Osprey, Men-at-Arms #222 The Age of Tamerlane (1990) 00Ed OCR 8.12

mmD MILITARY

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

TH AG 0

AMERLAN

222

THE AGE OF TAMERLANE Text by DAVID NICOLLE PHD Colour plates by ANGUS McBRIDE

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TlteAge ofIamerlane Tile Lame Conqueror T~m 'r1an

or amburlan, a h was kn wn in various I art· of ur pe i one f the m 51 eXIra rdinar c nqu mrs in histor. ithjn hal a lif<:lil'l'l> hj.' armies' iz d huge t rritori ,. [r m th hurd'r, of M ng Ij I Pal. tine ancl nat tia. lighl, .lal s ac pled-at lea I n minall Timur's over! I'd hip as th y owe red beft re his apparent! irr ·i libl anni .. His pa was al. mark'd b mas acres lhalouldid c en Iho' of the 'longol. for. h I' a vag'r . mall w neler that lhe r~lnl' uf lili omplcx and ni hun ri h chara I r pI' 'ad int Europ h re Timur becam lh' slIbje I II t only f :hrisloph I' IIarl we" fam u: play Tal/lbcr/alllc Ihl' Creal but also of work I Spanish, Fr n hand oth 'I' Engli h writ r as well as German, ltalian and z b comp r. Tht' r al am rlane I' Timur-i-L nk(Timur th Lam ) - ame from a [amit o[ Tul' ifi d M ngol ari to rats th Barlas Ian. Th y d minal d a 'maU I rril r u t h f amarqancl,and w'dallegian'etoth on olJagalai Khans wh had rul d mu h of en Ira] . ia r II wing lhe fra menlati n f n his Kh n Empir> in th late 13th entur Timur, who e nam m an 'ir 11 nc', v ntuaU w n th titl , n nqu r d L I'd f th n 'limat ' and Sahib Qjran ('L I'd f th FOrlunat I sLial onjun Ii 1\'). H had all' ady gain d the ni kIlam' 'Lam' aft r bing truck by. v ral arrows during a minor skirmi. h in t : one hit Timur in th· right leg, anoth I' in th right arm, p rmanend damaging b lh. (Th s w und w r rirm d wh 1\ '[imur's t mb wa opened by ar ha ologi·ts in 1941.) t around th ame time Timurwa als wound din th right hand-by hi own fath r abr a ordin t n LOI~. Timur's a lonishing life ouIel fill th pag f several if Il-al- I'm b k' and lh SLOr of Lh

dyna ly h :lablished i. full f drama, VI IOn s and d feat at th hands rvariou r in luding th I urful Qara and q 0 unlu ('Black' and 'Whit h p) Tur mans. B-1 wi. a bri f hI' nology of the ar-torn years Ii'om around Timur's birth t hi. dyna ty' lIap in th al'l y'arso the I Jth n tur .

1335

or

D alh f 1 "t d ccndant Hul u . tart of c Ilapse of II-Khan (M ngol) auth rit ill tran. Birtll t.!I Timar lIenr Ki 'h. Yuan (Mungol) d n:t .hina bing.

driven out of

Timur becume ruler uf TraIl. 0 ·(min. Till/ur ;I/lIade.\ kllllflmZIII. Timar i'll'adcJ ]agalai lerriLo'..)! as far as IOllgolia. Birth l'Til1IUr'ii' n. hahrukh. Traditional . tal Ii. hmcnt of ur' man ( ara 'unlu an I q Qc yunlu d nasti in Kurdislan I'm nia < n I zarhajan underJalc rid suzcr inty. The warriors of 14th C. Iran wore many type ofannou.r. In this Persian m.anu cript from Sbiraz at least four horsemen have mail hauberks whiJe the bor e in the centre is protected by lamellar armour and a rigid chamfroD on it head. (Kirshi-5arnaJc Ayyar, c.1335 AD, Bodleian Lib., Ms. OU5. 381, f.39v, Oxford)

Toq amish 1 . 0111(': rul ror h 'olel n H I'd'. Prince or Moscow eI 'fcats lei 11 11 rel'arm atb,HtI of'Kulikoo·jld.

Death of Timur. R vi\al r

Timur invade.1 ..IIglwlli.lllI/I and eastem hall,

hahrllkh iz s Samarqand. Def! at f J layrid: of Iraq b ar Qo unJu. ara lInJu Ideal Timurid alii sat I atLI rKur Riv r. . hahrukh" exp ·clitiolJ into \ e~tcrn [ran and against art unlu. • hahrukh kf!'ats Qara lInlu at Ihree-da . battle nfAlashgird. Wars b '1\ C'11 Timuri 1 lu.~b .B 'f( and r ngol:, d f at lugh Beg. Periodi zbeg raid. fl"Ol11 11 ,rth into Timurid I"hwarazm. hahrukh' exp 'cliti n int cst'rn Iran againsl ara 0 IIllu; Timurids I sc {' hW'lrazm alld n rtll rn Trans-

a t'rl1 go ernol's.

ra/J/llre.1 HI'f(lI.

Timul' irwadeJ we 'Iem Ira 11 , caPIUTI' obriz. Timur capture hJaha.n alld. '!Liraz. Timur invades Colden Horde. difeal' ~ oqlaw ish (II baIII e oj Kundll<.r!w. Timl1r invade:. we.lern Iran. Iraq, Georgia,

«)

Golden Horde. seizes BaghdadJorJirsllime. QllUl11' n Sultan Ba azit clef! at: rll:ad'r. c t b ttl (r i poli..

or

imur i71 ode. India defeats. 'ulian '?f Delhi I 398-g9 al bollie qjDrlhi. Timur iI/vade lnalol ia, 1';0, (;I'or u i(/, dljeals At/amluks, ca/Jtnr/!' ALeppo and Damn CW, ·ei<.e5 Baghdad./or ecol/d lime. defeat· l/O/71a/l. ullllfl BlIyazjl al battle '!fJlnf..aTll.

Russia

1391-2 ......>137S·6

~1392'6

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1398-9

~

1399-1404

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Timur's Empire & Campaigns

oxania

I

t

zb 'g . Gt n. _ Gcnonc Ven. _ Vl.ncUan

8.,.z, - Byzontlne. On. - Onomon, Loc. - Locol fulcra Sor. - Sarbodors

IJc.alh of'Shahnlkh. 1447 1447-49 Timurid civil war!>. ;>.lul'derol'Ulugb Beg. 1449 Uzbcgs involved in Timurid eivil wars. 145Oltoman capture of Ist.anbul 1453 (Byz.antine COllStalltinople). Aq Qoyunlu dcfcat Til1lurid Sultan Aim S.a'id. 'I·un·tlman OJlra Qoyunlu overthrown by Turcoman Aq Qoyunlu in Armenia. \\cstern Iran, Iraq. Prince of ~"loscow defeals Colden I-Ionic amlY al bailie of Ugl'a River. eOcctivc liberalion orRussia f!'OIll ;>'1011gol domination. Anarchy in Transoxania, colk-Ipse and fi-agl'llClltalioll of"I'imurid power. Dclcat of' 'I'urcom:ln Aq Qoyunlu by Persian Safilvids al baltlc of Shurur, collapse of Aq Qoyunlu. Tinwrid Prince Babar conqucrs 1\ rghan iSI a n. Dt'ath ofTilllurid Sultan Husayn Bay
revolution, thci\·lllslim peoples relied 011 tradilional ramily or lrihal loyalties, reduced their binltrat<.' and hoped lor bClier times. Agriculture rCtrcatcd as the populalion slumped. Huge .areas rcvened to nomadism. while somc isolated groups like the Arab bedouin may actually ha\'C escaped the plagues relatively lightly. III Europe there was a rapid cconomic recovcry but the i\fiddle East stagnated alier the Black Death which, of course. returned in a series orlesser epidemics during what somc hislorians h.av{' called the 'Coldcn Age of Bacteria' The fullest evidence comes from Egypt ami Syria, whcre lhe i\lall1luk mililOiry dite ,II first escaped the worSl ravages ol"thc Ulack Death but suflered along with cw'ryonc else in suhsequent epidcmics. The rcvcnues fmlll lhcir iq/a estates fell, as did theil' standards 01" military discipline. The panel. in Ihi"tnanullcripl It'Il.de in Shira:r., '34' A.D, ",how tnu.ic,oI in.lrutnenta, .nitn.. t...nd ... riou .. type.. of weapoo. Thue inelude .. tridenl sitnihor 10 the 1IlIIian ronco, .... Iraiflht "word, probably a tn.ce aod whal coutd be Ih., lI.rrow-guide frOIn a n ....d. This doevice turn..d lin ordinary bow into a ICtnpO"'ry cronoow. (~1unjs.J Ah...r, Mu".,utn of An, ;ov, 45,385, Cloeveland)

Timurs I#rld Ti11lur was fortunate, nOI only ill the Celestial Conjullction of stars .al his birth bUI also in the p(llilit'al and 1llililary circumstanccs in which hc p,n'w up. "1'11(' 14th Ct'lltllry was a lime oflurmoil and war ililhe Muslim world as it was in Europe. Thl: Black Death had ravaged the area, weakening oncc ll1i~hty SlnIC$ like the i\IOllgol Colden Horde north ufthe Cilspian Sea. Less is known .. bout the plag-ue ill Iran ilnd the t-\l'ah areas hut it certainly cOlltriblllcd 10 instability, decimated the popu· lation, hit tracle ,md undermined lhe semi-feudal structure which mainlaillCcI not only govcl'llll1ents hUI also .armies. ~'Iuslilll reaction to the Black Death diflcred from that in Europe. Inste.acl of' ollthlll'sts or rcli,g-ious hysleria, urban unrest or 5

lim peoples of Iran and lbe Middle East to doubt whether tbe Transoxanians were still really Muslim. The mid-14th century had been n chaotic pel'iod or civil wars within thc .JaKatai Khanate, during which the once nourishing NtslOrian Christian communities of Central Asia wen~ obliterated. I'aradoxicfllly, howcver, the cities of Transoxania witnL'SScd a revival or tl'dde and prosperit)'. Even during Tillltlr's lifetime business was conducted in 'Keheki' dinar:; namt.'d after Kibak, the last truly enoctivc Jagatai Khan, whose name is slill recalk'd in lhe ko/),k, lhe smallest unit orR ussian cun·cncy. There docs not seem to have been any similar revival in Iran where the r-,'longol II-Khan state hnd collapsed in the mid-14th celllury. The land Thill relatively crude illulllrlldon from lIouth,w"'lIlcrn Ir.n which was to fall before Titlltlr's furious assault lay WIl" n'llde during Timur'. life and include. inlerest;ng divided belween the Karls of the cast and lhe delail". Perh"p. the mo"l imporlanl arc l.ee" whi.,h .ee.. re Ih", lurbaned ...an'.lamellar ,a.llers to h..i.leAII. (Shahnamah, Muzaffarids orlhe west, both of whom bad begun '37' AD, Topkapi Lib" Ms. " .. :t. '5", f.• osr, hnanbull as Mongol v:lssals. A series of minor dynaslies Bccausc the Mamluks wcrc recruited from slaves, ruled Afghanistan and tbe Caspian coast, while the Sarbadars held an area south-cast or the lar~cly brou~ht in from southcrn Russia, Egypt's military elile was able 10 maintain its numbers, Caspian. These Sarbadars were an interesting Elscwhere tlw frceborn eliles of Iran. Iraq and though short-lived dynasty whose name meant Turkey may have declined both in numbers and 'beads on the gallows'. They arose as Shiite peasallt rebels against the last Mongols and were mili t:l ry q uali ty. Tirnur's homeland of TransQxani" did nOl es- involved in almost constant warfare against their cape the Black Death, l)ln here lhe situation was neighbours. These neighbours were in tlll'n united more complicatcd. The steppe Mongols had rever- in rcgarding lhe Sarbadars as a dangerous threat ted 10 their traditional nomadic ways following the to all existing order in which the world was hrcak-up of Cenghis Khan's Empire. In lhe dominated by Turks and Mongols-II01 by Perwestcrn ;lIld central steppes they ,vere now largely sia n peasa n ts! Tllrcified in speech and customs. Even where they Further west Iraq and A'l.arbayjan (north· retained a distinct idcntity lhe Mongols of the western Iran) wcre ruled by theJalayrid dynasty Jagatai Kkanate were few in llumber and mixed in which, descended from a Mongol tribe, had done origin. In fact thc Jagatai Khanate consisted of much to ['estore the damage the Mongols had two dissimilar regions: Transoxania in the west earlier inflicted on Baghdad. To the north, beyolld and .\Iloghulistan or the 'Land oflhe Mongols' 10 tlte Caucasus moulltains, the Mongol Golden lhe casl, Mo.ghulislilll was largely nomadic wilh Horde stll·vived but was also falling apart. Never· few 1O\vns and lillie agriculture. The Muslim failh thelcss this Golden Horde kept firm control over was spreading but was as yet so superficial that the the vassal princes of Russia. South oflhe Caucasus people were regarded as being Olltside lhc l'vl uslim Christian Georgia was expanding lowards lhe world by the urbanized, agricultural and deeply Caspian Sea and down into Armenia, an arca it ~lllslim inhabitants of Transoxania. Here, in lhe contestcd with Turks, Kurds and even some small western pan of the Jagatai Khanate, a Mongol Mongol tribes. In Anatolia the Seljuq Sultanatc, elite still dominated the country but was rapidly anersurviving llle Mongol lerroI', had collapsed to losing control over the cilies and even the fenile be replaced by a series of liny TUl'kish cmiratcs of river vallcys. Meanwhile the spread of dubious whom the Ottomans were but one. As these little 'folk Islam' practices led the more orthodox Mus- states squabbled over the ruins of Seljuq and

6

Mongol authority, freelance mercenary soldiers and adventurers oHcred thcir services to local rulers or lought on thcir own account, bringing anarchy to town and country alikc. The Genoese not only dominated Black Sca trade but occupied various ports on the north coast ofTurkey as well as part of the Crimea in southern Russia, while European Crusaders had seized the rich city of Izmir on the Aegean coast. With hindsight the 14th cClllury is secll as a period of ChriSliall catastrophe in the Near East as the Turks swept into Europe. At the time, however, this was not so obvious-a fact which innuenced Christian Europe's attitude to Timur-i-Lcnk and his successors. TiInur and his conquests Ti11111r's career was unequalled since Alexander Ihe Greal ill tcrms of constant balllcficld success. Only in his youlh, while recovering his lillnily estates south of Samarqand, did TimlJl' face oc· ensional defeat. He took on all his neighbours and heat every onc. He was undoubtedly a great g-cllcral yet, unlike Cenghis Khan, 'rimur was no sta!Cslllan. Hc led his armies on campaigns whose brutality was unmatched until the 20th century; yet he failed to destroy any of his main foes, despile defcating them in batlle. Evell more remarkable \I!as the fact that Timur was over 4,0 years old before selling OUl to conquer an empire. His energies had previously rocused upon seizing and Ikfore collapsing benealh Timur's repealed ; .....a8;on., Ihe Jalayrid rulers orlnq were greal palron" of an. Thi. picture of an Iranian hero .I.ying. myor demon w•• probably m.de in Baghdad .round '380 AD. The honem••'. body .rmour if< hidden benealh hiSlunic but be h.a. mail a ..e.,whanging froRl hi. helmet. (Shabna.mah, Topkapi Lib., Ms. H.z. 2'52', f'48r,4Ianbul)

Some of Ihe manuSCriplS made ;n Baghdad ahordy before Timur devaSlaled Ihal city lIhow .rmour in considerable detail. Here a Persian hero's armour ill of fine lamellar conslruction, probably worn over a mail-lined IUn;C. He .1,,0 weara metal vambracell to proteci hill lower ar..U' (SJUlhnamah, c"39O AD, Topkllpi Lib., Ma. H ..... 2':)3, f'73r, blanbul)

consolidating powcr ill his homeland or TransOXilll ia. tvl ost ofTi III ur's la tel'l if{; was su bseq uc1l11 y spent 011 campaign; yet he rt:mained an inefficient conqueror, constantly returning 10 j~lcc stubborn 'rc.;bels',11 thing Cenghis Khan rarely had to do. Timur's aims also dinered li'om those ofCenghis Khan. For example, he apparently had no wish to rule the vast but poor sleppes orCelllrall\sia and southern Russia. His cxpcdilions HI lbe north or north-cast were intcllded to crush the remaining Jagatai Khans and ensure lhat the Golden Horde never became a threat to his rear. Even Tilllur's campaigns in Iran, Iraq, India, Syria, the Call ca· sus and "natalia were largely for loot. Booty and the skilled crafislllen whom his troops dragged back to Samarqand werc to enrich Timur's homeland. Evcn where he did eswblish a permancnt administralion it generally proved inefTicicnt alld short-lived. In fact the clIett of Timur's wars, beyond lhe frontiers ofTransnxatlia itself, was to

7

complelc til<" e!('stl"ul'lifll1 stal'lee! h) the t>.lung:ols and whirh had bC'l'll c)I1l) pat'tiall~ repaired by their SlHTt'S"OI~, II<· ruined lraclt' ami n'duced populations II) .1 Mlllll'tinu'.. st;tK~erill~ amoullt. though again l'()llll'llIl>llrar) chnHli( len; probabl) cX:lg:l{erated 111(' ("'''..:Irlll fir tilt, ct'n a Kl'l'at ~oldin, hut ill pure!) hislOrical IeI'm" II(' ('ould he "C('II :h thl' ~n'atNt bandit all tillle. Iii.. clllpin: ~t1 rclJ apart, thoug:h hi.. dC'''Cl'llCbnt .. did h()le! nllt(h or t'astern Iran :tlld .\ft:lwlli"lan. ,I.lo \\dJ .IS I"rall"O":lIIia. I"hcl"l', ironical!), tht") I'llit'd ()\cr one of till' litH'Sl OO\\('riul!;"nl":1rl and ,lrC'hiu'(llll'{' in tht" hi..tor) of Islamic ci\·ili~;ttiull. Timur dcspis('d till' Tajiks nr Ir:llliall-.. pcakill~ urban and ,l~ricultural pupul;ttiolt of Tramoxania, L' nlil.c Ihe nllturc.lolll:;:ols. ('\{'II tho..;(· ,.. hc) h,HI ,upcrfici.dh convcrted to

or

0 ..", or Ih" fi ..""1 ..........criptll r ....... a"shd"d WlII...."d" by J"oayd.1 5,,1I.... i i.. '3" A.D, belW"",,", To..." .... two",;"."r" or th." diy, 0 .. 00.. "'S" a "'''q"i"hed _rrior w"ars ord.... ry l"m",lIar armo"r Oy..r a "hort.vl"",ved mail "hirl ....hil" Ih" viclor lOeC.m" 10 have an early ver,,;oo or ...aiJ.a..d.plale cuira"". Both or Iheir ....;m.l" .lliO h.y" hone-armo..r, thai on the riShl bei"S; orlarse lealher la... Ihat on 1h",lcfl or ..arrow iron lam"I1.". "'nOlh"r JIlIS" "how" Ih" a ..d",,,t P"n;".. Emperor "'..""hi ......... Hi... ~ ..ard" w"ar Iypical T;murid h.l" and C1lrry Iheir r"ler's ..lor", IOmall "h..i"Jd .nd bow. (nr"",Rom"n~"byKh.....jll Kirr.." ..I, Briti"h Lib., Ms. Add. c8,,:J, London)

"n.",

8

hi" 111, st ill Ii II Ic 1\\ (·d 1 ht·i r 1 r"d i til/n.llY"1/ (II" codl' uf tribal I:t\\ as linalis('d h) (;('ll~hi" Kh,cll. Tillllll" added lht: Isbillit' \/lIIri" k1!;.d cock in \\ hat miKhl ha Ie: bcen a pori t ica I t:lt't ic 10 \\ in I ..b mi(- I'd il!;iolls SllppUrl. TimuI' ,,1'0 Ic)()l. p.lin' 10 "p,lrt· :\lu,lim shrilll"S dllrin~ his fJth('I'\\i,t· dC'\.I"t;llill~ nllllpail!;Ib. thuu~1I lhen' \\('l'l' lHlt,lhk e'(ot'lltioll": lht: "t'lwrable L'llla~~.td Grl'at ~Iu"flm' ill Dam'L.SCth \\rh, furc'>:amplc, hUl'lwd ill \\11;11 Illil{ht h.l\t' ht'CJ1 an accident. Timur',!, HI\ 11 !"t'lil,(iCllh kdilll,'" art· unl.nu\\ II. but hi' did mala' .. KI't'.ll ,Ium Ill' pict). ami \\:h t'\{,lltuall) huril'd ,tt tilt' fi't't or :\"m' Sayyid B:I raka, :t ~'I inl \\ hI) h ..d HIlt-n'd him ..d,ict' Ihrou~ll(}ut mUl'h of hi, lilt'. Despitc such publil- pict). Timur.i·Lt·nl.. rc·

lained a typical i\lolI.l{ol love or alcohol in largc quanti lin; and his d rUll kClllWSS bn'a Ille.: provl.:t"bi., I, ~h':lll\dlik, ill a lranSp.,rnH altC'lllpt 10 ding to till' Iet":r ifllot lbe spiril or Islamic law, the only [Jeopk who wcrc allowl'd to drink wine at Timur'~ rl)Ul'l Wl'rt Chri:Hians, olhers being rcstrlclt:d to allernati\'C rorms of' beverage, Huge amountS of' [i)IKI, as WC'I I as d rin k a lid wotllf'n, wcre 'consllllled' at Tilllur's COUl'l with an allllost l1Iodel'll dedication to ,o'l~picuUllS l'onsump!iIIH, Thf' stat liS of' Tilllurid \\'i\'e~ and cOllcuhill . . S was remarkably lihera tcd atld itideI'd inn L1ellt ial, fu rt hc'r ()!ll'lld ing nnhO<.II)x i\Juslim upillinn, Clo~c 10 the (:lId or his lili: and durin/{ an almOSI ol'1~iastic \\f'ddin~ f"ilst thal preceded his lasl l';\mpaig-n, the semi-nipplnl. h,l!l:hlind Timur slill joined in Ih(' dOl ncing. Li kc most such Tim urid n'lchratiOlls, tlw fl'-aSI wok plan' in tile open air :llld ill I('llt~ \\'ho~c SlllllPIUOlIS dccoraliOll amazed \\'C'st('l'll visilUrs like the Castilian ambassador Ruy (;()Ilzales Cla\'iju, III r.lct Timur had a parli,u1.nr 10\1' fill' rim' Ic'nt~ ;llld, according 10 C]:wijo, his audiCIH'c pavilion W;I~ ~quarc, each side measurillg a hundred par{'~. (ls \\alls Wl're of black, white and ) ell ow :-ilk hands wilh oVI'rhanginE{ porticos ~up­ poned by pillars, Its lall dOllled roof was held up hy Iwelve blue, g:old and other colOllred pillars as thick as a 1ll;\Il':-; bod}', 011 top urlhe dome was a silkc'n tlllTet with hal tlcmetlts, the entire struci un' Ill'i IIg secu red lIy ni Il1Slltl ropes. The ill1crior nf litis immense tCllt was blll'd with n:d tapestric... de('orated wilh ca.l{lcs at l'arh {'Ol'lH:r, alld ill~id(' .'lOod a rais('d dais \\ !lere Tilliur 1ll'ld COUI'\. Other roya I or pri Iln:l} tell IS ~tund a rUUlld, inelud ing 011(' lhat s('l'\'{,d a~ it mosque, all being cilclosed hya silkell \\ a 11 wi til ;ltH II ht'l' ba ttlcmcllted pon ieo on:r iIs {'Ill r:lllCC, III additiOil 10 I(JOd, drink, song: and dance, ('Illntailllllent 011 lhl' \\'cddin,t;" feast includcd :tern· hats, par:lclcs offon'igll gifts such as ostriches alld a gir:dlc li'om Eg-ypt, as well as elephant and horse r:I('Cs. Finally Ti nlll I' issued an edkl which permitted all lill"! liS of plcasu re a lid, as IIII.' 11 Ilsyrn pat IIClic chronicler ,\hnwd i\rabshab wrotc: 'every sui lor haslened 10 hi~ dcsire and every JoveI' lllei Ids bdo\'ccl, without anyOlle harassing anodler ur superior (kalill.~ proudly with inferior, whether in Ihe army or a mOIl!-\' cilizens", nor was lhe s\\'ord drawlI except the swurd ofcontcmplation, nor lhe

This iIIuslral;on from Sh;u"" 1397 AD, sho............ rrior;n a full m..il haubc:rk plus lo....,r arm ..... mhuc.,,, including n.. ps 10 prOle.,1 lb., b ..ck" ofh;s hand", Uis h.,hnl"1 h",s pendanl "",r· flaps la.,,,d 10 illl rim a" ....,1100"" mail ....."nf.i', (Sh"ninlinannamtoh, Brililih Lib"M", Or, "780, f''''3''', London)

spl'ar brandishl'd l'~n'pl Ihl' blll'(" ur luve that I}('nl by t:mbra('l'.' Thuugh I\r":lh~hah's h:lIn'cl orTilllUr" J;te-Illml'd li'om his OWl I .... utlcrill,l;" al I Ill' "ollqul'ror'~ 11iIrld~, Ill' ('ould not hdp adll1irillg thl' mall. Acnlrrlirl~ tv Ahm h) Whchl' aid Iw ('IWIH'd thi' IOl"ks of t{,'l'ror and lorl' in piq'c's OWll Ii kl' Ii, lll~ and III rough them and thl'il' hatllc'~ oV"l'lurnt'd the- Iwig-hl:; nf . , mountains.

9

Tim"r's Army Legend has Timur·i·Lcnk reduced to ont follower in 1362, but ill realit)' be led a mixed army built aruund :.t core of Hlithful Turco-Mongol tribal troops. He probabJ)' inherited a small following in his role as a member urlhe feudal elite arK ish near

Samarqand. Trihal nomads may have beell the most warlike clement in Timur's rapidly expanding army, but the fcud
Th .. looming walls of Ankara'. Ciladd dat.. from many p .. riods. Th.. IOw.. rll ar.. do,... II.. C and protrud.. to provid.. ""u:.. II .. oc artilt..ry baslionll, Almollc wichin !lighc of thi" Citad..1 T;mur routed ch.. Ouontao army ill 1402 AD buc wh ..n""1 Tintur'" Empir.. prov"d a .hort-tivcod cr.... tion, ch .. Ottomanll r ..v;v..d 10 crcaC., II which .... durcod into mod ..rn lim ..lI. (Autbor'" pholograph)

,nil'"

The oullill(' of one soldier's Iii..: was, however, wrilten down. He came from a cultured mlher than tribal or nomadic background, won faille as a noted warrior and al.'lO wrote poetry, and in the closing ycars of his life rctired 10 the desel"l as a ~'Illslim hermit. Nomads remained. however, tlJ(' harkholll' of Timur'.<; power. ~Iost came from Transoxal1ia, from ,~o tribes which claimed Jagatai Mongol origin. Each provided a military contingent according to ilS size and in return the tribe enjoyed a leg~dly free, tax-exempt status. Such nomad troops wt'rc led by their own aymak oOlccrs and alsu provided elite units. ivlilitary roles were l:lrgc1y hereditary and one guard unit, the i!,Ol/fdli", had a long tradition going b:lck 10 lvlol1go1 times, By Timur's days, in fact, these gau{fhill had almost become a tribe in their own right. Transoxania still bad a largely Iranian· speaking native majority in the 151h century and it \\'as from these Iranians that the turhult·tlt,\(lrbad(lr militias wcre drawn. Tltty defended Samarqand against theJagatai Khan's I:lst attempt to rctake Transoxania early in Timur'.., carecr, for which TitllLlr rewarded them by executing: their leaders as 'rcvolutionaries', Nevertheless Till111r Ilad a high regard for the sarbadar.r' military capabilities, employing those of neighbouring Khurasan as well as lhosc orlbe Transoxanian cities. Most wOllld, of comse, have been infantry skilled in siege warf:'ue. Th.. va.. c..... mbling Citad..1 of KUlayba larg ..ly dale. from Ib.. Byzantilt.. "ra. H.,r.. Tin:tur .."tabU"bed II b ..adquarl.. n whil .. hi" aroni.,. urron.cod W"~I..rlt Altacolia lUI far al h:n,ir aod Ih.. A..g..'" coa"l. (Author'" pholograph)

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a.rnarqand in the 15th C. howing Cirad I entral marketplace and main mosques (aft r Ma son); B-unexcavated site-plan of 12th-13th C. fortre ofKwniyan at trar, a hase ar .. during ome ofTimur's campaigns (aft r Akhisbev); Cplan of 14th-15th C. fortre s of Zhany Dary in Kbwarann. Thi region was of major strategic ignificance during nruggl b (ween Timur and the Golden Horde, and later between the Timurids and Uzb s. (After Tol tOY)

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ur oman ag in t the ri ing al

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d Timur th II

Ihe Golden Horde in 1391 \... as ahOllt 200.000 strong-a not impossible figure despite the logist. -'\ ie.1I problelll~ of the day. Timllr Iwokl' the oldJa~atai tribal structure into .,. '. nc\\ military formatiulls, primarily to forestall the development of rival power centres. Leadership was cllIrustcd to Timllr's own liJllowcrs or his r:.. mily ;IndJagatai forces \\er(' gradllall) scltll,d in newly conquered territor). In additiulllO units uf horsc·archers there \\ere infalllr) l'i.Jrc('!I and, of increasing imponance, siege ellgilleers, \\ ho could not be rccruiuxl from the tribal nomads. :'\I05t military terminology remained :'\Iongul or Turkish. /I and IIII1J referred 10 large tribal groups.llUn~n to a similarly large unit of theoretically 10,000 men. Ha~ara. a I>ersian \\ord for 1,000. s("'('ms to have been ndoplt.'b. HlIZ. 'z',S3, ff'3-..J'. b .... bul) emirs, millg-bash;s in charge of ',000, )'u~-bashis leading 100 and ol/-hashis heading len men, Such a and wule! be called llie l\larco Polo of the 15th system mirrored that of the Ottomans, both armies CCIlIUI) . drawing upon similar military traditions, As Titllllr settled his Jagatai troops, many or Organisation their leaders IIlIlSI havc bC('1l ~ivcllli('r~ \\'hl('h ,htls 111 gCI1l:ral TiIllUl"s arm)' was closer to that of drew Iht'lll into the scmi.fcudal ditt, of the :'\'1 uslim Gcnghis Khan and his 1\longol successors than to world, Under Timlll"s SUtTCSsors milil:ll'y fiefs Ih(' armit:s of 1_ltll ("('niliry ~lllslim stales. Horse- bccamc known as sUJ'llfgllll/ which dearly had archers wen.'tlw Ill(j~t numerous troops in both the much in common with the e"istin~ Islamic if/la and central ann) \\ hich ah\ ays ~ta)('d with Timur and latC!' Ottoman li"'(lI" sysll'ms, Unlike EUl'opean in variom I"f'f,;ional forccs. Th(,"S(' regional armies fc-udallit'fs these l""tatc~ remained the pl'opcny of answcrcd directly to Timur and could be sum- the ruler .llld could be cllllfisratcd :11 3n)' lime. Illom-d to battle \\ithout l'cfcrcnce to local govern- L'n1ikt' the old ;q/a, howe\'er. Ihe su,l'urglwi ga\"t~ its ON. The o\'er;lIl sil.l' ofTimlll"'s armies varied and, holder conlrol o\'~r local administrtltiOIl and jus· like all Illedit·\ al forces, iJi hard to estimate. I t was tice a~ \\ ell a... taxlil in l'etm'I'l rbr military scn;n' c1ead~ I:lr.';c b) 15th cClllury standards and, willl a specifi("(1 nurnl)('r of follow('rs. Unlike the ;'l('l'ortlilll-; to Timur himself. " lorc.... hc led against iq/n the Tilllllrid SII)"/Irl!.hlll C\'cIHuall) became her-

.~

12

I'([ila!')' and lhus mu<:h c10slT to 1lH" European fid~ Somc ruyu/:t!.hfllJ wcre also CllunnOllS, consislln,g- of ~'JlIjre provinces or greet( cities, POI) llH'lll was regular in Timur's arlll)', ns wen: p\'ll!'inlls for retired soldiers, all Ixin,t;' dra\\'n li'om pl'Ovincial revenues, Dran animals and hurses ('Ollld be I'equisitiorwd li'om tlll' people:, while: \ariO\Js members or tile nobility were cnlnlstcd willr lhe mailltenance alld increase of" cavall') horse herds. Timur's armies also made consider:lhk Lise or war ek'pbants, The)' wcre 11('t the (irst hlall1it· ltclH.:d to their short/·ned tusks. They wcre trained LO ad\,;111('(' in lirle abreast in a series or short jumps or rlJ.. . ht~, Cll t t in~ Ll pw:.t rds and dowl rwa rds wi t h their tmks;1l carh move Enormous military re\'ie\\'s wcre a major fCaturc 01" the Timurid arm)', as they bad becn since tl\(· early days of Islam. Some w('re organised ill Transoxania during- lhe rew intervals of peace \I IIiie- ot hers wcre held deep i ll.~idc encmy lerri tory. [n SUdl cascs the reviews WCft' designed to check 011 an ann{,~ discipline and cquipmCll\ as w(·11 as irltilnidalill,l{ a foc, In 1:$91 'rirllur reviewed his illvading army sumcwhere south of the Ural mounlains in \he heart or the Golden Horde Khanate. [\·cry division was drawn up behind its

Ahno,n idenl;"aIIO Chine"., "avalry a.re Ihe.... IWO hor"....."n ;n Ihe Farm Albu.m. Only .. Per";"D inll"riplion and minor duail" of drawing I'''.'''' th" pictur" ;n an (..Ia...;" "on'",.', n"re ;1>, however,linle reaSon to doubt Iha, Tin,ur'" army and those of his ealilern foe" indud"d ",uch hur",enu'o. SOJne may "ven have u,,~ Ih" .." Chinese_lilyle n'a",,;ve double. ended sta.ff.wea.... n". (Hum AlbUIn, Topkapi Lib., M". Haz, "'53, f.87 r ,l,uanbul)

IlIgh or horse-lnil Slarldard. Tilllllr irlspl'c,till,~ t,;[("ll

ill turn dressl,d ill full rq~alia \\ ith an erminc headdress I.Oppt'd I"illl Ol nlll}-I·IlI·]"USll·d goldl'rl <:1'/)1\·11, Every soldie:r had his spe:
medieval Ldamic world from at least Abhasid an abundance of bread Timur's tl'OOpS, or at least times and was still common among the :\'Iarnluks. the majority of Ihem. apparentl}' preferred rice The marching order of a Timurid army was with their meat. :\Iobilc wooden bath-houses \\'cre similarly well or~allised though perhaps less mag· creclcd to enable mcn 10 allend the lutmtlm 'Turknificent. Timur himselfnurmally lravelled behind ish bath' bcc:tuSt:. despite Ihe pn.'scl1cc of 110na vanguard ofsevcral iI/111m regiments. Next came ~ll1slims, this was ostcnsibly an Islamic army the bulk of cavalry units, followed by the infantry unlike the unwashed hordes who follo\'\Icd Gcnghis and a baggage train carrying Timur's mobile Khan. \\'estern visiLors were also amazed by the court, treasury, armoury. spal'c uniforms and relative sobrieLy ofLhcsc mobilc military cities, lhe mher t-"(luipmcllI. The baggage tmin was itself drunkenness of Timur's coun apllarently being protccled by large cavalry formations and was reserved for particular occasions. They could. followed by the soldiers' families with Lheir own however, be very noisy. with all the bustle and waggons, LenLs and herds. Some importanl Lents animal noises of an Islamic city pluo; the rrequent were carrit-xl inLacL aboard huge cart". In camp the blaring oftrumpcts. men's tents were piLched in regular streets around Since Timurid attiLudes LO women owed more 10 the royal cnclosure. Such encampments resembled Mongol than LO r..1 uslim custom it is nOt surprising regular towns with butdu:rs, cooks, bakers, mer· to find mention of female warriors. This eaused chanLS selling fruiL and \ egctablcs. armourers. raised eyebrows among Islamic chroniclers. blacksmiths. coppersmiLhs and saddlers. DespiLe Lhough it should be remembered thai even in the Crusader era women members of the Syrian.Arab Aaot.h"r mimtur" La CIU.a,,~ IUrl" i. tki. illuu.... tio.. or. elite could don armour in defence or a castle. baul" betw""",, ..0 ...." ..." .....d ior... try. Th" ror..."" Ii!ht wit.h During his invasion of thc Golden Horde Timur .pe.......d tridnns, d,,, L.It"r h.vi.. ! lI"..Lialir t.h" ......" ~.po •••• tho"" c.rrin! lor root ..Idi" in oth"" perhaps ordered women camp followers to put on spare early Timurid F.(ilJ Album mini.tllr.,.. (I".tib Albu.... Topbpi Lib.,I'o1•. lb.a. :1053> r.nr, 1.,•• b"l) helmets and mililary gear and to protecL the camp

• <

while their menfolk roell' in S('arcb of the foe. Ahmad Arabshah stmcd that women actually fought in close combat, while Clavijo referred to a race ofmystcriolls warrior 'Amazons' who, living sollle IS days' march from Samarqand. consorted with their neighbours only once a year. They supposedly followed the Greek Christian rile and were subjects of the Chinese Emperor rather than or Timllr. Presumably Clavijo's talc echoed tlte existence of Nestorian Christian Turks in what is now Chinese Central Asia, a people who tradiLionally permitted their womenfolk equalily in both peace and in war. Relatively little is known about Timurid flags. banncrs and heraldry. Timur himself used an cmblem of threc' circles renecting the 'fonun:He' r('lcstial conjullnion at his birth. Military flags wcrc certainly llsed 10 convey messages and orders, as lhey had long done in Muslim armies. The signal/or the pillage of an enemy camp or city was the raising of a black banner ovcr Timur's royal enrlosure. A 'pOIl)' express' system virtually identical to that uscd by the ivlongols was also employed The dec:oraled po..tal or Tirnu..'ll Aq Sarai 'While p,tI..c:e'.1 (onoch'ro Shakh..i b"J w....1tuOlll .... Ii....ly COyo:red wkb by the Timurid.'), with }'lllli (Mongol) or c!W!Jlll' Ki.h b ..i!htJy colou..iM LiJ Thei.. iDMC ..iplioo.. and !eoonel..ic (Persian) postal stations along the main roads arid palte...... could be "n:n ro .. mileland p ..odaimed lbe power or the conque..o ... Timu..•.. palace ill now enti..dy ..u.iniM. wich tlc"i government mcssengcrs carrying the ruler's only lbi. c:..urnblin! mODumenlal !aLeway .Landin!. orders to all corners of his empire. The postal stations wcrc plan:d a day 01' a hall:day'!\ riding which appeared ill Ishlll1i..· art shonly al't('1' his apart, some baving '200 spare horses kept at death, based upon a Turro1llan style. The bulk or eonstant readincss. Also spaced along these routes Timur's troops, p:lnirularly those of Jagat

,.-,

-. ,.. •

---- -

A new school of detailed aod col(lurful "dunk pa.nhng de"eloped under Ihe Timurid dynasty. Thill manullcript was painted in Yazd tWO year" after Timur's durh. II shows .. Pen;'..' herll slaying a dragon with hi" ani....al_headed ""I.('e. Ue hali neither armour nllr e"en Ihe double-breasted lunic normally worn by Turc.... Mongol warriors, (Anthology or poem¥. Topl... pi l.ib., Ms, U"",. 7!1i, hcanbul)

,(1111) , te~1 eel IIII iI l'll-llnl III;' Iif Ill. specd Ill" n'~p()ll~f' In Ilrdl"r~ alit! I'HII1ll1l11111·;,tiolis. !\\I ,~:lll1t' was allfmt'd 11l1'~Capt' atldllo killill,~ Illok place hl'liwc till' tlnkl' w;,~ gi\I'll. I\llltlltl)!;h 11l1lllill14 pro\'l(kd lillnl, ;,~ f)ll olle p;lI'III'III,lf O1'1'aSi11ll dl'!'p inside (;1,ld,'lI 11(!t'(1!- IITrilf!t"}, gn';11 111l1l1h('l"~ (II' ~bill a(lilllals \\1'1'1' al other linlt's Il'li w 1'01. This sho\\s lhal lilt' IUIIlI \\ as pril11,lril) :t lnililar~' eXt'rTisl' bill .. Iso. \ll'rhap~. ,I ell'11It11l.~lr;llioll ol'milil;lr} might. l'er~{JI1:d c\(:unpi<' by I hI' otlil'l'r I'llrpS and l"\t'n h~ Tilliur ltin"dr "II("(JlIral4nl a ('ull or l'l)llrag-t' \Vilhill the al'I1\~. Tinllll' (,('!"lailll} lOok part ill fig-hlill,r.: againsl tile <.;ok!ell H'Jrdt, until. a.s lilt' ~~I'l)phnnli(" '::lIflll'l/fllllflh lJiugrapll~ pUI ii, 'his arruws lien' all ~PI'III, his ~pt'ar hrokt'll, but his "\,,rd ~lill IJralidisJlt'd'. Thi~ M'l'lTL~ \U haVe' IWl'1l quitl' lIorl1lal le,r Tillllll' \\ 110, \'arJitT ill !tis can','I', Ilarllll't'll ('hallell~('d II) "111g-1t- (l)Illbal by Ihe ruler or Urgallj dLlrill.~ his ~il'g"e (Jr lhal cit), Ti1llur :lITqllt'd amI :q)llI'an'd Iwlilrc lhl' lIIoa[ cdling lti~ OPPOlh'Ilt'~ lIallll'. IHII lhl' lattcr 10'11 his IICI'V(' and r,.·lilcd [" lun! lip. N01 ~uq)j'i~ing"l)' Till1ur's pcr~Ollat n'pul:llitlll \\';\~ high among: his 0\\11 mell am!. iUlllrn, Ihl'
\\",'1'1' ;11;1 Iml 1,1111. In till' hrid"il!Il'1"\ al.s l)elwlTlllli!> lat.·r l':l III pail4lli'. "' 'illl 1I1' r,:nsli rt'd llial his ;lrtllY was I;I\'ishly ri..asled, led and l'rlll'riaillcti. Dn'(ls 1,1" llerl!i~rn \1 ('r'C 11<1l11nl~ ("t,II·hrall'd II) Ilflil'i;ll p'ltl" hut \Il'n' I'l'llarded IJ~ pl'lml"li.)11 Or' tilt' rank of l(/I"kl/(/II'h~ro',This(')lwmpt,>d a tn;lI1 frollllilxatioll, l'lllilled him lu kl'l'l' the loot hl' I\Utl ill \Iar, a
lion of dUlY. A st'llior COlllmallder \\'110 showed wwardice ill tbe field would be shaved like a IIOm:ll1. his lace paintcd wilh l'Ouge, dressed as a Wllmall and llliide 10 run barefoot throllg"h Samarqalld, [\'en failun: in baltic could resul, in an qnirTl' having his lcet publicly bealen wilh the '1//llllI(ulli. On the other hand few of Timur'$ foes could claim such stern discipline and as a result their ,Innics ran'I)1 match\-'CI'rirnurid forces.

,S'tmfegy, Tactics ami

Siege HVljilre Timur.i·Ll'llk was an illlJ{I\'"llOr in military aflhirs as wdl as b,-'ing ;1 fille general. He was abo regarded as Olle of the fillest chess-players of his cla} . chess ha\'i rig fornu,:d pOl rt ofa ~ Iuslilll prin\'(:: 's milital')' traillillg li,lI' Illilny centuries. In addition III chess like thai played lotlay, Timur used the 'Crcat G;IIllC' Ilil!1 two camels, two g-iralTcs, 111'0 M'lllries, 1\1"0 siq!,c eng-incs and a wadI" or minister a~ wdl as 110rlllaJ chess· pieces. Other versions used oblong and even l'CIund boards. How far this innuclH:cd Tilllur's tactics is unclear: hut his rcgimcnb had sqMrale alld di"tinet assembly an'a", while Timur used deceptiv(: routes, rapid Illan.:hes and till' stratc,1(Y of t I,,:: indirect approach. I Ii, abo kllew when III retreat and was ahk to uSt' this as ;l positiVI' tani(' Iwcausr or Ihe iron discipline onlis arlllie~. \';U'LOLIS detailed aU'ounts also shol\' Timur's arlllY using- Ill:luing and even Iheir It'lHS to cross Illarsht's ill I raq, Elsewhere Timurid horsemen would pnl their bowcases. qui\'t'rs and ~cabhards across d1eir backs when obliged to walk. For (CnlUrlcii tIll; llomads of Celltral Asia had I)i'('n pre!;."il\~ a~aillst the fenik agricullUral land nf'Transoxania wherc lor'll armies had dcq::lopcd tlTi;ctin' defcnsive systems. 'riIllLlI', Ilflwever, III I"lH:d III\' ta bits lIy goi ng omo till' ollcnsi V(: ag:ainst the nomadic caMcrn rump or lltc.Jag-alai Khanate. These liule-knowll but highly suc('csslLII call1pai~ns arc among his most alllazill~ mililary arilievellll'nts. in wllich prolcssioll,ll Islamic armics penetrated dcep intO the mountains anel "tcppes (II' what an.' lll.IW Chincse Central Asia, Sfl\'icl Kazakhstan ;md Khirgizia. Thc tactic Il.~ed

hy Toqtamish. Khan ()fth{' Gold ell Hurde. in Ihe lilC(' ofTimur's invasion was tlle traditional i\longol one ofdl'awin.l{ the Icw en;r dceper inllJ barrcn hostik terri wry. Till1tlr'~ a rill)', hown'cr. m'lintain('d illi disciplille. It rdllSt:d to be drawn illto ambushes, cross....d all obstaclcs inrludin,l.{ large rivers, marshes ,\lId forests. SllppltllH'llll'd its food supply with wid....-nmg:ing hUllts and l'vclllually lrapped Toqlamish with his back against (he Vnlga and Kama Rivf'I',~ WI thf' IllJl'th('rn edg-e or the Eurasian steppe,;. Unabk 10 I'("lrcat f'unlll.:l' the Golde.:11 Horde.: :I1'll1)' turlle.:d at bay, and was thoroughly defeated
'7

Caltpiall Sen by lhe Uzhoy channel. Larg'l' boats or hargocs could lise this and suhstantial ships nTtainl)' S;likd lhe Caspian, Tilllllr lllade WiL' ul'holh during hi~ im'asions 01"1101'1111'1'11 I ran, Al thl' sanw lime hl' wa:- fully aware or Ihe \\ ider pulitic;tl silu:ttiOIl in lhe Ncar and !\Iiddk East, ~(,l'kin,1{ all illlli-Otl(Jm;ll1 aliialH.'l' with Chri,'lian princes in An
,tll

Mo'" oftht isolaloNl m;nialun" in Ihe farm A/bumsare in an idtn!ifi('d 1"lam;c ,,1)'1(', Thi!l b.III('_!Ic('n(', probably front • copy of the $h.hmun.h, dale .. fro... Ihc early 'Sth C, and was probably n.ade in Sh;ra"" The horse .. hav(' lam('lIar horseann our whil(' Ih(' warrior" w('ar lant('lIar cuira""(,lII t'ilh('r O"er (Iefl) or under (righl) "cal.,.lined brigandine.., The di"membered figure in the boUom-l('f, eorn('r li(,11 b('!Iide a war-drum, (f'a,;b Alb",.,. Topkapi Lib.• Mil, Ha"', a 153, f,war, IManbul)

h is ~tl'll1lg-I'~C ellerll ~, 1hi: 01lOm,In SIII1ahlihoWli a war..;or placing the ..",Yered h .... d of hi" fo'" upon a .. pea.r, The victim'li hd ...el li('", On Ihe g..ound .nd i" one ofyery few repr"'lienlalivell of a hdn,el wil.h a fac.,......"k visor, Comparable hUI laler "i"o..ed heln'elll ",urv,,,e and are gen"'rally r('(('rroNlto as 'Tartar', Thi", nu"'c:ripl date'" front tht ('arly '5th C, and w""" probably ad(' in Shira~, (fat;b Albu...... Top"ap; Lib" M", Ha;p;, 2153. ('35r, htanbul)

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liTes 10 raisl' dusl enough t(W a Ihr Kre,ltcr force. Timur's spy srn'icc was lerrif~'ing, reportedly hadllg inliml,crs among thc rdigious establish111(-lllS. hazaars and e\-ell .l!o\"(Tnment ministt:rs of ri\al .~Iatl'~ as Ildl ::IS among merchant eC("U ri I)' 1(lff't' ("nmisl ed of ;)genls k 11011'11 :t.' kOllr/f!li ,1I1el harsh penaltif's ;Iwaitl·d IhcN' llll'lltiollt'd unt:l\'(HlralJly in their r\'porcs_ The uses of terror Tilllur's Iroops ;Ire said 10 h:l\'c burned his ll:lTnt.: inlO che forests of Ihe Altai i\IOllntains ncar .\11J1l~oli:l. and Timur hitnsdf had a carved slunt.: ('rn-led dcep ill Coldell Hor{!c lerrilOrr to mark his pa~i\ag:t-this munumcrll is now displayed in Ihe I-Icl'lnita,l!e i\llli\(.·Ull1. Lcningrad, Ir"rimur is remembered lor 'lIl)'lhing il is for his use oflerror as a milit;\I') or political weapon_ He was flat alolle ill Irying In h;l\'c ri\'~d ruler"!> assassinalnl. nor was maSSHCI'e ra 1"1.: in l\ Iiddlc EaSlel'll Wit r!;l re followi flg the i\longols' arrival on the scene. BUI whntas Gcnghis Khan bu\(:bncd coldly and with a spccifir cnd in view. TilllUI" indulgt:d in acts 01' apparCllt!) POilllkss sadism. Tht: Slory that hI' kept the Ottoman Sult:tIl Bayazil in an iron cagc is airnosl rtl'tainly a legend, bUl Tilllllr did order lhe cxtcrmi na tion or bl illd ing of Ihe el1\ irc i\ IlIza rrarid I'rillC'dy family so as to rcmovc potclllialthreillS 10 his I'll If'_ Al the othtT l'xlrellH: 'fimur's mell devastated \\'lIole provinces. The ellccts have deady bcen cxaggl"rac,;d bUI In Sistan, in south-westnn Ar.. g:hanistan_ all t'lllire agricultural systCm based upon a Ii-agile irrigalion llctwurk \vas so d;lll1aged lhat il has 1101 rCC(J\'crnl to lhi~ day. The urban ri\'ilisalion ()f the Coldell Horde along the \InIga River was similarly shattered beyond repair. Titnur's twO sicges of Baghdad pUI the sC
Here the m ..in char..ct"'r, Sultan Is.ander, ..lone. we....,;. full lamellar cuirasli, po:rhap.. Iiugge"ti..ng Ihat in ..Orne p.rtli of early '51b C. Iran lamellar wall reu .....ed for Ihe .,Iile. Otber ,loldieu have Ilcal.,..lined brigandinell Ihough lheir hors"", carry lam.,lIar defence", (Antholog,' of Sulta .. hk,.nder, Shira:r. "<1'0 AD, Gulbenlcian Lib" Lisbon)

StOIlt', which werc en tiI'd Y consll'uctcd from mell \ skulls SCt in clay'. In Sabzawar live eaplives wcre cemented betwecn day and bricks Co rarlll 'minarels'_ Tirnur's tmops gcnerally CillTicd OUI such brutal orders withouL compunction. though when laId to wipc out Lhe cJltin: population of Isfahan somc soldi('rs wcre reluctant Co slaughter fellow i\luslims. To salve their cOflscictlccs lhey bribed less scrupulous colleagucs 10 collect lheir quola orbeads. Members 01' Ullorthodux l\luslirn groups sui: rered particularly from Timur's unrestrained policy of massacre. These includcd Llle cormnu~ nistic III/flY, Shiile i\luslillls ol"nonhcrn Irall and the similarly Shiih' !JuwiliJ or 't\s~assins·. NvnMuslims sulfen:d even worse. for Timur tnok no ,l("COUllI Uf1l1C i\'luslim doctrine ofcolcralion_ Thc Story lhal Ite ordered his cm'alry to ride down a "\Oil' of Christian children outside Sivas hecausc he did nUl like thcir song is almosl certainly a

'9

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CI~nlrc

and 1\\'0 wings, Inslead he dn'l\ up his troops into s('n;n di\'isions, the CClllre and wings each ha,'ing a \'anguard \\'hilc thc cenlrc W:l$ also sllpporwd hy a slrong rcscrv!". This rnahll·d him 10 .-drive oWI'oqtami$h orlhe Colden Horde when Illl.' • lattcr broke throu/{h TilllUl'"S Jcft and attackcd il li'om Lhc rC'II". Timllr adoptt'd a Illll'd) ddf-rl'.i\I' formaliOll agaill~ll1Lc- 5111t:lll nrDdhi'~ army al tll(' ballhDelhi ill l:mR.l-lt·dn'w hi~ tnfop~ llpulltllt'same hillillal Ihe British would hf>ld during till' lndi;w l\llIliny 10111' amI a halfl'L'IlIUrit's l,lIel". KlIO\\in,(r East"rn wall orlb.. upJKr court ofH"ra". Chad.... Thill WIll on .. oflhelllrongC'lIl fortr...lIl1..,. ........'''-rn 1.lan, and was buill Ih:1I hi, mell would Etn' lal'Rt' lllllll],c-rs or \\ar for Timllr'" SOn Shahrukh .... r1y in the 15110 C. (Photo Gu.a ••..h .. r .... ri) t'kphallts, Timur had lar,l:"t' h,LrlH'c1 caltrop" SI'('retl~ scaltered ahcad of his pllSiliol1 al nig-lll 'II a.' myth; hut the way his 111('11 ~laughlCl'cd up to nOl 10 al<:rt lhe Indians. His main c11,ti'll('('s ('011Iuo,Ooo Indian prisoners IIcal' Delhi all I:.! Dccl'm. ~iSIC'd or a ditch hiddt'll b~ hl'lI:-.ll\\ul)(!. hehind bel' 1398 is llm-L1lOugh till': lIumbers arc cxaggc~ whiell was a \Ionc!('ll palisadl' "1I"C'Il,I.;"IIH'lIt'd wilh r. C:lpILln:d 1\ atet' bllmllot'~ kge of" havin~ their throats CII! whereas 'infidel' were tClhered ahead Oflhc litH'S ill lilt' klluwkdW' Hindus wcre cilhn nay('d or hurned ,din', The lhal only these beasts \\t'1"(' brgl' l'n(Hlgli to llihel Christians or Gcorg-ia \\'cre massacred ill great til{' ad\'ancing ,'kphants. O.'t:H'Ilt'd li'l't'n t1ill' numbers, \dlilt" Christian. lar~dy Armenian, sol- ca\'alr~ \\t'n' also posl('d on eal'h lI,mk, "'hen thl' diers dcJcl1dillg Siv wilh .Iipalii troops wt:n.: hurled rrom the battlements aner their (.'it)' lell. so man) being I/Hllwn that the IJlllldl('~ of hl;,zinf.:" oil·),oakcd "tr:I\\ 01' ('Ollon 011 last rew survivcd, 'heir Ihll h<:ill~ broken by til<" lIl('ir hack~. All allack :Old li~i!-\,m'd f1ighl h~ bodie.. or lhose \dlU \\('Ilt before. Small wonder Tilllurid Gl\'alry drcw the I ndian elephant<- nIl a~ thai Timur's namc ~trllck terror throughout I ran Ii'om tlll' PI"OllTtiullllrlllcir inl:llllr~ anc! illttllllc anti Iraq, and llial the ~lamluk govcrnmClll in (,I" hma 1(' ddcnsi"c a rra y, '1 'II(' Imljan ca \ all') :1l1c! Cain) ac('('ptrd Titnur':lo slIzl'rainly aOer he dc- inlil1ltry \I~re then assaulted h~ Ti111L1l"'S eli II' hnr~('mt:ll li·om tilt' f1a II k<.. TlllIug-1t hard Ihughl, ll'aled their lorccs ill S~ ria. lht, haillc rapidly tUnled illtoa roul and thL' Sultan Tactics or Delhi':. mCIl were harried bad; 10 tilt' gatt·s or Timur was all cxcellenl ballk laclician as well as a lltl'il' c;.pita!. !Hral('.l.:"isl. He was l"l'cditl'd wilh Ill'\vtaclics, novel Iktiwe IIll' Imt t1l- ofAnkal'i1 ill l,pl2 'I'illlllr again modes of deploying his Iroop.~ and IWC\'iuusly h:ld ~l fnnnidablc; cnC:lll1pnWlH l'l"l'cted wilhin a unknown com hat Itll'malions. He was renowned ditch, pikd rocb :llLd ;1 pali~:lde" 1-1(' ;t1su had the ror making: rapid alld rrl'qucntly changing allads Wt'lls poisoned !JcIWt'elllllnlsell'alld lIlt' :Ld\';\ll<:illg: which clearly reflected lhe excellent discipline anc! OIlOl1llLllS, This time Ti III Ill' :nTan~{"t'c1 his ann~ ill conllllLll1ie:lliolls wilhin the army. Like Ihe Mnn- eight di\'ilil0ns l'ollSislilLg of a left \Iilh it), \';(11gnls bdlJre him and the Ottomans of his own day, f.:"llard, a righl wilh ilS n.:SI'I'\T ami a ('('nll'(' ill 1\\0 Timllr used wa~g-UllS a:lo odd lortilic:llions, This pariS, one of which was under Timur him~dr. His idea had 1101 prcviollsly hcen popular in lhe guards lornwd a IwparaH' division "Iigllll~ to JIll' r-.liddk E."~l whel'e tlllbt transport n)llsisted or rear, ,,'hilt' Ill(' main r('''IT\'''S \\l'rt· stalioned pack animals ralher lh:l1I cans. A~ainst the IWI\\'(,'t'1l Timur's arlllY and tilt' ("i(~Hkl of .\l1kal'a Goleit'll Horde al KUlIdllzcha in 1391 'rimur which was stillllcid h~ all Oltoman garrison. TIlt' abandunl'd tradilional Islamic formal ions of a C"Olll)W ol"lhis haltlc is opel! to disput(· lw{' ;\1:\.\

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or

or

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,,£lnia', bund n f r; I'tifi >d m d wh domillG d lhis ar a during oUlh ,lill b'c led 10 their 0 n chiers nd lhu. b .( ming Ie:, I"lianl n th militar p" r rlheir wn lrih m 'n. Timul', how \"r managed to avoid lhis prabl'l11 and \i a a I paying do e all nli n CI th . huilding, m inlcnan C, pI' vi i nill nd garri'OI in,' f' fi nificalion' lhr ughuuI his I' 'aim, The "ilal njh: lhal a:tl·: pia. 'I i I lhe d r; n . I pp ar a ,

orth-we tern lOwer of th lower court of Heral Citadel of tlerat, lh only one to hav ceramic til decoration. fragment of inscription to the left may, however, ugge t thaI a band of writing originally extended along the neighbouring \ all . (Pboto G za Febervari)

'3°0 '77-1), bUI almOSI (','nainl) Lipped in Til Hlr' r::I\' ur wh 11 a I:lrge pari 01' llaY'l7.il·~ Turn mall auxiliari s 11<1

,11'11I;,'.\ uIlht' Ot/ol/1a/l

('hang' I ~i I

/ll'kJ

h >rwi' d min t d b) 110m di tribes, h \\1 d .iu l h '" 'lrol g Iranian inOu 'II 'wa: 11 Timur' lulit 1" uti k,.'( me WI" buill on Ih ruin: of hin . e, igur or Turkish rOrtl' S,. fi I' "ampk on lb northern sh rc Oflb, Issyk Kullakc high in the' iell Sh II ~1 unlain:, lhough III I W I' 111 Turkish fool soldier of th mid-15th C, He i probably" Turcoman tribal warrior and has mu b in conunon with infantrym -0 in orne p ..hap early TiJnurid picrures of Ihe Faun AJbunJ , (e .F, R. Martin Coil, pre ent whereabouts

unknown)

'S.

SO amazing an lunch' k I \\ ere Timur s \'i lori .. thaI lllall) 'U:I ' Il'cI Itim

1', ra tising- bta-k

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alld. d('.", ill> !t. t Hi hi Il\'l'rsi n (If' 11( 't or lIlt' \\' "I 'I'll stepp' n ma Is 10 Islam, ,hamani'li, ma/!;i riLUal, \\t're ,Iill lI,ecl, 'Rain 51 n ';,,', pitT(', ol'rOl'k Iwli '\' , 110 It \'., \\' 'I' t 'hal gc Ihe \\(':11111'1', were rr>pnrle I~' u ,:d . "
or

Sieg warfare ( 11(' of'Ih ' main dilli.:r Til11ul" 'lll 1 )f hi: pl'cd

lht: armies ur nghi: Khan \Va' Til Ill''''' SUt I" 'Ill skill ill siege \Var!;trc. Th ~Ion­ ~lll' ha 1 bC('t (;11' b II -r at thil> Ihan is ~cl1er lIy n'('og;niscd hut Timur r ull 1."\\\ up n I n 1·!ami\·;1. \q,1I a.. 'ill( -l\roll~ol Ira ili IllS. In r: I illf~lIl1ry, :kilk I si '~' cllginl' '!"S, hug numJ 1'. f un ,kil!t... d piolleer: as \V II a. 'Jig-hi troo s' and a mobil' g 'Ilclarnwril' all pla)"d a maj)r 1"" 111 Tilllul'\ lllilil'U) ()r~allis,\ti( •. Ill'"

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the lowlands. Cbvijo, \\'ho callle l"l'OlH a land of splendid r
battering rams, siollc·throwing engines, Greek Fire and a huge mobile siege tower that Timur's troops sent againsl the Citadel. The walls were hcatcd with fire thell rapidly cooled, it ,vas said, with vinegar so that thcirsloncs could bc splil wilh hammers. One tower did in filct collapse, killing a numberofTimur's Iranian int:"lntry, The power of late mediC"al StolH··throwing trebuchets was illustrated by an incidcnl whell a stone, hurled by the defenders ofa l'vlamluk castle in northern Syria. rolled right into Timur's ten I. On another occasion the discipline of Timur's troops enabled him loseize Baghdad by making an assault under the rull noonday sun or all Iraqi summer. J\lost of the 'defenders' lining the city walls were in reality only helmets propped up on sticks, Sllch a coup de main also shows the quality ofTimul"S spy nelwork inside Baghdad! f\rchaeological evidence proves the suddenness with which the Colden Horde capital or Sarai fi.:J1 10 Timur. The invaders had pl'eviou~l)' fallen upon neighbouring Astrakhan. this time in the deplh of wintcr when the defenders had attempted LO build a wall of ice-blocks from the frozen Rivcr Volga. Timur's capture of Izmir 011 the Aegean coast of Tllrkey pitted him against some of the best Crusading troops li'om Europe. Timur's a rillY had alrcady fought \"cslerners when they capt ured 1he Genoese trading post at Kani\ on the nurtlJent shore of the Black Sea, hut K:dtl had only becn protected by a small lortified area ncar lhe pOl'l. l . . mir had recently been strengthened ullder thl: direction ofHospitallers l'rolllncarby Rhodes. TIle Crusaders had never taken Izmir's Citadel, \\'hieh made Timur's task much easicr. NOlie thi' It:ss he used the full range ofsiege engines, mobile towers, artificial hills of earth li'om '''hich his men could shoot down into the city. and huge fires to crack the SlOne walls. ~Iosl dramatic of' all, a causeway was thrust across thc harbour mouth to blotk reinforcement by sea. Even more remarkable for a Cenlral Asian army, Timur's Ilwn had sent fireboats frOlll the Amu Dat'ya Ri"cl' along the Uzboy In this Persian miniature of 1436 AD the Macrdonian con_ queror Ale.ander the Great appears in hill Istamic form all Sikandu slaying a dragon with hi .. bull_headed maCe, The bero Wear" norm",t mid-15th C. Turco-Iranian armOur which now include.. early mail_and_plate knee and thigh defencell. Sikand.,r ...1"0 hall hingrd gr .....v.,11 o".,r his IIhinli. (Z..l ..... nanu.h (?). e..-F. R, Marlin CoIl., prell.,nt wherrllboutll unknown)

:halll1 I againsl lh limb 1': r\'ari U' Shahrllkh's SOil ulld nomillal SUCCI'SSPI", h~IS('d his p()\\('r on Transu, 'Illia ralher th;11l ('aslel"lI Irall as :a, piall p rt , T11I.: quc lioll I' whelhel" Timur's : I'In)' used hi~ r: lit T had dOl l' an I 111' hal" I thl" warlike' attitudes orhi. '[ lln-o-~rnng-ol suhjlTLs, YeL Iugh lin'arm I' main: In I . r.. \d\' need pyl"Otc ·lllli Beg wa" IlO! a ';lIl' ,'ssf'u! warrior. hC'ing' h :t Il'ChllOI ~yhadb II ,'ailabl inlranandXlu.lim rcnll'mb 'l"l' I [(II" hi inlt'I'('sL ill aSI nlllOlll) an 1 (f l' a India throuRholit the I ph . nlury, \\hile tlt ~lall1l11ks "I'E?;ypl had I e'n using cannOl . in e 1 huge OhS'l"\'alury lhat hI' 1 uilt al ,':llllarqand, Timurid 1 -line gT'W \\'ors,' ;II'IC,' "Iugh Beg", II'aSl II\(' I :~bos, The tt( mans l1Ia~ lJav had gull h~ h· lat' ,+lh century • nel c 'n inl)' di Is) de III and \" '11 hi T lC " dYe 'Ii\'{' ~UC'('I'S:'\OI', Abu ~h I'll)' anl'1' Tilllur·· I 'alh, I Ul cI ar \'id n liJr ,'aiel, sulll:red a :erioll: ddi::ll at lit' hands Ill' thl .\q U) nlllu \\ ho ha I in lurn rt'pla ('d the artl !{lIllpO\l c1er il Til lUI", who coull 'Iaim a II:. ill histl ry, Th, lI1o~l hmllw, wa, Bah. 1', \\ 1m ruled eilsllTIl ,\fg-hilllisl'lII ign f e:" th most 1<1Ilg 1'Merv, arly '5th . Th wer ere led for Shahrukh. D-HOll~ h{'in.~ til(' n,\,i\,('d Q, 1'a ( uyunlu Tur oman,. fortification oCBukhara which, thou h datin f.rom the 16th C., continue 'lyle' developed in the TiJnurid p riod- F()II ,'In!Jl"ukh',, dl'alh lh\' Timurid ('Illpir> l"ragelevation plan and section of Shaykh jaJaJ gat ; G-HIllt'ntce! illiO '1 ~ Ti 'S or ramily :tal ',. Iugh Bf'?;, elevation and 'ection ofa neighbouring wall. A

Tile Lofel TiJJ1Urid.'

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~lICl,( .,~()rs.

B

A

o

E

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G

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H

i;\'ClrtH:d lhe hooriiih trihal Uzhl:g"s whu Wl"l"l' SHon 10 uverwhdlll lhem, On lin: olher hand Husayn Bayqar;l\ ;d)ility tu hold his drink \\'011 !tim lhl' Uzheg"s' respecl alld tlll'y ulicll suppurted him in lIi~ ljuarn:b wllh uthl'r ll11'tnIXTS of lhl' Timurid tiUll i I y. TIll' forces which lilll,l{hi filr Tinlllr's SW'('l'ssors n;llurally had llluch in common wilh Timur's own ~lI"ln)'. '(ct tllI:rc wen: changl:s- during" tht· 151h ccnlury, Turks alld TUl'('ilil·d t\long"nls 1't.'lIlainl:d the most impurtanl lroops am] callle under lhe command ofa IIWfdi dinlll; or liirk dil'tllli, a kind or Rcneral stair which 1(lrllled pan of" lhe council of" Siall', Shahrukh g\'llerally Il'Ii milit:w)" nnairs l(l these senior ul1iens,
'!+

warEtre ensured it cOl1tinuinK Ira11iall military influcnec, This is clearly seen in lhc decoralion 01" Shahrukh's huge Citadel at Herat which was restorcd by 7,000 labout'crs aftcr being: virtllall) demolished by Timur. Siege lcclltliques changcd lillk, as when Sbahrllkh bl(J('kaded EI7,injan with a circle of fonillcatiollS just as the 1\lolI~ol.~ had surrounded Bnghdad with a ringorwalls in 12,"18, Thc importancc of fOl'lifwd \Owns in later Titllllrid dcfensivc poliC) led S01111: rulers 10 giVl' larklulII OJ' tax-exempl 'hel'o' status to cntire filii'S. Large lorces wcrc also staliolHXI along the vull\er"bll' northern li'otlli\'r whicb f;lccd 1I0111ad attack, Therc arc rc/i.'renccs In bclc
Tran

0

nia, mid-14th

1: Timu~i·Lenk,

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2: Jagatai tribe man 3: Thjik p a ant infantryman

3

3

B

Timur' f, , Iran & Iraq, lal 14lh 1: Jalayrid heavy cavalryman 2: Thr 'oman tribal warrior 3: Iraqi Arab auxiliary

Timur's cavalry, c.1400: 1: Cavalry offi r 2: Thrkhan 'hero' 3: tandard-b ar r

3

2

o

E

En mie of tbe Timurid ,15th I: Thrcoman tribesman, 2nd balf 15th 2: Thrcoman cavalryman, mid·15tb 3: Georgian ca alryman, late 15th

2

3

The Later Timurid : 1: ultan Husa)'n Bayqara, 2nd half 15th 2: Timurid guard man, mid· 15th 3: HUD man, mid 15th C

:c

The IWl of the TimIUrici" 1: Uzbeg rior,laie mtb 2: Timurld warrior. late 1Itb 3,4: Timurld lady and child, late 15th C

3

An il1(Tcascd Wit: ofelephallls was probably lhe 1110st obviolls eh;lIIgc in 15lh celUury Timurid tactics. Shnluuklt scnclitlg great numberli against lhe Qara Qoyulllu, They 1I0W formed a shock torce ahead of cnch baliaHon, much as they had long done in India. In I;lel elephants proved quite sUl~cessruL particularly ill Ibe lhree-day baltic of j\lashgird in 14'11. Shahrukh's
elleampment because thc encmy held snrrounding heights, and they also lit numerous additional camp fires 10 enhance their apparent llumbers as Tirnur had done, Sudden surprise attacks. even against the Mongols who were ex pen in stich warfare, could swillg vic wry in I~lvour of' a smaller force, Latcr Timurid armies still used Central Asian lf'ITOr tactics b)1 massncring a nomadic foc's menfolk and slaughtcrillg hcrds so as to weaken a tribc's military pOlential. Having defcated an enemy in baltle Timurid armies also tended to withdraw elite units hack to their own heartland, leaving auxiliary troops to complete a conquest or mop up a scattered fo(,.

roes oft/Ie Til1zltrids The most powerful lut's thaI TinlLlr l:u;t:d, the OttOmans aud the iVI;lInluks, arc cO"crcd in other i\!clhll-Anns titles (sec Ilr/llil'':' ofl/Il' OIl(J1111111 Turk.:. 13m 1774 MAA I.~o, and Till' i\!(llIIllIh lonheorning), Among others who kit tlie full weight of Tilllur's attacks were till' arlllies uf a I"ragnlellted I rail, The tradilional Islamic mililnry system or slave-recruited profl:ssinl1al ,~/I/I/m!l or /II(jm/lik soldiers had revived in I+tll ct'lllury Iran as Mongol nUlhorit)' wns repbccd h)' a series of local dynaSlies, Urban militias, mallY hased upon SII); or 'mystical' Islamic: brutherhoods, also played a major role. Among Ilwlll tlw wrbal!afs (sct' above) wcre the mosl dlcctin', Warlikr Af~hall ;llld other mounlain peoples, most of" whom had ;1 longinfantry tradition, fOl'n1l'd lhe garrisuns (Jf many cities in areas ruled by tll(' Karts. In Iraq and W(':-I('1"I1 Iran tilt' l\longol.Jala)rrids still held swny but their nnnies set'lll to have consisted of slavcrcnuilcd prolCssionals rathn than Turkish or Turco*i\longoltribeslnen, III the Illounlnins rol" AIJ;ltolia Kllrdisll and Turcomall tribal warrior,~ put tip the most persist('III resistall(T to Tilllur's illvnsiolls. The ArmeniailS bad by nnw lust their indepcllClence and were caught hel\\'l:cn Til11ur and the Ql1'" Qoyulliu The Z,.farnfiJl.m,.h i51,,' ideatised aceounl ofThnur'" life and in thi" cnp)' made in Shiraz, '436 AD, I.he conqueror is hunling wilh a hawk. NOle the parllsol carr;"d by a mounl"d IIl1end_ anI and the Iypieally Tin.urid hal wilh an up-lurned brim, (Zafarnamah, localion unknown)

33

.,. ,

---.

i!:(\.;

-,I';

~~

N:~,

of

'~i~

0

~. ~

'. ,

Ann", armour and hor"".arnlOur shown in thi" manuscript from II"...." <:.1440 AD, include more 1.. 0 ..,11.... than "pp"a.." in piclu""" fro", we"l"rn Ir.. n. Thi"could ;ml;e.l.. thai w""pon_ ry ...ali more old_fashioned or ren\ain ..... ond" .. !llrnng Central A"i.. n u.flu"nc" in Afghan,islan and e..Slern Iran. (510..10_ 0 .......

10, Royal A"iat;cSod."y, Mli. "39> L
Turcomans, whill' ti'arill~ Ih(·local Kurds mo.,t or all. Gt'orgia \\as dC\':tslt'd in a snit's ufTimurid Im'asiOns aml graduaJl) , .. nk illt(. anarchy. i\1i.~­ Irll~l 1'('1\\1'1.:11 lilt: Gc'ufl4iatl!; and i\rmC:lliaIIS dCq)CllCd although both wcre Chrisliall. Georgia \\ as. howc\'t'I', able In mal n t ai 11 clw:w III il i 1:1 ry 1i 11 ks willi lht' Byzantin.... 'Empire' Tl'ahzoll {)11 the Black Sea whieh remaincd a ~mall bUI slrat(;gicall~' important Slatl', It i:. alsfl worth noling lhat Ihl"l~dl of Istanhul (BY7.alllilll' Comlantinopll') to th(' Olwman Turks ill I ~:>:~ caused Its.'> ora stir ill tht.: ~lidd1e East tllan in Ellrope" i'.kallwhih· lhl' i\ I onWl1 Cfil,kn H nrde SIlIT;w"d Ti m II .. 's i nV:l",iollS and, though weakened, was slill able to (Tush attemplS h) ~uJllC of ils Russiall vassals 10 rebel. III teresti Itgl Ycllough the Russin n pri necs ,({("Ilera II y remaiucd loyal to their Colelt'n I-Iorelc l)vtTlords rat Iter than sidill,l.{ with Timur's invaders, mati)' of their troop~ fighting in \'Iongol armies, The military organisatiOtI of tht' Coldcn Horde remailwd essClit i;\II)' Lhe sa me as I ha t orca rl I('r !\ Iwig-ol St ate,; thollgh lht'rc was au illcn:asillg use of infantt'y ill some areas, particul:lrJr ill Ihe Crimca, where h:l I Idgu liS \\ l'rc: r('pMt cd by 1493. [n the IOllg nlll the mOSI imponanl and best doculllented or the Titllurids' locs \'/('["(' the (1'1r01 alld Aq Qoyunlu Turcomall$ of AZ
ur

'I'itllllr"s d(,('d illtll majllr rq.:iullal pll\\('r~, 'l'llt' (~ara Q(lyunlll \\'Ct'(' 1)\'(·['tllroWll II)' Iheir Aq (.29yunlll ri,"als hdilre Ila') could ,1('hi('\'I' much, hutllu: Aq Qoyulliu WI'Ill 011 tIl (',,,'\'(" out:l state tltat Strt·tc!Jnl almost from till: l\lt'ditl't"rallcan 10 (he Arabian G~l1r Tlwy dominaled the ridl i\[('~opotatlliall track rOlllCS, Illa;lllaillCcI polilical rdatjOll:' \\'ilh ~lllslirl1 :.1;ll("S in India and clllti,"au,d an alliance wilh Veil ice. as hoth lhe Aq Q.o) Lllllll and the Vellctialls lea red the f:lst I-{t'owillg Otlum;lIl Turkish Empire. Tltl' i\q (."?!JYllillu also r('cog:lli~I'd lht"ir Iwed [(II" tllodl'rll firearms, Sillt'!' tIll' O,I(llll:lll.S \\'('n' aln'ady 1~IIl1Ccl li.ll' Illeir .L(l1tl1ll'l") , :\n
f a cording to on

both , as w re th ir stilJ in u' W

I'

a

I a oull b g th'r dIn ath th rul r" bann r. n almost uniqu r ord of an q oyunlu militar r' i·w h Id in southern Iran in J476 survives to pI' vi 1 a detailed aunt r just ne pro in ial Turcoman arm at th height or q OJ yunlu p w r. Thi. Ird-nama" d r i b ' a I' wlli h in lud d ur m n plu a small I' numb r of Kurd and LuI'S. Eis wh r rab ar known to ha ~ I'm d an imp nant pan 0 the q OJ yunlu tat. A y ar arli'r n ti n amI . ad r I' port d th pres n of many fi t, Idiers in an q Q yunlu arm , m st appal" nlly bing P 1'siaos. In the revi w d . rib din h Ard-namah Lh troop were in thr rade,: th pll.lzall-dar wh wor full armour the rdinar tirka. h-band hal' arch r h rm dtlle bulk fth army and th gl/.lb~glz(lzi or '. ervants' whosf' role n:mains un lear. Th' r>vi w it ,If last'd S'V ral day' tf op ha ing b n 'umm I ·d [I' m th· surrounding distri t . Prc d n wa giv n to r ligiou 1 ad rs and 7. 'alots who (()ught onl (or the glory [thcir I" ligi n; the, ljk the alii T , h dlh il"own Aag. bann I' and drums. Th parade start d at sunrise

r

Ankara

•

.

Dornol(;~U:

--- ........\

Mamluks , / /~

~

".'

.

..'"

.-'

( \

Arab tribes

\.

".

The Timurids & their neighbours c.1475

Makram

'..,.... /a-...... \/i..-L.,;:; 'c:-. '., ;~,

C ambo~ \ -.;;.,

• I

i

~i

v~

~

9

3

simple horsl'-ardH'r.~. ,\nnoll]"('c1 hea\") I-;I\'all'} seem. in raCl. 10 h;\\'I·liJl·mt'd around:!5 per n'lll of lTIOtlllll'd II1C1l. Ihnll~h ii, ~11l1l(' rill'lII,l1iolh lhl')

\\'ere a~ li·\\ a"!J pt'r CellI. Scnior mcn at thl' 5iUllan· ... coun had their m\ n .!-\"u;ll·d~ n:~iml·nb. Tltl' "'lllt.lll·~ Wl'\·;ll1h. r.llIc:in.c: from lalcOllers. 1lU'S.... l'll,c:t·rs ;lInl ~lirJ'up·hf)ldl·I"" In kitdU'lI ~Ialr. lion knpt'I'" .llId hi.!-\"Il\\,I~ ,c:uarch. plll~ Ill;! 11) 01 hcr ('xul it' fUIIC"liOlI,lri('., .• 11,(1 paraclt-d ill rull Illililar) t;t·:tr. The lHilit.lf\ clIc:illt:t·l... or .)almn \\ CI't: included "Illm,~ I he>;t· ·:.(.'na nt~-. On I ht· arlll~

dn'\1 tip in ha"l(" b) Ih(' sultall \\ IH' 110\\ pUI 011 his armour and rllck .110111{ Ihe ranks bellcalll a para....ol \\llilt- Ihe I'n~al ... 1.llIdard or Ja"jaq f1ullcrcd behind. Tht· hurclt's Ol"t';;tddl(,rs. flt·tdlt''''' .. t ...... orll,d \ il'llIall(...... and "pIll htT.. ril'..... \IlICJT1~ olllt'r mili 1:1 r~ dUI if'''' I hOI I 1'('11 to tilt' .\'1 (..b)~ 1I1llu a Ii"r ,Ill'i, I·OllfpH·...' 111"'011 I hlTIl Iraq \\.h llit· nrj.{i1lli~;ttitlll .111 ;1111111,,1 //"/01' ~ Illslim Pi IC;l'i rna~t· .1('1'0""'" till' dC·... CTh (.l" •\ ra hia to ,hiI'd dOl)

Ihe ('lIlire

rormalion 10

I>t"

in~llt'cl('(l

ur

Th.. la ... Timurid pC!riod ...a" a 8...ld ..n .g.. (or Isl.mi., mini.tur .. pa.inlin8' Subj...,u b«.. me incr......ingly ..omanl;., bu. illulitMltion.. o( r .nd .,.rna",....·.. r .. nil! C",n.mOn. H .. r,", in .. n...lh tll .,.. n .. pain.ed .round '493 AD, lur_ bllnC!d infanlry ar ddC!d .... Ih .. normal armourC!d ca...alry, drun"" ..r" and .r."nl'r."r". (Ilri.i.. h Lib., Mli. 2,;900> f.1l3''', London)

011 a Til 1I rsda} , pa,si H)4 ill rrolll ur tilL" ruler II ho sa l upon a jewt'l,slllddnl Ihnmt: wt "n :1 c:lstl,' bah-lin y. :\ I'( III Ilcl II in I SHJU(I hi:; "I'my com III a nders. milil:I!'y ,tall' alld 1l1l1.,ici;l1\s. Ivith a mounted herald 011 lbe .I{rnuml beilHI n'ady tu intrlxluct' dignital'il'S and ullit't'rs aC('l)l"ding to their rank. :-"Iilitary unils paraded (Ill lht· sl'clmd day, L";lch being summoned in turTl b) /1lI'f1ji5 or statl'ofJicers who otht'r\1 be f'i1l'Il\L"d:l MIn orCI-IQ. On tIle righl \\ing \\;h all dill' or ht'a\') ,lrmOLlI't'd Iroopcrs I'idin~

full} armoured hors(" ;lIld led b} a \Ihite banner. i\'i ('ach unit 1\;1' in'pcctc'd it.. onicer prilp:d upon hi... pra)t'r mat and Ihen olfcred girh 10 t ht' ~u Iiall. '1·llt· left \\ i n~ \\ "re rc\ il'\\ cd !lex I. an elite heill~ annnurt'd Ihoug:h Ihere wa~ no llH'ntion of hOI"S('·arnuHlr. Ihe hulk or Iroops again lX"inl;"

Th...rl ...(Tu...,......n "'''81..ro Iran ~r"wlilyli~ed and o;...m .... wh., cr..d", mililary r.~ur..o; bc:in", ~implifiC!d wilh lillie ...a ..; ..ly in Ih..ir eq..ipmenl. In ,hio; manuo;cr;pl ...r "., ..80 AD .11 ..·....r A..I«I hdmclli, lH:nd".nf .....A"pli, ;0 hold,; a largl! wing"d m." (Kh....... rn .. m .. h. M .. ~ .. un. ur Dr.,orali".. Arl,;. f.
:\1 I'IT' I 'Illel ,\Inlin
~tat'

(r

ral .\rabia .It this time and (h huge 111111ber~ pilgrim,> '\ Itu gill hl'r' I li'om all 0\ IT Ihl' 'a.'(('rn hl.ll1 iI' \\orld, lhi.. \\' a major Illililar ' rc:-p)l1sihilil', A plTllapS unl'xp(' t'd rbi- Ihal r II lO 'I'llI'(' lIll.IllS had risCIl t I PO\\('I' in lht' III )lIlllaiJlsor.\n
or

,"\0

th ' b '~t knm~ 11, IlUl thl'} an' llnlikd)" lu huvl' be-n 101 I' inti - t'nlargr I arlll( III rn, . (J lIane-r Iha t grnv

f

lip IlI'ar Tilllllr's I alan', Tilt· ~pallish Ira\' -lin :1, \ ijo \\ iln 'S -d Tilllur in p 'Cling' WI':11 nr' rna Ie \ 1"1' the, I' ,illu: 'aI', ill 'Iu lill IH Ie:. lltall 3, on 111"\ armCHl1 ,( Ilwl' , 1'111' ". n' Ilf r I

h} slIhj '('I rlll'r,',

;l'

r!l
b

'ill~

famed

r

r i~

ArJ11 alltl AI71l0Ur Th I I II all I I -Ill . '1I1ulir, W(T' '1 lime or trallsilil/II ill IsLlmi \\ea\ Ollr} .ill.l a:-. L1wy w 'I" in Europe, Thl'l'l' had IX"n a gn'al in rcase in Iralliall arm,' produl'lioll ciuring lh" I..flh ntul'\
......... ·······1

( (' lillii'} . Il'lti 011 'l' b' 'II rl'~arcll' I as tht' "rthe ea. I whil tit' mountain: or : ntral

Tl'dllSnxalli:1 <1I'1ll0LlI')

Asia had hlTl1 ,"r il1ll OrLanl 11 ininj.{ ('1111' ':-, ) (illlC'. how'vn, lh' < rca had he l m soml'lhillg' of a I aekwatel' ill terms or pro I leli III ;\Ild I('('hllolo~ , This. roupl ·d ",illt [II(' immense Tilllllr':

ckn an Is of hi: 1.1J'~1' an I "\ ,II 'quipped' rmy, ('n 'olll'a~('(1 Tilllllr 10 Ink kil1(' arm ur r, fi' m 1111' Il'l'l'iloril'.<' Ill' rc I1qul'r 'd buck I) his I'"q ital S:ulJarqand, 'I'll . ~,,()rd'milh' Dam'ls u. \\

or

,r

IT

Reeo.. tru tiOnJi of late 11th ..... tury Turco-lranialt arnJour m d by Dr. . Gorelik altd Mr. L. A. Paru nikov of the Acade.rn of aCltce, 0 cow lLttd "OW in the Kulikovo B ttl 11 Id Mu unt. uch ~our wouJd have beeD worn ill th Golden Hord lLttd by Timur' troops. A-front and ',de of a embled artnour, tb {rODt view aJ 0 owillg a tDaiJ birt worn b neath; B-O-exterior au.d interior view of rear (B) frollt ( ) au.d houlder (0) piece of e oud nnOur.

37

excel! 11 t mail. or th su. Nl ulltain Ih nand 0 rband had I ng- b n lamen [or am s produ tion and would serve the· q unlu a. a vital 'our (' or weap nr during til· 15th elltur. n a pur I. tc hnolugi al ba is, ho v'r Iraq may ha > b n m r . dvan d lhan Ir nian and th r n nh rn enlr s. impl Jow-d m d helmet' wer the most ammon rorm in imur s da but bulb us. - all d

o

em S

L.---I

'LUrban h 1m ' had alread appear d ill nat lia by lh mid-14th ntur. hi. di.tin ti e 5t I was n t as ism tim s b>li>vcd, a amJuk r: ·hi n bUI may ha e ri inal d ill Tur man a tern nat lia < nd th au a5US. urban h 1m ts Jat r spread t Iran in th • th enturyand ntinu d t b mmon in tl e tt man En pir but I 01 in mJuk ria r . g pI. La ij d s rib d the helmets in Timur' rmoury as 'r un I and high turnin I a k t point, whit in rr nt pi om down t ~ard th fa and nos -whi h i a plat, two fi. ger' br ad r aching the I v 10rLh hin b I w. Thi pi n b rais d 1'1 v cr d at will and it s rv to ward oW a ide 'trok b a sword.' H 1m ts with anthrop m rphic ra -ma k vi r ar mar ora pr bl Ill. Th yar g nerall r gard d as T rt r' (Tur Ion I) st Ie but had been een in east 'm Islami art sin e 1300 - though 'urviving 'xampl s ar mu h latr. Helm I g n rail ,gr w m re pointed in the 15th entur some mpl being xtra agantly tall. B d arm ur am in diller I1t t le5, and difTi r nt am unt ould b worn depending upon ir urn. tan es. R Lativ I light armour wouJd r r . ampl ,b u d in du Is b t\ een hampions. On e again Javijo pr id'$ a d ·tailed d ripti n ofsom typi al t le·thi j parti ularlyint rc·tin a. b mp r th m to well-known European armOUl' o[ early 15th ntur pain. Th y w re h aid f th rt tit hed n a ba king or r d anva . To our thinking lhi. app ar d r. well wr ught x pt that th plat s ar n t thi k enough and th y do nth r know pr p rI to t mp r th t I. ... Th suit ors -aJ arm ur are mp 'd cr mu h a i· th us tom with us In pain but they wear a 1 ng . kirt mad r a III t riaJ th r than that whi h is ale-arm ur d nd this am down so as to appear b 10 a mi ht b with u a j rkin. lavij wa obviou I Aru10ur of the TilDurid period. A-CraglDe,nts of mail-andplate cuirass from Kuban area between the Golden Horde and Tirnur's Empir", late l-ith-early 15th C. (Stat" Historical MuseUID, mv. no. 34., Moscow); B-lDaiI-and-plate dizcek thigh and knee protection, Tirnurid late '4th-early 15th C. The construction oCthe knee defe,nc" iB similar to a European poleyn of the a.rne period (Military Mu eUID, mv. 413, I tanbul); e-H-fragtnents of l-ith cent'W'y Turco-Mongol armour of scale (e), lamellar (D, G and H) and DUlil-and.plat" (E and F) constructi.on ("x-Derevyanko and Natsazgdorzh); 1artDour of
8

comparing Timurid arm{IUI"S 10 tlw ~(';lIt··[iIHXI brigt/1/dilll'f of \\'eliterll Europe:. a form of armOlll' lhal mi~ht itsclfhavc had Eastcrn origins. Lamellar armOur di1>:lppenrcd from th(' j\ riddle East during lhc !ruer 151h CCllIury though it survived in C('lI1ral Asia and Russia, Instead il was replaccd by a 1>pc(ifically Islamit, lorm of lnniland-plale arll10ur which was probably invcnLed ill Iraq, Herc smOlll iron platt's were linked to 0Ilt' OllltHhcl' and to sh('cts of mail. This ingcninus systcm gav(' fkxibilit)', cxc.:c1lcllt proleclion and avoidt'd lilt, prcvious lIt'('d to wenr two OlrmClurs of lamtllar and mail. t\lail-and-plille slyles continucd 10 evoke dUl'in~ lhe 1"lh ('cntm'y, hUI the c!Wf-fl;lI(/ ('four mirrors'). in which four l;lr,~c linkt'd pieccsofirnn protccted dH,'st and Olbdolm:n. did nOI appear unlillhe eady 16th century. Velletian accoulltli describe the Aq QOYllnlu as wearillK various sons or armour; 'SOIll": WCr(' covert:d Wilh sirong thick hides lproh,d)l} bulf Jcathcr('(KUS like lhose used by dll" l'.longolsl ahk to s
l1tough lilyLisNl, Ih~ arl ofTurc;oman W~lilern Iran c;ould ai_ ~ d ..la;led. Thill ma.. u"cripl n.ad~ in enan in '''94 AU show.. ca"alry wholl" pruumably mllil or m"il.and_plale body armour i.. u .... ~.,n und~r Iheir lunic". Th .. hidinfl; o(armour bc.olPlllh Olh.. r dOlhiug was a long......lablish..d Middle EaSlern .,.adition and lIpp..arll 10 ha".. bren normal among Ih.. I ~I.h C. Ollon.an Turk" and Egyptian Mamluk .. Its w ..U." the Turcoman Aq Q.oyunlu, (Sh"hnllmlilb,IO<:1lI;On unkno_)

come frOIll Vcnclian visilurs, Jos('ph Bilrbal'O slatetithat, ortbc :.!,ouo al'llloured cavalry IllOUlltS al Olll Aq Qoyunlu review in 1474, sOllle were '('ov('red wilh cel'l;\in arlllour of'iron made in liltk squares and \\ rou~lll with gold anti silv('r, la('ked together with slllall mail which hanged down in III a III ItT 10 the ground, nlld under the gold it had a li'inp;e, The I't'SI \\'Cl'(' C(lVt'red with some leathel' :tIkI' our lVcllclian! mOlIIIl('l', somc wilh silk and sumc with quilled work so thick thaI an arrow ('ould nOI havc passed through il.' Such horsearmour was apparclllly made in the Caucasus rq.:-inn of K ubachi, \ \','a llOII' \\ ('re :.ta nd;ll'd isc,l, llJOug'11 Illo~e orIhe ditt' could he highl) d""orated, Lar,~e Cjll:lIHitit's 01" l\I'phl'itt' jadt' \\tTI' hrougln lJal'k LO Trallsoxania b} L'lllKh Ikg's army lollowing: its expedition a!-;aiml lhe .Ja/.\atai ~Iongols. t\losl \\:l~ for lhe decuralion ofTilllur', lumb, bUI il is inlt'rl'siing 10 lIuh' th;lt malty splendid l~th n'llIur}' Tram39

••

t:-

y~

\1t

,

•

"' The ..amn orr.,.., ... ~iev;'" 1!IIla ica";",'. II...... lO.u'vived, b.n ., the dOH or th.. Tirnurid riod 0"" sreal _ e is preHrvtlM lradiLioGat ,.c",n. Uue die .u.rd" or on" or d ... 1••1 Ti... urid.. S..h .... H ...."" Ba"q.. ra, aU"Dd their ruler whue he cons.,lIs .. h.,rmil. No...... armoured Midi",.. ha" themail ••"elJl.uo(h.is

h..I...M hooked up 0....... hi. n,,,•• I. (Briti"h Lib.. a-h. Or. 61110, LondOd) o~i\nian ,:tlJI'C:t had rr.l~ill· alld ill1pr:tclical jade quillo!l'. Timur him,df \\iddcd ;, bull·hcadt-'tl mace. a pal'liall} ,} rnbulil' \\l'nptlll u!t(.'d b) Turkj.. h ~lIld lrallian chicrwim. for nHtl'} c('nluric~. A Iarg(' lIumber orafllll'r'~ thmnh.rinKs h:Hl' been lound in Turco-.\lol1~ol ;wel olllt'r I"lamic .HCilS of tlli:. period. Tile L1H' 01' sui'll thumh-rill).(s \\as, hO\\l'\'el'. l"(',l{arded ;h a l>i~11 of \\t'"knl':'s though tht) \\en: useful rOI'lollg'l'all~(' shooting, Tllllmh· rings rarely appear in flt:rsinll manuscript painting; hut an apparellt 'Icapal'd's lail' wrapped :,round lht' arrQWS in SUlIlI' quiw'rs dot·s becoll1e C-OlllnlOlI in the 15th ,'t'I1I11l'y, Itma) han' been to 'tvaralt' diflerCllt kinds ol'al'l'ow." 01' could simpl~ have held (hc aITO\\S steady \\hcn riding, Thc lIall,(/~ (II' :uTI,\\-guitk was \"t'd in Celltl'al .\sia as laiC as tht' ('nd orttU' tf}lh ('('IIlUl') in d<.'lt:lIcc ofa ,asllt', Then' is al'l' tilt' inlen'<,ting possibilit)' of cros.<;I)()\\<; hdllg u,ed ill dcfcn('t' of fortified poSiliollS .It this lillle, :\II',Itl\,hik lht' j:\\'c1ill sur\ i\'oo, 1:11'1."(:1) at- a hunt i 11K \\l',1 pOll.

Furlher reading [)e<;pilt' 'l'arnt'rl:IIlI"" notori(,.\ alld hi<; rolt' in such

litcnlry ma'tt'rpic('t,<; a<; C]rrisloplrt'r ~Iarl(m'c's pJa~ 'I (/Illurdfli"r II" (;"(11. Tallll'r1atlt' ha.s t't'(Ti\\·d relati\'d) liltlt' st'dOll'; atlt'llIiun frolll \\'I"tl'fTl ~'h()lars. His dl'srcndallu, the 'l'ilJ1urid d~lla"t), ane! tht'ir l'iv:ll~ 11:1\(' 1)('('11 1'\('11 111(11'\' pn\lrl~ <;t·r\'cd. I.i~tcd hd()\\ al't" l('lll.'ral hi"toril's \\ hii'll dcal \\illl till' Timurid periud nne! 'Ollle mor!..· sp('('iali"I'd \\(Irk.., lI1:1n~ h;l\in,l{ llrit.::inall} Ix'ell \\ rillell in R u~,ia man~ ~ (":n'" ;It.:0.

:\1.:\1. Alcxandrc'oCu·Der..ca,I.A1 Ca"'/Hl~lIrJl' 'I imur l'll,ltlfltoli,(I-I02) Lundon 1977 T, :\11('11, Timllrul Hl'mt Wi(',bad('l1 l!tH:J \'. \ '. Ibnhold, I-'Ollr Slut/If\ M/ II" IInllJ':,r fl!Crnlml ,I.,i(l, 1'01. III 'lu,I?,II-Br,1?, I'('prillt Ll,i(h'1l Igh3 \'. \", Harthold. Hij/f)lrr ,1,1 7urn n,lnr Cmlmll' treprint Philadclphi.l 1977 ~1. HriOIl, I., .\/imoriul tltj Si;r!o: XII' IIrdl', /,j lumlm'J, Ttlmtr/m/ 1!',lris I(l03 .\. BrullO & C. Perhdlini. 'La F(Jf!I'ua di Heral in . \1~h:lllisl;lI1', ill .1 rd,,',II'1((1 I-'orl!firoltl, .11I/ til'l I (;OI/J?ftjJO 11I1'''''f1~lOm''t. 1~/tIcm::.n-IJ(Jlo,~fI(l IR.1I ,\Iar::,o 1916 htitulll II.dian"
F. Nc\' '. 'Exp s' d·s ;u rr' de Tam rlan 'I d , hah-l nkh', Jlwwires courol/llfJ . par I' .Jmtlhnil' 'QI'all' . , . tit' Bdgiqlll' Xl ( 18Go) J. ]',,1. "mith, Thl' Hi\tll~)' q! the arbndar D..VI/I1~~)'. 1"36" 1381. f D, and it~ SOllrces (Th Hag-u 'Pari I 70) .J. E. Woud' The :lqql{]llllllu: :/all. :l}/ifedemtiun. Ell/phe (.~vljnllC'apolis I 7 1

Ti,e Plate

wOrt 0\' ran ail i\"Clllail. His liras.' and arm flaps ar' a" s al -lin d con,'lruclion cov r d with I 'curalive I t1. H lias n) lh r del" n apan from his ·hic:ld. whil . hi h ' 10'21>. btanblll) .

c:

£

• 1: TrallJ(}\auia, mid-Lith CClltl/1J':

.1 I: Tilllllr-i-l.fllh. c. 1363

.,12:

yuung' n Iller r i. h WI1 \i 'al'll1g th light armour ( l"a Tlirki. h prince. His h Imet is a simpl segmrnlc I IYI l' wilh hardrlH'1 leallwr rar naps

]a,!Z(/tlii T"I'co-.\!I/IIJ:u/lribl'lI/l/Il1.lI/id-I.f.11t Cl'/ltU()1 [n COlltra L l() Timllr this Illan , ",rs no arm ur and ha th simpl c101h 's and riding' IlIipmt'1110f a lrit alii r. -ar'h 1 II I>asi allir(' had hardly

Helmet ofthe (4th and (5th C. showing the variety of styles used by I'h inlUrid. nd their rivaJs. Th yare ofba . ally one-piece onstru rion and indicate the high standard of metallurgy a bievcd in Islam at this tim '. A-'4th C. Turcoiberian (ex-Gorclik); B-'4th C.lranian (ex-Gorelik); C-'4th C, Turco-West Siberian (ex- olovyev); D-'4th C. Iranian (WaweJ Colle rion, Cracow)' E-Iate '4th-carly 15th C. Iranian (HerD1itage, Le.ningrad); F-helmet of 'turban' type inscribed with the naJDe of SuJlan Va qub of the Aq Q.oyunJu,

'478-'4.90 AD (M t. Museu
Th~

8

1//\

r."

changed ovcr the CCtlllll'ie~, but his poinled ridill~ boots and flaHoppL't1 fur-lined hat wcre a later f;'lshiol! (1\laill sour-t'es: pa~cs frOIll unknown malluscripl in "'(llilt .lIblll//l, Tralls()~allia or Azarhayjan, late 14th C., Tupkapi Lib.. ~ls. Hat.. ~153 rr.23\', 65r & 82\', Istanbul), .'13: TranJomllUlII TtlJi~ Ptast/1llllifaTlI~nlln",mid-t-llh unlu,)' The Tajik or I rani:tn-speal..ing: majority of Transo~ania wor(' diOi'n'lll 1>t) It'S of clothing 10 those

worn by their llomadil" or ari~lOcrali, Turcl)i\longol ruins. These I1lshiutls had mon° in l:ummOil Wilh the dress ol'the i\liddle East, lhoug-h this man's tall felt hat and tIlt: sh;t\d around his shoulders mark him as all Inlllian rather thall:lll Arab, Substantial 'bearded' a~t"i .Ippcar to ha\"C been widespread as infantry \\eapullS thmug-hout much uf the 1~lamit- \\ol'ld in the 11th aod 15th c{"llturk'S (~Iain sour,es: pa~eo; frum 1I1Iklll)\\1l manusnipl in "'tllih .l/h//IIIJ. Trallsllxania or A,.'lrba)'jan, latc I ph C., Topkapi Lib.. ~"'. 11.11. .1 153 If.3\' .t-r & nr; A"I/{lImfl b) Xitami, Baqhdad (" .1385, British Lib., ~Is. Or. 1:1297 f. I hr. Londoll).

B: T;mu,'s fOts. Ira" & Iraq, lal, 1 -Ilk ctrllu~r.­ B1: ]flla)',id "tm~r (flf'n/~plla", lat, 14th ("'Iu~r

L .. mellar ;lrmour W;lS ~oing out (If 11M' in tlH" i\liddle East thou(o;h it \\;l~ retaillcd fOI' horses. Ii \\ as g"'ldu:llI~ sulx· .......· ded b) mail-;lIld·pl.lte. an ('ar!) form of \\ hich i, ,hm\ n here \\ urll h) a warrior of th(' Baghdad-based J.t1ayrid d) Ilast~. His armour is very sophiSlic.uoo. including a oncpicce decorated helmct \\ ith sliding' nasal. hillgcd vambrac('s to protect his arllls and an ('ar!) type of mail-and-plat(' protcction lor hi.s legs. The large medallion-likc plate 011 his cht'St i.s a rdic from previous ~ longol styles while his holY is prot('("It-d by a fulllamdiar bard (~Iain suurt'c: Th,u .\/rI1;r ROlI/aT/UJ by Khwaju Kirrmll1i, Ba~hdad ('.1396. British Lib.. ~Is. Add. t81 I3, f-:~ I \. London).

H

B:!: Tit/COli/till II iba' /('(Irr;o/'. rlHlt'f11 . Illalfllm.IlIlr f -Ilh crllfll~I'

M

The ahulId;IIICl' or mail and lack 01" lamellar or platc armour worn by thili \\'atTior fi'om tlte (.lara (lI' Aq Qoyulllu Iribal t'olltl:derOltiun$ suggt'sls ~1J"{)lIg Arab, i\lal1'1luk or OW.!lllall inlluCII("t:. I-li~ hclllll't is ora ralher oltl·t;lshi()llt·d tt,rm Wilh 1''11'Tu.rco-In.nian daggerll and Turco-Mongol ceramic 'Greek Fire' lIlre...dea. Such obje<:u repre .."nl the e ..I.... n'e.. or dee.ralM .nd dilfpo•• ble weapona;n Titnu..id ...mou ..)'. A1.le ,,,Ih~.rl)' ISlh C. Tu..co-Ir.n;.n ...ilh SHded .nd t:n_ lIl... .,ed Iron JI..lp. Exe....led .1 Olflt:rrode ;n Pruni., II p ..obabl), ..e.ched Europedur;"s _ T.n.r ;n ....lon or ,,,.oA.o Oslerrod.. Musewn, Ea.1 Gertn.u.y); 8-e.rt)' 'Sth C.l",ni.n tl.i..lo..ische. Museum, D....adt:a); C-I.'e '51h C. w;lh sildM 51",1 snp lind ah"'llh mO_i. (fl.,rtni....lII:e Mus.... m, Len;n_ " d); D-t.le ISlh C. lran;"n with .IH.I Itrip (fnrmerly in T 5.. ry. Topk.pi P.laeo: Muaeutn. I.t...bul}; E-F'3Ib-'5th C. rrnm Wuny u..·•.irk. T ....kul...; G-H-131b-1..1h Co. p ..n ..ftI.a .... 101.......0 .....; J-"tb-15Ih c., p ..o .........,," un· known; K-'3Ih-'5Ih C. (rom Toktn.k u..:o.;rk, Turk....t...; L-M-I.. t.h-15th C. (..om We",)' 8e:r..irk_ (All Itr.....d_ ;", N.llo••llii.tori.,.. Mustllm, M01IC':Ow)

I

f'

flaps and 1\1:: still has the medallion on his chest, but his plated arm v;tmbran."s have an additional flap to protect the back of the hand (i\lain source: Gursluuj)-lIall/tlll. western I ran c. I398, British Lib .. ~vls. Or. '278o, f.213\', London).

1J3: Irafl; Arab allxiliary.lall' 1.1111 C1'l1lu~" The bedouin Arabs played a vital milit:H)' though minor politic;)1 role in Lhe i\liddle EaSL during Timur's invasions, fighting as auxiliaril'S in both .)alayrid :l1ld l\lalllluk armies. Their costume had changed liltle since Lhc 12th century and they still pn:ferrcd to fight in relatively light armour. mo~tly of mail. In lact this man's curn:d sabre seems to be his only concession LO IICW military styles ofTurco~ iVlongnJ origin (Main source: Tllru Alelrir ROlllflflet5 by Khwnju Kirmani. Baghdad c.1396, British Lib. ~vls. Arid. IH113, t'.S6v, London).

c:

Timur's A rmy-Ille ((wolf)', r. I'll)() II D: C,: C(ll'(lfry officer There seems to ha\'e been a Chinese influenCI' on CCrlai" aspccts of arms. armour alld military costU!l1e in Transoxania durin/{ the early part of the 15th century. This might be reflected in some stranKe paintings in the Ft/lill Albums (sec ahon.'). Here a splendidly attired warrior is almost cel"~ tainly an ofliccr or larklulI/ ·hero'. His lamellar body armour is covercd with embroidered strips of clOlh and is worn oycr a mail hauberk cut away ill 1111: rcar for easl.' when riding. His tall helmet is dearly in Easl~ Asian style and appears to be of segmcnled construction, while his sword is straight and double-edged rather than being a curW'd sabre. Other\\'ise his weapons are typically Turcoi\"on~ol (i\lain sources: miniatures from unidClltified manllsnipt in Falili Alblllll.l. Transoxallia Qr Ai'.arhayjan, late 14th early 15th C .. Topkapi Lib., i\ls. Ha/.. 2153, f.13Bv. & Ms. 1-l:lz. 2160, f.ij8r, bwnblll).

Bihuod'II influer":e ill ..lIIO vi"ihle in Ihi,. magnificenl huoting "cen" painled in H"... t in '496/7 AD. Th" anin>ats ar" IIurrounded by .. rioS of bouemen while olher riders cuI Ihr:rn down wilh arrow", Or a ma"" and tnen on fOOl carry away the carca"""... (Anthol06Y of Poems by Mashadi, Topkapi Lib., ~h. Hao:. 676, hlanbul)

hns a seale~lined cuirass o\'er a mail haubcrk and his arm. hand, leg and fcet defences arc \'cry elaborate. The horsc's a,'l1l1lur is. by contrast. in a SI ylc seen 1h roughou t CCIlI ra I ..-\~ia for ('"t'lltu ries (Main sources: millialllrc from a Slwlim/l//llh, Azar~ bayjan, latC 14-Lh C.. in Flltilt AI/)1I1II5. Topkapi Lib .. i\'1s. Ha'/.. 2153, n:35a, 52b 5:lrl & IO:la, Istnnbul).

C3: Sfmulal'd-bmrer This man's equipmcnt i~ based upon C\'ic\CIlCl: from the Golden I-torde but there is lillie reason tu doubt thai comparable arms and armour were used by Turco-i\lnng-ol ('lcnlt:llts ill Tilllur's arm). His helmet is an early form of Turkish (liic!wk \\'hich \\Ins in tllm tilt· :lllt'cstor of 17lh C('IlI11l")" European 'Cromw('lIiall' hdllll·I~. The only booy annuli" is a slee\'eless scale-lined cuirass with substanti
I,'/llikof/tl in

llir Hi~/Qn' .

{/luI

Cllfl/lft

of .

OIl( ,V(llirlll,

i\losc(lw Ig83}. C2: TarklwTI'llf'ro' This man has heen given the fullest armour seen in latc l,ph ami early 15th cenLury Iranian eastern Islamic SOUIY!'S. He is obviously prcpared fOl' dose combal lhough he still carries archery equipmellt. TIll' lamellar IwCk-gU,ll'd worn OVCI" a mail avcn· tail is of i\longol derivalion while lhe anthropomorphic \'isor is in a so·c,lIlcd 'Tartar' style. H(,

/): Till/Iff'$ Am~I'"

11/1' ;11!i1/l11)'. (. f.l0t.) AD: II r//lollml illfill/t~VIII(/1I Timur's later successcs in siegt: ",arfart' sllgg-esl that his infantry must hnve been good. They appeal' in a number of piclOrial SOUrt'CS, Lhough few wear armour. This man's hal ur helmct finds few parallels in the i\liddlc East though there "I"(: /) 1:

'f3

/):1:

,

I

,

I ... \"

l..'lIarmQllud /mllull-lulifer

1\IOSI inlhlilry had becn llnarnwur('"d Ihroughoul Islamic mililary history. The only li.~alllITs which dislinguish Ihis man arC' his lop-knot hair slyle. his unusual tunic Wilh a raiscd semi-still" coll:Jr, his ol}\'iollSly Cenlral Asian fur hal and his sword, which a,l.{ain bClrays Chilll:sc inf1uenct' (i\lain sources; minillillres li'olll llnidclilificd ll1allUScripls ill Fu{ih A/bl/II/f. Trallsoxania or Azarbayjall, laiC I,ph ('ady 15,h C., Topkapi Lib., l\h. I-Iaz, 21Y3, 11:3\' -,~r. 2gV. 771' & ~vls, Haz.:.! 160, CH8r. Istanbul; ~vlus, of Fine Arts. i\ls. 14.5.1'2. Boston).

•,

1J3: IJmilslt or Qp/lIIu/ar l\lllslim mYSlics apparenlly aecompaninl Tilllur's armies ill considcrable numbcrs. Those from Transoxani,l onen retailll:d certain prc-Islamir 'shamanist' praClices. This is rcflerled in Iheir dress and in the objecls they ('al'ri~'d, illcludin~ lile drum and slilirwilh smaillcallwr I>aKs cOlllaining ("harms. religious stripls and the likc (l\lain sources: illustl"
("".t'. H..

Marlin Coli., preli,.nl ... h",reabou'"

.... known)

('dlO('~

ill Chilla. His mixed lamellar amI mail (::1 val ry (Plate ell IIJOll!-{1t lbe brg-c c.:irClllar pit:cc of appal'Cll1 lanwllar rOl1Slruclioll which prO(Tts his bat;k is a verr strang" ill'lll (lfarnlOUr; it is !ilStel1cd by hooh and short pieces ol\'haill to a similar piece on his chest. NOle lhal lhe archery equipmellt ofa 1001 soldier diners li'om Ihal ora horseman. He has no bowcase alld his quiver is a diflcrelll furm (~bin SOUfCl'S: Illinialun:s from unicknlifi"d IJ1allust..-ipb ill Ffllilt :1/111(//1\. Transoxania or Azafl)ayjan, laiC I,~th I'ady 15th C., 'j"opkapi Lib., 1\ls. J-1az, 2153, rl31.h' & Ms, J-1az. 2160, r,aBr, arrnOll r is Sll"ll(,( u rail) simi!:l r tIl I ha I of tIle

1.~lanblll).

The blood-lh i rst y conq L1Cl'or rel<1 i llt'd his viguLlr l(l a great age. Hefc he is shown wcarinv; lhe taller cap which came inlo rashiull eal'l)" in thl" 15lh centur)'. Timur is also prepared Illl' hUllting, wilh a hawkinK glove all his hand and his favourite hird Oil all t:laborate perch. The lllultiple belts around bis waist scem to have been all arislocralic l~lshion developed from a waiSl suppon used by nomads who spellt da)'" in the saddle. Timur's eJlurtlluUS wingcd mace is largt:lr a C;el"el11onial weapon. while his sword is again straight ralher lhan bcing a ell rvcd sabre (M ai 11 sou ret's: ill usl.ra l iUI1.~ fi'om unidcntified manuscripts in FIlIi/, AI/JlII/H, TrallSoxania or Azcrba)"jan, latc 14tb carly 151h C .. Topkapi Lib., Ms. Haz. 2153, 0:6,', 471' & 1\1.~. Haz. 2160, r. 511', Istanbul).

£2: G'lllll'dslII{/1I An elite warrior of Timllr's personal guard has been ~iv('n a mixture' ofC('ntral Asian and Islamic

armuur. TI (' heln ct with its on '-pi ' b \ 'I an I mail v IHail pulled up \' I' a ,Iiding nasal i e 't'nliall) Iranian. Th lamjnated upp 1'- I'm d rrl\{'c~ are lik lh : found in t1l ' lei n H rei while L!H' 10wer-arl11 vambra 'es r~ gain lslamj . Th' scal ,-lin('eI uira,' i· w rn (V rash rt mail haul! rkwhil'lh Ihigh, minand Ult kpr t lions arc [i'om fra,gm 'nt d, Italtnamah in Falilt Albulll.~ 1rail & Iraq laIc I :J.th ., opkapi Lib" Is. Haz. ~ 15 .731' '. I 2\' . 10 I' I an ul), v

I~': Dom illp,

,1!.irl

171') 1'''1' '(t~IUlll(, al

Timlll"s :ourl ,\'as ex cpliClIll'\lhllirf II _llld hI rc' lillk I'd lioll lO IradiliCJl1il! lslami \',tlue·. 1\lany slyles, in III lin~ lhis girl's hilsi dll1hillg, nln'jollsl. (IV\' llhcirllrig;in: III longl':-Iahlis)wcl Irallian '( rival' or han'lll r~dd(lns I lit oth 'l'S jlldlldill~ the girl':> multi! Ie bell' t nel hcaddn'-;.., S ('Ill I) ha\ be n TurkiJ h (?\lain, Ire's: illllstrati0l1S l11uni knlifi ·d 11'1. IlU. ripl:> ill FI/lilt AI/JllIIII, Tr-tll. wnnia ur .\zarl 3) jail. hilt'

all~

rr

Tur o-Mong I archery. A-'ornpo ite bow of lnt form un trun to how w p n curvin 'harpl forward wben at re >t; B-bow wben trung and it main part W"ith their Per'iao nrun Sj C-COUlPO it boW" fully draW"ll ho...mg much longer pull than wa po sible wiLh a imple European how; D- on 01' thuuob-draw, h rc u in a rin to protect Lhumh end indi OIling how Iring can be puJJed baek to much h rver angle than possible with the editerranean' draw

I ~lh t:arl} 1,)111 :.. '('opbpi I.ill" 11'.:1" .j.r, I I 1\' & ~1s, Haz, :.. I ISlanl ul),

F:

~rs. O.

Hal.. :21-:,

IT, 70\', 77\,

7 ilJlllritll, Ijlh 1'1'1/11/1)'.' 111/(11/. IN/lilt! IlId} t?/ 1511t (('IIII1~V Fift('t'nth ITnlur) Irani,1I1 and ,\nalolian mal1l1TripI. :hol\' lhal infi:II11C} conlillltco LO pla~ all impOl'l;lnl I"J ill \\',HI, 1", panic darly ill th' mouillainolls n'j{ioll' or \\ h,ll had Iwell .\rm'llia. :u h troup, \l'hethl'r Il'ib . men ur urban mililia:. ha I mil h in COl1lmOIl \\ ilh Timur', ill(~ 1l11') and lheir ·lI. IlIn1l'. (bcI 1'\,1\1' \l'cI rc:i I lal Byl:, is 11th '1'",is t J in'dh Tlirco-Isla'li' though hi:- qlli,' 'I' is ora rill nO\\l a::>ocialccl Wilh rOOI S ldiers (t\rain .Il 11'1'1'; ''J'urki:h ",arrillr', P('II Ira\l'i,,!..\". I ran l, I I:~(j, I'x-I·. R. \Iarlill :011. I r{"SI'III ",11('r('EIII'lIlil'\ ,!/Ihl'

FI.'

• Illflllllfllilrib

" bOUIS llllkIHl\\ n), I~: T/U('(}ll/llll

The

l" ,. II'}

({/I'll

,IiI'

hJ'1lI fill , mid-/j/;' 1'I1//1lI)' Tlir-Of11dll arn

({',Ill"

CJ:ulllu

ed in Europ , E-rClnainB of " probably 14Lh ,leaLb"r bowe e from we"tern ib ri of type u ed througbout Lhe ur o-Mongol and most oC Lh 1s.1 JDic worlds ( - olovye ); F-ar ber' bronze tbun>b--ring wiLh P I' ian in CriptiOD po sibl 135~1 0 D (ity u"eUJD lLDd Art Galleries Birmingham)' G-arcber's bronze thumb-rin [roUl Golden Hord mid-13tb-early 15th . ( late Hi l. u eum, inv, 78067, Mo cow)

+

\vith tilt' Byzanline world, their arms, :ll'mour and modes orcom ba I beea me illcrcasi ngl y Turcified in thc 151h century. This trooper carries typical horlic-archcr's weaponry and is proteclt:d by a vcrsion ofmail-:llld-plate cuirass rhat W~IS cOHlill~ to dominate armour throughoul the Ottoman Empire, its Islamic neighbours and cvcn Russia (~Iaill sources: {'slIller, Georgian, probably 151h C.. l>.lanllsCTipl Inslilulc, Ms. 1\.1665, 'I'blisi; Turkish or Russian mail-and-platc cuirass, 15lh C., Kulikova B:lllleflcld ;vluseum).

(:: Tit/' l,lI{er Timllrids: (;/: SIlItIIll

/.5/h

Tb~ military ralihionli a5 w~1I all a .. listie "Iylu or th~ lat~ Tin,urid po::riod eont.inued inlo Ih~ lint y~arli or Ih~ liUbIift(u~nl Saravid dyn;Olily. li~r~, in a m.anu"~ ..;pl or '''9911500 AD, hO"Ii~man and inranlry lead II prin~~"5 and b~ .. ladiu on a journey. (To).kapi Lib.,l\h. 831,lIuanhul)

":n:.

alld i\q Q)~ unlll armies "'ppt'al' to ha\'(: becn equippt:d in a manlier doser 10 thai of dJ{' risingOttomans thai I to lhe' U'oops ofTransoxania. This mall wears illl carly lorm of stl-Cc's :HmClllr is of ('Iothcf)\'t'rt:d Ia Jll('llar (~I ain StlU rCl'S: SIIfIIII/(I1IWIt, westnn Iran mid-15th C., British Lib" ~Is. rg.jR JO 9 50 & oS:.!, I.lmdun; SI/(Ill1l1l1l1oll, western Iran mid-J5th C.. Bfldleiall I.ib., ;\'Is. Add 176, Oxford; helml'r & leg- armt1l1r. lall' 1:I,h C., Aq Qo}'unlu. Askt:ri i\lus., l-;tanbuIJ. F'j: (;rlll~i(//l t'1Il'fl{,JII/{lfI./a{r /.')/h crl/{II~I'

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J-1usayn Bn)'qara wail a succcssful commander as well as all cnthusiastic huntsl1lan, Here he is shown in COurl costullle, which had much in common with that oftllc carly Ottoman cmpire and dcarly sho\\'cd how CCl\lml Asian fashions had been ahandoned in r.'lvour of traditional Islamic· Iranianlitylcs. TIll" Sultan is using a pcllct bow, a weapon reserved {(,I' hunting, and carries a substamial knife with which to despatch stullllcd animals acconling to hlamic ritual. His othcr weapons arc typical of the t5th century easlern Islamic world (~lain source: ponrait or Sultan Husayn by Bihzad, c.1500, ex-F. R. ~larlin CoIl.. !In.'sent whereabouts unknown). G'2: Tim/lrid gU/lrdSIII/lII, mid-15/1t ulIlllry This illustration gives a good impression or the c10thcs worn beneath armour and heavy TurcoMongol coats. The man has a broad-brimmed hat to prOlect him from the sun, carries a bow over his arm suggesting that much of the time he t:xpeclS to be on foot, and \\'eal's voluminous tl'ousers over a shon double-breasted shirt. His weapons arc otherwise lypical of the 15th celllUry eaSlern Islamic world (Main sources: 'Huming sccne', Timul'id C.1460 AD, c.x-imperial Lib., 51. Petersburg, present whereabouts unknown; SJlo!tm/1lwlt, iran mid-15th C., Museum of Art, Ms. 56.10, Cleveland; Nizami Poems, Hcrat 1415/6 AD, Topkapi Lib., ~vls.l-laz. 78r, Istanbul).

G3: HUll/smail, mid-15th Wllury The humble tribesmen who served as bcalers in the enormous hunts organised by Timul'id rulers arc

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wearing tradi tiOllal Ir::ln ia T1 pcasa n t costume. TIH'Y arc rarely armed with morc than a d
Tilt Fall/if'iI/' Timurids: l. ':;h/',f!, worrior, lafe 151h (/'111111)' The Ul.bcg:o were still steppe nomads when they dron- th(' Timurids li'om Transox
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This \\ cll-\:quipped cavalryman has been captured alld his hand bOllnd to a wooden yoke. as showil in varioll!> mnnuscripts. The: quality and style of his helmet. scah' cuimss, platcd V;:1l11 braces and mail· and·plalc lcg armour COlllrast stl'ongly with the old-fa:.hioned armour of his captor (Main sourccs: ;:a./rif-mlllwh. Hf'ral 1·.1'~95 AD, i\lus. of Fine Arts, Boston; .(a./rlr-1IfIllwh. Herat (".1'~95 AD. Pierpollt i\lorgan Lih.• Nc\\' York). 1/3 &.j.' Tilllurid ladJr al/(I (iliM.lale 151h Willi')' 'l'raditional Islamic or Iranian styles of costume replaced TlIrco-tdongol fashions in wotm:n's c10lhillKjllSt as th<'y did male costume in the 15th Century 'l'imurid rcalms. Thus this lady's drcss conics closer to Islamic ideals of modesty, although 15th <'cn t llry ("astern Isla mic women still wore very

Th.. rise or Ih .. p .. rs;an Sar.. vid ... also llpeh doom ror the Turcom... Aq Q.oyuntu dyna..ty or I ...... and weStern Ira... H.,r., ,he Turcorna.. Sultan Murad ill .. hown all. prilloner or Shah '-"mail in '5oa AD, th .. y.... r that th .. Aq Q.oyunlu Were r..... Uy d.,r"ated i .. th .. greal battl.. orShurur. (..".F. R. Martin Coil., pre""nt whereabout." unknown)

COIOmrLlI dOlhcs. Children's clothing, in contrast, appears almost unchanged for a thousand years (l\lain sources; i\lihr-1I1\1/1slwri. Transoxania early 16th C .. Freel' Gallery, \Vnshinglon; pen drawings or COtlrt ladies by Bihzad & his school, Timllrid laIC 15th cady 16th C .. c.x-F. R. Martin ColI.. present whereabouts UnkIIQWn).

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BoI,...... ~nd s.an Mart'" USDrOl&oon~ la3l.)) AJamo&Tex.a"W.. la3S·6 Me><""n.Atnef1Wl War 18'l6-8 The Me><,can Adventur., 1861,67 Amen<:an·lrnl,an W~ ... 186().90 Am"f'IU,n C... . d Wa' Arm'l!S (I):Conleder.ue (2) Union (3), Sufl.Spooal,m, M.m\lme (<4).Suu.. Troops (Sr Vofunte
]8 Armyofl~Potomd( 252 fl.g~ of the Ameocdfl C,.... ,I War (I)Conf~e

258 :65 In 186 168 275 241 In 196 198 201 212 215 219 224 249 61 268 91 92 2]] n7 217 57

(2): UnlQl1 13r SQt.,8 VOlunteer Am.. '''a'' Pla,,,~ Irnloa"~ The Apac.he'l USc.walry la~9O The Ta,p.ng Rebellion 1651·66 Russ-an Army 0/ the C"mean War Bf,u\.h Army on Campa,gn I); 1616-1653 2) TI>.,Cnmea 1854 56 (3): IB57·BI {<4),1862.1902 Vocton'sE"em'..s (I) Soothe'" Al."a

I

(2): Northern Afr>c~ (l)lndoa (<4) Asoa Can~d,.n Camp,o,gns 186().70 The Indian Mulmy B<'\ISh TI"OOPs In the Irnlla" MUMy U;l57·59 BengatC......I')' Reg.menlS Indoan Inf."try Reg,menu Frend1Army 167Q.71!" F~l\(hArmy 1870-71 2\ The RusloO-Tur~"hW.r Ian The Zulu War

59 Sud."Campaog"~ IBBI98 no Army 1B'll).1920 9S The6o>.erRet>eU,,,,,

us

THE WORLD WARS 80 81 245 269 208 182 187

1'4 111 112 110 215 10 216 246 210 24 166 )4

119 11<4 11) 1)9 1)1 10) 1<41

T~Gerrnan Army 1914 16 TheBrot"hNmyI91<4.IB B"t"hTernlor,aIUM,1914 18 TheOttom.rlArmy 1914 la ldw~r>Ce and lhe Ar.b ReVQlIS 8"'I"n Banle In"gM' (I) 191<4.18 (2) 1939 <45 TheSpat>,sl>(,,,dWd' The PoI,sh Army 1939-<45 8nfi~ 8atl'edre,s 1917 61 A11'ed (omm~~ .. oj 'NW2 The Royal A.rforce Army 19-11·45 Th., Red Army 19<41 <45 The Rom~n,.n Army TheSA 1921 45 T~P.nzer()...... "ons T~ Allgeme,ne SS The Wanen SS Luftwaffe 1""'0 D""soons German Commande.. 0/ 'W'N2 Germ.lnMPUn,ts G.. rmanA.rbof!r"l. Wl,'h,,,,.,ht tore'gn Voluntl'.....

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25~ W~''''MmAu~'hary~~

238 1<41 169 181 170

Allied Fo~'gn VoI~n!ee" Part'SusFor(eS,nY~d""oal9414S

FIaD oIlhe Th"d Reil:h (I)Wehrm'lC;ht 174 (2) Watfen·SS 171 (3) Party& Poke Units

MODERN WARFARE In 174 116 156 t]) 1)4 1)5 150 117 128 19~

165 I~

10 109 111 181

202 H2 159 118

11 I

Mdlayan Campdogn 19<48 bO TheK~MWar 19SO-5J The Spec,.1 A" 5er'v1Ce The Royal M.n~ 195(,.84 B.nle lor the FallJanodesIo1 1965·00 (2) Angola & Moumb>Que (3), Soulh.We'lt AfrICa Grenada 198] RusSIa'S W.. on Afghan,stan Cenlral Amen(an W~..

GENERAL 65 The Royal Na")' 107 BnloShlnfantry.EQu,~U(ll 108 Bnush Inlanlry. Equ,pts(2} 118 8f,tol;h C......lry Equ,plS 72 The North""!:l! from,,,, 21<4 USlnf.ntryE<'l"'~tl 205 US ArmyCombal Equ.ptl 11<4 German Combal Equ,pt, 157 Flak)ador> 197 Royal Can~d,an Mounled Pol"e

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