Osprey, Men-at-Arms #411 Warrior Peoples of East Africa 1840-1900 (2005) OCR 8.12

Warrior Peoples of East Africa 1840-1900

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CONTENTS 3

INTRODUCTION • Limil;uions on warfare in pre
Ea.~l

Africa

• Tribal dominance relationships

CHRONOLOGY

5

THE MASAI

5

• 511CCesseS against Arab sla\ers • Conflict ,\;th Europeans: Carl Peters at Elbejel. 1889 • Org:aniZduon and tanics

THENGONI

12

• ~oI1.lH..~.uds migration in the face ofShaki.t's Zulus • Fragmentalion illlo fOUf groups - the L....le :'\\";b..... lingdoms • Encolllllcrs ",il.h the Gcmlans and British

• OrganiLalion and tactics. ~Ion'ment on campaignthe assault -the rewards of courage - nigh I raidsambush 011 a car.n'lI1

THE HEHE

17

• Strength from unification

RAFfAELE RUGGERI

I~

end

- u In Iologne, 1~1y. and tIM I/kII:nled • number of

o.prey tldM. Most reflect

• The campaigns of ~lkwawa - expansion to...."ards the coasl. War \\;th the Germans: ambush of the Zclc\\'Sk.i column, 1891 - the sLOnning of Kalenhra, 189..J - final glJcrrilla campaigns • Organization and tactics: Supplies and portcrs - the am1\' on the march -limited usc offireanns - positional fighting

'"- pattIcuIwlnle,...ta In In. ",lUota", hltltory of AMe.

THE RUGA-RUGA

and of thoI ottoman Emplr••

• BandilS, militia and 'hired gUlls' • 'nle warlord r-.lirambo ('I-leaps of CorVses') - the treacherous

21

N}'unI:Pl·)'
• Organizalion and tactics: Nyungu's company cOlllmandersrUlhless discipline

THE NANDI

35

• Iioslilily 10 foreign tradel'S • The British cx~dition of 1895 • Organization and tactics

THE TURKANA

38

• The military limitations of climate • Organi7..ation and leadership

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

41

THE PLATES

42

INDEX

48

Men-at-Arms· 41 1

OSPREY PUBLISHING

Warrior Peoples of East Africa 1840-1900

Chris Peers· Illustrated by Raffae Senes editor Marton Wllld~ow

fCQI ~ .. ~ by o.p., PI-.g MdwIcl ~. WlIIl Wri. Bolley. 0><10nl 0X2 llPH, UK U3 fin """-- SouIh. New Y!;lrk, NY 10011, l.ISA

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WARRIOR PEOPLES OF EAST AFRICA

1840-1900 INTRODUCTION liE seBJECTSorTHlS BOOK are

.Joseph ~ and two Swahili companloM INIoN the ckpartu.. of their ...pedltlon Kroft ~ I _ kt 1883, tt w . . the • . . . . . - . of brHet\.~Jng " " " lin the oM ahoWn heN tNIt put an end to the cIoml~ of the tr8dlUO-I E..t Afrk8;n w.rriot" peoples. (Joseph 1lIcHnson, Through ",.-1 Und)

me six warrior peoples ....ho dominated E..'lS1 Africa during the second half of the 19th centlll"\, The\ include fh'e traditional 'tribes' (a teml used here forcoll\'enience, ....i thout an) claim 10 a precise meaning) - the .\Ias."li, ~goni, Hehe, Nandi and Turkana; and one group ....' hich mighl be better described as a warrior caste - the Ruga-Ruga, These peoples ",ere not, of course, the onh nOlable fighlers in the region, and .... ere far from the onh ones who resisted the European conquesL Howe\cr, me\ were regarded rn contemporaries as me most skilled, the most n1thless and me mosl feared of the natin~ milital") powers of their region, 'Easl Africa' as defined here corresponds roughh 10 preselll~a\ Kenra, T;U17.ania and Malawi, For 50 years before the colonial era the region v:as fought over b) Arab slavers and European explorers as well as b) iLS indigenous human predators, who logether gave ila reputation fOl' \lolence and la..,:lcssncss, By 1900 il had been partitioned between Ihe empires of Britain and Gennany, and all of its inhabitanl.'l had lost Iheir independence (although it was 10 take nearl)' (WO more decades before me Turkana of Ken)
3

r----~-,-------/~·r---_;:=====:::;' ~

L. Rudolf

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\,1,'

EAST AFRICA IN THE 19" CENTUR Y

rlJ I?/(A....A

ShQ""ng ~1 ions of the peopIt'5 di!lCUS.'lC:d intne 101.

AM. EJgon

niTA

I,\'DIA r OCEAA

~BU NGONI

4

.i

KaIenga •

!

~LNyau

~Pbttnames ~ thoK in eonunon

in 1M 19" cmtun taLe Rudulris no",'

llV

lno>-n 8:'i lIlk" T and 1.&<: r.}"UlI l.a.ld.lab",i

II!>

put forces of more than a couple of thousand men imo the field for more than a fewda)'S. Both Bliush and Gelman E.."\St Africa were brought under colonial camral by 'al1l1ics' consisting of tWO or three companies, usually of locally recruited infanu"}'. On lhe olher hand. the native peoples of East Africa lived in an almost permanent state of low-inlcnsit)' hostiJitk-s. 'In Africa', said C'1plain Stairs of the Royal Engineers in 1891. 'lhe on I)' CdllSC of war is simply fear.' Often this ....~.lS true, but economic moti\'cs were also important. With so few resources lO go round, connie! with neighbours \\'as inevitable. In most cases it look the f0l111 of raids for callie, which wcrc the only significam f0l111 ofmovcable wealth, The economics ofallthc w.uTior tribes discussed here were based La a great extent on callIe, and for lllC Ma.....i especially lhey were a national obsession, NOl all Easl Aflic.1ns, howt:vcr, were equally adepl at war; travellers noticed a sharp distinclion belween the ordinary \iJlagers, who li\'ed in a conslant st.:..te of insecllIil}', and the minority of llibes which mighl be regarded as 'nel exponcrs of fear'. For one reason or anolher some peoples had become a source of lerror to their neighbours, in the process incidelllally guaral1tccing lheir mm security. F.D,Lugard writes of the 'illlolerable t}'fanny of lhe dominant tribe' in each area as being as great a menace as the Arab slave-raiders. They achiC\'ed this dominance for a variety of reasons. The Turkana of the northern deserts, for example. depended lot."lll) on their li\'t:SlOCk. which was exu-cmely nJinerable 10 drought., so had no choice bUl to replace lheir losses by raiding other tribes. The Nandi, a small tribe surrounded

by cnemies, musl have fuced the earl)' choice either of becoming great .....tniors or of being annihilated. TIle Masai and Ngoni were descended from migrant conquerors .....ho for generations had dC'-elopcd aggressh'e ......a rfare illlo a ....'a)' of life. The Hehe and Ruga-Ruga ofTangan)ika o ed their \ictories to the leadership of a handful of remarkable men ho consciousl)" set out to turn them into fighting nations. WhatC"er the reasons for taking the course they did, this handful of ....'anior peoples sloo
CHRONOLOGY 1835

Thc Ngoni under Zwangcndaba cross the Zambczi into East Africa. 1848 Dcadt of Z....' angendaba. Ngoni split up into numcrous independcnt bands. Explorcrs Hunan and Speke discover dlC route to 1857 Lake Tanganyika. 1859 The ~'Iasai S<1.ck Mombasa. 1871 Rise to po....'er of the Ruga-Ruga leaders Mirambo and Nyu ngu-)'a-~1 a.....e. H.M.slanley in\"Oh'cd in Arab campaign against ~'!irambo. 187~77 Stanley's trans-Africa expedition. 1883 Thomson makes the first successful crossing of Masailand b)' a European. 1884 Deaths of Mirambo and Nyungu-)'a-Ma.....e. Genn:m)' annexes the coastal region ofTangan)"ib. 1885 Berlin Conference prccipil<'ues thc 'Scramblc for Africa'. 1888 First European cnCOlllllcr with thc Turkana. 1890 Anglo-Cennan agrecment panitions East Africa bet.....cen the t.....o po.....ers. 1891-98 Hehe war of resistancc against the Germans. First British campaign against dlC Nandi. 1895 Ngoni of N)'asaJand brought under British control. 1896 Final conquest of Ngoni in German East Africa. 1897

THE MASAI The Masai .....ere uniquc among the tribes of East Africa in the fear that thL")' inspired in Europeans, Arabs and othcr Africans alikc. In the .....ords of Charles New.....·ho encountered thcm in thc earl)' 18iOs, 'Ph)"Sicall)' thcy are a splendid peoplc; and for cncrb'Y, intrepidit), and dash they are without their equals in Africa; but thc)' arc cruel and rcmorselcss to the

•

From the fTonthpl.ee of Joseph Thomton" J1'In)ulJh

M."

~nd,

thb: is the c:iassk: Image of e lete tltttl c:entury M...l wentOf' In full wer ge.r, with feether heltdd,..s .nd nec:k n.ltf, ne/be,.. doek .nd go.t h.lr leg om.mente. h.,. with spur-like horb:ont.1 eden.io"e (... Pletes A end 8J. The we. pons of the moren w.nio... were the speer. the ol.lem .hort eword .nd th. club or knobkel'l1e,

6

Another of Thomson" ilIustJ1ltlons of M...l w.nio.... this time b.Md 0I'l • phologreph teken I" t 883. showing men of the L.lklptek cl.n In their ordirYry d.y·to-dey .ttl,... The w.rrionI In"erl.bly (:limed their spea... even when 1101 0I'l the we1JNlth. bee8U" of the C:OI'l$l8nt nMd to protlKt their hMds from lJons .nd other wild enlme'"

last degree,' They had migr:lled illlO East Africa frolll the north about 300 yem-s earlier, suIT jugating or driving out the earlier inhabilallls of tile region, and now occupied the prime grazing lands of the Kem';\ llighlands, extending south into what is now Tanlania. Nineteenth CCntu .... writcrs belic\'ed that there were twO major subdhisions of the ~Iasai nationthe Masai proper, and the 'Kwa\'i'. The lauer tenu, howe\'er, did nat refer to a di.uinCl people, but was used to describe those tribesmen who had lost their callie and been forced - usualh' lemporarih -10 ...,1..e up famling. In fact the :\Iasai were di\ided il1lo 16 major clans. of which fourthe Kapllliei. Loitai, Purko and Kisongo - .....ere predominant, and fonned the cores of loose, semi~pennanel11 power blocs. Br tJle beginning oCthe 19th centu.... the main phase of Mas.1.i territorial e'pansion \'t'aS o\'er, but all tJle dans fought constanth against each other as well as their non-~fasai neighbour'S. In fact the people suffered far more casualties in these chil wars than in all their elo:temal campaigns put togetJler. The main moti\e for this \'o-arfare \'o'as caule-raiding: according to Ma.sai myth, Cod had originall)' given their people o\\uership of all the cattle in the world. so il follo\\'ed that all the beasts now in the possession of others were descended from herds stolen from the Masai. It was therefore nOI JUSt a quick wa) of gaining \\'eahh. but almost a religious dUlY, LO lr)' to get them back. TIlese raids affected almost Lhe whole of East AfriC<1 to some extelll, as f-ar north as the

coumry of the Turkana around Lake Rudolf and soutb to the borders of the Hehe kingdom beyond thc Ruaha Rivcr. The Masai were not alwa)'s \;ctOl;OUS, howC\'cr, and south of Mount Kilima..~jaro a series of disasten had prevcntcd thcm expanding funher in lhal direction. Joseph 1110111son s.,} that in about 1830 a raid b)' the ·Wa-k",...fi' into Ugogo mel "';th defeal, ",;th 'great numhen' ofwarrion slaughtered. Fifty yean later thc)' suffered another major setback al the hands of the Hehe. Masai fighting l.,bl)' Laikipiak Mas..~i, whom Thomson also refers 10 as kK.....avi..l had to the last man destroyed a caravan of 1,500 armed men'. In 1893Sil' Gerald Ponal, on his way to Ubranda, saw the site ofa baulc 12 ycars before, in .....hich 300 Swahilis had held ofT thc .....arrio..s until lheir ammunition ran OUI and had then been massacred, lea\'ing only three sun;vors. And according to Carl Pelers, in 1887 the Masai 'CLlt

Dattllil from th.lat. 1880s, thl, I' OMI of the ....ry f.w aur'l'lvl", photogl'llphll of II llMtl ClMltury

Maul "'., patty In the field. While unfortulNltely not very c"'r, tt doM .now ~I poInb of In~t. Note especlalt1 the nriety of ."lelet 1N'tterns. Met the way In which meny of the _rrtCH. .,.. holding their .".... _ UIeft" heed.. Hwe th" " probllbly bel", ~ to pnMde ahade! from the -.un, but other ob. .r'I'.... conflrm !:hilt tn.V could be hfid In thlll wav when In IeUon to ",ent off ~ (LudwIg II'On Hohnel, The

~o''''''"RudoIr

and

Sr.,-,-,

7

dO"l1, to the lasl man, an Arab caravan numbering t"'o thousand guns. laid all the corpses in ranks and rm'oS side b) side, and in scorn put each man's gun across his shouldcr', Evcn !.hose parties \\-hich did get through S(':ldom did so \\ithout fighting, Thomson was told thai the laM three caravans to altempt the joume)' before his own 1883 expedition had each losl marc than 100 men in baltle. The Masai were not generall)' hostile to ,,-hite men, howC"er, bm So:1.\'ed !.heir real hatred for thc Arabs. In the 1890s man) British adminislrators felt that most of the attacks on the Arabs and Swahilis had been provoked b)' the traders, "rho, belie\ing that their guns "'Ollid intimidate Ihe uibcsmen, had looted Masai villages and ;-ntCl'llptt.'
8

Conflict with Europe.n. It was 110t untit 1883 that Joseph Thomson made the first successful crossing of the country. He expelienced no serious resistance, although bands of warriors repeatedly appeared to demand 'presents' or impose arbitrary fines. They showed no fcar of the white men's weapons, and Thomson latcr admiued thai he had been lucky, as many of thc most intransigelll bands were away raiding at the time of his visit. The "lOSt clash bct,,'een the Masai and the whites came in 1889, ,,'hen the German [min Pasha Relief Expedition, led by Carl Peters, crossed northern Mas.'liland on its way to Uganda. I-lis force comprised twO white men, 21 Somali ask.aris (nine of whom had repealing rifles), and 85 poners, an unk.nmm number of whom \\'ere amled. Peters \\'as determined to provoke conflict \\ilh the i\lasai. lie refused to pal' tribute. and relied on seizing food and !i,'eslock to supplemem his

ABOVE An inddent ckIring the "'ht .t Elbetet In o.e.mbet" 1888. H.¥Ing prvvoklMl the MaN! Into .tt.Kldng hi"" the o.nn.n .llpkww C..-I ht.... ~ to .~t. hI.- carw.n only .ner ......,.1 d-vs of hard "'htlng. (C..-I P.t..... 1M"" LIght on o.,*A~1

'. /

A Maul eM• •t Elbejet. In this and the ~ drawing, most wanion _ Mown c.rrying 1dentig,11y p"«emed ,hle'ds, bIrt photooraphk: never atNn¥ thi' uniformity. It Is 'lmoat certaInly an error on the part of the Illustrator, who pemaps had only one shield 10 work from, (Pets,.)

-.n::..

•

LEFT MillS.' elder with II fly .wltch, whlr;h appea.-. to hava been used •• an Informal mark of rlInk. See Plata 82 for II

lWConatnlcUon of II mont typl""l ...... (Von Hohnel)

inadequate supplies. In December he auacked the hilltop \-ill,age of ElbcjCl earh on a cold morning, \\hen most of the ....
camp, forcing him 10 rctrc:n from the village and concelllr.HC his men to defend the cncampmCIll. "'hen his ammunition began to run low, he ordered the camp lO be stmck and retreated into a nearby foresL The C
9

A pond group of W.kw.t1 or agrk:ultu,.t M..... photographed In u,. 18l1Os. wrm.n accounbl confl"" tNIt .nield, of ttIft alze WeN not uncommon••!though the ~ were only eround 3ft In height. MuM buffalo-hkM .tIieId, were often tt'Ild< ~ to ,top • ~ blllI. Durlng tnelr t\rtt ene_ten wtth E u ~ tnelr contldenc::e In theM .n.... ---eed the M.... to take • defiant wh~h qukkly dl. .l~ted wNft

.ttitl.Kte.

they encountered brMch-lo.cIlng

an. w.mor chilleneed Count Telekl to UN hi, .nleld fOf' brget practlce, only to retl,. dlKomflted when the fIBt bYllet went right through It. (E,,""t Oedge) rIfl....

thai many arcas which had becn densely populatcd in Thomson's day were now uninhabitcd. If hc had launchcd a similar rash atlacl:. only a fcw rears bcfore his pari}' would probably ha\'e becn swirlly annihilated. B) the earl)' 1890s the Mas.....i were reco\'eling thcir strength, but openl}' admittcd that the)' did flat want to fight the whites, as b)' now the)' had learncd to appreciate the powcr of thcir guns. TIlere wcre no major clashes "ith thc British, although in 1894 a war pan) unsuccessfull)' attacked the IBEA Compan) fan at Machakos. A more scrious war scare brien) followed a clash \\ith some unruly poners in British emplO)' in 1895, but during thc ) 890s man) Masai were recruited to fight alongsidc thc British, especially for their campaigns against the Kikuru. In COlltr.lSt. the Gennans on the other side of the fromier were oftcn on bad temu with the Masai, and most of those who found themsch'es in Gcnuan tcrritory C\'clllllally mo\'ed north and made peace with the British.

M

Organization and tactics

10

Like most of the related lribes of the northcrn part of East Africa, thc Masai based thcir military organi7.ation all the age-set s)'Stem. The roung men were initiated into these SCIS en masse, at a ceremony which "'''as held about evcry SC\'en real'S, so that an entire age group ""ould go through the process together. The} ",'ere initiated as moran, or warriors, in about their late teens, Because herding the cauJe on which thC) depended "'as not labour intensive and the "'ork "'as easil) perfonned hr' the young bo\'S and older men, it "'as possible to spare the entire

M.... warrlon ~Intlng tttelr I.hIelds - _ p-.,. 43 for ~ttMn ~""

COw's bM>od __ In

Inlporbnt constituent of the ..-d plgll'Mlnt used, (\loti Honnel)

"....m ·iol' age group from economically productive activity, For the ncxt 15 rears or so tJ1(~y would fonn what was in effect a professional smnding anny, \'I'hose only emplovmclH was fighting. The knO\'l'l age-selS from which the moran \'I'ere recruited during the 19th celllu..,·, ",ith their approximate dales, ,·:ere: Ti)ioki Merishari Kidotu Tuati [- 'The Rich Ones' Nyangusi I - 'Those \Vho Take FOI' Thcmselves' Laimer - 'The Pursuers' Talala Tuati II

LEFT Maul w_pons end wer

e-r, The speem.Mt In the _tre ttl 6eserlbMI . . ~ of the southern c'-o wN.. the Iongef' and _rTOWef' types on either side belonged to the northern brtlneh. . of the tribe, Note the e:aegoertlted 'spoon' shipe of the sword It top rlilht, end the crude wooden club el botto", r1iht, The SfMIlr et fer Ie" w. . used by the ellled Oorobo trlbes_ for huntlng eleph.8nts. (ThoIn"'"1

(c.li91-1811) (c. 1806-26) (c.1821-41) (c. 1836-56) (<.1851-71) (c. 1866--86) (1881-1905) (1896-1917)

Each of tht."Se selS was dhided into two sections - thc 'right hand' or senior group, and the 'left hand' or junior. Each se<:tion ~'ould lake a name, and some of those recorded include: II-Kup-,i, meaning 'The While Swords'; II-Kieku, 'The Long-Bladed Spears'; II-Ghunmre, 'Those Who Fight By Day'; II-Ngarbut, 'The Glllttons'; and II-Meitaroni, 'The Unconquerables' . Each ofl.hcse groups was flmher subdi,;ded inlo l.hree parts, according to the precise dates on which their members had been circumcised. TI1ese subdi\;sions were knO\'l'l as JI-Changen-opir, or 'The Big Osuich Feathers': II-Tareto, 'The Helpers'; and II-Paringotwa-Iang, or 'Our Swift Runners'. This system could idelllif' each warrior fairly prec~" according to seniorit)" It is not clear, howC'o'er, whether these di'isions deployed and foughllOgether in battle, or whether dan or ..i llage.oosed units wcre more usual. The IJ/oran slept in their own wanior camps or IJ/anytltlas, and lived on beef, blood and milk, as other foods were belicvcd to make them 50ft. Junior waniors were nOI allowed to marry, drink alcohol, smoke, or eat \'egetabks, although some of these rules were relaxed for the senior men, Another means employed to induce courage was the use ofa brew

11

Mual ~ Of u.dltional thIo blade of th• .......jMe .. 17~n long .nd "In MeN. TlHl author's a.perlmenls wlth th• • •apon ,~t that ~n;

altMlugh It appears unw~ and poorly balaneed, It would

12

" v.......ftactlve 'or d.lIvering an underarm thruat to dl..mbow.' an oppon.nt. A crsn,man who made auch w.apona demonatrsled a aim liar manoeuvra to Mrs FlWnChsn.Jdon, cOflflrmlng that M.... apear1I ..... normally employed In th.. way, The apaar auocNotad wlth thIo Me.... In ~ racant times .. of a different type, wlth a much longer. naml_ blacM, which wa, probably bon'owed fnlm ttMo na'ghbourtng Ct\aga of Mount KlUmanjaro. The tran,ltlon to thla MlW de'liin tooll plac. around the and 0' the HUh century. (Marti: Coppl.,tonel

made from bark and herbs. which was sometimes drunk before a battle and is S<"lid to ha\"c combined the effects of amphetamines and cannabis. making the men immune to both fear and fatigue. The highest authorities in Masai societ)' as a whole were the MJanis or chil chicfs, and the heredi ...., ,, lailxnu, ~'ho combined the roles of dhiners and medicine men. An influentiallaioon like ~Ibatiany, ",ho held office from about 1866 to 1890, might organiLc large coalitions of clans, but these medicine chiefs do not seem to have had a fonnal militarv command function. In fact there was liltle lrace of any command s}'Stem in Masai armies, although the organiz..,tion by age-sets did provide a rough hicrarch)'. Each camp had a group of nnbikas, picked "'arriot's who aCled as a sort of military police to impose nldirnentary disciplinc in Camp and on lhc march, Nevcrtheless, lhere appear lO have been no fonnal sanctions preventing thc warriors from nlllning awa)" and no S)'Stem of punishments apart from the cOlllempt of their peers. TIle ad\ice of respected ciders might be sought, but their orders were not binding. The usuallilcnc in a pitched b.,ttle ~'aS for the bravest warriors to form a wedge in the centre, supponed b) a rearguard and a nank guard on each side. and charge straight through the enelll\ line. This fonnation "''as knO~'l as the 'eagle's ~ing', L:nlike most African armies the '-Iasai did not use drums or other lllusical instl1.lments in battle, although tile} did employ chants and war-cries. According to Richard Bunon they had once been afraid of guns, but came to appreciate their disadvantages after a baltle in 1857 in ..,:hich 800 1/I0mll had defeated 148 Arab and Baluchi matchlock men, The Masai allegedly fled at lhe first volle}', but when the Ar.lbs n1shed fOT\\'anl to round up lheir cattle the tribesmen turned and routed them, 'Until this )'ear they have shunned meeting '-loslems and musketeers in the field,' wrote Burton: 'ha\ing won the da),. they will, it is feared, repeat the experimelll', In fact it sounds as if the Mas."l.i had already understood that the guns took a long time to reload, and their apparenl flight ~'aS probabl} a ruse designed to tempI the enenw to break formation. The'! did repeat the experiment. and - until tile) encountered European expeditions anned ,\itll breechloaders - almost alwavs successfull}, Carl Petcrs described their .actics against musket-anncd cnemies thus: 'The Massai [sic] knows how to protect himself from the first shot b) tlno"ing himself on the ground, or sheltering himself behind a lree; and long before the mU/..LIc-loader has been made read)' for a second discharge, he bas come bounding up, to finish the malter with a thrust of his lance.. , Generally, in fact. the caravans fil'e tllcir guns once, and then immediately take 10 night, whereupon they are regl.llarl}' massacred to the last man b), the swift-footed Massais.·

THE NGONI During tllC 18305-408 "'' of the Ndl\'andl\'c, nortllem neigh bolli's of the Zulus, who had been defeated by Shak.a's il/llJisin the 1820s and driven north into what is now Mozambiquc.

,

~lost of them settled in that region. bUl one nlrosi or chief, Zwangendaba. led his section of the tribe on an even more ambitious march. MO';ng through Mashonaland, me}' crossed the Zambezi Rh'cr in Nmember 1835. The Ngoni. as tllt."y now came to be known. then split into f\','O groups and advanced nonhwards along both shores of L"lke Nyasa. Their Zulu-inspired baule (actics gave them a crucial ad"U1l.age o\'cr the local tribes, most of \\ hom either fled illlo lllounl.ain refuges, were defeated and incorporated into the Ngoni forces, or c\'cmuall) copied these tactics themselves.

• R·

R""""

INDIAN OCEAN

R. lambezr

ZW3ngendaba himself Look

the wcstcm roule and sclded on the fenilc plateau of Ufipa. east of the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika, where he presided over a relatively stable kingdom until his dealh in 1848. TIlcreafter his successors qualTelled. and sc\eral groups resumed their wanderings. Those who remained in Ufipa were known as me Manti, Maviti 01" MaziLu. A second group sculed in thc mountains on ZULU LAND r) the westem shore of Lake Nyasa, where they .....ere often refelTed to as Angoni. There mey founded 1\\'0 large and t.....o smaller kingdoms, the most powerful ones being at the north end of the lake and half-way up the westem shore. A third section, commanded by a chief called Zlliligama, "'as the G"-d.fig'l'o",ra. ThC)' migrated east to"",rds the Indian Ocean, wreaking ha\'OC among the peaceful tribes of the RO\1.lma valle)'. and in meting on the region a reign of terror which lasted .....ell illlo the 1880s, The fourth di\ision, the Tuta or Watul3, marched still further LO the north, and arrived on the southem shore of Lake Victoria eady in the 18505. According to Richard Burton, they were originally imiLed illlo the region to help a local chief against his Sango enemies, The Sango drove Lhe TUfa off, whereupon the thwarted invaders cmbarked on an

THE MIGRATIONS OFTHE NGONI c. 1825 - 1875

13

,

An Antoni from the ahonts of L.k. Ny.....howlng the twlcal black cock.t. .thet- h.IIdd,..... plu"," "MOIIl .nd Zutu·.tyM, .hletd - ... PI.t. C2. (H.IT)'

Joh".to", 8rit/tIt C."fntl A,rlclIl

••

orgy of looling and caule-n.IStJing across the region. The Tuta finally seuled into a seminomadic wa) of life, living on callie acquired from the N)'amwezi and other tribes, and augmenting them by raids on \'illages and passing cara\'am. nleir raiding parties often numbered in thousands, and would besiege a \illage for months if the)' were unable to L.1.~e it bo,. MSaulL In 1876 H.M.Stanle), found the counu....- east of Lake Tangan)ika entirely ruined b) their depredations. He says that the rniders were hated by all their neighbours, and that to the Arabs killing onc of them was 'far more nece5SaT) than killing a snake'. I-Iowever, the Arabs occasionall)' hired the Tum as mercenaries; and groups of Ngoni frequently fought alongside the Nyamwezi warlord Mirambo and his Ruga-Ruga (see below), Some ofZwangendaba's ol"iginal \'ctcrans were still 10 bc found among these Ngoni b.mds well into the I 870s, but they now included many local tribesmen who had been capllll'ed and assimilated, and othcrs who had \'oluntarilr adopted their dress and style of fighting. The Ngoni of Tanganyika came under German control during the 18905. There \\'as some fierce fighting in the south in 1897 before Lhey submitted to an expedition under Captains Engelhardt and Fulebom. The stronghold of Songea onl)' fell after a number of Ngoni chief:< were lured Ollt under a nag of truce and arrested. It \\'as not until the Maji ~Iaji Rebellion of 1905 thaI the tribe made a serious attempt to a\cnge this U'eachen'. The TuUt \\'ere nominall) subjugated by another German expedition under Emin Pasha in 1890, but escaped military defeat by «\'oiding contact, and continued their customary raids for se\'eral more rears until the)' were forcibly settled sOlllh of Lake Victoria. The L....ke Nyasa kingdoms came within what became known as Uritish Cemral Africa, and were brought under British rule dllring the I890s, The nonhern kingdom \\"IS fliendly to the British, main I)' thanks to the innuence of the Commissioner, Dr Laws. They welcomed missionaries and \'DIlIm....rily gave up raiding. In the cenlral kingdom, a chief named Chikusi accepted Bl"itish protection in 1890, but during the reign of his successor Gomani a group of anti-British headmen gaint.-d influence. In a puniti\-e 1896 they attacked a mission mtion, and in respon expedition defeated an Ngoni IInpi and sacked Gomani's \illage. The central :-.l'goni lost most of their cattle and submitted to the British administration. Funher w'esl, on the plateau between the lake and the luan~<1 Rh-er in what i now north-eastem Zambia, the smaller kingdom mled b) Mpezeni W'as brought under the control of the British South Africa Compam in 1898, and the last fI'ee Ngoni lost their independence.

Org.nlz.tlon and t.ctlcs TIle Ngoni inherilCd a very SlrOng milita'1 t1'adition from their oligins as a migrating ann)'. In the words of meir historian Y.M.Cibambo. 'To me Ngoni war was like ..·:ork and his heart rejoiced to thinl of iL' At least some groups seem to han~ retained the Zulu system of organizing meir "''anion into regiments based on age, although most unilS ",'cre b.."lSed on territorial di\isions, and warriors tended to live in their \illages r.l.lher than in separate kraals as they did in the Zulu aml)'. In N)'aS.'lland, young men ",'ere often fonned en masse into a new regiment known as a MmuJla, of which each large \illage or prominent chief might have scveral. Each libwuJla was divided into companies called libu/o, which varied in strength up to 100 men 01' more, and would be allocated to one of the twO m
Group of Ngonl ••rrloR pt,otog,.phed in tM ,.~, (W,Elmltle, Antong the Wild NrIOfI'I

15

TUta Ngonl, showing a different slyle of feather headgear which was particularly associated with this tribe. Plate C3 Is based on this drawing and on written descriptions by St.nley. (H,M.St.nley, Through tlHt 011'* Contlnllnt)

,.

sits auended by his forty or fifty elders in ...he rear; his authority is little morc than nominal, the tribe priding itself upon autonomy. The Watuta rarely run away, and L,ke no thought of their killed and wounded.' It is generally agreed mal the secret of the dramat.ic success orthe Ngoni in Easi. Africa ....'aS their imroduetion of close combat tactics, using the short Zulli iklwo or Slabbing assegai, illlo a region where warriors had traditionally thrown their spears from a distance. Perhaps more importaJll, however, was the moral ascendancy which they achic\'cd over most of their opponents. with what Lugard dcsClibed as ..heir 'character for imincible courage', Nevertheless, by the second half of the 19th century most accounts suggest that Ngoni \\-'
\illage silently, and each warrior took up his position at the doorofa hut, and ordered the inmates to come forth. E\'e'1' man and 00) was speared as he emerged, and c\·eO' woman was captured.' ~fanyofthe uibes li\i.ng along the shoTe weTe forced to build their huts on stilts out in the lake for feaT of such raids. Pitched battles in the open were rarer, but the German trader Carl Wiese describes one encounter which took place in nonhern M07..ambique in lhe late IBaOs, between an Ngoni raiding pan} and a 400-strong Arnb car.l\"all. The Ngoni di\'ided themsel\·cs into lhree di\isions: finn, the newly fonned Kabaenda regiment, which was made up of )'Olllhs between 14 and 18 years old; then the Mahor" and Mabema regiments, comprising men in their t\\,enties; and finally the Amadoda or \'ctcmns. The Kabacnda opened the battle by charging the Arabs, but.. fled when the lauer fired a \'olley from their Illuzzle-Ioading muskets. Wiese does not say so, but it is likel}' that this retreat was part of the Ngoni plan. TIle Arabs pursued the }'oungsters recklessly, nOt C\'cn stopping (0 relo.."ld, and were ambushed b}' lhe Mahora and ~Iabema who \\'ere Iring in wail. The Kab..cnda then rerurned to the attack. and the Arabs were surrounded. The Amadoda had been stationed in ambush along the ro.."ld in the opposite direction in case the encm}· resumed lheir march after dri\ing off the auack, but no\\' hurried up and joined in the slaughter. Most of the Ngoni casualtics occurred among the }'oungsters of the K."lbaenda. Ve'1 fe\\' Ar-J.bs suni\'ed the battle, and those of their leaders \\'ho escaped later committed suicide in disgr
THE HEHE The Hehe weTe a confederation of about 30 small tribes li\ing in and around the lringa Highlands in \\'hat is now southern Tall7.ania. The name lIehe was not recorded until the 1860s, and is said to be derived from their war-cry: 'H~! H~! 1Qtavagu twihoma./ Ehn./' TIle disparate tribes were wdded into a unified kingdom by two exceptional rulers, MlIIl}igumba and his son Mkwawa, \\ho reigned during the last third of the 19th (enmry. Burton S3}'S that in the late 1850s the Hehe \\'ere afmid of their neighbours the 5."lngo. and dared not face them in open \\'arfal'c, but by the middle 1870s this situation had changed. In 1873 Lt Verney Cameron reported that 'Such is their reputation for cOlu'age and skill in the Lise of their weapons that none of thc tribes on whom they habitually make their raids ever dare to resist them'. During the Gennan colonial period thC}' became famous as the dominant milit.tll' power of the region, who at the Rugaro Rher in August 1891 inflicted on the Gennans the worst defeat that U1C) ever suffered during their conquest of East Africa. The campaigns of Mkwawa

During ule 1860s Mun)ibrtuuba had led the Hehe LO \ict0'1' against most of their neighbours, including the s.-mgo. I lis last campaign, in the late I870s, was against a band of Ngoni who had fought as allies of the Sango, and who now launched an iTwasion of I-Iehe LerrilOll' on their own account. They were defeated at The baltic of Nyamulenge, which was remembered for an epic single combat in which the I Iche king killed a

17

Th. . . .te lew ..p....ntatlon. of Hehe werrlonl fl'om IMtfoIW the lets 18iOs. end It Is likely thet molt of them cionI)' IWIemblecl their Ngonl or" Gogo I\Ifghbou.... This ltlust... tJon shows e pIItty of Gogo 'P'<'nnen enc_nteted bV Stanley In 1872. (Stan+ev, How I Fourtd LMngs'-)

prominent ~goni chief. Chipeta. Soon afte""'ards Mun}igumba died. and after a bloody chil war his SOil Mk\\'awa succeeded to the throne. 111e Ilche now began another series of eXp<,nsionist campaigns. sending out miding parties in all directions. TIle main cam\~d.n route inland from Zanzibar was almost dosed b} the combined effecLS ofau.,cks on cam\'ans and the depopulation of lhe \iUagcs 011 ,\hich the)' depended for supplies. In about 1887 Mk",'a\\'a further consolidated his position b) mming his C'dpital to a Ilew stolle fort in the hills at Kalenga. In 1890. in the aftermath of the recent war against tile coast.,l Ambs. lhe govcrnor of Gcnmlll East Africa est
18

The commander of the German Prot.ection Force or SchlllLtruppc. Ilauptmann \'on Zelcwski, was sent out in June 1891 on a limited expedition with the aim of pacifying a local Hehe chief who was raiding for slaves. but then look mallers into his own hands and ad\':'ll1ced on Kalenga. Zelewski's force consisted of five companies each comptising about 90 askaris. plus three field guns and a couple of ~laxim machine guns. There arc sc\'eral widely differing accounLS of whal happened in the ensuing battle ncar the Rug:.lro Ri\'er. Al dawn on 17 August lhe Gennans set Out in a long column through an area of dense bush, ..•..ith Zclc\\'Ski at their head, ad\'ancing towards a hill covered with rocks and thicl vcgcL
-

was speared in the back as he fired at another group of 3l1ackers. Ilowe\er, because the ambush had apparently been triggered premalUrel}. those at the rear of the German column were able to organize some resistance. The expedition's doctor and a handful of askarb got one ~laxim into action and fought oIT their assailants until niglllfalJ. This rearguard retired LO a small hill and formed a defensive position there, which the enem, did not scliousl\' threaten, The\' waited fOJ" t\\O dars to collect sun;\'OI"l>, then retreated to ~lpwap\\~d. Among the bodies len on the b,;mleficld were ten Gennans. 250 askaris, and around 100 porters. About 260 Ilehe had been kil14..'
A knife or short .-ord of typk;aI E. .! A~n type, . . b"ad~tly -... by Maul .nd ~ w.frio.... witt! IU ...ther lIM.th. II .. und.llId. bYt the stl9ht ridge runnl"'ll down the cenl,. of tho 13 \6 In bl.de Is • fe.tu,. . .soc::l.tecl with trlldltion.J we'pons rehr !Non modem copleL The short sword w.. .trudy in u.. by the Hehe in

the 185Os., when Richard Button described It .. 'from _ to two feet lone. bnNode'n'"e out from the .... n, IItId .-.God on 10 s blunt point .1 the end'. It w_ usually cerried with the bl8de protruding h.lf-way out of the short scabbard - see Plat. D2. IMarlr. Copplest_l

,.

German commandcr's report, 150 I-Iehe died in the fighting or ....·ere burm inside lhe huts. When he s..'l.W that the hattie was lost, i\lkwawa apparentl)' tried 10 blow himself up inside one of the houses, but .....as led away by his advisors. Among the booty taken b) the Gem1ans were the roral stores of gllllpo....·der and ivoT)'. Ne\'enheless, Hehe resistance was still nOI broken. On 6 No\cmber, on its reUlm march, the Gennan column was attacked b).' a force of 1,500 warriors, \\ho broke through the column of porters but .....ere stopped b) the fire of the askaris, leaving behind 25 dead. In 1896 Prince returned 10 the Kalenga area and built a fortified sl..'l.tiOn a fe..... miles away al lringa. TIle Ilehe no..... resorled 10 guerrilla warfare, ambushing patrols and car-millS, and auacking those villages that had already sun·endered. Prince took the field \\ith two companies each consisting of 150 askaris. 10 fighl the enemy with his own methods. Several times they nearly caplured Mkw'd\\'<1. and gradually their scorched earth lactics, togcther with a famine which swept the rcgion, wore down the enemy's will to fight. Then, in July 1898, a patrol intercepted Mkwawa's trail ncar the River Ruaha and tracked him down. The king \\'l\S ill, and commiued suicide rather th:1I1 risk capture; with his de.nh, all Ilehe resistance ceased.

20

Organization and tactic. Afler Ihe Gennan conquest il was estimaled lhal the Hehe 'nation' numbered about 50,000 people altogether. bUI this docs not include many non·llche who had been incorporated illlo the realms of Mun}igumba and Mk\\~dwa, and who sometimes foughl in their 0.....,1 sl)les alongside the Ilehe proper. ~hll\}igumba's kingdom included at least 15 pre\iousl)' independent chiefdoms, .....hose mlers eitl1er declared allegiance to him or .... ere replaced ....;th his appointees. These subordinate chiefs were known as l!{l'lUlglla, and ....·ere responsible for raising Lheir 0\\'11 regiments in time of war. The king and many of these chiefs maintained small standing annies, which .....ere recmited from IWO categories of warriors: \cterdns or lIatmnhuk, who served as subordinate officers, and the young men in training or vigendo. Munyigumba also established military colonies of yOllllg men of betwecn 12 and 20 years of age in the territories of subjugatcd tribes. These troops fanned thc nucleus of permanenl regiments or wajinga, into which all the ullmarried men .....ould be enrolled in time of war. Some of the Hehe regimental names, such as the Vanamwani. Valambo and V.uengelammwa, .....ere identical ....,ith those oftllc Sango, from whom the Ilche warriors are thought to ha\'e borro.....ed lhe Zulu-5t)'le shield and stabbing assegai, and so they mal' also have been the model for this regimental organization. One senior unit, the Vatengclamlltwa, 'Those Who Stand Firn1 by their Chief, acted as a royal bodrgu.ml in baltiC. Regiments were subdi\ided into companies known as fipllka. E.'l.ch unit consisted of the men of a particular age group, who were not allo",-ed 10 malT} until lhe}' had pro\'ed themselves in battlc. Those who dislinb'l.lished themseh'es .....ere rewarded "';th cloth, slaves and caule. while cowards were humiliated by being forced to .....ork as poners.

Wooden ..,. clubs from tM KltllrW"Jat'o ...... SImilar _pons ..... found ltvougt-.t: ttM ,...Ion, 8nd ..... lINd by ttM ...... N8nd1 .net AlIP-A~ . . WiNI •• by IrW"V ottMf' bibeL lAtter M.F..-c:h-Sheldon)

Supply columns and medical services were also well organized. Ilchc amlies took the field in both the dry and wet seasons. and often campaigned in scveral thc;un::s silllullaneously. An expedition would be preceded by scouts or v{/lallllis~ who might operale se'o'ernl days ahead of the main body. TI1Cli came an advance guard, the vandagandaga, which might cany Ollt surprise raids 0" pursue a neeing enemy on its mm, but could be quickly supported by l.he main Ixxly in the evelll of serious resistance. This main body would consist of one or more regiments. esconing lhc supply train. L.·uge numbers of prisoners of ""~dr or Vllllyaun'lgi accompanied lhe annies as laoourers and porters. In Mkw3wa's day' a commander was nOI nonnall) expected to lead the ann)' into lxllUc in per.>on. but remained in the rear ""ith his bodyguard, as the Hehe seem to have believed that the u'oops \\'ould be demoralized if the,' saw a chiefs blocxl spilt. Joseph TIlOmson pa~ tribute to the stamina of the warriors, and sal'S that if necessal"}' the,. could tra\'el at a trot for da)'S ",ithout focxl. The Ilehc ~"(I at least some guns from the 18705 onwards, and JF.[hon describe5 them skinnishing ",ith muskets against thc Sango in 1877, Ilo""cver, the) seem al",'3\'$ to ha\'e been in short supply, and were mosLly hoarded by the chiefs, ",ho distributed them when required to fa\'Oured followers. In a group of warriors encountered b)' Teltenbom in thc e'.s.rly 18905 a minoril',' carried muskets while the rest had only spears. At the Rugaro Rher ambush only one gun was fired - presumably by a chief - as a signal for the auack, which was carried out entirely\\ith spears. In Mk"~.l.wa·s reign the Hehe generally preferred to ad\-ance to close quarters in dense fOITnations, Zulu-5tyle, rather than attempting to skinnish. If musketeers ",'cre present, they would fire a single \'Olley at dose range before charging. Ilowe\'er [Iton, in his account of the "''3r against the s.'1ngo in 1877, describe5 much more cautious tactics. On that occasion a Hehe anll)' besieged a fortified \illage for several da)'S, trading abuse and long·range musket'1', ad\'3ncing only under cover, and C\'en entrenching themselves for protection against the defenders' bullets. Each night they lit flres, apparently 10 make the Sango think that they had bumt their temporary hms and left. Mtcr a few days they really broke ofT the siege and retired, pUI'Sucd by the Sango, It may be that it was their relative lack of aptitude for sieges that encouraged the Hehe to rely on their own forti fica lions against the Gennans.

THE RUGA-RUGA In 19th centur), [ast Africa the word 'Ruga-Ruga' was originally used to describe the rooLless young hooligans - oflen orphaned or displaced by war or sla\'e-raiding - who roamed the country making a precarious living as mercenaries, bandits or elephant-hunlel'S. These first made their appearance among lhe Nyam",'czi, who inhabited the high plateau of what is now central Tanl..a nia and became the principal long-distance traders of the region. The tcnn also came to be used for the semiprofessional militia of local origin which some N)'3mwezi groups raised to defend their \illages. Also referred to as Ruga-Ruga ",'ere the followers of leaders like ~lirambo and Nrungu-ya-Ma""e, who during the second half of the century established the first centralized states among the N)'3.m",·czi and

21

TM Arab .ttack on Mlf1lmbo..

• tock.Ne .t 21mbbio, ~t 1811. Not. tM dln-..n« In d""lM~ tM ~ and thek" Sw.hHI foilowef'L ISt.n!ey,

How I FouDd

LM'nsr-'_1

other tribes of me region. The explorer II.M.S13nley \\"as an admirer of me N}'3mv..ezi, praising their 'great sU'ength and endurance, skill in war, tenacity of purpose. and detennination to defend the rights of meir chiefs against foreigners', The-, therefore made excellelll soldiers, whose ready availabilit\ was one of the main foundations on .....hich mese states were built. The Olher ...."as gunpowder; both Mirambo and Swngu understood the \'alue of guns and acquired as man~ of them as they could, so that evellluall) the name Ruga-Ruga became almost splonrmous with hired gunman, The warlord Mlrambo ('Heaps of Corpses')

22

~tirambo was pelimJls the most f-amous of all Ule native militarv leaders of 19th celllury East Africa, both in his o...m lime and later. His background is obscure, but he was said to have been of N)'am.....ezi royal blood. Mirambo was not his real name but a nom de guerre, meaning 'Heaps of Corpses', He firsl came to promincnce in 1871, when Sr..anlev witnessed the opening mo\'es of his war against thc Arabs of Tabora. By this time Mirambo was already leading an army of several mOllS.'1nd Ru&ta-Ruga, and was successfull)' disputing cOlllro] of the lr.J.de routes with the Arabs who had previousl)' dominaled them, Stanley, who was passing through Tabard on his expedition in search of Livingstone, accompanied the Arab army when it marched to au.ack ~lirambo's frontier village of Zimbi1.O. The \illage fell after a brief skinnish and Stanley and most of the Arabs then .....CIll home, ]ea,ing only 20 Arabs and about 500 Swahilis to advance on Ulcir opponents' main base at Wil}'ankum. Mirambo, who had sc\'cral hundred men in WiI)'ankunJ, \\-ithdrew mem from the far side of the \illage, circled round, and concealed them in the tall grass on both sides of the path leading back to\\'ards Zimbizo. TIle Arabs plundered me \illage, and were sL.'1r1ing on their return journey, loaded do.....n ....im loot, ,,,hen me Ruga-Ruga emerged from ambush and allacked them at dose quarters with spears. There is no mcntion of ~lirambo's men using fireanns in this engagement. although many of them cert.'1inl)' possessed memo All the Arabs and about half of me S.....ahilis .....ere lJlled in the ambush, and the rest ned.

T"'o weelullalcr Mir.unbo adv.mced on Tabord \\ilh 2,000 Ruga-Ruga and .I ,000 Tuta Ngoni. On seeing 'the plain around Tabord filled wilh approaching s.·wages·, as Sl.anle) pULS it. five Arabs and 80 anned slaves "'cnt out (0 meet them. Mirdmbo's men "'ere:1t first ordered to fall back, luring the enemy into a rash admIlce, btll whell the Ruga-Ruga finalh charged all the slaves rdn awa)', lea\ing their Arab masters to be shot down. After this Ihe war lapsed into SL,lemate, Mirambo continued 10 disrupt the Arabs' trade, causing the price of i\'ory on the coast to double, while in retaliation the Arabs cut off his supply of gunpowder. Early in 1872 the Arabs were so hard pressed thai they asked Ihe Sultan ofZ.,nzibar for aid, A small force was sent under Amir bin SuIL,n, but rivalry among the different Arab leaders prevellled them agreeing on a co-ordinated strategy, and so Amir was w;thdrdwn. Mimmbo had sunived the miliL"'U) threat, but an embargo on gunpowder imports from the coast cmscd difficulties until he found a new source of supph, \;a the rortllguese in Mozambique. Tmde eventllall)- resumed, and by the lime of Sianle)"s second \;sit in 1876 ~lir::lIl1bo and the Arabs of Tabora were al peace, ~lir.lInbo had 1I0t abandoned his warlike ambitions, however. The missionary Southon, who \;sited him a few lean later, reported that he and his officers 'spend their whole time planning, prepaJ;ng for or actually engaging in a ""r of greater or lesser magnitude'. From his Gtpital at Urambo, west of Tabora, ~Iirambo's 'empire' was extended to co\'Cr the whole region between Lakes Victoria and Tang-
.. Ny-..zj tembe, In

~

the Nyamwezl N11ed henlty on ttleN tat.- I'K~ building. Mlnoundlng a e.ntnol eourtyln:l. TM Wills could be up 10 3ft thk:k Ind would .top even. rltle bullet, ./though the tilt thltched roofs we,.. nlturally vulnlf1lble to tire. Ace", w.. by • nlnGW gate In _ or two 01 the . . . . . while

ell the other doors end windows opened Inwe. on to the courtyard, TM IntericH . . . divided Into _ smIiII ~ lttu. eonabIing e determined defencIM to fight on even If the out... WIll. _,.. bntllChed. Often en entl,.. vllilge Ind Itl c.ttls W01.lId be enclosed within one or more larva lambe., (''''nley, How I Fourtd LMngsl_J

23

Group of Rl.IlJa-Rug, photOV",phed ,t UlQr in the 18to1. Note tM drums, ,net the lNI'k _m by the _enth ftgu", fronI the righL (Fr1Id M~rl

fight ~'Iirambo. This episode put an end to an) hope thai Mirambo's fledgling nation would be offidaH)' recognized b) the European po.....e~. In 1884 he became ill and handed over command of the aml) 10 his brother Kinmga, who succeeded him on his death in December of that }'ear. Kinmga lacked his predecessor's military talents, and much of the empire \\·hich he had inherited broke awa)'. He was killed in 1890 fighting the Ngoni, and \\-hen a German expedition arn\·ed soon afteno.'ards it enCOlInlered little resistance. LJrambo was occupied and the countr}' brought under German mle. Nyungu-ya-Mawe

The other oUl.'itanding leader of Ruga-Ruga was Mirambo's contemporary, Nyungu-)'a-~Ia\,·e. Nyungu's fi~1 recorded camp,aign took place al the same time as Mirambo's, in 1871, .....hen he ....-as the leader of a band of Ruga-Ruga based ncar Tabora. As a }'oung man he led his men personall)' in bailie, but in later life he preferred to remain at his headquarters and delegate opcnllions to his subordinates. Nyungu had a reputation for crueh)' and treachery, and a traditional African story was told about him to illustrate this. He imited a rival chief inlo his camp, and persuaded him to sit on a stool .....hich had been placed over a hidden pitfall trap. When the dctim fell in, Nyungu ran up and Slabbed him to death ....ith a spear. Like Mirambo, Nrungu lost any chance of an alliance ....ith the .....hites through an attack on a party of explorers, although in his case there is liuJe doubt that the killings ....·ere deliberate. In December 1878, some 400 of his Ruga-Ruga ambushed a party led by William Penrose. The cara\'an ....-as escOrted by only six ask.aris, .....ho .....ere soon eimer killed or ran awa},; Penrose made an heroic last stand ....i th his back to a tree, which ....-as riddled \\ith bullets before his gun was shot from his hand 24

(emu,","" l1li ptJgt 33)

MASAI RAID. 1857 1 & 2; MINII morIIn 3, 'BaJuc:hi' mercenary

(

3

A

THE BATTLE Of ELBEJET. \889 1: somali ukarl

2: Maul .lder 3: Masal wltfrior

B

NGONI WARRIORS 1; Gwangwara, SOYthero Tanganyika 2: Angonl, Nyasaland 3; Tula, northem Tangan!flka

2

3

c

THE HEHE 1: Chlel

2: W.rlnga spearman, c.1891 3: Wlinior, e.1880

D

MIRAMBO'S RUGA-RUGA. 1876 I: Mlrambo 2; OffICer 01 Mlrambo'. llrmy 3: H.M.Stanley

,

3

E

NYUNGU-YA-MAWE'S RUGA~RUGA, c.1880 1,2 & 3: Ruga-Ruga warriors

F

THE NANDI, 1895 1 & 2: Nandi warrionl 3: Sudanese auari

2

3

G

THE TURKANA. 1885-1900 I: Young warrior 2: Middle-aged warrior 3: ehiel

3 2

H

and he W'dS over.....helm<.'
•

... Rue_-Rue- or $1_ ,.Id.,. from the ~Il_ Nyau region, He c.rrles _ coli of rope for tyfng ~

...--. .M - . - . the h-.d .M bull of • hombiU fbuM! to his turbM. T1'I'- flgu... '- _ _ kM" the ~ . t P1a~

f3. lJoMston)

33

34

'On thesc young mcn', he says, 'Mirambo besLOwed considerable care and attention; he armed them with guns and taught them how to usc them; he conspi· cuously rewarded the hnwe and the loyal.' Mirambo preferred to recruit \'el") )'oung men for his ann)'; he believed that the)' were more prepared to risk their lives than the older men w·ith families. who by cOntrast were steadier and bener suited to defence. He LOld Stan Ie)' that the unmarried )'ouths ·... have sharper eyes... and a few words ";11 gi\'e them the hearts ofJions. In all Ill) wars w;lh the Arabs. it was an aml) of youths that gave me \;Ct0'1'. bo\'S without beards. Fifteen of m) young men died one day because I said I muSt have a certain red cloth that W"aS thrown down as a challenge. No, no, give me )'ouths for war in the open field, and men for the stockaded \;lIage.' Apart from the N)'amwezi who constituted the core of his armv, Mirambo made use of troops from various other sources. Ill' had a personal bod)'gUard of amled slaves known as the wanillkuru, who may ha\'e been the same as the 100 uniformed men \,'hom Stanle>"s seOlll Mabruki saw in 1875. The govemors of strategic frontier districts were drawn from this unit; they "'ere called m 'gahue, and wore as a b.adge of rank a shell sllspended from their necks b)' a strip oflion skin. For most of Mirambo's I'cign the Tuta wefe friendly, and they sent contingenL~ to support him on numerous occasions. However, in 1883 w;:lr broke out with them, and he tumed instead to the Masai to suppl), him w;th allies. Cameron says that some Arabs defected to him during the war of 1871-72, but he did not trust Lhem and so had them killed. After the war, however. he granted asylum to Said ibn Salim, the deposed governor of Tabora, and even planned to restore him t.o his position. l\'lirambo was also on good terms with the Zanzibari slaver Tippu Tib, and when an earlier displlle with the Tum in 1881 seemed about to lead to war, he even negotiated unsuccessfully for support from Zanzibar. Like Mirambo's, Nyungu's army consist.ed of professional Ruga-Ruga, who were mostly roung unmarried men. They were recmiled from various sources, including runawa), sla\'es, deserters from caravans and prisoners of war, although most of t.hem were probably of local Nyamwezi origin. No estimate appears to exisl of their overall numbers, bUl they must have been comparable to lhe forces of rivals like Mirambo, and so probabl)' totalled SC\'cral thousand. They were organized into companies which \;:u;ed greatly in size. from ahoUl 20 to as man) as 500 men. Each companr W'".lS led by an officer called a mutwak. and was known by its commander's nom de guerre, of which SC\'cral picturesque examples are recorded: Kafupa Mugazi ("Spiuerof Blood'); Pundu)'a Mbogo ('Buffalo

Some of the .lltrrIepnt IwlntyW _lated with ttMo N y - . d trtM_n who pnwlcMcl mod of ttMo ~ 01 w~ Ilk. Mirwnbo. (Alcluorod EkHton, The Uk. ~ 01 CentrW AIrb)

Bull'); hm"ela ~lbesi ("feeder of Vultures'); Kadcle ka :\'simba ('Lion Skin'); Nsikine ('Crinder'); and Nzwala Mino ga Yanhu ('Wearer of Human Teeth')" These militaf)' officers were distinct from the tcrritorial chiefs whom N)'ungu left in control of the districts of his empire - a system of di\;ded command hich was illlendt.'
THE NANDI The Nandi were one of a group of related tribes .... ho lived in the forested hills around MOllnt Elgon in northern Kenya. They called themselves Chemwal or 'caule-raiders'; the nallle Wa-nandi W'dS a Swahili insult, meaning 'cormorants' and referring to their rapacity. Few outsiders \;sited the area before thc 1880s, although some Arab or S...." hili u-aders mav ha\'e arnvt.-d in the 1850s. The tribe was not illlerested in foreign goods, howC\'er, and attacked the car-mans instead of trading with them. KaIXhumba or 'place of the Swahili' was a commonplace name in the Nandi country, which ....~IS Iklid to commemoratC locat.ions where the foreigners had been lured into ambushes and massacred. During the 1890s the Nandi began La raid the telegrdph line ....·hich the British authorities were building on their borders. mainl)' bealllse thC')' \
A nlre phototlr1lph of • N8ndl

waniot', tak~ '" th8 .-ty )'Un of the 20th qntury. The cW)o pm.nt wom by N8ndI _ _• the kipoIet, • longer -.ion of th8 kld-skln Mu8I "lop', which w.. m.o. from bUIck go8t or c.1f hld
3.

Th. chlr'll. 0' 1h. Nlndl It the Klmond. RI.... r, legIS. n.. BritI-.h oMc.r commlndlng In this ac:11on, Lt s.ymour Vanclfifilr, confirmed thl1 this pletu,. gN" I '11rty lCCunl1. Impru.slon of the ftghtlng, TM Nlndl {tOt within 30 YlrdS 0' the Brltlsh llna " , _ the chi.... WIS st09P'M! by Mlrtlnl Hanry I'i"- fI... Ind I Mlltim gun. jS.VInHlMIr, c.mp.Ignlnfl on tM Uppw HI,. Md Hl1I
gives a description ofa battJe on tJH' banks of the Kimonde Riycr which is probabh the first ere....il1less account of the Nandi in b..·utJe. His compall\ of Sudanese ....as attacked b} about 500 warriors, 'apparentJy excellentJy organised. and fonned in tJuee sides of a square, above which a dense tJlicket of long-bladed spears nashed in dIe sunlight'. 111C') charged in good order, ....iped out an isolated detachment of 14 mcn, and tJlcn ad\
Group of Nlndl wamor. In bam. l
0'

~_f_o'~

men hi

3.

~

.oop~ ~

Maul

or the practice of paHiting their sftIelda. (Hollis)

from their defeat, and two days later they attacked me Blitish camp at night. They reached the thorn fence surrounding it. but they were unable to scale it in the face of the defenders' rine fire and were again repulsed. Subsequentl) tile)' comented themselves \'tim shado\'ting the column, cutting off stragglers, and rolling down boulders on to the track. The British burned a few ,mages, drm'e off the cattle, and proclaimed the area p..'lcified, In fact three more expeditions were required, in 1900, 1903 and 1905, before the tribe submitted, making the Nandi Wars as a whole the most seriOliS opposition which the British encountered in Ken),a.

Organization and tactics Despite lheir small numbers (their total fighting strength was around 5,000. but most war parties were far smaller lhan lhis) the Nandi had a fearsome reputalion as figillers, and the Masai \'t'ere said to have been the ani)' people who dared to attack them. Traditional" t11eir warfare consisted of small-sale "lids for cattle and prisoners. After me 1880s, when the}' seized the grazing grounds of the LJasin Gishu plateau from the Masai, the Nandi showed no further interest in territorial conquesL 11ley did not keep slavcs: prisoners were usually ransomed for cattle, though ~lasai capti\'cs were sometimes adopted into the tribe. An important strength of the Nandi militar), s}'Stem was the role of the o,*oiik (singular o'*o;yOI), pan-prophets and part-war leaders, who first came to prominence in the mid-19th centtll)', and ~\'ere undoubtedly inspired by the Masai Illibons or medicine chiefs. The whole Nandi people recognized the authority of a single OI*oi)'ot, or at most tWO al any one time. They were fe,u"ed and respected for their magical powers, and made use of this prestige 10 impose a degree of cohesion on me tribe. 111is may be one reason wh)', despite their lack of fonnal political unity. the Nandi are never known to have fought among themseh·cs. The main subdi,isions of the tribe were 15 territorial districts, each nlled by a council of elders. Each raised its 0\'t11 regiment of warriors. \'thich was called a lukn (meaning literall) 'a raid'), and undenook its 0~\'1 military operations, either alone or in alliance with other districts. Like the Masai the men were organized into age-sets. with the }'Olmger sets providing a class of more or less full-time warriors, Every seven rears 01' so a ceremony was held. at which responsibility for the defence of me lribe \'t~,lS formally handed over from one agt.'-Sct to anolher. h was customary to fil'St ask the (Jrkoi)'ot for pem1issioll to send out a raiding parry. Then a hom would be blown to summon the waniors; tlle allthoril)' of the o,*oi)"01 was s)'lubolized b)' a club which he had blessed, and which was carried at t11e head of the force, The Nandi believed mat a prophet could de(.'lch his head from his bod)' and send it to keep an e\'e on the perfonnance of me warriors in battle - an idea which was ob\iollsl}' useful for maintaining discipline. Each lukd was di,ided into a V3.f)ing number of sub-units or sirilaiiJr., each comprising an)thing between 20 and 50 men. The leaders of each of the indi\idual SiritOlik held the title of It.,rlcit or 'bull', Parallel to the territorial organization was a system of 17 clans or families. each of lhem associated with a particular rotelll animal. Some clans had specific military roles; the lion clan, for example. ah',a)'s deployed on the righl Iving in baltic, The hyaena clan was responsible for providing a

Two typH of tradltlon8l Nandi

ape...... nd (8t right) .n .ump" of the modem type 8doptlld c.1 aoo - thl. I. yh1u.lly IdMltlcel to It. M...l .qul....l."t, .nd w.. .Imo.t c.rt.lnly copied from the M...!. (Aft., Huntlnefonll

3'

N.~I qulll.r, sClbbllrd with I••thlr "It, .~ two s_rds. s.. .Iso pig. 46 for dnlwlngs

of

rearguard to co\"er a retreat. and for blocking the tracks Lhrough Lhe forest to fnlSlrate an invader. TIle preferred time for campaigning ....as in the dly season, which began in October. Raids ....'ere carried OUI over distances of up to 100 miles, and the people of this region were famous (as they still are to this day) as long-distance nmners. A war pally would send out scouts to locate the enemy \illages and reconnoitre the approach and escolpe routes. \\1\en the) retumed. the main bod)' was mustered by sounding a hom; the approach march was then made in silence, in single file and making use of co\'er. Ideally the scouts would have located a spot where they could deploy unobserved within easy reach of the target, in which case the Nandi preferred to wail until aft.er dark before auacking. The war" pal·t)' then di\'ided into three groups; one would creatc a diversion, while the second broke into the enclosure where the cattle were kept. ~'Iost of the Nandi's neighbours had leamed to keep their animals inside krnals protected by thorn bedges or mud walls, so this task often ilwol\'ed demolishing a scclion of wall or hedge, which \'-'dS likely lO alert the cnemy. This second party would then redeploy to covcr the wit.hdra\\~11 while the third group - made lip of t.he youngest and least experienced warriors - drove the callIe away.

THE TURKANA

38

The Turkana came originally from Lhe hills to Lhe north of Mount Elgon, in what is now 1I0nhem Uganda. During the 18th centulY Lhey migrated to......a rds Lake Rudolf and took O\'cr most of Lhe territory east and south of the lake, \'o'hich they called Eturk.an. This was one of the driest regions of East Africa, and it has been argued that Lhe wars of the Tllrka.na were not intended to conquer territory - although this \'oas often the C"entual outcome - but merel) to capture cattle LO replace their losses in the

~

.nc!

.~

(Arter Hollis'

ABOVE LEFT A Turluma warrior enc:ounle..-d b», Telekl and von Honnel In 1888. This picture ahowa moat of the dlstinctIYe l..tuNs of the Tum"". lnellldif'l the atmenect Noll' blot. 110M and lip ornamenta, in>n noeck rlnp, and the plitt...... 0' raised _ ... on 1M right

ahoukSer. Note alao the circular wrtat 'knlte' with Its "ather cow-.. to p.otect 1M razor.iJNorp ectee· (Von HorIne!) ABOVE RIGHT A 'mlddl..aged TUrkana warrior' - ... Pla.e H2 ahowlng a variation on the hall' bag, (Von Hohnel)

frequent droughts, Ne\'erthelcss, they drove olilthe original inhabil.'lnts of the arc;1 and quickly gained a reputation as deadly lighters, Unlike mOSt of their neighbours, the Turkana did not suffer much from the cattle plagues of the 1880s. probably because of their remOteness from any t.rade routes along which the infections could have spread. HO""C\'er, their expansion was coming to a halt b)' this time. due mainl" to O\'erextension of their limited manpower. which was made wo~ b\ an outbreak of chil war. The Iirst outsiders to pcnet.rate their territol)' were Ab)"SSinian and Swahili ivory lmders. who arri\'ed about 1884. followed by the Iirst Europeans - Count Te1eki and Lud\\"ig \'On Hollllel- in 1888. Exploring expeditions often had to fight continual minor skirmishes with the isolated and sllspiciolls tribesmen, and although pitched battles were rare, the troops invariably suffered great hardships from lack offoocl and water. This was the main reason why tlIe aUlhorityofthe British -who on paper had annexed the Clllire region in 1890 - was not established in many places until after World War I. B)' 1900 the Turkana totalled around 30,000 people, and dominated an area of about 24,000 square miles. The proceM of expansion had actually led to a reduction in mililal)' acti,it}, as the tribesmen became too thinly spread o"er this vast region to be able to amass large annies. Furthennore, the aridit) of their territory made it of little inter t to potential invaders, so that there was no incenti\'e to maintain standing amlies for defence. One 20th century informant described the camp,aigns undertaken by his predecessors in strictly pmctical terms: 'the Turkana fought to get foocl'. By this time, if not earlier, the ....'3mors tended to prefer sk.innishing and slldden raids to massed battles, In their

39

ABOVE LEFT Thl, portrJolt I. described . . tn,l of • Turk.IY youth, who hI' decorated hi. tIsl. wfttl .hort black I•• tn.... .tuck.1I a_It ptate H1. It took meny y to llTOW .n
careful usc of scouts, Lheir emphasis on surprise, and their desire to minimize CdSualtics while emphasi7jng the capture of liveslock and other boot)'. 1.11C)' mighl be compilred 10 the Apaches. They invariably resisted olllsiders passing through their Lenitary by raiding camps and cUlting ofT stragglers Irtl..her !.han by large-scalc .macks. This approach was cncapsulated in the traditional saying that the sccret of success in war was 'not power, but knowledge'.

w.rrlo... In the two prevlOlJ' Iltu.lr.tlon•• (Yon Hohnel)

ABOVE RIGHT Thl. strikIngly o,lye dr,wlng publl.h~ In Wid. World "'t(laz/n. In 1lH)2 .how. the different helratyl. worn by the TUrkana who ,ttaeked the Britl.h Austin IlIpeditlon. Tht tall ~ f.,the.. wert pld to be • .Ig" th.t the wurlo... we,. on the w.rpeth. (M-.lOf' R.a. T.Brlllhll

40

Organization and leadership

What militLlry orb....nization existed was ba.~cd on age-sets or asaj>anu, which were sub-di\idcd il1lo terriLOrial scctions, and Illa)' once have fonned units on the bauldield on the rare occasions whcn large annies wcrc assembled. By the latc 19th century this systcm was gh-ing "'ay LO a loosc collection of locally based forces, and the authority of the elders was declining. Political leadership \'oWl provided by ritual divincrs or llgimurok. Each of these men nonnally controlled onc territorial section, but a few outstanding figures rose to positions of influcnce in the uibc as a whole. This institution may ha\-e been inspired b)' the Mas

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Conlcmpomry sources: R.Bunon, TM!.aU &giont ofOntml Africa (London, 1860) M.Frcnch..sheldon, Sullon 10 Sill/an: AdVf'1ltum in East Africa (Roslon, 1892) S.L & H.Hinde, TM lAst OJIM M(l$(Ii (London, 1901) Lvon Ilohnel (trans N.BeIl). DisaJun-j of I...aJus Rudolfand SUfan;, (London. 1894) A.C.Hallis, TM Alasai, Thnr !.Angllagr and FoIAJOTP (Oxford, 1905) A.C.Hallis, rM Nandi, Thnr I..Imguagt mid FolA~ (Oxford. 19(9) Sir I-I,UT)' IIJohnston, British Ontral Africa (london, 1897) F.D.Lugard, The Rise oJOllr East AjriClltl £mp;'1! (Edinburgh & London, 1893) C.PCICrs. Nf!W Light 011 Dark Africa (London, 1891) j.I-I.speke,jounlal oJlhe Ducowry of the SOl/fee oJthe Nik (Edinburgh & London, 1863) II.M.Sumley, Haw I Faund UlJillgsIQIl' (London, 1872) II.M.Slanley, Through thl! Dark Q:mlill~ll (London, 1879) J.Thomson, '10 thl! Cmtral AJritall Lakes and &Ick (London, 1881) J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1885) S.Vandeleur, Campaigning on 1M Vppn- Nill! and Nil" (London, 1898) M.S.Wcllb)" Twixt Simar and Mmdlk (London, 1901) C.\\'iesc (trans D.Ramos, ed H.W.Langworthy), Exp«Iltlon in East Cmtral Africa, 1888-J891 (London, 1983) Modem works: N.R.Bennett, MirambooJTnnzanin (Oxford, 1971) G.W.B.lluntingford, TIlL Nandi oJ KnlJn (London, 1953) J.Lamphear, 'The People of the Grev Bull: The Origin and Expansion of the Turkana' ,journal oJAfrican History, \'01 x..XIX

J

Turtlan. ape.... and war club.

TM Mwar. S9fi1f nenlged .bout 8ft In length; the blade wa. ,.,a.ttv.Iy .......11 IMlt w•• kept very Marp. 0rMI reason given for the auperiority of tM 1\irtlaNl _

(1988)

CJ.Peers, Armies oJ/hI! Ninl!/Mlth Cmtllry: East AftUa (Foundrr Books, Nouingham, 2003) M.Rcad, The Ngrmi oJ I\)'asaland (London, 1956) A.Rcdmayne, 'Mkwawa and the Hebe Wars',journal oj Africa" History, Vol IX (1968) A.Shorter, 'Nyungu-ya-~bwe and the Empire afthe RlIga-RlIgas', journal ojAfrican History, Vol IX (1968) T.Spear & R.Waller (eds), &illg Masai (London, Dar es Salaam & Nairobi, 1993) C.Spdng, African Anns and AnllOur (London, 1993)

tn.Ir _ i e s

. . . theW M:qut.ltion of blfttef" ~Ity . . .~ from tM '*8hboYring LabwM, wno _ .... known . . skilled

lronwo,bra. (Yon Hohnel)

41

THE PLATES A: MASA' RAID, 1857 The explorer Richard Burtoo described a Masal vietoty oyer the BaJuchi mercenaries 01 the Sultan of zanzibar In 1857. which Is the basis lor this reconstruction. A1 & "'2: Masal moran Most Masal watTiors wore only a short garment made of kid skin, wtQ was normally worn tied 0Yf!J( one shouIdef. When on the warpath, however. it was rolled up around the waist to keep the sword in place, lW'ld also in order not to impede the warrior's legs when fUI'll'lIl"lg. The n1O"8n grew their hair long, coated it WIth red ochre, and plaited it Into plgtais - usuaIy one large one at the beck m two or ItY8e smaller ones at the front. The most corrmon type of headdress was made from bIadl: lW'ld white ostrich feattlefs fixed into a leathef oval wtic:h framed the wanior's lace, Ike thaI of A1, but a variety of other styles were also used. In 1893 sr Gef8kj Portal encclU'Il:ered a group of Masai among ~ were men wearY"IQ 'an ecifice like a guatdsn'wI's beetsIw't made of hawk's fealher.L•. or in some cases the horns of an anleklpe. Of a ~ of iron wn covered with wool in the shape of IfT1f1lIlnS8 buffalo horns', On his upper arm 1.1 wears an arm c:tamp made of hom. wtic:h often fitted so ~ that it was <*nosl: irnp:lssit:Jkl to remove.. Red. wtvte and black beads, ~ed towlwds the end of the oentlA'y by blue, were extensivety used for decorabon. The iron bel strapped to hls thigh is also I1lElI'1tIOn8d by von Hohnei. It rT'lIght be stuffed with grass for a surpnse attack or a right raid. but when the warriors were on the mateh their presence was often actvertJsed by the clangi"lg of these bells. Knee bands were made of white goat hair. The warrior A2. is wearing the wei-known 'busby' made from a lion's mane: thiS was primarily an Item of ceremonial dress, restricted to men wOO had kiOed a lion with the spear. but was apparently sometimes worn in battle. A warrior would often coYer his head and shoulders, the blade of his spear, and sometimes his whole body with a smeared layer of red ochre mixed with fat, which was applied Otl top of atl the clothing and accoutrements and, in yon Hotlnel's words, 'makes him look as if he W9I"9 dripping with blood'. An illustration In Thomson's Through Masal I..Bnd shows these

42

unwieldy-looking backward projecllons of wIlite goat hair apparently fastened to the leg barlCls. The traditional war spear was about 5~ feet long, and consisted of a shon wooden handle and a broad, heavy Iron blade. The exact shape of the blade varied from one clan to another: aCCOl'dlng to Thomson, the northern Mesal used longer. narrower blades, while the southern clans preferred a broader pattern. Numerous slight variations in design are recoroed; that carried by A2 has a small central grip and a very long butt spike, and Is derived from a drawing in Mary French-Sheldon's Sultan to Sultan. The moran were not allowed to carry bows or other missile weapons since it was thought that these would make them reluctant to fight at close quaners, but they frequently threw their clubs as they chatged. Swords Went usually about 181ns to 2ft in length, and were often manufactured by grinding down old European machete blades. The blade generally WIdened out towards the tip Inlo a 'spoon' stIape, although lhe extent varied considerably. Shields varied in size between about 3ft and 5ft tall. They were made of buffalo hkje, wNch is moch tt»cker and tougher than ordlflary cow hide, and must have

Tlda lIIualnUon deplct. the wupona of the Kikuyu tribe, who weno nelihboura of the Manl and adopted mIlCh of ttl,"r military tachncHosJy. The .,.ara., awon!, club and ahleld ano all very a.lmllar 10 Maaal typ.H, although the Klkll)'\l alao made' mIlCh grealet" UN of the bow, (Von HoIlnel)

made formidable weapons In their own right when used to knock an enemy off balance before finishing him with a spear thrust. A3: 'Baluchi' mercenary The 'BalllChls' were mercenaries who fought for the SUltans of zanzibar. They came mostly from western Asia and the Arabian Peninsula, but also Included Individuals from various parts of Africa. Burton describes the typical mercenary of the 18505, 'distinguished from the Arab by the silkiness and the superior length of his flowing beard... made glossy with henna and indigo. He adheres to hiS primitive matchlock, a barrel lengthened out to suit the weak powder in use, damascened with gold and silver. and fastened 10 the frail stock by more metal rings than the old French -Brown Bess- fN&( had'. AccoI'ding to Bunon, 'the wildest and most picturesque' of the Baluchls, whose 'unkempt elf-locks fall In mighty masses', went Arabs from the western shotes of the Pt!rsian Gu". One of these 0manIs Is reconstructed here, based on his desaiption. They fallOUr8d a long saffTon-colotnd gown, wNch was often the arty garment they wore. ThIs implies that they ITlIght have gone bareheaded, as some Araba't tribes still did, though no illustralJon from Africa appeat5 10 conmn

Maul ahlekt ~ttems. '""-- uarnplH - " - on" • f _ of the enonnous v.rtety of poultHe ....... It--. . . . .r., The er-t maioritY followed the b88k: ~ The sun..::e w. . stripped of heir, polished, MMl ~nted whit.. tt theft dlvkled into two " - ' - by • INIttem c.lled . . Hgln, running fnHtl top to bottom, whletl- .I'thougtl VWyIng in ttle debUt of it, dftlgn filppoMd to ~ t cowrie ,hell,. LIke the re,t of the ahleld, th. INIttem we. pelnt~ In blllCk, whit., red, .nd occe,lonelly grey. On the len helf of the .hleld .. viewed _re ell1pllcel dulgn, Indleellng the cUin end ttge-MI of the bee""" which weN lIIuelly In ted. On ttM right .Ide there weN eometlmM pIIttemI ~ I " In b&edt), which _ _ epecHk: to

w.,

w"

1nd1Vld~ w.mon., or NIated to IUb-cIenl or famllleL 0thenriM the right helf might em- be left plein white, or repeet the pIlttem on the left skte. Shleld:l which _ _ plein white on .t '-It _ .Ide eppear to I'\rnl ~ more common towerel' the IMd of the 18th century.

this. Big Indian-styte turbans, robes in red, blue Of white, and baggy trousers were popular with men from other areas, Bu10n says that the offioets Of 'Jemadars' 'Nenl much better dressed than u- men, and often appeared in scar1et coats and silk turbans. ApIwt from u- matchlocks the Dmanls W8ftI armed with long. straight swords worn on a strap over the left shoulder, and daggers on thelr right hips. TheIr small round shields were made from the hide of the hippopotamus, rhlooceros, elephant or addax antelope - the latter being popular because 01 Its naturnl whiteness.

B; THE BATTLE OF ELBEJ.T, 1889

this plate reconstructs some of the participants in this battle, in which Carl Peters' German expedition inflicted heavy casualties on the MasaI while extricating itself from hostile territory.

B1: Somali ask8rl This man is based on Ulustrations in Peters' accoum New Ugh! on D8Ifc AIric8. and represents one of the elite corps of Somalis recn.nted for this expeditlon. He is dressed in a unrlorm similar to that Issued to the askans of the contemporary German East Afnca Company (note the btec:k. whrte and red tape trim on his wtwte smodQ, and is arme:t With a breectl-Ioading rifle. Dt.ring his escape from EJbeteI, Peters also improvISed headgear fOf his porters 001 of r8d

cloth In ordef to make them look like askaris and so increase the apparent strength of hiS lorce. B2: Masal elder this figure illustrates the appearance of those Massi men who were no longer part of the wamor class, and now lought only In defence of their homes and property. After graduating to elder status the members of each age-S4lI were no longer

Maul w..-rior'l oatrit;.... 'uther headd,... _ ... ptate. A

a

8; end

V\lttu~faether ruff,

worn around the IMCk...

~te

A1.

VJt...

M.Frwncft...SMIdon

43

RCKlI'd Mll40ld with , eent...1 boss, prob,bly 0' elephant hide. Thl' type of Mlleld Ia usuelly auo<:lated with the Hom of Afrk:_ and the SYdan, but. waa Introduced lnlo East Africa by the ...... ba and Somalis, and w.. earned by many of the Baluch" Omanl origin who kKlght tor the Sultan of Z.ru:ibsr - _ Plate A3. The dl,met... of !hI, ..."'fl'le la n in<:hea. (Marlt ~I

0'

subfect to the rules which governed the moran, and were free to adopt whatever hairstyle, mess and ornaments they chose. The IT\lljOnty of the elders shaved their heads, and probably dressed like ttvs figure, In blankets acqUired by trade WIth the Atabs. Unlike the young warriors, elders frequently fought with bows. 83: Mas.1 warrior Based mainly on a photograph taken in the 18905 by Ernest Gedge of the British East Africa Company, this figure illustrates a number of differences from the earlier figures on Plate A - notably the substitution of cloth for animal skins. Red cloth was available in fairly large quantities by the 1870s, when Arab caravans began to penetrate Masailand, and moran olten swathed themselves in as much of this new material as they coold get - though here, for war, it is limited to the usual tightly wound piece around the waist. This warrior's cloak or naibera is also made from trade cloth: these were almost Invariably white with a red central stnpe, as Just visible hef'e. The cape around hIS shouldefs is made from the fur of the black; and white CoIobus monkey. The size of his shield is unusual but by no means unique: and his spear, reddened with ochre, is from an illustratIOn

by""""""'.

C: NOON I WARRIORS

nus plate shows representatIves of ttvee of the ma;or subgroups of the Ngoni, illustrating some of the wide range of variation in the appearance of thew" warriors. HooNever, these groups were not always eastIy distinguIShable hom each other, and men resembling all of these rlQUlM might be found in any Ngoni war party. R""·R,,,a headdre....: (left) _ of Mirambo" bodyguard" .n<:CKlnt.rect by Stanley In 1871!1; (eentrel_ Nyamwezl, alao by Stanley; (rightla porter sketched by Burton In tha 185Oa.

Cl: Gwangwara from southern Tanganyika This rlQure has been reconstructed mainly from a wntten account by Joseph Thomson. He wears a headdress made from the mane of a zebra, tied around the head so that it stands up In a fan shape. This headgear was charactenstIC of the tribes of southern Tanganyika, betng also popular among the Gogo, Hehe, 5ango and Nyamwezi. He wears Zulu-style wtvte goat hall' leg bands, and a cape made from the skin of a servaI eat. Thomson describes some Ngoni as -w.g a 'heap' of wildcat skins piled around their necks and hanglng down their backs. The spear shown henl is a 00l"Mlltb0na1 ZuIu-styte stabbing assegai. C2: Angoni from Nyasaland Based on a photograph in Harry Johnston's BntlSh Centnl/ AInc8 (1897), he wears the black cock's-fealher headdress which was the commonest distlngurstwng feature of the Ngoni north of the lambezi. The traditlOnal Zulu head ring was sometimes worn by married men of Zwangendaba's generation, but had virtually disappeared by the 1880s. Round his neck is a fringe made of strips 01 leopard skin and red trade cloth; almost hidden here. wildcat skJns might be

attached round his waist; strips of monkey skin, plaited 10 look like cats' tails, went sometimes used instead, and Johnston adds that a Strip of red cloth was commonty worn tted around the W3lSt. This man's spear Is described in the original source as a stabbing assegai, desprte the plume on the shaft, whictl nvght seem 10 be more appropriate for a throwIog weapon. Shields were made from buI hide, and like those 01 the Zulus usually retained the natural coIounng of the animal. It Is unlikely that the old Zulu system of distingUIshing regiments by shl8ld colour suMved among the Ngonl, but some war parties did carry shields 01 more Of less uniform colour - a photograph of around 1900 shows a group of about 20 warrio~ all 01 whom carry these all-black shields with white stitching. C3: Tuta from northern Tanganyika Reconstructed from a descripuon by H.M.Stanley, this man Is naked apart from a string of beads around his neck, and a headdress consisting of fewer and longer feathers than the type worn by C2. He Is armed with a crudely carved wooden knobI«wrie. Some sot.WCeS claim that the Tuta women carried bows and fought alongside their men; If so, thelr costume was probabty no more elaborate than that of thIS figure. D: THE HEHE 01: Chief Eminent Hene men wore a voluminous toga-like garment, the mugoJoIe, as Illustrated by this fIQure. This was basically a length of cotton cloth wound 5eVercll limes around the body, and could be very bulky. Mkwawa sometimes gave such mugoJole to his warriors as a reward IOf performance In battle, but they were not a formal sign of military rank, and In fact were also worn by women. Thomson says that the Hene often wore 'pounds' of blue beads around their necks. His weapon Is a flirIUOck trade musket. 02: Wajlnga spearman, c.1891 A oomposIIe reconstruction based on German descripllOl"lS and ilustratJOnS from the 1890s, this man I9f)rtlS8r'rtS one of Mkwawa's wajinga regiments at the battle of the Rugaro Rivei'". A very wide variety of headgear was In use at this period: that wom here consists of a cock's-feather plume surrourlded by a ring of pompons in alternating coIou~. Also popular was a Masai-style 'busby' made from either a lion's mane or an imrtation mane made from the skin of a monkey or some other arwmal. The fur A gourd of the lyJ)e used by tM Rup-Rup and

otll« gun-armed African, for ,torlng poWder, length, 14 lnehe,. (Mark Copple,tone)

apron shown here was almosl UI'livtnaI by this time; 11'1 some .ustrations it appears to cor1SlSt of a SIngle pl8CfI in the form of a short kilt extending half-way down the thigh. while in othen it looks like an ammgement of smaI stopS t\angIng from a bell - 9lther as shown here, or extending aI the way around the WlIISt.. The throwlng sp8lW" no Iongl!lr app8ln in accounts of the W'i!I aganst the Germans and may have largely gone out of use by this time, but broad-biaded stabbng spears were stia widely used. Vely Iatge shields Ike that of D3 - some as tall as the bearer - went still 10 use alongside the smaller versions. It seems that in Mkwawa's day units could be distinguished by the coIou~ or patterns on !heir shields, and at least one of the elite Hehe regiments In the wars of the 18905 carried plain white shields.

03: Warrior, c.1880 This figure is derived malnly from an U1ustration by the French traveller Revolt dating from the early 1880s. Apart from I\ts zebra-mane headdress he is naked. Verney Cameron describes a group of Hehe he met in 1873 as weanng 'vety lrttIe cklthing', many being entirely naked apart from the occasional string of beads around th.- necks or wnsts. The spear is of a InIdibonaI type also used by the I'llllghbounng Gogo. According to cameron and Thomson, each man was eqUipped with a heavy spear for use as a thrusting weapon at close quarters, and between six and eight lighter javeins for throwing. These are not desaibed in detail, but probabty resembled the weapon carried by C2. Hehe shl8lds were similar in shape to those 01 the Ngonl, from whom they ant thought to have been copled originally, but varied wIdety In size. The warrio~ seen by Cameron carried huge bull-hide shields, up to 51t tall by 31t wide, with a plece of wood running down the centre as a stIffener and curved outwards In the middle 10 act as a handgrip. The face 01 the shield in the Revell Nlustration Is plaJn, though other sotJfC8S show that the pattern of the ongmaI hide was often retalned. &: MIRAMBO'S AUGA-AUGA, 1878 In 1876 H.M.StanIey had an II'It9r'YIeW with the famous Nyamwezi wartord Mlrambo, agBInst whom he had fought on a previous expedition while ac:c:ompanyWlg Arabs; thIS plate is based on the descnptlOnS in Stanley's TMlugh the Ori

Contment. E1: Mlrambo As described in Stanley's book, Mlrambo is dressed as a wealthy Arab In a long embroidered coat and carries an Arab sword. According to Stanley's messenger Mabrukl: 'He wea~ the turban, lez, and cloth coal 01 an Arab, and carries a scimitar. He also wea~ slippers, and hiS clothes under his coat are vetY white.' AI that bme Mlrambo wore a beard, and must have closety resembled an Arab sheikh. A photograph and portrart from the early 1880s. howeYer, show twn clean-shaven and bareheaded, WJlh thIS UlYUty shock of hair. E2: OHicer of MIr.mbo's army ThIs man is wearng the Arab-style costume of Mwambo's personal bodyguard. Stanley describes three of the officers who visited him as 'handsomety dressed in fine red and blue cloth coats, and snowy white shirts, with ample turbans around their heads'. It Is not clear whether he meant 'either red or blue coats', or whether eacn garment

45

Nandi bows and errowheada, with method of "-tchlng erroWL Hollis Impfln tn.! only e mlnortty of

lrightJ the

~:=="",,=~C"C"

wfWriorl t;Mried bows. and wftI.. It V r writ-. of _ b
from 1MI&h, his _ t . of ba~ In 1M 0fIeft ref... only to ~ra. hrty In the 20th centvry R1cn.rd ~ n persulldltd _ Nandi _

to

!

-e

F"

<;

T'

-;;;;;

"a;

d.monstnt. the UN of UNolr

ml••II. w.epon•. H. found thet 1M maximum reng. of IMlr bow. we••n Imp.....I... e 134 yerd•• whll. the club Of' rvngu could be thrown to helf thet dlsume., Ind the speer (the mod.m ....re4on. reUNor tn.n the Merier and toes. well-bllienced old., typel to ebout 40 yerd•• (After HolII'1

was patterned in both coleus.

MabnJkj fePOJ'led that 'We have beheld the Ruga-Ruga, and theAl' are many of them... About a huldred are clothed in cnmson cloth and white shifts'. These descnptions do not qUIte amount 10 evidence lor a uniform, but It is obvlous that a section of MJl1lmbo's army was disbnguishable from other Ruga-Ruga by its fine dress, and that the predominant coat colours W1lfEI red. and perhaps to a lesser eKtent blue. Turban colours are not given, but - assuming that they lollowed Arab fashion - they ware

probably mostly white, or b1ue-and-white checked. This man's weapon Is a muzzle-loading 'three-band' Enfield percussion rifle, of which large numbers were imported into East Africa in the 18609-705. Other weapons which Stanley saw in use in 1871 Included 'fIint-lock muskets, German and French double barrels... and American Springfl8lds'. E3: H.M.Stanl.y This reconstruction of the famous expIonlr is derived from an illustration of tvs meeting WIth Livingstone ... 1871. and a series of studio photographs taken about the same lime. The cork sun helmet or 'solar topee' was a military fashion first seen in India, whtctI began to appear in Africa dtxing the 18705. These helmets came in numerous styles, differing in the height of the crown and the WIdth of the brim. Stanley is wearing a cloth paggri wrapped around his helmet: this was also an Indian-Inspired lashlon, which was popular with the British but was less ollen adopted by eKplorers from other European countries. In anothef portrait Stanley Is shown with a Winchester repeater rather than this double-barrelled biggame rifle. of the class carried by most explorefs. Unlike many of hIS contemporaries he was a firm believer In the necessity lor two typeS of guns - a heavy one for hunting. and a lighter f9P88ter for defence against hostile tribesmen.

dyed red. Fea!llers ooukl also be worn stuck or lied into turbans or other I'leadg6W (see F3). A neddace of human teeth hangs around F1's I'l8dt. like the belts made !rom numan entrails, the caps made of the skin flayed from a dead enemy's face, and the other items of what was desaibed as the 'ghastly linefy' 01 the Ruga.Ruga. these W1lfEI believed to possess magical powers to protect the wearer. apart from inspiring terror in the enemy. F1 has ivory bracelets on his wrists: these, along with certain secret SC8lS or tattoos. were originally the maries 01 elephant-hunters, which had come to be associated with the Auga-Auga. His weapon is a flintlock musket or gumeh-gumeh. Ally combination of musi
wore around their ankles. Another popular acc&SSOrY among some groups was a coil of rope for tying up slaves, as carried by F3. This figunt is based on a draWIng by Jotm;ton, and Is armed with a large ca1ibr8 elephant gun. probably acqund by trade or force from a

European hunter.

48

,: NYUNQU·YA·MAWE'S AUGA-AUGA, c.1880 ThIs scene reconstructs thnle of the kilIefs of the EngIistvnan William Penrose and his party - an incidenI wtlic:h became a cause ceIetxe. The figures illustrate onty a lew 8KlImples of the wide range of Auga-Ruga dress and equipment. The warriOf F1 wears a cock's-feather headdress of Ngoni type, as described by the French White Fathers who wafS attacked by Nyungu'S men In 1878. The leathers might be left In their original black colour, but were probably more ollen

Q: THE NANDI, 1815

This plate is based on a si
the ostrich-feather headdress worn by G1, white monkey fur anklets, horn 01' Ivory armlets, bells on the thighs 01' ankles, white 01' coloured cloaks and vulture-feather capes - all of which would resemble those worn In Plates A and B. Nandi clothing was traditionalty made from black goat skin. Moo grew their hair long. and either dressed it in numerous small tags hanging over their foreheads, or plaited It into pigtailsusualty one at the froot and either one large one or three smaU ones behind. Richard Meinertzhagen, in his account of the 1905 campaJQn, mentions warriors wearing red and while body paint; note that G1's face and body are smeared in both colours. divided down the centre. The favourite coIotK for trade beads among the Nandi was t~. Weapons were spears, swords and clubs - aI very SIITlilar to Masai types - as well as bows and snows. Note the long. triple-barbed snows earned by G2; the Nandi had once been fOfBSl-dwelling hunters. and so had a long tradition of archery which persmed even after the adoption of Masal """""'""' """ tae1>OS. Shields were v«y swnilar in shape and construelJOn to those of the Masai. although according to V8ndeleur the ones he saw in 1895 were pamted 'a dull red coIou'", and were not so 'meIy ornamented' as the Masai ones. &wetaI surviving photographs from the earty 20th century portray shields in a 5lf1QIe sold dark coIotK (probably ftld), while other soun:es suggest that bold but rather crude approxmations of Masai patterns in while. red, black, grey Of blue were equalty

popu"". 03: Sudanese askarl in British service In 1891 several units of Sudanese soldiers were recnJlted into Bntish service from the Egyptian ganisons which had been cut off In Central Africa by the Mahdist revolt. This man's red lez, blue jersey and white breeches were regulation dress. though by this time he and hIS fellows had not been property AlSUpplied for several years, and often took the field in a bizarre 8SSOI'tment of nallve garments and worn-out uniforms. His Martini Henry rifle is one of a consignment which llITived in 1895 to supplement the old Egypllan Army Remingtons. H: THE TURKANA, 1885-11100 H1: Young warrIor H2: Mlddle·aged warrIor H3: Chief Drawings by ludwIg von Hohnel and Major Powell-Cotton. who visited the Turkana In 1888 and 1904 respectively, show a wide variety 01 hairstyles. The very young man illustrated as H1, drawn by von Hohnel, Is distinguished by his cropped hair ornamented with short black feathers. He carries only a wooden club and a throwing stick 01' aburo. The strikingly e:o:otic warrior H2 Is based on another illustration by von Hahne!. He wears his hair In a distinctive 'bag' hanging doWn his back; this is formed from the man's own hair. de/iberatety woven Inlo a dense mat, stiffened with grey clay and ornamented With feathers and pieces of bone and metal. This mat 01 hair could provlde considerable protection against a blow from a wooden club. This man has a small brass peodant hanging from his nostrils, and a rodshaped piece of the same metal protruding from his lower Hp; a piece of glass Of crystal might be used instead of the lip rod. He wears several iron earrings in each ear, and around his neck a series of iron rings which force hlm to hold

Shield decorated with. bitt of oatrlch p t - . of • ~ uHd by ttM~, &uk, ~ -.tel many aupeopIft, of .-them Keny., (VOft Hahne/)

his chirI high - and may have given casual observers a false impres5lOl'l of the warrior's height. Earty expIor8rs otten described the Turkana as tall: 'men 01 prodigious SlZe, many 01 them perfect giants In their build'. accotding to capt Welby. who visited them in 1899. Von Hohne!, however, describes them as musculaf but not partJcularty tall. The Turkana did not use body paint; but note the maSSIve decorative scarification of this warrior's right shoulder. Popular weapons were long spears, akwara; and note around his right wrist the 8f7J171ir or quoit-like wrist-knife. its sharp outer edge with a protective leather cover. The chief. H3. wears an elaborate cap With ostrich·feather plumes, and an entire leopard skin lor a cloak. He is based mainly on a portrait painted In the 19505 by Joy Adamson, but 19th century witnesses confirm that similar costumes were being worn then - although leopard skins were harder to come by then than they became after the Introduction of firearms, and were often reserved as the Insignia 01 high rank. A giraffe tail Is fastened to his left arm with a length of rope. CoIounId beads were not available until the mld-l880s, when the first Swahili tradEn brought them Into TurUna country, but hofn&.-made iroo and brass beads were used instead. At the Ilme of Wellby's 1899 expedition the Turkana were eager for red, while and blue beads, but were not interested in other colours. Shields were made of unpamted buffalo hide. They were someIlmes decorated with a tuft of blaclt feather.!; attached to the bottom of the wooden centtal rib. althougtl not all illustrations show these.

47

INDEX I~~

' ............~!l.tt

7.:vI

ampaognI f~.

UkUnpm.b 1"'4 ~,"""4;

\Jmr bu:l Sulgn :D

I~Dr

I~pul'

""oc,", ......1<10 44 anuoh <;co"tDl \("";1 14 80 ..... [..c I\f C.-.panv +t Bntoth C;o.."h Ai r"""p>J>v 14 8,..-..lUclw'd 12. ".l~I6.17.4!. " (.;a,~ron.

1.... U1~lQIll \"rmq li.:H. 4!> auk.... 14 Chlp"'~ 18

Cih'UllOO, \ M l~. 16

Arm

''''''I' ..

....rfa.... ~ FJhrjr•• Mil'" of (D<=n,~ 1889) ll-'J.1. t. ,,, B ~]nl.I ..., II'.••. L'l

c~

19

42

14

.........

.,,+t,e)

Mao 10 M»ill I' M~J1 MOj' Rcbo.1lion (I~l H M:u;u

......'..-m

10--11 on Anb",,,,,.,,,,, 7.-8 ~n'" II", Rrilioli 10 nltl" r~idi"g 6-7 th.llactcr !H; thlef, 12 ~ltKJ,.,

.... ,

,

dd".. 8. 4~. B2 and 1"00 12

"'""'""P""""lJO
and _ .... :l."""

<>rig;... 21-2

>1:1..... l'aIdcn n

.... M ~ and equapmrnt

............ "

I'

..-.rnon

oUi••• IlUlC"ro 1!J."r. banI<- of (A"",... 1!l911 17. 1ll-19. 21

Sol,... ihn Salom S4 &nJlO l!. 17. 20. 21 'ihal.:a (Zulu km,1 12

.........

Southon lm---.n-I un.'1-4 Sca>n. CapwD ~ Sunln'. H M. 14, 16, n.!!. n. S4, 4\. ..." D ~a"-u 47.eS ....WI_ 7.11,'»

T>bDn !!.!S Tdcl.i. Co..." !9 ~J<-pb

~

..... ,...,

..

dtic6I 4i. US

ch",r. ". D.

.......,... .,.,.,. .....

~,..

Moo"" IJgon M.:5lI

ohirldol 41

'tl

1m....." III OIlP"u,....'" ...,d~...,. ~ 1 war ,mil 18-20 warriol> 4!>, 1)1. ll' Ihldrbrandl,J-M. 7

c.;""""",.

Ilnh"d.I.'ItI~i~

....n ~. 42,'7

\lp"..,m II \If'''''if'''''i 18.19 Munlill"",1:>a 17--18.20

N.",tl 'Ilf'-Kl'l~,r",

lx>wo 11l!:.A CO""I"'''' 10 1kl.oG(.lllbb"'~"""'1C:>i1

16

lnnll" lI;ghlaoo. 17

'7

an'" .m..... 46

.11<1 Ihe 8nli>h ':'-7 cb". 37-8 organ.... lK>n and _tics "-8 qW\n'I :5lI

....... "». " .......

19-~

~humbil

M

"'-.

~1&-17

_"

.... ........... ' !~

I~"'''''''' 1~14.1:!>.16

Of'pn'''''''''' 3I'. .IIradr.....,p

~

tpran 41 warrion st. 41 til II! TIll" (w.,,,u) I~H 2', '" fightIng ",,,,hod. 1.... 16 he:u:lgcar 16 4.... 0

"'Uno"

U,",,, Ciolin p1.I..." " Ulip" U L'1l"ll" 7 L:J!i' U!4 L'.--I>o !!.!of

~

'P"

AnI> an._ 17 BnuoIt <_lIOI 14 dro_ I' ... . , . - If-H. IS oopwauon ~......,. 1-"-17 w::amon u. 16, +l-~. C hauloo 0( 17-18 ~,..n. on

,.;un........' ',_ri

... "

~

If

"'...... a...nc.

KWA.. W2f"l"" U ....... 18 .......... ltnn.baltlrolthrll8'»I36.""

IUrutIp

"'m.'uId>o...

M'ncn

7. GI Gf

w;Uri<)n

I\1Imp 18,

S.7.8.!1,4%.4-4

Tob S4

!!""'.

19-~

~

2~.

Tippu T,_

.\41.--1>0 H. 21. 22. "5, £1 and !he llnuYt !! camp"p n--l

18

!!""'.

"nder M,rambo M-4 under l\'''r1K'~M.w.. 2t. n.

..~ 430-6.E! \Ik..-::a Ii_Ill. 19-20. 21. 4!>


allM'" on

.-............. of Ill..,...... 17_18,

48

. ..... t i

Somah ........ 8.4'. BI

43

"-"

'ko.

~

1loab:I Rn..... 7. :!II

\1........LJ ·0.46

Mbanam 12

~

.- .

~\..,.,..~7

~ ( _ l '.I~I%.~.+l.AI

GornIw> u.. ,"'-na Compan. 4' GomalIn I"n:Noro:Iion fon.. ISch..ozttupprl 18-:!O (;qf>~ 18

"-....... f4, n. ean 7-8.8-10. I!. 43 I"oNI. Sir GotnId 7.': Pen rnc

J'nn<... T... 19,

"'""'" I' K>I'pOiDuon and t¥ti<> 12 >lu<:1do II, 4j "",an 12 ..~ ~ 7

1tc'1orfDcpn:!lloon 11889) 8 EnRrl1wd1, ('~n 14

r.......n.shrIdon..'obl1

E~pftann

Lug:ud. FD 4.15. 16, 16-17

1Indd~

21

t:m,n raha 14

fo.alrl>om,

I"Gn:I<

L.o:>bJnu...- -10

~1!-1.u

UIlM'I,J t

B

.......... .............

AnfIo
F.....'

n, S4-.S

Ul.c' \"onono. 7. .,

I" II_f, S4

~-" w~.CM1 17 W.MnlW'U

tt. ss

z.a.......1I Rn....- ., Zdrw>b.1-bupomum _

18-19

Zambuo. Anbaaacl ... lAupo< 111711 ft. n

Z.......... .,

""""

Z~.,.U

The uniforms, equipment. history and organization of the world's military forces. past and present

Warrior Peoples of East Africa

1840-1900 Although less well mown than the Zulu of South Africa, the warriors of East Africa had an equally fearsome reputation. The prowess of the lion-hunting Masai deterred all foreign peneuation for most of the 19th century; the r-:goni, driven north by the Zulu, revolutionized warfare in the region; the HeHe put up fierce resistance to Gennan coloniZers; the Ruga-Ruga, who adorned themselves with bloody trophies, produced two formidable warlords; the Nandi showed reckless bravery even against machine guns; and the Turkana dominated one of the most pitiless wildernesses in all of Africa. This study, Illustrated with rare early images and DraWIngs

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