pn:slllllabl} acquired personally or at unit lcycl. lnsigllia arc Ihe subdued rallk and brandl badges in black on olive, 011 ,he colla 1''1: a f'ull·colour Arm} patch on til(' ri~ht s!el"T; CS 'Ran~('r' qualifi. cation title. in subdued I01"m. and Honduran ('(Iui\alcnl ''!'esoll' litle. in full colour'S, 011 the left
shoulder: and what is presumably a diamond· shapl'd unit patch in black on 00, half obseured on the It-ft pocket. He has a naml' tape on the right bl'('ast. but no national title opposile. His equip. melll i" of LS .\I.ICE paltern, \\ilh the early belt bu(·klt-. \\'e reconstruct the Ie~s :lI1djungle boots. Ilondur:lIl ofricers' service dress is based on l;S .'\I'ln} i\11957 grn'n,,; a khaki equi\"alent is \\01'11 in Sll III I1WI'. The peaknl cap ha~ a /o\'old chin strap ;lllC! hr;hS Ilatiollal badge. Brass 'R 1-1' cyphers and US· ~t~le brallcll insiKnia arc \\orn 011 the collars alld 1,lpl'ls: crossed riflt:,s for infantr). special for('('~ and paratroops: cros~'tl sabres, c1"os.~ed cannom, and a C:htle for armourl'tl c3\alr), artillery and en· l.{illel:I);. On the ::.houlder lltraps officers \\ car brass \ enicall} placed stars: fi\'e (;nural de D;dsi6,,; t'our-(:tIIual tI, IJflj;atla; thrt'(--Coroll,l; 1\\0Tell;eIIll·Curolll'l; one-.\lq)'or. C01l1pallY ofJicers \\e;lr linked horiz()lIt:l1 brass bars: three, IWO :ll1cl one lor Capiltin, 7 mill/Ie, :lnd SulJlel/itllle, Four FPL-FM S""rrilt• ., dl"~ Wnrhl! ....d
43
f
r .,
Nicara!u... Pr idnlt Somo. . (ri!ht) "Om..n with advi........ • ft..r th.. Jl>h p .... rthqu..... of Dec.. mber '972' Not .. th.. US... upplied eam.paiSft hal .. and ..h.ki uaiform ... common .moDS,1I c..nt.ral Americ.n .rmi... frnm c, '!PO to 197ft, and th.. M'943 IltiJT.. ned 'W.lker cap',
Ellli.'>ted ranks \\l'ar LiS-~t)1e )elIO\\ chcvrons greell hacking: 011 thc upper sleeves of khaki uniform shirt~, and on combat IhtiguL"S: threc chevrons. solid diamond, three rockers-Sargl'1llo .\I(~.)'ur; three chcvrol\~, three rockers-Sargen!o I~rimeru; three chevl'On~,t\\'o rocktTs-S(lrgl'l1lo Sigundo; three chn/rolls, olle rocker-Sflrgtll/o; two chevrolls-Cabo; olle ChCVl'Ol1 S/J!dad/J de I~rilllera; nOlle-Soft/ado,
011
the rear trouser pockets) arc also dyed black. Army-style clle\'I'OrlS are \\01'11 011 the filtiglles where appropriate; the cap i.'> the Army's woodland-camouflage cap d)ed black. The left shoulder patch ha~ a gold and blue hooded cobra motif. Thccquipmcllt is AI,ICE pattel'll, here wilh eXIra musettes for a rall~C of grenades, and the gasmask; standard \\capons arc the CARtS and the Bro\\ning- GP35 automatic, FI: _\"imragllll: Cabo. SOlr/o:;.a COli/hal Ballaliol/, )"icamguall.'"aliOlIllI Guard: combo! drtn. ]lIIlUary 1979 The Guardia ,\'aciollaJ officers" sen ice dress w.tS the L"S-supplied :\11912 khaki pcaked cap with brown-japanned chin stral) and peak, or black dress C;IP \\ith gold chin sirap, blnck peak \\ith gold embroider) ror field and general ranks, and silver Iriangular national cap badge, The khaki tunic had the cap badge on the collar and brass CS-slyle lapel insignia: crossl.'d riflcs-infalllry; crQSS(.-d 5;.lbres-armour; crossed c;mnonsartillery; c
£3: H/Jnduras: Poliet/Hlm/rooper. Cobra Bal/alion, 1988 Formed as the Cobfll Policial Escuadron in April 1979, this para-trained unit of the Public Sccurity Forces was expanded to battalion strength in 1983. ft is a rapid-intervelltion gendarmerie unit, alld F2: Xicamgllo: COlflan(/(lfIlt. Samlillisla Xa/iomll Liherthis uniform was photographed during anti-riot a/ion Fron/: ,\lOT/OgUll,lllllt 1979 duty in Tegucignlpa in Apl'il 1988. The US BDUs FSLN clothing and \\eaJXllls procurement folha\'c been modified in this unit by thc nddition of lowed the familiar pattern of its model, Castro's black shoulder straps and reinforcemelH at knees Rebel Army (sec plate /\2), Rank and lile (Comhaland elbows; and the pockets including the flaps of imlts', wore civilian clothes, often "ilh 'Cubnn'-
slyle beards and long hair, Leaders (Col1lfllldmlfes) like lhe chnrismatic Edcn PaslOra pictured herc, favoured a morc cOIl\'clltionally military appcarance. Cuba supplit..-(\ olive grecn r.-.tiglle shirl~, trousers, ;"Ind the characteristic peaked field cap copied from Ihe l;S .\119+3 '\\"alkercap', Pastora, leading the non-.\Iarxist Tnuristas, is wearing some of these uniform items \\ith captured l;S .\11956 \\ebbing. and the l;S .\llgI 1 Colt '15 in a shoulder l'ig-, He also appears ta ha\c a slung AK rifle, and a ha\'crsack-possibl) a Soviet gasmask satchel? I\a national. rank or unit insignia wcre worn,
1':,:
,"imfft,!{Ufl: Ca/)ilfin, Sfllulillistfl Prop/t'S .1"'~J':jitld /)(/ff1dtdrrss, J,gH8 Althoug:1i EPS uniforms arc be('olning: mort' ('Ollvl'lllional, lliey still cxhibil 'n:voilition;ll'y simplicity' Cuban-inspired olivl' g:rl'l'lI flllig:lle shirl. troll~ers and a 'Cas\l-o cap' \\ il110Lll imig:nia scrve as field and service uniform for all ranks, On parade \\ hill' glO'Ts an.' worn, \dth Soviet .\140 or .\160 or Bulg:arian .\17'2 helmcts, or plain bl
Corol/I'I; t\\O- 'I mimI/' C()rontl: on(' ,\It!I'Of. An oliv/' gl'c(:n bush-jackct can now b(' \Iom by generals: ah.osuhdued EPS and nallle tape~, ami a metal b('I'(,t hadge, hut so far no branch or unit insigllia. 1'/: ,'·i(arag//a: Sargmlo Ttr"ro. 'Simoll /Jo/[mr' Irr'.t://lar II 'aifart /Jatlalion: COli/hal drt$S. J,t}88 In com hal ('lite units such as the BLI"~ we
45
dile COI1/(/Iulo dl' OpmuiolliS Espuialts (COE) is identilied by the skull badge on his leli sleevc. I-Ie is \\earing captured SandiniSla :\Iilitia fatigues \\ith Ihe ne\\t.·SI national-flag arm badge; a camouflaged 'boonie hat' "ith unofficial subdued national tab; and CS-supplicd ALICE "ebbing and tropical boots. His weapon is a Chinese copy of the Soviet .\K:\I assault rifle, Ihe T} pc 56.' I.
us
Arm)' branch insignia on lhe left collar. Enlisted ranks \\car yellow-on-grccn US .\1 19S8 chevrons on both slee"es: three chevrons, one rocker-Sflrgm/o; t\\'o chcvrons-ellbo; one chc\"fon-RasoprimI'Ta dasl': none-Rasa.
1-12: Panama: Sub/mim/I'. 71h ".\lado dt .\10"/1" F"silil'1 Compall)'. [>tIlwma Dljl'llct Fo1Ct'S: rombat drtss. ,glIB (,): .\"imragua: Cll~rrilla. RI'['oluliollal) D~",oaafi( Defellet.· Forces officers \\ear L:S :\11957 green Allianu: (o",bal drtSS. 1985 service dress. \\ith peaked cap "ilil gold national :\10111) AROE members favoured the green beret. crest. gold \\ ire chin strap and peak embroidery for for its elite associations, to \\ hich this guerrilla has field and geller'll officers, green jacket and attached a curious home-made triangular cap trou...ers. The khaki equivalent uniform is also badge. ,,"e;lring one of a \\ ide rangt.· of camouflage \\orn. The brass national title 'RI)' (Republica de fatigues (other leaf patterns and tigt.'l'-stripcs arc Panama) appears on the jacket collar, and on the also encountcrcd). he carries a Rumanian version lapel the bl';llIch badge: star in a wrealh-generals of Ihe Sovict I\KM assault riflc. Hi~ national and General Staff; crossed rifles-inf;111try. Ofhreast-badge is also worn by FON guerrillas and, licers' brass rank insignia is worn all lhe shoulder like Ihe FD,'I". ARDE uses positional titles up 10 straps (or grcen shoulder loops 011 shirl.~), but and including COlf/andan/e. A~ true disciples of generals and General Stan'always \\ear stiff green Sandino. SOI11(' ARDE troops still \\ore Ihc red and shoulder boards cdged gold: national nest alXl\'e black FSL;\ neck scarf. four liH'-pointcd swrs Gml'ral dl' IJrigada (FD Commander .\Ianuel Antonio ~oriega ; Lhree 1-11: Cos/a Rim: Tmifllil', ,\'orthml fJord" Suuri/l' stars onl} -Coro"tl: IWO- Tmimtl' Cor01ItI: oneBallalio,,: combal drtss. 1988 ~ .l/~)'or; three horiZOlllal linked bars-Capiltin; Easil) mistaken initially for US troops, the field two- Tmil'1l/l'; olle-Sub/mimlt. Enlisled ranks uniform of the Guardia Chil is a mixtur(' of l:S- wear CS-Slyle?\ 11958 yellow chcvrons 011 green on supplied OG 107S. :\1 [g67 jungle fatigul'S, and DG 107 fittigue shirt upper slccvcs: three chevrons, '\\oodland' camouflage shins and trousers of one rocker-Sargmlo dt Prim~ra: three ehc\'ronssimilar pattern hut dincrent cut to CS issue. Sargl'1l/o dl' Sl'gullda: two-Cabo: no insigniaHeadgear consists of the .\1 I 96.l baseball cap, the SoMado Raso. The :\11 hdn1('t or CS peaked licld ,ap i~ worn 'boonie hat', and the ~II helmet. ALICE webbing is wom, and Slllall arms include both .\116s ::tIId in the lide!. \\ illt OG 1°7 shin ami trouscrsor olive more obsolete Iypes-~I r Garands, and the jungle utilities. currelllly being' replaced by the US elderly but excellellt Beretta ~IAB3H/49 sub- BDU c:lllwullagc clothing already \\Ot'll by the l,:.JilC 7th Company. Officers w{'ar brass rank machine gun depicted. Above the lcli hreast pocket is worll lhe 'C.R. baclg"Cs Oll the right collar, branch insignia OIL lhe Guardia Civil' palch; company patches arc seell left. com pan} title on upper sleeves, alld parachute on the right upper arm. The lSI and 2nd Com- \dllg:s abo\·c lite left IXlckel. He wears US ALICE panies \\ere formed into a battalion 10 guard the \\ebbing. and can'ies an UZI sub-machine gun. Nicaraguan border. and after serious claslu.'s with Sandinislas in hot pursuit of AR DE guerrillas this NT flai/i: Srrgl'lIf-Follm-l'1. Pll'sid~nfial Gllard. became in :\lay 19Bs the .\"onhern Border Secur- Hili/ian. Jm~)': paradl' uniform. 1988 it)' Battalion, whose )c1low-on-black 'BINICIO' Litle .\lorc common Ihan the dark blue officers' is seen here on the right shoulder. The brassard ceremonial uniform is the L"S ?\11957 khaki service indicalcs Coma"do dtl _\orU, 'Xonhern Command'. dress \\ ith black tic. The peaked cap has a gold Officers \\car standard US Army gold and silver braid chin strap. brass national crest 011 a trophy of rank insignia on the headgear and riu;ht collar. and cannons as cap badg-e. laurel branches 011 the peak
for field ofliccl's and generals, and laurel encircling lhe dark blue cap hand for gcnerals. The jackel collar ('anies the brass litlc 'RD'II' (Rcpublique d'Haiti), the bp~l hras... hnlrlch illSignia: starGeneral Stall: cross~d rifles-illr.lntry, Generals' shoukkr strap rank imigllia consists of three large \'crticall) placed silwr Mars: thrcc-I.itll/tllfllil GilJim/: t\\O Gil/iml (/t Dil'isiOf/: ollt'-Gil/irol de Brigodt: field OmCt'T~, .. mall vcrtical brass stars: thn:e-Coloflel: 1\\o-/,inllnulIll Colollel: onc.\I(ljor: compan) officers, brass linked chevrons, point dO\\II: thn't' (;apilaillt: t\\o-/,irllimalll; one ,SoIH·/,iil/lnult/l: one point up -.I(ljlldr11l1 Warrant aAlcer Enli<;tcd rank!. \\ear a khaki garrison C'lp, :\11957 cap or ob<,()klc :\119.J2 cap \\ ith plain chin "trap, "hin, tic and IrOllS('rs. and L·S·<;t~ It- ~ 1'110\\ dll'Hun" Oil dark bro\\I1 hackin~ on upP,,'r ,Il'('\c": thret' {'h('\ rons, Ihrec horizontal bars-Sf"rgt'llt .\lty'or: thrc(' ("hc\ rons, hollo\\ rhomhoid-Sugrllt Prrmiu: thre(' chcvrons, one b.lr-Sugrll/ FO/lrrirr: thrc-e chc\Tons-Strgnll: t\\O CO/1Oml: OIH"-SoJd(11 dr /lrrmiiu dossr; 1I0ne-Soldol. This uniform \\ith :\11 heimci douhles as field dn'~. although OC 107 fatigu('S arc also \\orn, \\ith '\\()()(Iland' or 'duck-hullt("r' pattern camouflage f.'ltiguc-s for Pr('Sidcntial Guard and ·Leopards'. 'l'heGuard \\cars 'GP' Garde Presid('Iltidlc) titles on the collar (abcwc shoulder strap rank insig:nia, for om("(:rs and a unit shoulder patch. This soldier \\(';11':. oh~olct(' L"S lo-pouch \\ehbillg, and carries tIl(' ,\II Garand rifle. //4.' J/(Iil;: .\/ilit;mnrlll .. \'flliol/fll Sallri!" roillf//urs, l!J8..j
l\ol to be confused Willi the plaill-clothes 'T011lOns ~Iaeuutes' polilical polin', lhe Volunleers, supposedly tllodc1kd 011 i\111~solini's i\IVSN black-
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Col. H,,&o Torr"" political ch;cf or the S••dinillta Anny in '987. wnrinll the new ra ..k ;"II;Il";. inlnoduced ;.. Aupllt
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