SAVONAROLA - TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS - ENGLISH EDITION

THE TRUTH OF OUR FAITH MADE MANIFEST IN THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS.

By BROTHER GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA of Ferrara, of the Order of Preachers.

Edited and rewritten with Introduction and explanatory notes by James E Dainty Based on the translation from the Italian by Father John Proctor. Dublin 1901

© Copyright James E Dainty 2008

Rev James E Dainty PhD. MA. BA. MIC. DipTh. Dip.CPC. ALBC

1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT, DEDICATION AND THANKS I give thanks to God for all those who have helped and inspired me in the field of Apologetics. Among them are some great thinkers and leaders of the 20 th and 21st Centuries, but also Savonarola from the 15th Century. I first discovered his writings through a short précis of a part of The Triumph of the Cross, in a volume called Valiant for Truth published in 1961.1 I offer this full edition of the work in the hope that it might be an inspiration and resource for others. I dedicate this work to my Doctoral Professor, Dr Johnson Philip of Trinity School of Theology, Cochin, India. I give thanks for his life, his teaching and his inspiration. My sincere thanks are offered to my wife, Angela and to my daughter-in-law, Marney Dainty, for their encouragement, editing and proof reading.

DISCLAIMER CONCERNING SOME REFERENCES TO ISLAM AND JUDAISM Because I have provided a complete text, it means that some references to Islam and Judaism are included that I personally wish to reject. Savonarola was a man of his age. An age when ideas were expressed in a robust language and some arguments were personalised. This is partly style and does not indicate malice on the part of the author. He uses such robust language even when referring to the Lord he loves and serves. Referring to Jesus he says – ‗He must have been the proudest man, and the greatest liar that ever lived. If Jesus of Nazareth was not true God, then He was a most foolish and blasphemous seducer‘ .2 In the chapters on Islam and Judaism, there are accusations and assertions, which sound, harsh, even offensive to us. For this reason I reject these personal comments about the Prophet Mohammed and about the Jewish people. They may have been acceptable in his day, but even then they probably needed to be condemned for failing the very Scripture which is the basis for his writing. At the beginning of his work he quotes St. Peter – ‗In your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have‘. 1 Peter 3:15. But we should note that this quotation ends with a second injunction – ‗But do this with gentleness and respect*. This I believe he fails to do. In these days of Internet search engines, it would be possible to access material in this chapter without reading my disclaimer at the beginning of this document. This means that some of the writing of Savonarola, which is robust in language, could be read and be thought to have my approval. Such material could be hurtful or offensive to members of the Islamic Community, when I intend no offence. So rather than risk offending anyone, I have chosen to remove the whole chapter and reference to Islam. I do this in the hope that the document may be a help and a blessing to all those who read it, and with my respect and thanks for the help of Islamic Scholars who have enriched my understanding.

1

David Otis Fuller, Ed., VALIANT FOR THE TRUTH, A Treasury of Evangelical Writings, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1961 2

TOTC - Book 2 ch 13

2

Major reference works The two major reference works which provide the most comprehensive and scholarly biographies and evaluation of the influence of Savonarola are those by Pasquale Villari and Pierre Van Paassen. The Life and Times of Girolamo Savonarola by Professor Pasquale Villari, was translated from the Italian by Linda Villari and published in London by T. Fisher Unwin in 1888. A Crown of Fire: The Life and Times of Girolamo Savonarola was written by Pierre Van Paassen and published by Scribner in New York in 1960.

Footnote Citations In footnotes the citations from Savonarola‘s Triumph of the Cross are referenced as TOTC. Those from The Life and Times of Girolamo Savonarola are referenced as Villari and those from A Crown of Fire are referenced as Paassen.

3

OUTLINE PART ONE 1. 2. 3. 4.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND REASONS FOR THIS EDITION METHOD OF REVISING AND RE-WRITING Dynamic Equivalence BIAS IN TRANSLATION AND USE OF THE TEXT Travers Hill Proctor and the Dominicans Protestant Reformers Spurgeon and Evangelicals of USA and UK CS Lewis Condemned by Modern Aesthetics Personal Bias PART TWO – SAVONAROLA, HIS CONTEXT, CULTURE AND INFLUENCE

1.

2. 3. 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

THE RENAISSANCE IN FLORENCE The Best Of Times The Worst Of Times THE RELEVANCE OF SAVONAROLA FOR TODAY SAVONAROLA – HIS BIRTH AND BACKGROUND SAVONAROLA – HIS LIFESTORY 1452-1498 Entered Dominican Community 1475 Called to Florence 1481 He preaches in the Cathedral and resists the Medici 1491 Made Vicar General of Dominicans 1492 He predicts the coming of the French, during Lent 1494 Arrival of Charles VIII and rout of Medici 1494 The Republic established 1495 He is summoned to Rome and resists the Medici 1495 – 1496 Tension increases and the Bonfire of the Vanities 1497 Excommunication 1497 The writing of The Triumph of the Cross His Last Year – 1498 (January and February) His Last Year – 1498 (March) Trial by Fire and Arrest – April 1498 Trial and Torture – 26 April – 18 May 1498 Condemnation and Execution – 19 – 23 May 1498 HIS PROPHECIES AND PROPHETICAL WRITINGS HIS PHILOSOPHY HIS INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE HIS GOSPEL HIS INFLUENCE PART – THREE THE TRUTH OF OUR FAITH MADE MANIFEST IN THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS.

4

GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA PART ONE 1.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Send the fire and the power and the love of the Holy Spirit upon your Church. Your Church is so weak and feeble, dear Lord. There are so many millions in this world who have not yet heard the words of truth and salvation from the holy gospel. May the day not be far when all shall confess you as their Father and know you as their Saviour.

These ‗last words‘ were written by a man of courage, passion and a deep love for God. In the last few days of his life, with a body broken and bruised from torture, and having pleaded with his captors not to destroy his right arm so that he could continue to write 3 – Girolamo Savonarola composed the above prayer. It was part of a 66-page commentary on Psalm 51,4 written lying on the floor of his cell, in Florence, Italy. Within days he would be killed, but the commentary would be published throughout Europe and lead to the transformation of thousands of lives. Just the year before, his passionate heart and acute intellect produced one of the greatest works of Christian Apologetics. This was The Triumph of the Cross, which he first wrote5 in Latin and this edition was printed in Florence in 1497. However, as many citizens did not read Latin6 he translated it into Italian, saying that he had not done this ‗word for word‘ but had changed some parts, omitted others and added new material to make the sense clearer. His motive was to prevent anyone deliberately mistranslating the book, at a time when his teaching was accused of being filled with heresy. This Italian edition was also produced in 1497, in Florence. Even his enemies recognised the brilliance of this work, and after his death it was highly regarded and various editions were reproduced across Europe of both the Latin and Italian texts. An incomplete edition translated from the Italian version, was printed in English in 1661, 3

Savonarola may have appealed to the custom of sparing the prisoner‘s right arm from complete destruction so that he would be able to write out a confession as the law required. 4

His text was based on the Vulgate version, which numbers this as Psalm 50.

5

His preaching was often loud and powerful, but his actual writing was very small and delicate. His personal Bible is on display in Florence and his closely written comments in the margins really need the assistance of a magnifying glass to decipher them. 6

It is plain that there is no foundation for the belief expressed by some writers that Latin was commonly understood by the people at that period. But as it was the language of the learned classes throughout Europe, it was naturally employed in all theological and philosophical works, and all the more so because, in order to treat of these themes in Italian, it would have been requisite to coin new phrases and forms of speech, almost, indeed, to create a new language. Accordingly it was found easier to write first in Latin, and then translate into the vulgar tongue. Villari - Book 1 Ch 8.

5

by John Field and a copy of this is held at Cambridge University. This edition leaves out sections but admits to doing so, to make the work more acceptable in a time of Reformed Theology - a time when the Church of England was publishing the Thirty Nine Articles, refuting Catholic dogma. A more complete edition of The Triumph Of The Cross was published in English by Hodder in London in 1868. This was a translation of the Latin text, by O'Dell Travers Hill.7 However it is incomplete and the translator has deliberately left out whole chapters. (A précis of part of Travers Hill‘s work was circulated in a volume called Valiant for Truth published in 1961. 8) A further translation into English was made from the Italian text by Father John Proctor, Provincial of the English Dominicans. This was published by Sands and Company, in London, in 1901. It carried the imprimatur of the Archbishop of Westminster dated 28 March 1901.

2.

REASONS FOR THIS EDITION

The text in English is not readily available. The Latin texts are now collectors‘ items 9 and very few copies of the Hodder or Sands English editions are extant. (A new Italian edition was published in 2001 Il trionfo della croce. La ragionevolezza della fede: ‗The Triumph of the Cross. The reasonableness of faith‘ by Prof. Giorgio Carbone OP and published by Edizioni Studio Domenicano.) The text I have revised and re-written is based on the full Italian translation by Fr John Proctor. His work is valuable as the first complete English edition. Unfortunately its tone clothes Savonarola in the style of a mid-Victorian cleric, which is unfair to the immediacy of Savonarola‘s writing and unfortunate for us in the 21st Century because it makes the reading more difficult. Examples of Proctor‘s anachronistic style are the stilted use of the semi-colon, which flood the text, his use of archaic words when adequate current ones were available, his phrasing, and Scripture references which are not in recognised current formats. His text also contains many very long sentences which the modern reader finds confusing. The difficulty arises when several clauses refer back to previous clauses within the same sentence. To clarify the argument and make the meaning of the text more explicit I have broken many of these sentences into smaller units.

7

A copy is held by the British Library, London, UK

8

David Otis Fuller, Ed., VALIANT FOR THE TRUTH, A Treasury of Evangelical Writings, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1961 9

In April 2008 a copy of the Venice Latin Edition of 1506 was on sale for $3,200. The catalogue stated - THIRD EDITION of Savonarola's confession of faith, begun in 1496 and printed in 1497, the year of Savonarola's excommunication. This edition is extremely rare. OCLC locates a single copy in the United States.

6

3.

METHOD OF REVISING AND RE-WRITING

In order to maximize the benefit of this wonderful document I have made certain updates to the language, grammar and style. This has been done in a manner that seeks to preserve the author‘s original tone and message and to facilitate ease of comprehension of complex arguments. Where more obscure technical terms or words are used by Savonarola, I have referred to the Italian text and translated the word or phrase into current English usage. On the few occasions when this has been necessary it has been done with the help of Italian scholars and reference works, giving due weight to the 15th Century context of the original work. Where I have revised the wording of key ideas and technical words used by Savonarola, this has been indicated in the footnotes provided. It has only been done for sake of clarity and never to change the thrust of an argument. Dynamic Equivalence

The design of folding chair used in the Monastery of St Mark‘s at the time of the Prior, is now known as a ‗Savonarola Chair‘. Massimo (who helped with some issues of translation) is seen seated in his own Savonarola chair.

I have also used dynamic equivalence to convey the author‘s meaning. This means that an attempt is made to convey the overall life and power of the author‘s message, rather than formal equivalence which seeks to translate word for word. In formal equivalence, the aim is to find a word with the equivalent force and meaning as the one being translated. But this is not always possible as exact pairs of words are sometimes not available. In dynamic equivalence, the focus is not so much on the individual words but rather on the force and meaning of phrases or sentences. In doing this there is obviously still a need to note the use of key words and technical terms used by the author. And one occasion I have rearranged the order of the sentences in a paragraph to make the author‘s argument explicit, for a modern reader.

Savonarola‘s Italian edition is written with each chapter composed of a single paragraph. This makes intricate arguments even more complex. I have therefore divided the chapters into paragraphs to clarify the different concepts presented and to stop them all running into each other.

7

4.

BIAS IN TRANSLATION AND USE OF THE TEXT

There has often been a strong bias in the approach of translators and in the way this text has been used. Travers Hill Travers Hill‘s translation ignores completely the whole of chapters 15, 16 and 18. These chapters refer to the seven sacraments. Proctor says, ‗All of this is to make Savonarola a Protestant and a precursor to Luther and Calvin, whereas he was a true Catholic.‘ 10 His Introduction11 to his translation has many errors and he is confused about dates and the order of the Medici rulers. Travers Hill shows his Evangelical bias in his preface, stating, ‗This is a rational defence of Christianity, conducted without appeal to authority or tradition. This book is free from all sectarian feelings.‘ In writing this, Travers Hill is as guilty of bending the evidence as Proctor is in making his criticism. Savonarola in this work does provide a most effective apologetic for the primary truths of orthodox Christianity, but he also includes strong affirmation of secondary dogmas of the Catholic Church of his day. Dogmas which would be seen as most sectarian and refuted by the major Church Reformers – such as Luther and Calvin. Proctor in his introduction, says that Travers Hill is not an honest translation, because whole chapters are left out to make the work palatable to a particular readership. He says, ‗To claim it is a translation is to claim a garden fence in London is the Great Wall of China or Primrose Hill is a replica of the Alps. It removes all reference to Mary, the host of the Communion, chalice and relics.‘ 12 Proctor and the Dominicans Proctor‘s assertion that Travers Hill has edited the text to deliberately make Savonarola look like a Reformer, is not entirely fair. This is because Savonarola‘s whole life was a passion for reformation. It is also factually untrue when Proctor says that Travers Hill‘s translation removes all Catholic dogma. Proctor as a leader of the Dominicans, was wanting to rehabilitate Savonarola, a fellow Dominican.13 As a result, he reads with a Roman Catholic bias and misses the importance of some of Savonarola's points regarding reform and salvation by grace alone. He defends Savonarola as if he were an orthodox Catholic who had always been in faith and harmony with the Roman Church. But he completely misses the context of the open 10

John Proctor, translator; The Triumph of the Cross; Sands and Company, London, 1901. from Introduction. 11 O'Dell Travers Hill, translator; The Triumph Of The Cross; Hodder, London 1868. Introduction 12 John Proctor, translator; The Triumph of the Cross; Sands and Company, London, 1901. from Introduction. 13 The Dominicans have never disowned Savonarola and have made moves to have him beatified. This has always been opposed by the Jesuits who condemn him because of his call for the overthrow of the Papacy of Alexander Borgia.

8

conflict which Savonarola had with the Popes and the leaders of the Church in Rome. On one occasion Savonarola wrote to the kings of France, Spain, and Germany urging them to depose Pope Alexander Borgia and form a Council to reform the Church. His torture was to make him recant his teaching. And the Church declared him to be a heretic, and put him to death. The Dominicans say this was unjust (certainly his conviction was irregular) but the Jesuits say it was justified because in challenging the Pope, he opposed God‘s office holder. Those who were inspired by Savonarola and mourned his death, did not leave the Catholic Church but remained loyal. In the 18th Century, Pope Benedict XIV judged him worthy of canonization and some of his works were used as textbooks for Catholic schools. 14 And it is impossible for anyone to read them without being firmly convinced that, to the day of his death, Savonarola remained unswervingly faithful to the dogmas of his faith; and that instead of seeking to destroy the unity of the Church, it was his constant desire to render it still more complete.15

Protestant Reformers Calvin and Luther held Savonarola in high regard and valued his writings. Luther published the Commentary on Psalm 51, which had been written in prison, and declared Savonarola to be a precursor of the Protestant doctrine and one of the martyrs of the Reformation. Luther wrote This man was put to death solely for having desired that someone should come to purify the slough of Rome. It was the Antichrist‘s (Pope‘s) hope that all remembrance of this great man would perish under a load of malediction; but you see that it still lives and that his memory is blessed. Jesus Christ proclaims him a saint through our lips, even though Pope and Papists should burst with rage. Even by these writings, you shall see how works are of no avail in God‘s sight, and how faith is the one thing needful. What if some theological mud be still found sticking to Savonarola on the Luther his feet, who could be altogether free of it in Memorial in Worms those days? You wilt likewise see his distrust and despair of his own strength, and a pure image of faith and hope in God‘s mercy. Neither in the strength of his vows nor the rule of his Order, neither in his

14

His Trionfo della Croce was republished by the Propaganda Fide; his Semplicità della Vita Cristiana was translated by a Jesuit into French and republished in Paris in 1672; his Confessionale was frequently reprinted, with very slight alterations, and used as a Manual for confessors. 15 Villari – Book 4, Conclusion

9

priestly robe, in masses, nor in works, did he rest his hope, but solely in the Gospel, in faith, and in righteousness. 16 In England his Triumph of the Cross was very influential in the life of John Colet and later in the work of those who composed the Book of Common Prayer. In 1868, an attempt was made to claim Savonarola as one of the precursors of the Reformation, by placing his name on the monument for Martin Luther, erected at Worms in Germany. A French Dominican, Père M. Rouard, protested against this in a pamphlet in defence of Savonarola‘s Catholic orthodoxy. 17

Spurgeon and Evangelicals of USA and UK Proctor in his Introduction, objects strongly to the way the Victorian English Evangelicals had celebrated Savonarola and his writings. He claims that the Friar was a true Catholic and never a Reformer. He writes, Villari says Savonarola's attacks are never against dogmas of the Church but solely against those who corrupted them. The Savonarola of the English is one created by non-Catholics and by anti-Catholic romantics and unscrupulous translators. 18 Proctor writes in this way because Victorian Evangelicals had found a great apologetic tool in the Travers Hill translation, and went on to promote Savonarola as a preReformer. CH Spurgeon in his publication, The Sword and the Trowel, The Florentine Monk, April 1869, used the work of Travers Hill, published the previous year to adopt Savonarola as the patron of a new Evangelical movement in Florence in 1869. But he also comes to a sober judgement of this work – Though Savonarola was wedded to many of the errors of the church, yet his testimony in favour of justification by faith and not by works, the forgiveness of sins by Christ and not by man, was clear and decisive. His object was undoubtedly to purify the Church of Rome, not to destroy it; but it is evident that throughout his life he was, if loyal to his Church, far more loyal to Christ. 19 This attitude toward Savonarola among USA and UK Evangelicals was revived almost one hundred years later (in 1961) when a précis of Travers Hill‘s translation was published in a volume called Valiant for the Truth.

16

Villari – Book 4 Chapter 10

17

This was translated and published by Comm. C. Guasti in the Rivista Universale, Annali Cattolici, vol. V. Genoa and Florence, 1867. 18

John Proctor, translator; The Triumph of the Cross; Sands and Company, London, 1901. from Introduction. 19 CH Spurgeon in his publication, The Sword and the Trowel, The Florentine Monk, London,1869.

10

CS Lewis CS Lewis, the Irish Professor of Literature, was a popular writer on apologetics. His specialist area of study was the literature of the Renaissance and he makes use of several of the apologetic syllogisms of Savonarola. These consist of concise deductive arguments which have a power and beauty in their brevity and simplicity. Let us approach the issue in this way - either Christ is the true God and the First Cause of all things, or He is not. If He is God, it follows that Christianity is true; and there is no need for further discussion. If He is not God, He must have been the proudest man, and the greatest liar that ever lived. He must also have been exceedingly foolish. 20 (TOTC –Book 2 Ch 13)

Condemned by Modern Aesthetics Many modern writers and ill informed commentators on the Arts, have condemned Savonarola as a vandal and Philistine. They claim that he was puritanical and in his ruthless and vindictive rage he caused the destruction of countless works of art – including tapestries, paintings and books – in his Bonfire of the Vanities, in 1497. The truth is that far from being a Philistine he was a patron of the Arts. To earn their living, he arranged for his friars to teach in the schools he opened for the study of painting, sculpture, architecture, and the art of transcribing and illuminating manuscripts. He also held one of the greatest libraries in Europe and delighted in the frescos of Fra Angelico, one of which adorned each monk‘s cell.

One of Fra Angelico‘s frescos is found in each cell of the Monastery

Modern critics have blamed him for ‗incalculable damage to art‘. But his real censorship was related to a corruption of the Arts and a destruction of pornography. One person converted through his preaching was the artist Botticelli, and a large number of this artist‘s paintings were destroyed. But Botticelli surrendered the paintings himself and said they were all of a lascivious nature. He expressed deep regret for having contributed to the decline in Florentine morals, by his works. 21

20

C. S. Lewis famously uses this argument in his book, Mere Christianity, I'm trying here to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about him: 'I am ready to accept Jesus as a great moral teacher, but I don't accept his claim to be God.' That is the one thing we must not say. A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic on a level with the man who says he is a poached egg or else he would be the devil of hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse. You can shut him up for a fool, you can spit at him and kill him as a demon; or you can fall at his feet and call him Lord and God. But let us not come with any patronising nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to. - Mere Christianity, Collins, London 1952 pages 51-53. 21 Paassen – page 234

11

Rather than being the scourge of the Arts he was the friend of artists. Even Pope Alexander VI admitted this – Do you realize that the greatest scholars of the Florentine Academy, Poliziano, Ficino, and Pico sit at his feet, and that the most consummate artists, Michelangelo, Botticelli and Bartolomeo are his friends and admirers? We cannot lightly dismiss this man's words. 22 G K Chesterton, the English writer, philosopher and apologist, shrewdly observed that purity is actually a key to true cultural appreciation. A critic has truly pointed out that Savonarola could not have been fundamentally anti-aesthetic, since he had such friends as Michelangelo, Botticelli, and Luca della Robbia. The fact is that this purification and austerity are even more necessary for the appreciation of life and laughter than for anything else. 23 There are some at the present day who have so strange a respect for art and letters, and for mere men of genius, that they conceive the reign of the Medici to be an improvement on that of the great Florentine republican. It is such men as these and their civilisation that we have at the present day to fear. We are surrounded on many sides by the same symptoms as those which awoke the unquenchable wrath of Savonarola - a hedonism that is more sick of happiness than an invalid is sick of pain, an art sense that seeks the assistance of crime since it has exhausted nature. In many modern works we find veiled and horrible hints of a truly Renaissance sense of the beauty of blood, the poetry of murder. 24

Personal Bias In criticising the bias of previous commentators, I am obviously aware that I must be open to similar judgment. I admit that I approach Savonarola from a position of a mainstream orthodox Protestant. I am also a member of the leadership team of the Maranatha Community.25 In the Community we declare our allegiance to the whole Body of Christ. We are drawn from all the Christian traditions (including Catholic and Orthodoxy) and affirm the central, prime truths that Christians hold as non-negotiable – The Nicene Creed, Authority of Scripture, and a Personal Relationship with Christ as Saviour and Lord. This means that I delight in the clarity of Savonarola‘s presentation of the prime truths of the gospel and appreciate the integrated argument of his apologetics. I have gained enormously from his writings and come to appreciate some of the helpful insights of the Roman Catholic teaching and spirituality.

22

Paassen – Page 114

23

G. K. Chesterton, Varied Types; Dodd Mead and Co. New York. 1903. Page 150.

24

Ibid – page 152

25

http://www.maranathacommunity.org.uk

12

Though I regard Savonarola a kind of hero I hope that this does not make me too uncritical in my evaluation of him and his ministry. He reveals some weaknesses that I would want to raise and, in some instances, take issue with them. There are those who have pointed out a flaw in his character and recount a story that under intense torture he recanted his teaching against the corruption of the Church. These writers then tell us that when released from torture he refused to recant and was distressed that he should have given way to his tormentors. My response is to say that this is of little significance. His character was displayed publicly throughout his life and in his death. All affirm that he was a man of faith, devotion, courage and dignity. He may have given way under torture, but we cannot be sure when the only eyewitnesses were those who were biased in their reporting. My concerns are related to his writings and particularly this work, The Triumph of the Cross. I find some of his arguments in support of the Sacrament of Penance and other Roman Catholic ceremonies, are contrived and do not bear the clarity and conviction of his other propositions. It would seem that these were included as a sop to the Church of his day with its preoccupation with ceremonial and sacerdotal ministry. Likewise his defence of Images of the Saints and Virgin and the fact that the quality of veneration offered to them is in a category different from the worship offered to God, is unconvincing. We give to the cross and crucifix the worship of latria 26, which is the worship that we pay to God. We honour an image of the Virgin Mary with an inferior honour, yet with greater honour than that which we give to representations of the other saints. We honour the saints as the blessed friends of God. We erect their images in order to recall them to our memory, to inspire ourselves to virtue by their example, and to raise our hearts in prayer to God, through their intercession. 27

The forensic division of worship into particular categories comes from the scholastic tradition of the Church and does not relate easily to reality. For example, a person offering veneration to a statue of the Virgin is probably so intent on what they are doing that they cannot be expected to analyse the quality of their worship to make sure that it falls into the right category. If it were of the wrong quality, it would fall into idolatry. At no point does he relate this issue simply to the mandate of the Ten Commandments – that there should be no graven images. There is also the concern, which I have raised in my disclaimer, with regard to Islam and Judaism. Some of his remarks are strident and in today‘s culture, they are offensive. Something can be said in mitigation when one remembers that he was writing at a time when the major pastime was hearing scholars and philosophers publicly argue and verbally abuse each other. However, as I mention in the disclaimer, it falls short of the admonition of St Peter that we should defend the faith, ‗But do this with gentleness and respect.‘

26

Latria - The highest kind of worship offered to God alone; - distinguished by Roman Catholics from dulia - the inferior worship paid to saints. 27

TOTC – Book 3 Ch 18

13

Lastly, in terms of criticism I would mention a weakness rather than a fault. I believe that this particular book, The Triumph of the Cross, would be much clearer and the arguments more explicit if he had defined his terms. Two clear examples are his use of the words, ‗form‘ and ‗essence‘, which he uses as fundamental terms in his arguments. He takes the time to criticise Plato‘s use of ‗form‘, to comment on Aristotle‘s definition of ‗form‘, but does not define the meaning he intends when he himself relies on ‗form‘ for his argument. Nevertheless, these criticisms are completely overshadowed by the glory of his contribution to our understanding of our Faith. Over the past few years I have grown to appreciate Savonarola and to bless God for the inspiration he has spoken into my life. It would have been wonderful to hear him preach to thousands in the packed Duomo in Florence. It would have been a joy to see many converted to Christ through his exposition of the gospel. One reason for him writing The Triumph of the Cross was ‗to strengthen the faith of believers and to expose the irrationality of non-believers‘ arguments so that simple and uneducated people are released from the deception played on them‘.28 In his writings, he has done this for me. However, in order to let the reader make his or her own evaluation, I have provided a full text of the full work. The explanatory footnotes in the text are intended to clarify rather than to interpret.

28

TOTC - Prologue

14

PART TWO 1.

THE RENAISSANCE IN FLORENCE

Florence skyline with the Duomo dominating the city

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way. A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens, (1812 - 1870)

Charles Dickens was writing of another era, but his words vividly capture the atmosphere in Savonarola‘s 15th Century Florence. Truly it was the best of times and the worst of times. The contrasts were stark. This was the age of Renaissance with a change of worldview. A time of great selfconfidence and pride in human achievement. It was the beginning of Humanism, with man as the centre of the universe and the measure of all things. This freedom of thought and rejection of religious scholasticism began what would become the dominant thought form for the whole world in the 21st Century. There was an explosion of ideas and information. Gutenberg had printed his first Bible, Caxton had printed Canterbury Tales, Erasmus, Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Thomas More were contemporaries. In 1492 Columbus had discovered the New World, which Pope Alexander VI divided between Spain and Portugal. Spain conquered Granada, ending the kingdom of the Islamic Moors. While the Islamic Turkish forces in the east drove the Christians from Constantinople. Among them were Greek scholars seeking refuge in the west. They were enthusiastically welcomed in Florence where there was a ready appetite for their doctrines and teaching. There was a great enthusiasm for collecting ancient artefacts and manuscripts as the Renaissance principles were developed from the classical culture of ancient Greece and Rome.

15

Change was happening on a world scale, but the real hub of cultural and philosophical development was in just a few streets and a couple of piazzas in the small city of Florence. A compact Italian fortified city in the valley of the River Arno.

The Best Of Times Politically Florence was powerful and had become the centre for trade and banking for the whole of Europe. Kings, Princes, and Popes deposited their wealth there. At the end of the 14th Century, Giovanni di Medici was the foremost banker and with the generous use of his wealth he gained many friends. When his son Cosimo, succeeded him, he was unopposed as he began to exercise supreme power; ruling as prince in the city. Under the patronage of the Medici family the Arts, philosophy and political ideas were fostered and flourished. Educationally there was great growth in literacy and the city bore the air of a vast school. Crowds would gather for lectures, academies and universities flourished, and the introduction of printing enabled new libraries to be established. Many knew Latin and Greek and were able to find pleasure in discussing the finer points of philosophy. The availability of books and manuscripts and the interest in languages led to the development of textual criticism. The scholar Lorenzo Valla demonstrated the falsity of the Donation of Constantine. This forged document from the 8th Century was supposed to be a contract of Emperor Constantine I, gifting temporal power in Italy to the Papacy. Valla also showed that the Vulgate version of the Bible had significant mistranslations of the Greek and Hebrew. There was great pride in the fact that the great writers Dante Alighieri and Petrarch were from Florence and many made great efforts to continue this literary tradition – producing poems and philosophical books in Latin and Greek. Cosimo Medici (1389-1464), contributed to the building of the Monastery of St. Mark and was able to endow it with a valuable library. Libraries consisted of expensive manuscripts and the greatest collector of these works was Niccolô Niccoli, When he died his debts were cleared by Cosimo in exchange for the library, which he endowed to the monastery. It became the first public library in Italy and drew many scholars to the city to make use of the facility.29

St Mark‘s Monastery

Architecturally there was a building boom of stately churches, magnificent palaces, and elegant buildings. These were adorned with the sculptures and paintings of great artists – such as Donatello, Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. It was then, too, that the development of oil painting marked a new period in the history of art. Previously the artistic forms had been stylised and fixed but now there was a move to realism and the natural representation of nature. It was in 29

Villari – Book 1 Ch 2.

16

Florence that the whole theory of perspective was worked out. The themes were often based on ancient Greek fables and histories. Because of the interest in man as opposed to religious themes, there was a beginning of portrait painting where the representation aimed for a true likeness. Florence was the centre of the silk trade and other fine fabrics were brought to the city to adorn the buildings with banners and hangings. Fashion in clothing was colourful and flamboyant.

The Worst Of Times Savonarola records how he took a walk through the streets with the artist Michelangelo. He commented on the city of taste and culture, of fine manners and famous cuisine, of wealth and brilliance in art and letters, renowned through the length and breadth of the earth. But he also noted that drugs and aphrodisiac concoctions were openly on sale. Gambling and prostitution were patronised by the nobility. The Church was corrupt and superstition replaced faith. Based on what he had seen, he was soon to speak of Florence as another Sodom and Gomorrah and of Lorenzo de' Medici as an enemy of Christ. Lorenzo de Medici (1449-1492) was the sole ruler of Florence when Savonarola arrived in the city. He was known as ‗Lorenzo the Magnificent‘ and the most brilliant of the Medici family. A man of fine intellect and literary skill with excellent artistic taste. He was patron of many artists, architects and scholars. Two who particularly benefited from his support were the artist Michelangelo and Marsilio Ficino, the professor of the great Platonic Academy, (which had been founded by Cosimo de Medici). He enriched Florence with public works and buildings. The gates of the Palazzo Medici30 were never guarded and every citizen of Florence from the richest to the poorest could enter freely.31 His outward manners appeared kind and refined. But he was a cruel tyrant who put to death eminent citizens for his own political advantage. He robbed the poor and the charities set up to care for the poor. He drove both young men and women into prostitution and he swindled the city‘s treasury. But he was not the sole author of the evil in the city – there was sickness in the society and in the Church.

There were extremes of poverty and wealth. Wealth meant power, and wealth was the means of gaining power. Wealth was a major cause of the corruption at the heart of the Church. In 1471 Sixtus IV was elected Pope after buying the votes he needed. He then used his wealth to amass more wealth to fund his immoral lifestyle. His example was admired and copied by noble families like the Medici. He also created a corrupt 30 31

The Medici Palace Paassen – page 79-80

17

Pontificate that meant that anyone who would succeed him would need to be even more ruthless and evil, to gain power. Under Savonarola, the city created a building society that offered loans at rates well below the 32.5% that had been standard practice under the Medicis. While the Jews in Florence lent money at 321%, with compound interest, - so that a loan of 100 florins within ten years became a debt of millions. One of the charges that led to Savonarola's downfall was that he impoverished the city by refusing to ever turn away a beggar.

Black Death. The grinding poverty of many led to famine and made the city a breeding ground for the plague. The hospitals were often full. Peasants sometimes sank down exhausted by the roadside, or died in the street. At one point, there were fifty to sixty deaths each day and a general panic set in so that the wealthy citizens fled to their country houses.32 (The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe, not only Italy.)

Corrupt Church. The Church was corrupt in belief and behaviour. Savonarola described the situation with passion and heartbreak In these days, prelates and preachers are chained to the earth by the love of earthly things. The care of souls is no longer their concern. They are content with the receipt of revenue. The preachers preach to please princes and to be praised by them. They have done worse. They have not only destroyed the Church of God. They have built up a new Church after their own patter. O Lord! Arise, and come to deliver your Church from the hands of devils, from the hands of tyrants, from the hands of iniquitous prelates. 33

The Church was syncrestic, with fables and the writings of philosophers given equal place with Scripture. Pagan gods and philosophers were worshipped and on one occasion the visit of the Pope was celebrated by erecting statues of heathen deities. Plato was regarded as a prophet. Astrology was used to determine God‘s will.

Corrupt Gospel. The Church had corrupted the gospel by its pluralism. It had denied that Christ was the only hope of salvation and said that salvation could also be found in the teachings of Plato and other religions. Those who chose to seek salvation in the Christian faith were told that it depended on good works, earning merit and buying indulgences. There was a loss of confidence in the Bible and so it was hardly used in preaching or private devotions.

32

Villari – Book 4 Ch 2.

33

Quoted by Philip Schaff in History of the Christian Church. VI, p. 688).

18

Violence. Life was cheap and rivals were simply killed by hired assassins. On Easter Sunday, 26 April, 1478, while Mass was being celebrated in the Cathedral, and at the point of consecration, an attempt was made on the life of Lorenzo and his brother Giuliano. Lorenzo was stabbed but escaped into the sacristy. However the attackers managed to kill Giuliano and in the Cathedral over a hundred people died in the utter chaos. What was remarkable was that the dagger to kill Lorenzo was provided by a priest and that the plotters were backed by Pope Sixtus IV and the Archbishop of Pisa. The conspiracy was brutally put down and the Archbishop was assassinated. Children had little sense of ‗right and wrong‘ and one favourite game was really a form of gang warfare. This involved throwing stones and missiles at each other until one side was unable to continue because of death or injury. State violence was directed at political opponents and anyone considered a threat. This was the time of the Inquisition when the most horrific forms of torture were developed and given approval by the Papacy. Some of these techniques would be used on Savonarola.

Sexual Immorality. The city was known for the disorderly excesses of prostitution and the sacrilege of sex with nuns. Immorality was supported by the notorious Pope Alexander VI, who was devoted to women, wealth, and his many illegitimate children. But particularly Florence was notorious for homosexual promiscuity – a reputation similar to that of Corinth in New Testament times. Remarkably, for the first time in Florence - perhaps the first time in Christian Europe - groups of men, mainly youths, are found defiantly challenging attempts to repress sodomy. The armed gangs of lower-class youths ostentatiously showed off their boyfriends around the city. 34

Sodomy was not restricted to one section of society, but was a regular part of social life. It was not regarded as ‗deviant‘ behaviour but a common part of male experience that had widespread social ramifications. The sexual renown of Florentine males was so well known even north of the Alps that in contemporary Germany ‗to sodomize‘ was popularly dubbed florenzen and a ‗sodomite‘, a Florenzer. 35 Savonarola set up patrols to prevent gang rapes taking place in the streets and he said that ‗good government is punishing the evil ones and getting sodomites and the wicked out of your city‘. After he was arrested and his morality rejected; a government official responded – ‗Thank God, now we can sodomize!‘

34

Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and Male Culture in Renaissance Florence; Oxford University Press. 1996. Page 195. 35

Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and Male Culture in Renaissance Florence; Oxford University Press. 1996. Page 3.

19

Occult Practices. Astrology, divination and occult practices created an atmosphere of fear and superstition. This not only affected personal life and practice but became formalised in the reaching of judgments in the courts, as part of the curriculum in the Universities, and in the decision making and administration of the Church. All nature appeared to teem with hidden forces, and mysterious spirits.

Philosophy Undermined Faith. The philosophy of Florence presented man as the centre of the universe. 36 Visual expression was given to this belief in the commission and erection of Michelangelo‘s statue of David. This depicts a very tall David immediately before taking on the challenge of Goliath. He is naked because he represents all of mankind and not just one man or one period of history. He is beautiful in his own right and his dignity is increased by the confident way in which he can take on all challenges. He has no weapons or armour because his resources are all within. This teaching presented both a distorted estimation of man and a debasing of the person and position of God. The Scriptures were viewed as interesting ancient documents to be held alongside David by those of ancient Greece and Rome. Jesus was seen as a prophet Michelangelo and teacher with Plato and Aristotle as his equals. The text of the Scriptures was viewed as unreliable and its teaching on public and private morality was disregarded. Rather than seeking to counter these ideas, the Church accepted and promoted them as the fount of wisdom.

Fear of Islam. In the latter half of the 15th Century the Muslim community had been driven out of Spain. Its members included many Arab scholars who had preserved the science and philosophy of ancient Greece. Their teaching had been readily received in Florence while their political influence was viewed with great suspicion. The Christian West continued to hold ambitions of a great crusade, which would free the holy places of Palestine from Muslim domination. But these had met with little success and instead of reclaiming territory; the Turks had driven Christianity from its ancient capital of Constantinople. Many of the Greek scholars from this city were welcomed as refugees in Florence. The fear involved both anxiety about the political intentions of Islam and an uncertainty about the unique claims of Christianity in the face of the rapid spread of a rival faith.

2.

THE RELEVANCE OF SAVONAROLA FOR TODAY

In the 21st Century we have many conflicting worldviews offering an explanation and purpose for living. We also have particular evils and problems that make life less than we would hope it could be. Amazingly these closely parallel the issues of Savonarola‘s day, 36

Thomas M. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation. Volume: 1; T & T Clark. Edinburgh. 1907. Page 158

20

which he addressed with clarity and concern. Therefore the things he had to say are relevant and critically important for us today. Some of the labels or names may have changed but the issues are the same. We have a plague but now it is called HIV/Aids. We have a Church that has corrupted the gospel and become lost in pluralism and power politics.37 We live in societies where life is cheap and violence is rife. We have excesses of wealth and materialism. We have corruption in politics. We have abject poverty and famine. We have fascination with New Age religions. We have secular Atheistic Humanism and philosophy. We have homosexual ‗gay rights‘ tearing apart whole Christian communions.38 Each issue is addressed in the Triumph of the Cross – even to the question of the role of Islam.39 We also have great new cities and inspiring architecture. We have an explosion of information, communication and cultural expression. But so often what is developed is used for the destruction of morality. Pornography, drugs and gay rights dominate the media, education, religion and politics – just as in his day. State violence still destroys the lives of many and establishments like Guantanamo Bay are given the blessing of governments that claim to be Christian and democratic. As with the Inquisition, Guantanamo Bay‘s purpose is not to punish the guilty but to try to obtain confessions from victims before any trial takes place. The importance of Savonarola for us is that he enables us to answer the questions that are raised by the competing voices and forces that claim a hearing in our day. He speaks words that re-affirm our faith. He exposes the futility of the New Age and Post Modern ideas. He confounds the arguments of the Secular Atheist. And he teaches us how to present an integrated apologetic for our faith.

37

Only 19% of people claiming to be Christians believe the religion they practise is the only true religion. Sadly, the majority of people who claim to be Christian don‘t accept the biblical definition of Christianity. (U.S. News and World Report, 2002 poll) 38

Within the mother Church of England ….. a survey in 2002 found that a third of the Church's clergy doubted or disbelieved in the physical resurrection and only half were convinced of the truth of the virgin birth. And, as the recent history of North American Anglicanism all too clearly demonstrates, once the creeds have been emptied of shared meaning, biblical morality shares a similar fate. This process is already well under way in England. In July 2005 the English House of Bishops gave their support to the British Government's legislation creating Civil Partnerships which was explicitly designed for those in same gender sexual relationships and gave such partnerships a legal status virtually indistinguishable from marriage. Clergy of the Church of England were allowed to enter such partnerships on the rather improbable, and certainly unenforceable, condition of abstinence. - Dr John Richardson speaking at the Global Anglican Future Conference, Jerusalem, July 2008 39

Why did we have to wait for Bishop Michael Nazir-Ali, born and raised in Muslim Pakistan, to remind us that, as he put it, 'the beliefs, values and virtues of Great Britain have been formed by the Christian faith'? Just as important, why did we have to wait for him to urge us to do something about restoring that faith before we either sink into a yelling chaos of knives, fists and boots, or swoon into the strong, implacable arms of Islam? Most of our homegrown prelates are more interested in homosexuality or in spreading doubt about the gospel or urging the adoption of Sharia law. Peter Hitchens, writing in The Daily Mail, London, 31 May 2008.

21

Savonarola is up to date. He offers a definitive approach to Apologetics as he shows that the Scriptures command our involvement in this task and he expounds the teaching it gives on apologetics. 1 Peter 3:15 But in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect, Titus 1:9 He must hold firmly to the trustworthy message as it has been taught, so that he can encourage others by sound doctrine and refute those who oppose it. Jude 1:3 Dear friends, although I was very eager to write to you about the salvation we share, I felt I had to write and urge you to contend for the faith that was once for all entrusted to the saints.

We are called to – be prepared with reasons and answers, to encourage, oppose, and contend for the Truth, which has been revealed. In the 20th Century there was a great loss of nerve in defending the Faith. The Bible was seen as complex and textually unreliable. If there was a God then he was often seen in deistic terms and creation was attributed to evolution. Miracles were dismissed as irrational. For the Christian this created problems. How could the existence of God be proved and what sort of God did such proofs disclose? One response was fideism. This was the belief that our faith in God was real, but could not be proved and if it could be, it would not be faith. Others relied on subjective experience and such a response is illustrated in the hymn of Alfred H. Ackley, ‗I serve a risen Saviour‘. It states, I know that he is living, whatever men may say … You ask me how I know He lives. He lives within my heart. Even at academic level there was a loss of nerve. When I studied the curriculum of the London University Department of Theology in the 1960‘s we were taught that all the Theistic Proofs of Aquinas should be learned and understood – but we should recognise that none of them stood up to reason. The conclusion was that there is a gap between certainty and uncertainty about God. Examining each of the theistic proofs available, in isolation, showed each was faulty and broken. They were like a heap of broken planks and one cannot build a bridge to span a gap with broken planks. Therefore we should be very uncertain about God and truth and instead celebrate the inspiration of the stories of Jesus and emphasise the spirituality of men and women. I remember as a student in the foremost Evangelical college in the UK, discovering the books on Apologetics occupied only a small space on one shelf in the College Library. There was no formal teaching of Apologetics and no one told me these most helpful books were there! In the 1970‘s I studied theology for two years at Durham University and the nearest we got to Apologetics was the insistence that every student read ‗Mere Christianity‘ by CS Lewis before beginning any other studies.

22

About the only other book that the average Christian would have come across to help them in defending their faith was ‗Who moved the Stone?‘ which dealt with evidence for the resurrection. Having checked with several theological colleges I discover that Apologetics today, is still not regarded as essential and generally is not taught. Savonarola helps us see what Apologetics involves and how it relates to faith. But most powerfully he defines the role and purpose of Apologetics. Our Faith cannot be proved by natural principles and causes. But, the past and present events of Church history do afford arguments in support of our religion that are so convincing that no logical mind can reject them. At the same time, no one believes that faith itself depends upon these arguments, seeing that it is ‗the gift of God— not by works, so that no one can boast‘. (Ephes. 2:8-9) We make use of these arguments in order to – Confirm the faith of people whose belief has been shaken Prepare unbelievers for the reception of supernatural enlightenment, Enable the faithful to refute the arguments of non-believers Expose the irrationality of non-believers‘ arguments so that simple and uneducated people are released from the deception played on them. 40 We have grossly underestimated the way in which our young people have had their faith eaten away and some who have looked for reassurance and answers have turned into the fiercest opponents of the Christian faith. 41 Savonarola meets his objectives and restores confidence for the believer.

40

TOTC - Book 1 Prologue

41

Jean Paul Sartre has been one of the most influential atheistic philosophers of the last century. As a teenager his doubts and questions about the rationality of faith caused him to reject God and religion. Shortly before his death, Sartre relented. The Nouvel Observateur records these words: ‗I do not feel that I am the product of chance, a speck of dust in the universe, but someone who was expected, prepared, prefigured. In short, a being whom only a Creator could put here; and this idea of a creating hand refers to God.‘ (This statement originally appeared in French in Nouvel Observateur. It first appeared in English in National Review, June 11, 1982) David Sanford, in his book, If God Disappears: 9 Faith Wreckers and What to Do about Them; Tyndale, Wheaton. 2008. Page 15, writes - I haven‘t always believed that. In fact, my father is an atheist. I was raised to not believe in God. When I became a Christian, my dad saw it as an act of rebellion. Later, I studied under a German existentialist philosopher. I dared her to prove there isn‘t a God. ‗If you‘re right,‘ I said, in essence, ‗I‘ll stop being a Christian.‘ Instead, after studying the writings of the most renowned atheists of the past four centuries, my Christian faith was stronger than ever. Why is it, I wondered, that these men and women can write brilliantly about any area of philosophy, but they get so angry and irrational when writing about God, the church, and the Christian faith? After studying their biographies, I discovered the most common reason: Very bad things happened to them or their loved ones, often when they were very young. Many even went on to study in seminary, but they didn‘t find the answers they were looking for. So they turned against God with a vengeance. It can happen to any of us.

23

His method is to show that Apologetics is an integrated whole. There are many planks that can be used to bridge the gap between certainty and uncertainty about God. The planks are not broken, but they are individually too short to bridge the gap. But together they can be built into a robust bridge that proves the rationality of faith. This is achieved when we avoid compartmentalism in Apologetics. By bringing all the evidences together as a unity he avoids some obvious apologetic blunders of the present day. (Note that I do not use the word ‗blunder‘ in a pejorative sense, but simply to indicate a course of action or an approach to a problem that is undertaken without sufficient thought and which results in an outcome that might well be good, but is less than best.) First there is the blunder of allowing Apologetics to become too esoteric and therefore of little use to the ordinary believer. For example, whole books are written showing that some extremely complex geological finding probably indicates that creation is more likely than evolution. But the ordinary reader does not have the training to evaluate what is presented and they do not have the material evidence or laboratory equipment to verify what is said. Secondly, there is the blunder of allowing Apologetics to become detached from our Christian purpose. So some apologists argue effectively that there is an intelligent designer behind our universe – but their conclusion leaves us completely detached from proving that this is the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. Thirdly, there is the blunder of thinking that one piece of evidence in some field of science or philosophy may be presented as decisive and the final proof of God. One example is the way in which whole books and departments have been devoted to the proving of the Turin Shroud as the shroud of Christ. Or another example - the idea that the protein Lamenin is the glue that holds the human body together and is in the shape of a cross, like the one on which Jesus died, is proof that He is at the heart of all things. A typical response to such isolated evidence is found in an Internet blog – I could barely make it through his over-energetic rant, but what I got out of it is that he is desperately trying to make one Christian molecular biologist‘s opinion about one particular protein in the body that ‗holds‘ it all together (isn't that what proteins do anyway?) and trying to make it sound like the solid piece of proof that Christians have been waiting for since the dawn of the religion. 42

Fourthly, there is the blunder of presenting the message of Christ and a Christian apologetic in a way that avoids all association with the world‘s criticism of the Church and Christians. The approach of some evangelists has been to say that the Church is boring and possibly irrelevant and Christians are not perfect and some have been evil. But Jesus is worth considering because he was not part of the Church and he was perfect. One should not be concerned about the Church, but just consider the possibility of a relationship between you and Jesus.

42

http://www.unexplained-mysteries.com/forum/lofiversion/index.php/t126112.html

24

The problem with this approach is immediately seen when a person comes to trust in Christ and they are then told that they should join a local church. This is a complete reversal of what they had been previously told. The truth is that it is not possible to have an apologetic without including the Church. It is part of the evidence. Fifthly, there is the blunder of presenting several or even many apologetic arguments without ever seeing the relationship between them. It is the relationship between the different ‗evidences‘, which make the argument so much stronger and effective. Sixthly, there is the blunder of presenting apologetics as a reactive exercise; trying to defend the Faith against hostile arguments. This usually involves a response to some argument or claim and can give the impression of weakness as arguments are conceded or accommodated. An example of this weak apologetic approach is given by Sir Jonathan Sacks, the Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth. Writing in an article in The Times, London, August 29, 2008, in response to Richard Dawkins‘ book The God Delusion and TV series on Darwin, Sacks says We will no doubt hear it asserted that Darwin dealt a death blow to religious belief. That, it should be said, is quite untrue. What it dealt a death blow to was one very poor argument for the existence of God, namely the argument from design. This argument figures nowhere in the Hebrew Bible. It does not even belong to its world of thought. It belongs instead to the tradition of Ancient Greece and to the idea that the most important truths are those that can be proved. In fact none of the most important truths can be proved.

In saying this he not only concedes the argument from design too cheaply, but veers toward fideism by inferring that the most important truths are not those that can be proven. In effect he is stepping back from the argument and saying that ‗proof‘ is not an issue for the believer – without ever defining proof. To complete his apologetic Sacks then lists a set of issues and implies that if Dawkins could deal a blow to each of these issues – then God would have nowhere to hide, he would be a delusion. The believer might mention other mysteries, such as how did life evolve from non-life? How did sentience emerge? How was the uniquely human capacity for self-consciousness born? How did life evolve at such speed that even Francis Crick, co-discoverer of DNA, was forced to suggest that it came from Mars? And the ultimate ontological question: why is there something rather than nothing? None of these is a proof. Each, rather, is a source of wonder.

Sadly much of today‘s apologetics makes such defensive and unsure piecemeal responses to arguments which should be refuted, not conceded or accommodated. (A better approach is to stand firm and show that in his argument, Dawkins is out of his

25

depth in The God Delusion and is easily refuted by a competent philosopher like Alvin Plantinga.43) Savonarola avoids all of these blunders by showing that all the evidence fits together as a unity and forms an integrated philosophy. In doing this he is not only able to be our contemporary and speak in our terms, he is in fact our master. He truly was a most profound and original teacher and can be viewed as the Father of Modern Apologetics. His schema begins with evidence for the existence of God and what it means for the nature of humans if God is our creator. If God is our creator he must have had a purpose, and the purpose must have an effective means to enable it to be achieved. The means of God‘s effective working is his grace displayed in the person and work of Christ. Christ must be the incarnate God because the effects of his power are proof of his claims and are seen in the transformed lives of Christians. He is also affirmed as the God become man, by his claims and teaching. His teaching is significant and surpasses anything seen or heard before. It reveals spiritual truth unavailable to reason alone and includes twelve basic doctrines, which are detailed in the Creed. Its ethical content is revealed in the Ten Commandments and the whole is given living expression in the Church, which Christ promised to build. This Church has been guided by the revelation and record given in Holy Scripture. This body of evidence provides a rational and integrated apologetic and worldview. This worldview is more reasonable and better supported by experience than any other explanation of life and its purpose. It can be compared and contrasted with the philosophy of secular humanism, the hopes and beliefs of Judaism, the objectives of Islam, the New Age and ancient Asian religions and of occult practices and astrology. Because Christianity is centred on truth it is unsurprising that it should be the most rational and most integrated and consistent worldview and its gospel the most wonderful news one could imagine.

3. SAVONAROLA – HIS BIRTH AND BACKGROUND Girolamo Savonarola was born on September 21st 1452, into a family of some reputation. His grandfather Michele, was physician to court of the Duke of Ferrara. Then it was a city of 100,000 inhabitants, and its Court one of the most famous in Italy, was continually hosting celebrations for visiting Princes, Emperors, and Popes. Girolamo, who was the third of seven children, also planned to study medicine. Up to the start of his medical training, his basic education centred on the works of St. Thomas Aquinas, the Arabic commentaries on Aristotle, and the Bible. Michele was very fond of Girolamo and personally undertook his education. By the age of ten he was able to write Latin fluently.44 But the grandfather believed that the one subject that really mattered was the study of the Sacred Scriptures. It is possible that by the age of twenty Girolamo had memorised most of the Bible in Latin. 45 43

See - Alvin Plantinga, The Dawkins Confusion - Naturalism ad absurdum; Books & Culture, March/April 2007. Available at http://www.christianitytoday.com/bc/2007/002/1.21.html 44 Paassen – page 3. 45

Paassen – page 13

26

His grandfather taught him to keep a record of his daily reading of Scripture and encouraged him to make notes in the margin of his Bible. All his life he carried a small book of his grandfather's notes on Scripture – and one comment he quoted from the pulpit in Florence – Neither the Popes nor their vicars have the right to teach anything contrary to the things instituted by God . . . I say this for those who pretend to find an excuse for their unworthy conduct in what they are pleased to call the broader view of life and doctrine . . . God's law is strict: 'strait is the gate and narrow is the way that leads to life and few there are who find it.‘ 46

As a young man, his appearance was of middle height and dark complexion, with very bright dark grey eyes. He had an aquiline nose and a large mouth. Contemporaries said his thick lips were compressed in a manner denoting a stubborn firmness of purpose; his forehead, already marked with deep furrows, indicated a mind continually absorbed in meditation of serious things. Though not handsome he did have a nobility of character.47

4. SAVONAROLA – HIS LIFESTORY 1452-1498 In his early twenties, a Florentine family came to live close to his home and he was very attracted to the daughter of the house. However, when he spoke of his love to her, he was rebuffed and told that the Savonarola family were not of sufficient status for her to have anything to do with them. Having a deep sense of rejection he turned to prayer and looked to God for affirmation and acceptance. His own spiritual renewal (possibly through a printed sermon of Augustine) produced a growing sense of concern at the state of the Church. This drove him to give up medicine and enter the Dominican Monastery in Bologna.

4.1 Entered Dominican Cloisters 1475 His devotion to God became the central focus of his life and he nearly always ended his prayers with the words: ‗Lord, make known to me the path my soul should tread?‘ 48 He felt the answer to this question involved a commitment to the monastic life and his early admiration for the teaching of St Thomas Aquinas drew him particularly to the Dominican order. Professor Jill Raitt, of the University of Chicago, specialised in the Middle Ages and Reformation, and identifies the academic engagement of the Dominicans As the order became more involved in the universities, it inevitably became involved in a more intellectual apostolate. One of the needs of the time was for a

46

Paassen – page 14

47

Villari – Book 1 Ch. 1 Villari – Book 1 Ch. 1

48

27

serious attempt to cope theologically with the new, Aristotelian learning which posed a serious threat to orthodoxy. Thomas Aquinas in particular helped to disentangle the genuine teaching of Aristotle and to show how it could be made to serve orthodox theology. Later on there was a similar problem with the new humanism of the Italian Renaissance, and once again Dominicans were prominently involved. 49

He left home in 1475, without discussion with his parents leaving just a letter explaining his intentions. Later when they expressed regret at his decision Savonarola, responded by alluding to their pride in his elder brother's profession as a soldier, writing If, some temporal lord had given me with a sword, and welcomed me among his followers, you would have regarded it as an honour to your house, and rejoiced; yet, now that the Lord Jesus Christ has given me His sword and dubbed me His knight, you shed tears of mourning.50

At the monastery in Bologna, he sought out the most lowly tasks and was marked out by his rigorous prayer and fasting. Soon his responsibilities included the teaching of the novices, which gave him great pleasure. But predominantly his heart was overwhelmed with grief and anger at the shame and corruption of the Christian Church.

4.2 Called to Florence 1481 His success as teacher and chaplain to the novices in the community meant that after six years he was sent to do a similar work at St. Mark‘s Monastery in Florence. As in Bologna, the studies he especially encouraged were theology; philosophical and moral science; and above all, the study of the Scriptures with the help of Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic and Turkish languages. These languages were also taught with the hope that one day the Lord would send him and his brethren to preach the gospel to the Turks.51

The corridors in St Mark‘s with the entrances to the individual cells

Lorenzo the Magnificent had ruled in Florence for many years, and was at the height of his power and fame, at the time when Savonarola arrived towards the end of 1481. It was in Florence that his preaching ministry began, when he was invited to preach the Lenten sermons in St Lorenzo. He thundered against the sins of mankind, and the inadequate faith of clergy and laity. He dismissed the poets and philosophers and condemned the strange craze for ancient authors. He based all his sermons on Bible 49

Jill Raitt, contributor; Bernard McGinn and John Meyendorff, editors, Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation: Crossroad Publishing. New York. 1988 50 This unpublished letter is in the Riccardi Library, Florence. Codex. 2053. 51 Villari – Book 1 Ch 10. Note that Savonarola often disclosed information about the studies at the monastery, in references made in his sermons.

28

texts at a time when few Florentines read the Bible at all, since finding its Latin incorrect, they were afraid of being corrupted by its teaching.

The cloisters garden at St Mark‘s. As Prior, Savonarola was given a two room cell and its windows are the last two on the right, upper floor.

Though his youthful hearers listened with great respect, his style was so different to the eloquence of the other preachers in the city, that the critical congregation rejected him. This they did by voting with their feet and by the end of Lent there were fewer than 25 people (including children) coming to hear him. It was with disappointment that he announced to those present that he would no longer preach but would confine himself to teaching and interpreting the Scriptures.

In contrast, the Augustinian monk, Fra Mariano da Genazzano, was preaching to crowds and the Medici held him in high esteem. His sermons were regarded as the finest oratory and based in the philosophy of the Platonic Academy. He rarely referred to Scripture but delighted in quoting Plato and Aristotle. To prevent any possibility of tedium he told many stories and moved his hearers to frequent laughter with his many jokes. In 1484 Savonarola was sent by his community to the area of San Gimignano and then on to Genoa. In these places he was again called on to preach and had time to develop into a fine orator. The same year (1484) Pope Sixtus IV died and many hoped that the next Pope would bring reformation and renewal to the Church. But the result of the election destroyed the hopes of good people. Everyone knew that the election had been a sham and there was no move to conceal the fact. People even knew which Cardinals had sold their votes and the prices paid for them. It was obvious that the new Pope Innocent VIII had gained power by using his wealth to bribe and cajole. As he began his Papal rule his immorality and godlessness were of a worse degree than that of Sixtus IV. He had tried to hide some of his actions and always referred to his sons as nephews. The new Pope openly announced that his sons were to be regarded as princes. In 1487 he married his eldest son to the daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, who in return had his thirteen-year-old son Giovanni, made a cardinal. (He was later to be Pope Leo X). So Rome deepened its reputation as a seat of scandal and sin. In Savonarola‘s absence from Florence, the person who attracted most attention was the celebrated Giovanni Pico, Count of Mirandola. He was still not twenty years old, but had already studied at the principal universities in Italy and France. He was a prodigy of science and philosophy as well as a brilliant linguist. He claimed that his learning in theology and philosophy enabled him to bring them into agreement and even to reconcile paganism with Christianity. The praises he received for his learning tended to create arrogance and in 1486 he went to Rome to propose a philosophical tournament Issuing nine hundred propositions, which

29

he would defend against all-comers. From his wealth he even promised to pay the expenses of all opponents who could not afford the journey. Rome was in no mood for such a challenge. Pope Innocent VIII condemned all his nine hundred propositions and he was driven out of the city. He made his way to Florence where Lorenzo took him into his household and gave him employment as a teacher. His youth and brilliance spellbound Florence. Later Pico and Savonarola became united in an enduring friendship. He heard about Savonarola, who had developed a reputation as a great preacher in his years away from Florence. So in 1489 he requested that Lorenzo put pressure on the Community to have him returned to Florence. The fact that Pico wanted to consult Savonarola, soon attracted public attention, and when he returned everyone was interested in what he might have to say. He began by teaching only a few of the friars but then some laymen asked if they could attend. He agreed and they were welcomed to the daily sessions, held under the damask tree in the monastery garden of St. Mark. The congregation grew as news of the lectures spread. He began by expounding the book of Revelation and gradually the form of presentation changed into passionate sermons. Because of growing numbers he was asked to move into the church and preach from the pulpit, so that he could be heard more clearly. Eventually he agreed and one Saturday he announced, ‗Tomorrow we will speak in church, and give a lecture and a sermon.‘ 52 Part of the Monastery garden The news spread quickly and on Sunday 1st August 1489, the church of St. Mark was filled with people. Some sitting, others standing, and some clinging to the iron gratings, in order to hear and see the returned preacher. As he stood in the pulpit he continued his series on Revelation, and the walls of St. Mark echoed with his words. The people were in awe of his intellectual brilliance and passion, but also said that his voice had supernatural power and penetration. He was hailed a success and the whole city talked of him so that even the members of the Platonic Academy wanted to discuss his message.53

52

Villari – Book 1 Ch 5 His sermons were always published in Italian; but when he wrote them out for printing, he found it easier to outline them in Latin. All the marginal notes in his Bibles are in Latin, and he always preferred that language when writing. 53

30

4.3 He preaches in the Cathedral and resists the Medici 1491 THE people of Florence crowded St. Mark‘s, until the church could no longer hold them. Then in Lent of 1491, Savonarola transferred to preach in Santa Maria del Fiore, the Cathedral (Duomo) where the number of listeners increased. His preaching became more passionate and included prophetic announcements about the future of the city and strong criticism of the Medici government and the sin of the city. This obviously roused the hostility of Lorenzo de‘ Medici, and his friends. As Savonarola became aware of the rising tension he Duomo - The Cathedral of wondered whether he should drop any Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence mention of visions and prophecies of coming disasters. Instead, he thought for a time that he should confine his preaching to personal faith, and not mention political issues or the need for Church reform. But he found himself compelled to preach what was in his heart and his despair over the corruption in the Church and in the city. I sought no longer to speak in your name, O Lord; but you have overpowered me, and conquered me. Your word has become like a fire within me, consuming the very marrow of my bones. Therefore, am I derided and despised by the people. But I have faith in the Lord; He gives me daily greater courage and perseverance, and I preach the regeneration of the Church, taking the Scriptures as my sole guide. Be of good cheer and return quickly, that I may tell you the marvellous deeds of the Lord.‘ 54 In these days there is no grace, no gift of the Holy Spirit that may not be bought and sold. On the other hand, the poor are oppressed by grievous burdens, and when they are called to pay sums beyond their means, the rich cry unto them, ‗Give me the rest‘. There are some who, having only an income of fifty, pay a tax of one hundred, while the rich pay little, since the taxes are imposed at their pleasure. When widows come weeping, they are bidden to go to sleep. When the poor complain, they are told to pay and pay again.55

Everyone knew that he was referring to Lorenzo and they were aware that their ruler had corrupted the magistrates and raided both public and private funds. Because of Savonarola‘s courage in the voicing what everyone felt, he became the hero and in July 1491 he was elected Prior of St. Mark‘s. This position gave him greater responsibility and

54

Villari – Book 1 Ch

10.

55

Villari – Book 1 Ch

10.

31

prominence. It also gave him greater freedom, which he exercised in a manner that created even more tension with Lorenzo. It had been the custom that any new Prior should go to pay his respects to the ruler. But Savonarola said that he regarded his election to office was due to God and therefore God was the only one to be honoured and obeyed. Lorenzo was deeply insulted and exclaimed, ‗A stranger has come into my house, yet he will not stoop to pay me a visit.‘ He then reverted to his usual tactic and tried to win the approval of the new Prior by using his wealth to win his friendship. This took the form of expensive gifts and donations to the monastery. When a large sum of gold coins was found in the offerings in the monastery, they were immediately sent for distribution among the poor. Lorenzo then took to attending worship at St View of Duomo from St Mark‘s Mark's and afterwards walking in the garden of the monastery. He seemed to be looking for an opportunity to confront the Prior but Savonarola could not be persuaded to leave his studies, in order to share his company. He did not treat Lorenzo in an unchristian manner but he made it very clear that Lorenzo was a tyrant who had destroyed public freedom and encouraged the corruption, which was the main obstacle in the way of restoring true Christian worship and holy living. Lorenzo's next move was to send five of the leading citizens of Florence to insist that the Prior change his behaviour and the content of his preaching. They also pointed out the danger he was creating for himself and his monastery, even hinting that he might be sent into exile. There were many witnesses to this conversation and they were astounded by Savonarola's response. He prophesied that great changes would occur in Italy and that the Pope, the King of Naples, and Lorenzo were all close to death. 56 This was now becoming a power struggle with Statue of Savonarola Preaching the Prior gaining increasing influence. So Lorenzo instructed Fra Mariano da Genazzano to preach a sermon denouncing the prophecies and the person of Savonarola. Mariano took up this challenge with

56

Villari – Book 1 Ch 8

32

enthusiasm. He was bitterly annoyed that the man from St Mark‘s had usurped his supreme position as the preacher of Florence. Much publicity announced this important sermon and a great crowd was present along with Lorenzo and the leading citizens who were expecting to witness a crushing defeat of the Prior from St Mark's. Unfortunately, Mariano became overexcited and made many accusations against Savonarola, which his hearers instinctively knew were untrue. He made matters worse by making his claims using vile and disgusting language so that his hearers were repelled. This meant that in one sermon, his reputation of many years was destroyed. It was from this moment that Pico stopped attending the sermons of Mariano in order to listen consistently to the teaching of Savonarola. Lorenzo felt very humiliated and was running out of ideas. Mariano was angry and vowed that he would have vengeance on Savonarola and did finally succeed by becoming one of the principal agents of his arrest and death. But the central message of the Prior's preaching was the gospel of Christ. If only I might persuade you to turn away from earthly things, and follow the things eternal! May God grant this grace to me and to you. But this is a gift from God. ‗None may come unto me‘, says the Lord, ‗unless the Father brings him‘. I cannot give you that inward illumination, I can only sound in your ears; but what use is that if your intellect is not enlightened, nor your heart warmed? And how may this be done, save by the word of God? Labour, then, to comprehend His word, and I will strive to do the work of the Apostles, making the Holy Scriptures known to you; and your part is to be doers, and not only hearers of the word of God. 57

4.4 Made Vicar General of Dominicans 1492 Within the year the prophecy concerning Lorenzo‘s death was fulfilled. In April 1492 he retired from public life because of illness and only a few faithful friends were admitted to see him. Knowing that he was dying and that the only person he could really trust to tell him the truth was Savonarola, he sent for him to come. When he arrived he entered respectfully and approached the dying prince. Lorenzo said that he could not face death with peace because of certain issues on his conscience. He wanted to make confession and find forgiveness for his destruction of some communities, his robbery of funds from important charities, and for the many people who had been slaughtered following the attempt on his life in the Cathedral. When he became agitated Savonarola assured him that God is good and God is merciful, but three things were required to show that his repentance was real. First he needed a living faith in God's mercy, secondly he needed to instruct his sons to restore any funds that had been stolen, and thirdly he needed to return democratic freedoms to the people of Florence. Lorenzo's response was to glare at him and then deliberately turn 57

Villari – Book 1 Ch 8.

33

his back on him. The ruler continued in his distressed state until he died a short time later. On 11 August 1492 a new Pope was elected. A Spaniard called Rodrigo Borgia, who took the name Alexander VI. He gained power by bribery and corruption. While he was a cardinal he had fathered several children by different mistresses. As Pope he continued in the same lifestyle. At one point, when Alexander VI was absent from Rome (1501), he remarkably left his daughter Lucretia in charge of the Holy See. 58

This same year Savonarola was appointed the Vicar General of the order of Dominicans and for the next three years his influence grew steadily; until by mid 1495 he virtually ruled the city from his pulpit.59

4.5 He predicts the coming of the French, during Lent 1494 Savonarola continued to grieve over the godless state of the Church and its clergy. (It is worth quoting him at length to sense the passion as well as the rhetoric.) He said, They tickle men‘s ears with talk of Aristotle and Plato, Virgil and Petrarch, and take no concern in the salvation of souls. Why, instead of expounding so many books, do they not expound the one Book in which is the law and spirit of life! The Gospel, O Christians, you should ever have with you; not merely the letter, but the spirit of the Gospel. They preach chastity, and maintain concubines; they prescribe fasting, and feast splendidly themselves. It is by the gates that the house is entered, and it is the prelates who should lead the faithful into the Church of Christ. Therefore the devil has aimed his heaviest blows at them, and has broken down these gates. Thus it is that no more good prelates are to be found in the Church. Do you not see that they do all things amiss? They have no judgment; they cannot distinguish - good things they deem evil, true things false, sweet things bitter, and vice versa. See, how in these days prelates and preachers are chained to the earth by love of earthly things; the care of souls is no longer their concern; they are content with the receipt of revenue; the preachers preach for the pleasure of princes, to be praised and magnified by them . . . . And they have done even worse than this, inasmuch as they have not only destroyed the Church of God, but built up another after their own fashion. This is the new Church, no longer built of living rock, namely, of Christians steadfast in the living faith and in the mould of love; but built of sticks, namely, of Christians dry as tinder for the fires of hell . . . . Go to Rome and throughout Christendom; in the mansions of the great prelates and 58

F. Donald Logan, A History of the Church in the Middle Ages; Routledge Press. London. 2002. Page 352. 59

The New Catholic Encyclopaedia, Catholic University of America, Washington DC, 1967

34

great lords, there is no concern except for poetry and the oratorical art. Go and see, you shall find them all with books of the humanities in their hands, and telling one another that they can guide men‘s souls by means of Virgil, Horace, and Cicero. Would you see how the hands of astrologers rule the Church? And there is no prelate, nor great lord that has not intimate dealings with some astrologer, who fixes the hour and the moment in which he is to ride out or undertake some piece of business. For these great lords undertake no venture without the guidance of their astrologer. But in this temple of theirs there is one thing that delights us much. This is that all within is painted and gilded. So our Church has many fine outer ceremonies for the solemnization of ecclesiastical rites, grand vestments and numerous draperies, with gold and silver candlesticks, and so many chalices that it is a majestic sight to behold. There you see the great prelates with splendid mitres of gold and precious stones on their heads, and silver crosiers in hand; there they stand at the altar, decked with fine copes and stoles of brocade, chanting those beautiful vespers and masses, very slowly, and with so many grand ceremonies, so many organs and choristers, that you are struck with amazement; and all these priests seem to you to be grave and saintly men, you can not believe that they may be in error, but assume that all they say and do should be obeyed even as the Gospel; and so is our Church conducted. Men feed upon these vanities and rejoice in these pomps, and say that the Church of Christ was never so flourishing, nor divine worship so well conducted as at present . . . . also, that the first prelates were inferior to these of our own times . . . . The former, it is true, had fewer gold mitres and fewer chalices, for, indeed, what few they possessed were broken up to relieve the needs of the poor; whereas our prelates, for the sake of obtaining chalices, will rob the poor of their sole means of support. But do you know what I would tell you? In the primitive Church the chalices were of wood, the prelates of gold; in these days the Church has chalices of gold and prelates of wood. These have introduced devilish games among us; they have no belief in God, and jeer at the mysteries of our faith! What are you doing, O Lord? Why do you slumber? Arise, and come to deliver your Church from the hands of the devils, from the hands of tyrants, the hands of iniquitous prelates. Have you forsaken your Church? Do you not love her? Is she not dear to you? O Lord, we have become the despised of all nations; the Turks are masters of Constantinople; we have lost Asia, we have lost Greece, we already pay tribute to the Infidel. O Lord God, You have dealt with us as a wrathful father, You have cast us out from your presence! Hasten then the chastisement and the scourge, that it may be quickly granted to us to return to you. Be not scandalized, O my brethren, by these words; rather, when you see that the righteous desire chastisement, know that it is because they seek to banish evil, so that the kingdom of our Blessed Lord, Jesus Christ, may flourish in the world. The only hope that now remains to us is that the sword of God may soon smite the earth.‘ 60 60

Sermon xxiii. pp. 578-579, Prediche sul Salmo Quam bonus: Prato, Guasti, 1846. p. 237. These sermons were reported verbatim. After their delivery in the Duomo, Savonarola wrote them

35

His answer to the sins of the city, state and church leadership, was a removal of the corrupt leaders and a chastisement of God, which would bring pain and suffering; causing all to be driven to repentance. Prophetically in Lent 1494 he pronounced that the servant God would use, like a latter day Cyrus, would be the French king Charles VIII, and his multinational army which was moving though Europe and challenging the lands controlled by the Pope and deposing the local princes in their city states. His preaching shared the same apocalyptic themes of coming crisis, judgment and the need to repent, as previous generations. But as Bernard McGinn 61 points out – Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of the pessimistic role of late medieval apocalyptic thought was its obsession with the state of the Church. Corruption in head and members of Christ's Mystical Body was the most evident sign that evil was mounting to a point of culmination. Key stages in the history of the recent papacy, such as the Avignon Captivity ( 1309-1377), the Great Schism ( 13781418), and the worldly Renaissance papacy, all fed an intense sense of gloom for the future. 62

4.6 Arrival of Charles VIII and rout of Medici 1494 Piero de‘ Medici had succeeded Lorenzo and had ruled for two years when the threat from the French reached a crisis point. The French had sent envoys and discovered that though the princes of the city states were opposed to Charles VIII, the people viewed his coming very favourably. In Florence, Savonarola, gave an invitation from the pulpit, to the new Cyrus to come and take over the city. In November 1494, the people were stunned to find that Piero de‘ Medici had placed the whole Republic at the mercy of Charles VIII. This included all the farmlands and territories in Tuscany. They were further daunted to discover that the Medici had left no soldiers in Florence, and had fled. Shortly after, Piero returned, but he found Florence in the greatest excitement. The royal palace was closed and stones were thrown at him. He summoned his guards, but the people took to arms, and he was compelled to fly to his brothers Giovanni and Giuliano. The Signori declared them to be traitors, and set a price upon their heads. Their palace and its treasures fell into the hands of the people. This meant that the people could now take control of their own city, but they did not know whom to trust and had no leader. Many of those who had been held captive had out in Latin in a somewhat abbreviated form, as may be ascertained from the holograph codex at St. Mark‘s. They were afterwards translated and published in an amended form by Girolamo Giannotti during the sixteenth century. Quoted by Villari – Book 1 Ch 10. 61

Emeritus Professor of Theology, Chicago University and world authority of medieval mysticism.

62

Bernard McGinn, Apocalyptic Spirituality: Treatises and Letters of Lactantius, Adso of Montier-En-Der, Joachim of Fiore, the Franciscan Spirituals, Savonarola; Paulist Press. New York.1979. Page 184.

36

been freed and there was a sense of potential anarchy and violence. As the news filtered through to the population they began to wander the streets and there was a threat of looting from the vacated palaces and homes. Fortunately they instinctively gathered at the Duomo where Savonarola was due to preach. The crowd was so closely packed that there was no room to move. All looked to the only man with any influence and integrity. At this moment he had such power that if he had ordered the settling of scores, then blood would have flowed in the streets. Carefully Savonarola bent forward in the pulpit and avoided all reference to politics and proclaimed the law of peace, charity and union. He also went on to say that his prophecies were being fulfilled and that this was the Lord‘s doing. Their response needed to be repentance and unity. My people, what desire has ever been mine but to see you saved, to see you united?‘ ‗Repent for the kingdom of heaven is at hand!‘ But I have said this so many times, I have cried to you so many times; I have wept for you, O Florence, so many times, that it should be enough. To You I turn, O Lord, to You, who did die for love of us and for our sins: forgive, O Lord, forgive the Florentine people, that we might be Your people.63

The tenderness of his words dominated and calmed the people, so that not a single violent act occurred. But this sermon took so much out of him that he was physically ill for several days afterward. Knowing that the King was coming, the city sent out envoys to try to settle terms with him. But they were not well received. Then Savonarola made a visit out to the French camp and requested to see him. Having been welcomed into the King‘s presence he spoke directly. O most Christian king, you are an instrument in the hand of the Lord, who sends you to relieve the woes of Italy, as for many years I have foretold; and He sends you to reform the Church, which now lies prostrate in the dust. But if you are not just and merciful; if you should fail to respect the city of Florence, its women, its citizens, and its liberty; if you should forget the task the Lord has sent you to perform, then He will choose another to fulfil it; His hand shall smite you, and chastise you with terrible scourges. These things I say to you in the name of the Lord.64

The Medici Palace, Via Cavour

63 64

The King held the Prior in high esteem, as the one who had identified him as the servant of God and predicted his victories. So the words were received with seriousness and a measure of fear. It was for this reason that Charles VIII treated the city of Florence with more deference when he did arrive.

Villari – Book 2 Ch 2. Villari – Book 2 Ch 2

37

Savonarola returned with the news that the King was coming and that he was to be received with honour and that in return he would treat the people honourably. On hearing this, the people began great preparations at the Medici palace65 for the reception of the King. The generals were to be accommodated in the homes of leading citizens. On 17 November the king made his state entry through the streets which were covered with awnings and draped with hangings and tapestries. The description of the King‘s triumphal entry seems to have been an icon which Savonarola would use in his Triumph of the Cross. In this book he describes Christ as taking a triumphant path through the world, surrounded by a great and diverse company and in great glory. (Though others suggest that he is repeating the imagery used by Petrarch in his popular Triumph poems.)

Ponte Vecchio Bridge

All eyes were on the King who seemed strangely insignificant compared to the powerful multi-national army that surrounded him. He wore black velvet with a mantle of gold brocade and rode on a beautiful horse; entering the city with his lance held out as a sign of victory. His body was small in proportion to his large head, with a long nose. His legs seemed thin and deformed. At his side were two Cardinals, followed by the royal body-guard of 100 French bowmen, and then 200 French knights marching on foot. Behind them were the Swiss infantry, the French cavalry and the Scottish archers. It was estimated that this mercenary army numbered about 12,000. The procession crossed the Ponte Vecchio (Old Bridge) and made its way to the Cathedral via the Piazza. The King entered the Duomo and was greeted by leaders of the city. After some prayers they escorted him to the Medici Palace. That night and the following day were filled with feasting and music – even before any terms for a treaty had been negotiated. In the rush of events Savonarola was recognised by all as a true prophet because of all that had occurred. He had the attention of the King and the confidence of the city so it was natural that he should be the one looked to for counsel and direction regarding the future.

65

Now known as the Riccardi Palace in Via Cavour

38

4.7 The Republic established 1495 The terms agreed with the King gave freedom to the citizens of Florence in return for their loyalty to the French regime and payment of taxes. But the people did not know how to handle this freedom, so they looked to Savonarola for guidance. He was reluctant to get involved in politics but as he continued to preach the gospel, he also began to proclaim that the Lord would renew all things and then use Florence as the instrument of renewal in all Italy. O people of Florence, you shall begin the reformation of all Italy, and spread your wings over the earth to bear reform to all nations. Remember that the Lord has given plain signs that it is His purpose to renew all things, and that you are the people chosen to begin this great enterprise, provided that you follow the commands of Him who calls and invites you to return to the spiritual life.66 However these words were not specific enough to deal with the public confusion and loss of confidence. The only person they really trusted was the Prior. So on 12th December 1494 he decided to address the political issues. He explained that the best government was, to be ruled by a single good monarch. But it was also the worst form of government if the single ruler were a bad monarch. The other options were aristocracy or democracy and he suggested that democracy would suit the nature of the Florentines, if they acknowledged Christ as the supreme ruler.67

The tightly packed buildings around the Duomo

The Scriptures were to be its book of laws, and love for God and neighbour would make them strong. He proposed a Greater Council of 3,200 citizens, which would be divided into three sections with each ruling for six months. This was found to be too complex and so the number was reduced to eighty men over the age of forty. The first action he asked of the Council was to proclaim an amnesty for past offences, because forgiveness was sweeter than vengeance and peace more loving than hatred. Savonarola did not enter into politics of his own choice, but only when impelled by the irresistible force of events. He was not a member of the Council but he ruled and exercised influence through his preaching in the Duomo. Within one year the freedom of Florence was established and a Republic formed, taxation was reformed, justice re-organized, and the Greater Council was instituted. All this had been accomplished, without a sword being drawn or any blood shed. This Friar made no harangues in the streets, had no seat in the Councils of the 66

Villari – Book 2 Ch 4.

67

In the course of his last sermon on Haggai he announced that it was the Lord‘s will to give a new head to the city of Florence; and after keeping his audience long in suspense, finally declared ‗This new head is Jesus Christ; He seeks to become your King!‘ Villari – Book 2 Ch 5

39

State, yet he was the soul of the whole people, and the chief author of every law of the new government.68 In all the laws subsequent to the revolution of 1494, the influence of the democratic monk is clearly to be traced in every word and detail. They were now drawn up in Italian instead of Latin; in a new form, a new style, and animated by a new spirit. 69 There was a new spirit in the city. High fashion was exchanged for modest dress. Gambling, drugs and sexual excesses were curtailed and the main occupation of leisure time was reading the Scriptures or the printed sermons of the Prior. Prayer became a central feature of life and people flocked to the churches. The poor were cared for and trade was conducted with honesty. People from outside of the city travelled in to hear The vast interior of the Duomo the Prior preach in the Duomo. At times even this vast Cathedral could not hold all who wanted to listen. But the most significant thing was that they did not just hear the Word – they responded. Hundreds were converted and many asked to join the monastery – which grew from a community of 50 to 230. Savonarola was always careful to discourage emotional responses and urged people to make a commitment to Christ only after very careful reflection. Bettuccio, a Florentine full of impetuosity, quarrelsome, a corrupt libertine, and a partisan of the Arrabiati faction, after much urging went to the Cathedral to pray. At once he felt Savonarola‘s eyes fixed upon him. Much shaken, he went off to a solitary place and ‗for the first time in my life I felt my mind accuse itself‘. He spent a long time in meditation, went home, and felt himself entirely changed. 70 The immense responsibility weighed heavily on Savonarola and affected his health. He became very thin, looked worn out and in pain from stomach problems. Yet so great was his concern for the Church that as soon as the government of the city became more settled, he began to preach for a new reform based on a series of sermons on Job. 68

Savonarola spoke of the changes in the new government and of the principal laws ordained by himself: ‗Seeing that a change of government was at hand, and considering that it might lead to much scandal and shedding of blood; . . .. I decided, being thereto inspired by God, to begin to preach and exhort the people to repentance, in order that He might show mercy. And on the Feast of St. Matthew the Apostle, i.e., 21st September, 1494, I began, and with what strength was vouchsafed me by God, did exhort the people to confession and fasting and prayer; and whereas these things were done willingly, by the goodness of God justice was changed to mercy, and on the 11th November the State and the government were miraculously changed in your city, without bloodshed, or any other scandal. Then, O people of Florence, since you had to form a new government, I did summon you all, to your cathedral, in the presence of the Magnificent Signory and all the other magistrates of the City; and after speaking many things concerning the good government of the city conforming with the doctrines of philosophers and the holy fathers, I instructed you as to the natural government of the Florentine people.‘ 69

Villari – Book 2 Ch 5.

70

Quoted by Sante de Sanctis in Helen Augur‘s translation of Religious Conversion, a BioPsychological Study; Harcourt, Brace & Company, London.1927. Page 42.

40

4.8 He is summoned to Rome and resists the Medici 1495 – 1496 When the French King and his armies left Florence the city was in a vulnerable position. Piero Di Medici had tried to return but had been driven out by the citizens who declared him a traitor. He fled to Rome where he persuaded Pope Alexander to help him to reestablish his rule. The Pope readily agreed to support him because he wanted to punish the city for its loyalty to France. But his real aim was the total destruction of the Republic, and the temporary reinstatement of the Medici as a means to making his own sons the rulers. In Florence the Franciscan Community was filled with jealousy and hated the popularity of the Prior. They accused him of meddling in politics, which they said was not proper for a man of God. Savonarola silenced them by citing the example of Moses and the prophets of the Old Testament. Their hatred continued and became one of the principal causes of Savonarola's eventual death. He had other enemies who were offended by his preaching and power. The most bitter and vocal were the upper class youth who gained the name of the Arrabiati (the Furies). They were joined by the old friends of the Medici, who were called the Compagnacci. Knowing that there was growing ill feeling against him in Rome, Savonarola had kept the tone of his criticism quieter. But those who were against him began to circulate letters early in 1495, which accused the Prior of hatred of the Medici and the Pope. Pope Alexander‘s anger was stirred and further inflamed by accusations brought to him by Savonarola‘s worst enemy, the preaching Friar Mariano da Genazzano, who always spoke of the Prior as ‗The Devil‘s Instrument.‘ The Pope‘s response was to send a Brief (official letter) to Savonarola on 25th July 1495. It was couched in mild terms, but its invitation to visit Rome was seen by many as a trap to have the Prior killed once he left the safety of Florence. He wrote – To our well-beloved son, greeting and the apostolic benediction. We have heard that of all the workers in the Lord‘s vineyard, you are the most zealous; at which we deeply rejoice, and give thanks to the Almighty God. We have likewise heard that you assert that your predictions of the future proceed not from you but from God; wherefore we desire, as behoves our pastoral office, to have conversation with you concerning these things; so that being better informed by you, of God‘s will, we may be better able to fulfil it. Wherefore, by your vow of holy obedience, we instruct you to attend on us here without delay, and we shall welcome you with loving-kindness.71 All knew the evil nature of the Pope and were aware of the plots of the Arrabiati, who had already tried to kill Savonarola, so no one was deceived by the letter. If the Pope did not kill him on his way then he would probably hold the Prior as a prisoner. So Savonarola‘s friends warned him that there was danger for him if he went and also danger for the city if he were absent, now that the French had gone. But it was a dilemma requiring Savonarola to either disobey the Pope‘s mandate, or risk his life at the 71

Villari – Book 3 Ch 2.

41

hands of the Pope or the Arrabiati. Savonarola quickly replied on 31 July and I quote part of his response. Most Blessed Father! The Holy Father chooses to summon to him, his humble servant. But I am barely recovered from a very serious malady, which has forced me to suspend both preaching and study, and still threatens my life. There are many adversaries, both within and outside the city, who, having sought to enslave it, and having been confounded instead, now seek my blood, and have frequently attempted to take my life by steel and poison. 72 Wherefore I could not depart without manifest risk, nor can I even walk through the city without an armed escort. And should your Holiness desire greater certainty on the matters publicly foretold by me concerning the chastisement of Italy and the renovation of the Church, you will find them set forth in a book of mine that is now being made public.73 Accordingly, I beseech your Holiness to graciously accept my very true and plain excuses, and to believe that it is my ardent desire to come to Rome, as soon as possible.74 The Pope replied informally saying that his excuse was accepted. But on 8th September, he sent an official Brief addressed to the Franciscan Community in Florence, which stated that Savonarola was a disseminator of false doctrines. The Pope went on to say that he had shown great patience towards him, in the hope that he would repent. Now he ordered that the Prior should refrain from every description of preaching, whether public or private. All this was under pain of excommunication.75 Savonarola was now in a difficult position because he did not want to rebel against the Pope. But neither did he want the Republic to be crushed by the growing conspiracies and the removal of his own leadership. He put his feelings into a letter sent to a brother Dominican in Rome on 15th September. It is known to the entire world that the charges made against me are false, and will bring great infamy on those prelates and the whole of Rome. I well know that my accusers have no just cause for attack, for truly they are stoning me for a good deed; but I dread them not, neither am I afraid of their power, for the grace of God and a pure conscience are enough for me. I know the root of all these plots, and know them to be the work of evil-minded citizens who would wish to 72

On the 24th of May 1495, an attempt was made on Girolamo‘s life in the street of the Cocomero, after he had been preaching. 73

He here alludes to his ‗Compendium Revelationum.‘

74

Villari – Book 3 Ch 2.

75

Excommunication is the most severe punishment the Roman Catholic Church can exercise. It is the privation of all rights resulting from the social status of the Christian as such. The excommunicated person, it is true, does not cease to be a Christian, since his baptism can never be effaced; he can, however, be considered as an exile from Christian society and as non-existent, for a time at least, in the sight of ecclesiastical authority. But such exile can have an end (and the Church desires it), as soon as the offender has given suitable satisfaction. Meanwhile, his status before the Church is that of a stranger. He may not participate in public worship nor receive the Body of Christ or any of the sacraments. Moreover, if he be a cleric, he is forbidden to administer a sacred rite or to exercise an act of spiritual authority. New Advent Catholic Encyclopaedia. This is the modern definition of excommunication, but for many in the 15 th Century it was thought to include the loss of eternal salvation.

42

re-establish tyranny in Florence, and are in conspiracy with certain Italian potentates. All these men seek my death; so I can no longer go abroad without a guard of armed men. Nevertheless, if there is no other way of saving my conscience, I am resolved to make submission, so as to avoid even a venial sin. For the present I suspend judgment and take no hasty decision, following the example of the Fathers.76 He also wrote to the Pope saying, ‗And now again I repeat that which I have always said; that I submit myself and all my writings to the correction of the Holy Roman Church.‘ This elicited another Papal Brief on 16th of October that addressed him as if he had come to repentance. In other letters we have manifested our grief to you, regarding these disturbances in Florence, of which your sermons have been the chief cause; forasmuch as instead of preaching against vice and in favour of union, you did predict the future, the very thing that might give birth to discord even among a peaceful people, but much more among the Florentines, in whom there be so many seeds of discontent and party spirit. These were the reasons for which we summoned you to our presence; but now that, by your letters and the testimony of many cardinals, we find you prepared to yield obedience to the Roman Church, we do greatly rejoice, feeling assured that you have erred rather from too much simplicity than from badness of heart. Wherefore we again reply to your letters, and in virtue of your vow of holy obedience command you to abstain from all sermons not only in public, but in private, so that no man may say that after preaching in the pulpit you have been reduced to conventicles 77. And you will continue in this course until such time as you are able to seek our presence with greater safety and with honour—when we will receive you in a joyful and fatherly spirit. 78 Because this Brief was a long time in delivery, Savonarola was able to preach three times in October, before the instruction to be silent arrived. The Pope could find no fault with the Prior‘s teaching but he did take offence on personal and political grounds. So some relaxation was granted to him to preach, but with severe restrictions and a cardinal‘s hat was offered to Savonarola on condition that he would change the tone of his sermons. This offer was most unexpected and came at a time of heightened tension, The Prior‘s response was great anger because he now had proof that Rome traded in holy things and regarded vocations and office in the Church as items to be sold. ‗Come to my next sermon, and you shall hear my reply to Rome‘ was his reply to the messenger. This formed the background to his most daring sermon. 76

This letter was published by Mons. Perrens, to whom it had been given by Abate Bernardi, who had discovered it in a codex of the Marcian Library of Venice (class ix. 4t), with the date 15th of September, 1496. But this date was changed by Mons. Perrens to that of 15th of September, 1495, and Gherardi has proved that he was right in so doing: It is true that in the old Codex 2053 of the Riccardi Library (sheet cxvi) the letter is dated 1496; but there is an added note to the effect that the letter should be placed directly after the Brief of the 8th of September, 1495, and that its original date of 1495 had been afterwards erroneously altered to 1496. 77

Illegal religious meetings

78

Villari – Book 3 Ch 2.

43

On 17th February, 1496, Savonarola reappeared in the pulpit to begin a Lenten series of sermons. He was overflowing with grief and indignation. He had been allowed to preach under certain restrictions and the office of Cardinal had been offered to him. He knew that the battle with the Pope was becoming more intense and that his life was now in serious danger. After months of silence, the people wanted to hear his voice and to hear what he would say about Rome. Standing room in the Duomo was insufficient and so an amphitheatre of seventeen rows of seats was erected against the wall of the nave. Savonarola began by explaining that he had written to Rome, and that he had affirmed his faith in Catholic Doctrine and that he was willing to retract anything that he may have preached or written that was found to be heretical. He went on to say that he would always be prepared to yield obedience to the Roman Church and that to refuse to obey would be to put one‘s salvation in jeopardy. Then having declared the orthodoxy of his belief and his willingness to obey he went on to qualify the terms of his obedience. He said that we are not bound to obey our superiors or even the Pope if their command is contrary to the Gospel. To illustrate this he accused the people of obeying unchristian instructions. He tells you to fast on a certain Saturday, at a certain hour, and you fast, and believe you are saved. I tell you that the Lord wills not that you fast on such a day or at such an hour, but wills that you avoid sin throughout all the days of your life. Instead, you are good for one hour of the day, in order to be bad all your life. Observe the ways of these men during the last three days of Holy Week. See how they go about seeking indulgences and pardons! Come here, go there, kiss St. Peter, St. Paul, this Saint and that! Come, come, ring bells, dress altars, deck the churches, come all of you, for three days before Easter, and then no more. God mocks your doings and does not heed your ceremonies, . . . for, Easter passed, you will be worse than before. All is vanity, all is hypocrisy in our times; true religion is dead.79 But then with great courage he turned to a forensic analysis and condemnation of Rome and Papal leadership. He acknowledged the authority of the Pope, quoting the New Testament: ‗You are Peter, and on this rock will I build my church; and that which you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven.‘ But then repeated that we are not bound to obey everything and at times even the Pope needs to be resisted as a duty - as St. Paul resisted St. Peter and corrected him. Then people would have to say – ‗You do err, you are not the Roman Church, you are a man and a sinner.‘ Then he continued You, Rome, are stricken with a mortal malady. You have lost your health, and have forsaken the Lord; you are sick with sins and tribulations . . . . If you would be healed, forsake feasting; forsake your pride, your ambition, your lusts, and your greed: these are the food that have caused your sickness, these that bring you to death. 79

Villari – Book 3 Ch 3.

44

Thus says the Lord: Inasmuch as Italy is all full of iniquities, harlots, and miserable people who exploit the sexual weakness of others, I will overwhelm her with the scum of the earth; will abase her princes, and trample the pride of Rome. These invaders shall capture her sanctuaries, and defile her churches; and inasmuch as these have been made dens of vice, I will make them stables for horses and swine, which will be less displeasing to God than seeing them made haunts of prostitutes. That is, fly from Rome, for Babylon signifies confusion, and Rome has confused all the Scriptures, confused all vices together, confused everything. Fly, then, from Rome, and come to repentance.80 He spoke so boldly because he was convinced that Pope Alexander‘s election was null, and he hoped that a Council would soon be formed to call the Church leadership to account and put an end to its sin. The sermon ended with a prophecy concerning his own end. He described the situation as a war with Rome and that it would end in victory. But for him personally it would end in death I tell you it will end in death and being cut to pieces. Rest assured, however, that all this will serve to spread abroad this doctrine, which proceeds not from me, but from God. I am but a tool in His hands; wherefore I am resolved to fight to the death. I would be glorified only in You, my God! Neither mitres nor Cardinals‘ hats would I have, but only the gift You have conferred on your saints—death, a crimson hat, a hat reddened with blood; that is my desire.81 The impact of this sermon, and the others in this series, was felt in most of Europe and even in the Islamic world where the Sultan had these sermons translated into Turkish, so that he could read them.82 After Easter, he went to preach to the Professors of the University of Pisa and many leading scholars. Several of them were converted after he explained that the Christian life has its root and foundation entirely in the grace of God. During the summer the city suffered from sickness and famine, being isolated from the commerce and support of other Italian states because of the ongoing dispute between Rome and the Prior and Republic. The Arrabiati relished the general distress and said that it proved that the Prior was a deceiver and the city should surrender to Rome. The Council was uncertain what course to adopt, and appealed to Savonarola to preach and guide them again. Savonarola responded to the request, and re-entered the pulpit on the 28th of October.

80 81

Villari – Book 3 Ch 3. Villari – Book 3 Ch 3.

82

Villari – Book 3 Ch 4.

45

But now the future. They believed the words of the

atmosphere was quite different. People were distressed and feared for the expected famine and war which would be followed by exile and death. All republic was nearing its end and that the Arrabiati would take power. The Prior gave them courage and hope.

One week later on All Souls‘ Day, he preached on ‗The art of dying a good death.‘ 83 He said that the true Christian ought to keep the idea of death always before his eyes. Death is the most solemn moment of our life: it is then that the evil one makes his last attack upon us. It is as though he were always playing chess with man, and waiting the approach of death to give him checkmate. He who wins at that moment wins the battle of life. O my brethren, for what do we live in this world, except to learn to die a good death! Then he announced that he had been declared heretical in his teaching but that he would now refute his critics by publishing his teaching in his book that was nearing completion and which was titled - The Triumph of the Cross.

4.9 Tension increases and the Bonfire of the Vanities 1497 Savonarola spent the beginning of 1497 in silent isolation. His focus was on the writing and editing of the ‗Triumph of the Cross‘, but also he gave time to writing other pamphlets. Through the wide distribution of his writings he hoped to gather more supporters in the violent struggle with Rome, which he believed was coming to a climax. Savonarola‘s place as preacher was taken by Frà Domenico, who was having to contend with the ever more confident Arrabiati. As the time of Carnival approached they wanted to revive the former orgies and festivities, especially the game of stones where youths and children assaulted each other in the piazzas. These had all been banned by Savonarola and now Domenico preached against them and had a new law passed in the Council to prohibit some of the festivities. The previous year Savonarola had involved the children in processions and prayers. But this year they went about in small groups visiting the homes of the wealthy and asked them to surrender any lewd literature, gambling equipment, or obscene artworks. Also the carnival masks and costumes worn at the orgies. When anything was handed over they offered a special prayer of blessing written by the Prior. The last day of the Carnival was 7th February and in the morning, adults and children attended Mass celebrated by Savonarola, and all received the communion from his hands. They then returned to their homes for a meal before reassembling for a great procession in the city. This was led by a figure of the Infant Jesus, carved by Donatello, which was followed by a choir in white robes and then the crowd. The destination was the Piazza, where a huge pyramid had 83

Villari – Book 3 Ch 5.

46

The bell tower of the Duomo

been formed from the collected ‗vanities‘. Its size alone was impressive and may well have been 18 metres high. Packed in among the items were combustible materials. At a given signal, four guardians of the pile set fire to the pyramid, which immediately burst into flames. Trumpeters played fanfares and bells were rung while the people shouted for joy at the climax of the carnival. In spring 1497, the plague, which had been raging through Italy, now reached Florence. The people looked to their prophet, and cried out for a miracle. On Ascension Day, the 4th May, The Piazza where the Bonfire of Savonarola decided to preach again from the the Vanities occurred and where pulpit. There was considerable excitement at the Savonarola and his two brother announcement that this would happen. Both monks were executed. friends and foes were equally thrilled by the prospect. The Arrabiati threatened that he would not be allowed to preach. His supporters said that he would be heard. The agitation reached such a pitch that bets were placed on whether the sermon would be preached. When the Council heard this they issued a decree, annulling the wagers and forbidding any attempt to prevent the Ascension sermon from being given. 84 But those who opposed the Prior were not deterred from seeking to kill him. They arranged with Baia, a firework-maker, to blow up the pulpit during the sermon. But on reflection they decided against this as they anticipated that the resulting loss of life might be so great that people would be turned against the Arrabiati. Their next plan was carried out and they filled the pulpit with excrement and dead animals. They nailed spikes through the ledge where Savonarola was apt to strike his fist when making a point in his sermon. This might have looked like an ineffective and dirty tactic, but their real objective was to start a riot. Some of Savonarola‘s friends visited him in his monastic cell and begged him not to preach, because his life was at risk. But he replied: ‗No fear of man shall induce me to deprive the people of their sermon on the day appointed by the Lord to His disciples for going to spread His doctrine through the world.‘ On the day, all was cleaned up and the Prior entered the pulpit. He began by speaking of faith as all-powerful. And went on The times predicted are now at hand; the hour of danger has come; and now it shall be manifest who is truly with the Lord. The wicked thought to prevent this sermon today; but they should know that I have never shirked my duty through fear of man. No mortal upon earth, be he great or small, can boast of having hindered me from fulfilling my office. I am even ready to lay down my life for it. O Lord! deliver me from these foes who brand me as a seducer; deliver my soul, since for my body I fear not.85 84 85

Villari – Book 4 Ch 2. Villari – Book 4 Ch 2.

47

Immediately a great crash sounded through the Cathedral. The noise had been caused by one of his opponents who had taken the alms box and thrown it down onto the stone flooring. This was the signal for the disturbance to begin. The doors opened and many people fled out into the street. Those people still in the building shouted and banged on benches and doors. Some of the more courageous gathered round the pulpit to protect the Prior. Others went to fetch arms from nearby houses and returned with lances and swords. Throughout Savonarola endeavoured to be heard and seeing that it was a futile task, he knelt in prayer until his friends could secure safe passage for him. Then surrounded by them, displaying their arms, they made their way to St Mark‘s Monastery. On arrival in the monastery garden, and among his supporters he concluded his sermon – The longer the Lord stays His hand, the more heavily and severely will He smite each one according to his works. The wicked refuse to believe, refuse to listen; but they will fall into the pit they have dug for others. They are undermining the foundations of a wall that will crush them as it breaks. Now I will sing praises unto the Lord and joyfully depart from this life.86 His ‗Ascension Sermon,‘ and the events of the day were hot news and the full details were soon known throughout Italy.

4.10 Excommunication 1497 The people had originally gathered on Ascension Day for a word from the Prior to sustain them in their suffering from the plague. All they had heard was, ‗Do not fear, cast not away your trust in God; it is His proving time; arouse yourselves, and help your sick brethren.‘ But the people died, and poverty followed without any sign of a miracle so that many began to waver in their faith, and lose confidence in Savonarola. When the Pope heard of the riot he realised that the support for Savonarola was weakened and that the Arrabiati were growing in strength. So he was more open to their request that it was now the right time to excommunicate the Prior. Realising what was being planned, Savonarola wrote to the Pope, on 22nd of May. He asked why the Pope was angry with his servant and pointed out that the Pope was ready to listen to the false accusations made against him but always refused to listen to the Prior himself. He pointed out that his chief accuser was Fra Mariano who had personally attacked the Pope in his sermons, using language unfit for the pulpit. Savonarola had rebuked him for this in front of the whole congregation. Now the one who had been offensive, claimed privilege in judging Savonarola and finding him guilty. He ended by asserting that his sermons and writings proved his orthodoxy, and this would be seen by means of his Triumph of the Cross. His final words were -

86

Villari – Book 4 Ch 2.

48

For if all human aid fail me, I will put my trust in God, and show the world the iniquity of those, who, may perhaps be driven to repent the work they have in hand.87 His letter was useless because eight days earlier, 13th May, the Brief of excommunication had been despatched. Therefore we now command you, on all festivals, and in the presence of the people, to declare the said Frà Girolamo excommunicate, and to be held as such by all men, for his failure to obey our apostolic admonitions and commands. And, under pain of the same penalty, all are forbidden to assist him, hold conversation with him, or approve him either by word or deed, inasmuch as he is an excommunicated person, and suspected of heresy.—Given in Rome this 13th day of May, 1497.88 The reason why Savonarola did not receive the letter earlier was because Pope Alexander had placed the document in the hands of Gian Vittorio, one of his household bishops. The bishop was to deliver the Brief in Florence, but stopping on the way at Siena for a few days, he there read a copy of The Triumph of the Cross, and afterward decided that his conscience would not allow him to complete his mission. He returned to Rome and the Brief of Excommunication was entrusted to others and did not reach Florence till the last day of May.89 The Dominicans have often pointed out that this was a badly drafted and illegal Brief. The Pope did not say that he was a heretic but on the evidence of hearsay he is suspected. Alexander shows that he had not examined the evidence himself before passing judgment. The only act of disobedience that could be alleged was a decision not to unite the Dominicans in Florence with a Dominican community in Rome. The real purpose was to punish the Prior by isolating and silencing him. This was put into effect on 18th June when the Excommunication was proclaimed in the main churches of the city. It was read at night by torchlight and after reading each church was plunged in silence and darkness.90 Savonarola responded with dignity and formed his defence. The day after the proclamation he wrote an ‗Epistle against surreptitious excommunication, addressed to all Christians beloved of God.‘ In it he repeated the orthodoxy of his teaching and concluded: The lukewarm need have no fear, for this excommunication is invalid both in the sight of God and man, inasmuch as it is based on the false reasons and accusations devised by our enemies. I have always submitted and even still submit to the authority of the Church, nor will I ever fail in my obedience; but no one is bound to yield to commands opposed to love and the law of God, since in such case our superiors are no longer the representatives of the Lord. 91

87 88 89 90 91

Villari – Book 4 Ch 2. Villari – Book 4 Ch 2. Paassen – page 248 Villari – Book 4 Ch 2 Villari – Book 4 Ch 2.

49

The leading citizens who supported Savonarola, wrote to the Pope on 8th July Most Holy Father, we are deeply afflicted to have incurred the ban of the Church, not only because of the respect always entertained by our Republic for the Holy Keys, but because we see that a most innocent man has been wrongfully and maliciously accused to your Holiness. We deem this Prior to be a good and pious man, and thoroughly versed in the Christian faith. He has laboured many years for the welfare of our people, and no fault has ever been detected either in his life or his doctrine. Wherefore we fervently implore your Holiness, in your paternal and divine charity, to use your own judgment in this matter, and remove the weight of your ban not only from Father Girolamo Savonarola, but from all those who may have incurred it. Your Holiness could do no greater kindness to the Republic, especially in this time of pestilence, in which bans are of grave peril to men‘s souls.92 This was one of many letters sent through the remainder of the year, from the Republic in Savonarola‘s defence. In the middle of this dispute the Pope had a further crisis to face. On 14 th June, the Duke of Gandia, the Pope‘s eldest son, was stabbed to death and his body thrown into the river Tiber. His killer was his brother, Cesare Borgia, Cardinal of Valencia. The motive was said to be jealousy. The Papal family was used to scandal but this bereavement broke the heart of Pope Alexander Borgia. This death seemed to drive him to repentance for his own sins and to decide to reform the Church. To carry through the reform he appointed six cardinals to form a commission - one of its tasks being to decide the case of Savonarola. The Prior was thrilled by this news of reform but saddened by the bereavement, so he wrote – Most Blessed Father, the faith that works miracles, inspires all noble deeds, and is sealed by the blood of the martyrs, can alone give peace and true consolation to the heart of man. Faith surpasses sense and reason, lifts us above this world, transports us to the unseen, and expands our spirit. Faith gives us strength to bear adversity and rejoice in tribulation; wherefore it is written, that the just man shall never be cast down, and the just man is he that lives in the Savonarola‘s desk at which he Lord by faith. Blessed is he that is called to this wrote the Triumph of the Cross gift of faith.93 This was a letter of encouragement from an excommunicated Prior and it was uncertain as to how it would be received. At first the Pope seemed inclined to be gracious toward him – particularly during this time of bereavement. But sadly he soon reverted to his former ways and immoral lifestyle. Subsequently he protested that Savonarola had dared to insult his fatherly sorrow. 92 93

Villari – Book 4 Ch 2. Villari – Book 4 Ch 2.

50

4.11 The writing of The Triumph of the Cross Savonarola wrote The Triumph of the Cross in late 1496, completing it about the time of his excommunication in 1497. It was officially published a year later and became a great success. The iconic device of a Triumph does not refer to the battle and victory won, but specifically to the Victory Parade when the ‗triumph‘ was displayed and celebrated. It was a motif used by Petrarch Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) an earlier resident of Florence, who had a huge influence on the literature and art of Florence. He was a brilliant poet, musician, scholar, humanist and diplomat. His abiding legacy has been the sonnet form of poetry. In his sonnets he used the motif of a triumphal entry, based on ancient Roman military processions. It became a literary and artistic device for celebrating love, fame, virtue and other popular Renaissance themes. But in a darker mood in the ‗Triumph of Death', Petrarch reminded Christians that those human victories were short-lived. Clearly Savonarola was adopting a motif that was familiar and using it for his own purpose. He converts the secular Renaissance triumph into a vivid metaphor of Christ‘s victory over sin and death. Let us picture in our minds, a four-wheeled chariot on which is seated Christ. As conqueror, he is crowned with thorns, and bears the marks of His wounds, showing that it is through His passion and death that He has overcome the world. Over His head shines a light like a triple sun. This represents the Blessed Trinity, which envelops His humanity, and the whole Church, with unspeakable splendour. In His left hand Christ holds the Cross and the instruments94 of His passion, in His right, the Old and the New Testaments. At His feet are the bread and wine of Communion;95 the oil for blessing and healing;96 and the other symbols of the sacraments. The Blessed Mother of God, 97 the Virgin Mary, is seated beneath her Son. Around, and below her, are vessels of gold, silver and precious stones, filled with ashes and bones of the dead. The Apostles and Preachers go before the Chariot, appearing to draw it along. The Patriarchs, the Prophets, and innumerable men and women of the Old Testament precede them. The Chariot is encircled by the army of Martyrs, forming as it were a crown. They, again, are surrounded by the Doctors of the Church, bearing open books. Around them are circled a countless multitude of virgins, of both sexes, adorned with lilies. Behind 94

The tools used at His crucifixion.

95

‗Host and chalice‘

96

‗Vessels of balsam and oil‘

97

Mother of God is a title of honour given to Mary the mother of Jesus. The title tells us something about Jesus. It affirms that she was His mother and He had a supernatural conception, but a natural birth. So He was truly human. But He was also divine because Mary had given birth to a uniquely conceived child. This child was the Lord – the Old Testament title for God. The title does not indicate that Mary was the First Cause in bringing God into being, but is based on the incident in Luke‘s gospel. Luke 1:41-43 When Elizabeth heard Mary's greeting, the baby leaped in her womb, and Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit. [42] In a loud voice she exclaimed: ‗Blessed are you among women, and blessed is the child you will bear! [43] But why am I so favoured, that the mother of my Lord should come to me?

51

the Chariot follow crowds of men and women of all nations and backgrounds Jews, Greeks, Romans, barbarians, rich and poor, learned and simple, small and great, old and young; all of whom together, are praising Christ. All around this whole host, gathered from the Old and from the New Testaments, are the crowded ranks of the enemies of the Church of Christ - emperors and kings, princes and men of power, sages, philosophers, heretics, slaves and freemen, men and women, rich and poor, learned and simple - people of every race and of every tongue. Whilst around them lie smashed and broken idols, burnt heretical books, and the defeated remains of all sects and false religions. 98

Having established this triumphal motif, he goes on to build an apologetic for the Faith as an integrated whole philosophy. It involves a dialectic discussion of the visible and invisible worlds, reason and faith, body and spirit, nature and grace, ceremonial religion and religion of the heart.99 His readers in Florence would also remember the triumphal entry of King Charles, into their city. It was a time of great rejoicing and hope, a time of pomp and ceremony. There was a display of power but it was beneficent and concluded with prayers in the Duomo. Such a spectacle would naturally colour the motif in the minds of the readers. But it is probable that there was another influence which prompted the writing and the form of this work. Averroes (1126 - 1198) whose Arabian name was Abdul Muhammad Ibn Rushd, was an Islamic - Arabian philosopher. He lived in Spain, working as a physician. His philosophical teaching, called Averroism was based on Aristotle's belief that any event or existence can only be explained by discussion of its material, formal, efficient and final cause. He spent three decades producing multiple commentaries on all of Aristotle‘s works, except his Politics, covering every subject from aesthetics and ethics to logic and zoology. He also wrote about Plato‘s Republic, and the works of Nicolaus of Damascus, and Ptolemy. His commentaries and books were known in Florence and regarded highly. Savonarola makes reference to them in TOTC - Book 4 chapter 2. It is possible that the Prior adopted the basic presuppositions for his work from a major work of Averroes. The Islamic Scholar had written a treatise on the doctrine of God known as Al-Kashf 'an Manahij al-Adilla fi ‗Aqaid al-Milla (the Exposition of the Methods of Proof Concerning the Beliefs of the Community). His purpose was to examine religious beliefs and doctrines to see if they were consistent with the intention of ‗Allah.‘ He begins by examining the arguments for the existence of God and favours the argument from Providence, which parallels the modern Anthropic Principle. He said that one can observe that everything in the universe serves the purpose of humanity. The sun, the moon, the earth and the weather are examples of how the universe is conditioned for humans. If the universe is, then, so finely tuned, then there must be a fine tuner - God. 98

TOTC – Book 1 Ch 2

99

Donald Weinstein, Savonarola: Piety, Prophecy and Politics in Renaissance Florence; Bridwell Library, Dallas, 1994, pp. 11-12

52

After establishing the existence of God, Averroes went on to describe the nature and attributes of God, beginning with the doctrine of divine unity. Then he moves from the attributes of God to the actions of God, and a definition of creation, including a polemic against the philosophers who held the eternal existence of the physical universe. Clearly the major starting point of Averroes and Savonarola are very similar and one may have been the inspiration of the other. But having started out, then the Triumph of the Cross covers far more topics and territory and has an entirely different destination. The form of the book is not a sonnet such as Petrarch would have produced, but one which was entirely new for the period. It is filled with great analytical reasoning and closely argued syllogisms. His apologetic is a complete exposition of the Christian Faith but without the trappings of scholasticism which had been fundamental to all other theological works of the time. The scholastic method had been used to confine the truth of the Faith as an exclusive possession of the clergy. But Savonarola throws this idea to one side in his desire to reach the ordinary believers and seekers after truth. He even takes the time to translate and re-write the whole work into Italian with the hope that it would be more accessible to all who had a basic education. The work is divided into four ‗books‘ and a prologue, which states his apologetic purpose, his presuppositions and his method of working. An outline of his schema and the brilliance of his apologetic approach have been provided in Part Two, Section Two of this Introduction – under the title - THE RELEVANCE OF SAVONAROLA FOR TODAY When one takes into account the circumstances and pressures upon Savonarola at the time of writing, then it is a remarkable achievement. The circumstances also give evidence for the multi purposes that motivated the writing. There is the desire to bring people to Christ and to see them converted and growing in their faith, and there is the desire to provide a full apologetic and exposition of the Christian Faith and lastly there was the intention that this should be an apologetic for Savonarola himself – proving that he was not a heretic. In fact, the Pope never disputed a single belief or doctrine expressed by the Prior. The cardinals who were consulted by the Pope examined the work carefully and found it was without a flaw.

4.12 1498 His last year – January and February At the start of 1498 Savonarola was engaged in writing and lecturing at St Mark‘s monastery. He was still excommunicated by the authority of the Pope, but this seemed to fire him with new zeal and he almost gloried in the notoriety it provided. In one piece he wrote (I have emphasised some of the wording to draw attention to his attitude of mind) – It is feared by some that, although this excommunication be powerless in Heaven, it may have power in the Church. For me it is enough not to be interdicted by Christ. O my Lord, if I should seek to be absolved from this excommunication, let me be sent to hell. O Lord, you have thrown me into a flood from which I have neither the power nor the will to escape. But I beseech

53

You to let no word pass my lips that may be opposed to the Holy Scriptures or to the Church.100 Before Lent the Prior gave a powerful lecture in St. Mark‘s in which he denounced the vices of the clergy. His passion for spiritual renewal is seen in these excepts – When I reflect on the life led by priests I am constrained to weep. O my brethren and my children, shed tears for these woes of the Church, so that the Lord may call the priests to repentance, for it is plain that terrible chastisement awaits them. The tonsure is the seat of all iniquity. It begins in Rome, where the clergy make mock of Christ and the saints. Not only do they refuse to suffer for the Lord‘s sake, but even traffic with the sacraments. Woe, woe to Italy and to Rome! Come, come, O priests! Come, my brethren; let us do our best to revive a little of our love of God! O Father, we shall be thrown into prison, we shall be persecuted and done to death. So let it be! They may kill me as they please, but they will never tear Christ from my heart. I am ready to die for my God. You have been in Rome, and do know the life of these priests. Tell me, would you hold them to be pillars of the Church, or temporal lords? Have they not courtiers and grooms, and horses and dogs; are not their mansions full of tapestries and silks, of perfumes and lackeys? Does it seem to you that this is the Church of God? Whenever there is profit to be made they disregard my excommunication, but when it suits their purpose they declare it to be valid. O Lord, Lord, smite them with your sword! 101 With the protection of his supporters and recognising that his excommunication was invalid, Savonarola began to preach. In a sermon toward the end of the Carnival season on 18th February, he spoke of the Pope and the papal authority I take it for granted there is no man who is not liable to error. You are mad to say that a Pope cannot err, when there have been so many wicked Popes who have erred! ... If it were true that no Pope could ever err, ought we then to do even as they do in order to gain salvation? Go! Read how many decrees have been made by one Pope and revoked by the next; and how many opinions held by some Popes are contradicted by those of other Pontiffs. 102 He further explained that the errors of a Pope may proceed from ill will, or be based upon false information and illustrated this from all the contradictions in the Briefs launched against himself. In the afternoon following the sermon many people processed through the streets to collect contributions for a second Bonfire of the Vanities. In Rome, Pope Alexander was enraged by the Prior who refused to acknowledge any authority as superior to God and one‘s conscience. Especially as he was being described as a ‗broken tool‘ and that anyone who recognised the validity of Savonarola‘s excommunication was a heretic!

100 101 102

Villari – Book 4 Ch 5. Villari – Book 4 Ch 5. Villari – Book 4 Ch 5.

54

On 26th February the Pope threatened the Council of Florence, saying that they had allowed freedom to Savonarola to inflict a gross insult to the Holy See, and that unless measures were taken to silence the Prior immediately, he would excommunicate the whole city. This would have meant that all the churches would have been closed and all sacraments prohibited. Savonarola saw that the situation needed a proactive approach. So instead of waiting for each new ruling from Rome, he began plans for a new council called together to sweep away abuses and depose illegitimate prelates and the Pope. Thinking of what this might mean he said, ‗Oh! how many would have to be deposed? Perhaps none would be left!‘ Then he concluded that such an outcome would make the work of the council impossible and so the time was not right for a wholesale reform, but could be right for a council to depose Pope Alexander VI . From this point, each day brought new complications to the plot and passions concerning the Prior and the city. There was now a sense that the events were speedily moving to a climax.

4.13 1498 His last year – March The threat of excommunication for the whole city was countered by the courageous Council sending a letter to the Pope in defence of Savonarola. This letter was delivered to the Pope on 7th March and asserted that the Pope had been misinformed about the orthodoxy of Savonarola. Alexander exploded and said that he was not misinformed and had read the Prior‘s sermons – particularly the ones that spoke against the Papacy. He was therefore more determined to excommunicate the city unless they immediately stopped protecting the Prior. The Pope had to give a little time for the Florentines to consider his threat and so on 17 th March the Council met and decided that Savonarola should be silenced. It so happened that on this very day the Prior had been preaching in St Mark‘s to a congregation of women and he introduced a beautiful prayer which he had written. Lord we pray not for tranquility Nor that our tribulations may cease We pray for your Spirit, and your love That you grant us strength and grace To overcome adversity Through Jesus Christ Amen.103 That evening he received the order forbidding him to preach, and the next day, the third Sunday in Lent, he gave his last sermon and said farewell to his people. Two days earlier on 15th March, Savonarola had written again to the Pope. Most Holy Father, I always believed that it was the duty of a good Christian to defend religion, and purify manners; but in this task I have encountered nothing 103

Villari – Book 4 Ch 6.

55

but anguish and tribulation; and found none to give me aid. I placed my hope in your Holiness; but you have elected to take side with my enemies, and empowered savage wolves to assail me. Wherefore I can no longer hope for anything from your Holiness; but can only appeal to Him who chooses the weak vessels of this world to confound the roaring lions of wicked men. He will help me to prove and maintain, before the world, the holiness of the cause for which I endure so much, and He will inflict dire chastisement on those who persecute me and would defeat my work. For myself, I seek no earthly reward, but await death with longing. Let your Holiness delay no more, but take heed to your salvation. 104 The Prior now resolved to make a final effort to form a council, both to defend his cause and to see that the evil Pope was deposed. He had the documentary evidence to support both objectives and hoped the necessity of reforming the Church would be proved, and the work begun. He knew that King Charles VIII, was in favour of calling a council and that when the King had been in Rome, eighteen Cardinals had encouraged him to depose the Pope. This was with the hope that fresh elections would provide a worthier Pontiff. The King was tempted to act but said he needed to take advice from the Doctors of the Sorbonne University, in Paris. In January, 1497 they met and concluded that the King had the right to take this step. Knowing this, Savonarola took the initiative and sent out what became known as his famous ‗Letters to the Princes ‗. These were sent to the sovereigns of France, Spain, England, Hungary, and Germany. Each letter was almost identical in content. in describing the urgent crisis and need for action. The moment of vengeance has arrived, the Lord commands me to reveal new secrets, and make manifest to the world the peril by which the bark of St. Peter is threatened, owing to your long neglect. The Church is all teeming with abomination, from the crown of her head to the soles of her feet; yet not only do you apply no remedy, but you do homage to the cause of the woes by which she is polluted. Wherefore, the Lord is greatly angered, and has long left the Church without a shepherd. Now, I hereby testify, as the Lord‘s word, that this Alexander be no Pope, nor can he be held as one; inasmuch as, leaving aside the mortal sin of simony, by which he has purchased the Papal Chair, and daily sells the benefices of the Church to the highest bidder, and likewise putting aside his other manifest vices, I declare that he is no Christian, and believes in no God, and so surpasses the height of all infidelity. 105 The letters then invited all the princes of Christendom to summon a council as soon as possible. Savonarola‘s chief confidence was in King Charles, because he knew he was aware of the crisis and had a desire and mandate to call a council. So he was most keen to have a reply to his letter from France. Instead he learned that the messenger sent with the

104 105

Villari – Book 4 Ch 6. Villari – Book 4 Ch 6.

56

letter to France, had been robbed in Milan. The thieves realised the potent nature of the letter and took it to the Duke of Milan who quickly delivered it to the Pope. The Pope was in a rage and determined to use the documentary evidence that he now had of the arrogance of the Prior and the complicity of the Council in Florence.

4.14 Trial by fire and arrest– April 1498 The most important preaching during Lent was provided by Frà Francesco di Puglia, a Franciscan in the Church of St. Croce, and by Frà Domenico, the Dominican brother who was preaching on behalf of his Prior. The Franciscan gave much time to attacking Savonarola saying that he was a heretic and a false prophet. But he went further and challenged him to prove the truth of his doctrines by the ‗ordeal by fire‘.106 Frà Domenico took this attack personally because he felt that he stood in the place of his Prior who had no opportunity to speak out to defend himself. He said that he was willing to undergo the ordeal by fire because Savonarola needed to reserve himself for greater things. When the challenge was publicly known Savonarola had no time to be able to prevent it happening. So he was relieved to discover that when the Franciscan saw that Frà Domenico was serious, he quickly found an excuse to draw back. He also said that his quarrel was with Savonarola alone, and that although he expected to be consumed, he was ready to enter the fire with the Prior in order to obtain the destruction of the disseminator of scandal and false doctrine. It was hoped that this was the end of the matter but suddenly it erupted with great force. Some of the wealthy enemies of Savonarola were gathered for a banquet and the conversation turned to the challenge. They convinced themselves that this was a wonderful opportunity because; if Savonarola entered the fire he would be burnt. If he did not take up the challenge then he would lose credibility and his followers would not protect him; should there be an attempt to kill him. So they decided that they would reissue the challenge and give it maximum publicity. A document stating the challenge was drawn up and Frà Domenico instantly signed his name saying that he was so convinced of the teaching of Savonarola that he wanted to prove its truth by going through the fire. The Franciscan looked for another excuse and said that he would go through the fire with Savonarola but he had no concern with Frà Domenico. Eventually he agreed to present someone to enter the fire on his behalf. The terms of the challenge were that if one of the Dominicans should perish, then Savonarola was to be exiled, and Frà Francesco, if his substitute perished. If the ordeal should not take place, the party who prevented it would be exiled. The trial by fire could no longer be avoided because the city Council and the Pope were now insisting that it take place. 106

This was a medieval form of determining guilt or innocence. A suspect was made to walk through a great fire and if they came out alive it was taken as a sign that God had protected the innocent.

57

Savonarola would willingly have laid down his life and was appalled that an innocent life should be risked for him. Reluctantly the Prior gave way in the face of Frà Domenico‘s confidence and argument that the Lord would perform a miracle in order to confound the Arrabiati and establish the truth of the new doctrine. He also reminded the Prior that he had frequently said that his words would be confirmed by supernatural evidence. 107 Another member of the community, Frà Silvestro, claimed to have had a vision of the guardian angels of Savonarola and Domenico, and been assured by them that the latter would go through the flames unhurt. On 1st April Savonarola gathered about 300 loyal supporters to St Mark‘s. He preached a short sermon and outlined the situation. He said, ‗The time will come when the Lord shall give supernatural signs and tokens; but this certainly cannot be at the command or at the pleasure of man.‘ Two days later, the friars sent a letter to the Pope, saying that all of them were prepared to pass through the fire in defence of their master‘s doctrines. The excitement in the city was growing and men, women, and children continued to propose themselves as champions to go through the fire. Mainly this was bravado, but on 2nd April two other friars from St Mark‘s signed the challenge and said that they too felt called of God to meet the challenge. Finally the 6th April was fixed as the date for the ordeal. Frà Domenico was to represent the Dominicans and Frà Giuliano Rondinelli was accepted to represent the Franciscans. From the moment the date was announced the community of St Mark‘s spent each day in continual prayer. In the evening of 5th April they received a message from the Council to say that the ordeal had been postponed to 7th April. Paassen records the astonishing hold that Savonarola still had and the fierce loyalty of his friends – On the 6th of April, 1498, Savonarola was still the effective and undisputed master of the Florentine state. He counted influential friends in the Grand Council, the magistracy, and the clergy. He had devoted partisans and admirers in the ministries of justice and foreign affairs. The overwhelming majority of the common people was on his side. Tens of thousands of adherents of the popular party in the city and the country were willing and ready to lay down their lives for him.108 Within twenty-four hours, in an eruption of lies, hate and barbarism, Savonarola would be beaten and delivered up helpless to his enemies. The day arrived and the preparations were made for the ordeal to take place in the Piazza. Because the emotions of the whole crowd were so volatile, the two parties decided to come with armed escorts in order to ensure their safety in the event of a riot.

107 108

Villari – Book 4 Ch 7 Paassen – page 288

58

Savonarola celebrated Mass in St. Mark‘s, and preached a short sermon which revealed that he still had his doubts about the ordeal. I cannot assure you that the trial will be made, since the matter does not depend on ourselves; but this I can tell you, that if it really takes place, victory will certainly be on our side. O Lord, we felt in no need of miraculous proofs in order to believe the truth; but we have been provoked to this trial, and could not fail to stand up for our honour. We are certain that the evil one will not be able to turn this thing to the hurt of your honour or against your will, wherefore we go forth to combat for You; but our adversaries worship another God, inasmuch as their works are quite different from ours. O Lord, this people desires nothing except to serve You. Will you serve the Lord, O my people?109 At this, all present gave a loud voice of assent. Savonarola then asked the laymen and women to continue in prayer until the friars returned. Then about two hundred set out in procession, walking two abreast, with a crucifix leading the way. Frà Domenico was at the back wearing a cope of red velvet, and carrying a cross in his hand. It seemed as if the whole population was concentrated in the Piazza. People were at all the windows of the houses round the Square, and all balconies and roofs. Savonarola knew that among them in the Piazza were about a thousand men who planned to attack him. Yet he remained calm. Via Cavour, the street leading from St Mark‘s Monastery to the Duomo

Everyone was focussed on the erected platform, which was about 25 metres long and piled up with bundles of wood. It was about a metre high and a metre wide. Beneath it were wood, gunpowder, oil, pitch, and resin to ensure a great blaze. Frà Domenico, was ready for the ordeal but the Franciscan representatives could not be found.

The Campanile – bell tower of Duomo The crowd had been gathered for hours and were now losing patience and shouted that

the fire should be lighted on one side of the platform, while the friars entered from the other, then the fire should be ignited behind them to block any escape. This commotion was broken by a tremendous thunderstorm and some thought that would be the end of the matter, but others were still demanding a spectacle. The Arrabiati announced that a fraud had been uncovered and that Savonarola had refused to let his representative go through the ordeal. The Franciscans claimed a victory even though their man had not turned up! But the response of the crowd was violent and they were ready to lynch the Prior. It was with great difficulty that the Dominicans reached the safety of the Monastery. There they found the congregation still kneeling in prayer and so Savonarola entered the pulpit and explained what had happened and then went to his cell in deep distress; while the crowd still shouted threats and banged on the doors of the monastery, trying to get in. 109

Villari – Book 4 Ch 7.

59

The ‗ordeal by fire‘ was contrived and manipulated by the Arrabiati and for their purposes it was a total success. The majority of the city was now totally against Savonarola and his monks, because he had failed the challenge of the fire. Even his friends began to believe the Arrabiati and doubt that he had either the courage or the faith to really trust God. The next morning, 8th April, was Palm Sunday. On the surface things seemed calm but it was the calm before a storm. Savonarola preached in St. Mark‘s and said that he was ready to lay down his life and he gave the people a blessing in a way that hinted that this would be the last time he would speak to them.

Piazza of St Mark‘s Monastery

Later the crowd poured into the square outside St. Mark‘s and found the church full of people praying. They attacked them with a hail of stones and panic broke out. Somehow the doors were locked and the church emptied, except for a few citizens who intended to defend the church. Without the knowledge of Savonarola or Frà Domenico, they had deposited a store of arms and encouraged some of the monks to defend themselves and their Prior. Savonarola cried against this action but they would not listen. So realising the crowd were now about to break in, he went to surrender himself to the mob.

Seeing what he intended to do, his most trusted friends barred his way, and so he led them to the chapel to pray. As darkness fell the siege intensified and the mob broke in. They broke down several internal doors and came to the Chapel where the monks were praying. Finding themselves under attack many of them fought back with whatever was at hand – including wooden and metal crucifixes. The fighting now spread to the whole monastery with some in the corridors and others on the roof. At this point the mob was joined by the Council and the leaders of the city who were committed to destroying the community at St Mark‘s. Soon the Chapel was on fire. The Council gave an order that Savonarola, Frà Domenico, and Frà Silvestro should surrender themselves and they would not be harmed. Before surrendering Savonarola addressed those friars present My beloved children, in the presence of God, in the presence of the consecrated wafer, with our enemies already in the convent, I confirm the truth of my doctrines. All that I have said has come to me from God, and He is my witness in heaven that I speak no lie. I had not foreseen that this city would so quickly turn against me; nevertheless, may the Lord‘s will be done. My last exhortation to you is this: ‗let faith, prayer, and patience be your weapons.‘ I leave you with anguish and grief, to give myself into my enemies‘ hands. I know not whether they will

60

take my life, but I am certain that, once dead, I shall be able to succour you in heaven, far better than it has been granted me to help you on earth. Take comfort, embrace the cross, and by it shall you find the way of salvation. 110 The pressing crowd seized Savonarola and Frà Domenico and ejected them into the square in front of St. Mark‘s. The noise was so great that many thought the Prior had that moment been killed by the rabble. It was one o‘clock in the morning when they had him bound. They then taunted the captive using their torches to burn his flesh and their fists to pummel him. The viciousness of the crowd was so uncontrolled that the guards had difficulty in getting him to the Palace. Even as he passed through the door someone kicked him in the back and exclaimed: ‗This is the seat of his prophecies!‘ The two prisoners were placed in separate cells and held until their fate was determined. The officials communicated their actions to the Pope who was thrilled and declared the Council to be true sons of the Church. He gave them absolution and blessing along with his authorisation to examine, try, and torture the prisoners. But he made it very clear that after trial the fate of the monks should be in his hands to carry through the punishment they deserved. Even more thrilling for the Pope was the news that on the same day as Savonarola‘s arrest, the King of France had died an ignominious death. In the death of Charles, Savonarola lost his only hope of support and possible rescue.

4.17 Trial and torture -

26 April — 18 May, 1498

Frà Silvestro was captured later and then each of the three prisoners was interrogated separately and tortured on the rack. The examiners tried to convince the other two that the Prior had broken down under torture and retracted everything. After eight days of repeated torture they asked them to write their own confessions. Fra. Domenico replied, I might easily die if you torture me again, for I am all shattered, and my arms are useless, especially the left, which by this time is now dislocated for the second time. Wherefore I beg you to be merciful and believe in the truth of my plain declarations. I know no more, for my sole concern has been to live a virtuous life, with Jesus Christ as King of Florence.111 Several other friars from St. Mark‘s were tortured and questioned to try to obtain evidence against Savonarola. Some of them acted very badly. Having had their faith in the Prior shattered and fearing for their lives they wrote a letter to the Pope on 21 st April. In it they said that all the faults were due to Savonarola and they could not be blamed for following him because he was persuasive and even deceived men of great learning.

110 111

Villari – Book 4 Ch 7. Villari – Book 4 Ch 10.

61

It was a nasty little letter yet even in their bitterness they ended up paying tribute to their Prior. They said that most people were deceived by Savonarola because of The fineness of his doctrine; the rectitude of his life; the holiness of his manners; his apparent devotion, and the good results that came from his purging the city of immorality, usury, and every species of vice; the different events which confirmed his prophecies in a manner beyond all human power and imagination, and which were so numerous and of such a nature, that so firm was our belief in him, that we were all most ready to go through the fire in support of his doctrine.112 They pleaded to be released from the excommunication imposed on them for following the excommunicated Prior. This was granted in the Brief sent by the Pope on 14 th May and the Pope also granted absolution to all those who might have committed violent crimes in the arrest of the prisoners – even to those who had killed some of the monks and their supporters. Another Brief from the Pope said that when the three monks had been sufficiently examined and tortured they should be sent alive to him in Rome for trial. But the Council suggested that it was better for them to be tried in the place where the crimes had been committed. Eventually the Pope conceded and he sent the General of the Dominicans, Giovacchino Turriano, and the Doctor of Law, Francesco Romolino, ‗to examine into the crimes and iniquities of those three children of perdition.‘ During this time Savonarola had been tortured and examined repeatedly. The evil methods of torture had been developed in the Spanish Inquisition 113 and the monks were subjected to the rack and the boot. The rack was a mechanism for pulling the arms and legs until they were twisted and out of joint. The boot was a wooden framed shoe that was placed on one foot of the victim and was tightened slowly and methodically to crush the bones of the foot and the lower leg. Then from 25th of April until the Papal Commissioners arrived on 19th May, he had been left quietly in his cell in the bell tower. At first he was so broken that he could do nothing, but gradually he felt strength return to his right arm and he was able to write. Being granted a pen and some paper, Savonarola began to write what would be a most profound and widely circulated commentary on Psalm 51114, Miserere mei Deus. Lying on the floor, he wrote – Sinner that I am, where shall I turn? To the Lord, whose mercy is infinite. None may take glory in himself; all the saints tell us, ‗not unto us, but unto the Lord be the glory‘. They were not saved by their own merits, nor their own works; but by 112

Villari – Book 4 Ch 10. The Spanish Inquisition began in 1478 when Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella wanted to do away with many of their political adversaries. These opponents were called the conversos, former Jews and Muslims who had been forced to convert to Christianity but had nevertheless managed to rise through the Spanish political and business ranks. They had no civil basis for removing these people so they asked for and received the approval of the Pope Sixtus IV, to torture those they thought were not true converts and by force elicit confessions which then gave legal grounds for imposing the death penalty. 113

114

Psalm 50 in the Vulgate version.

62

the goodness and grace of God, wherefore none may take glory to himself. O Lord, a thousand times You have wiped away my iniquity, yet a thousand times have I fallen back into it. . . . But when Your Spirit shall descend upon me, when Christ shall live within me; then shall I be safe. Strengthen me in your spirit, O Lord. Not until then, can I teach your ways to the wicked. Had you asked the sacrifice of my body, I would have given it before now; but burnt offerings are as nothing to You; You would rather have the offering of the spirit. Therefore, O sinner, bring your repentant heart unto the Lord, and nothing else shall be required of you. O incomprehensible God, to you I call because you are the reality, the sole reality, the source and cause of all reality. You cannot change Your own essence and nature. You must carry out your work which is to create, to love, to forgive, to redeem, to bless. Look down upon my miserable state. My misery is great because of my sins. I have sinned against you, against you who so loved me that you came down from heaven to be crucified for me. O Lord, my God, my Rock and my Redeemer, forgive, forgive my sins! Deep calls unto deep, the abyss of misery calls to the abyss of divine mercy. The abyss of sin calls to the abyss of grace. May Your abyss of mercy devour my abyss of sin and blot it out. Then he continued – Send the fire and the power and the love of the Holy Spirit upon your Church. Your Church is so weak and feeble, dear Lord. There are so many millions in this world who have not yet heard the words of truth and salvation from the holy gospel. May the day not be far when all shall confess you as their Father and know you as their Saviour. 115 This last sermon or meditation was sent to print immediately and became one of the most influential pieces of Christian literature, remaining continuously in print in German and Italian at least until the late 20th Century.

The Palazzo Vecchio – now the Town Hall of Florence. Savonarola‘s prison cell was in the bell tower. His place of execution was close to where the statue now stands at the corner of the building.

115

Paassen – page 228

63

The manuscript was entrusted to his jailer, to deliver it to the printer. On the way he began to read it and was so moved by its message that he ran back and threw himself down before Savonarola. He asked forgiveness for the hurts he had inflicted on his prisoner. Savonarola forgave him and embraced him.

As far as the Prior was concerned, the first thing needful was individual conversion and personal regeneration. Each soul must be sought, and was sought by Savonarola, lest it be shipwrecked. The flower of personal faith was to blossom forth first in the individual, then in the family, then in the commonwealth and ultimately in the whole world. 116 As he ran out of paper, his last written words were – Then, full of gladness, I exclaimed: I will put no trust in men, but only in the Lord, and will return thanks before all the people, for the death of his saints is precious in the Lord‘s sight. If all the hosts of the world be arrayed against me, my heart shall know no fear, for You are my refuge and will lead me to my end.117

4.18 Condemnation and execution 19-23 May 1498. When the Papal Commissioners arrived in Florence on 19 th May, they immediately dispelled any idea of a fair trial by announcing that Savonarola would ‗die without fail‘. They even had documents from Rome instructing them to put him to death whatever the outcome of the trial. One of them even declared, ‗We shall make a fine bonfire; I bear the sentence with me, already prepared.‘ 118 The following day, 20th May, the torturers were in waiting, and Savonarola was subjected to a third examination. The system was that developed in Spain and one of the Commissioners was a Spaniard. Basically it involved torturing a prisoner until a confession was obtained, under duress, and then this confession (written if possible) was used to take the victim to trial where they would be found guilty on their own confession and the full penalty of the law would be imposed. On the 21st May they continued the proceedings asking questions borrowed from the Inquisition, for example: ‗Had he ever maintained that Jesus Christ was only a man.‘ ‗Did he believe in charms?‘ To which Savonarola gave orthodox answers which were of no use for their objective of gaining a confession. On 22nd May, after they had questioned him further, it was decided that they would not be going to get the confession they wanted so they informed him that he would appear before them the next day to receive his sentence. But this was not entirely satisfactory and so in the late evening they sent five citizens to his cell to see if they could get a confession out of him by threats. Even then their attempts failed and so the record of his final examination was neither printed, signed, nor read to the public. At the same time the Apostolic Commissioners were meeting and thought to put to death Savonarola and Frà Silvestro, but spare the life of Frà Domenico as a sign that their justice was mingled with mercy. But it was thought that Frà Domenico would keep alive 116 117 118

Paassen – page 228 Paassen – page 228 Villari – Book 4 Ch 11

64

the teaching of Savonarola and so the Spanish Commissioner, Francesco Romolino, Bishop of Ilerda immediately said: ‗A vile friar more or less matters little; let this one also die.119 Finally that night, the sentences were read to the prisoners. They were to be hanged and then burnt. Savonarola was asked if he had a last request and he asked to be able to have a little time with the other two monks. This was granted and the emotions must have been extraordinary as the three friends met up again for the first time in more than forty days. Savonarola urged them to go to their deaths – ‗following the example of the Lord Jesus Christ, who went quietly and did not protest his innocence‘. Their thoughts should be fixed on God. He then gave them a blessing and they were parted from each other again. The next morning the three were allowed to meet for Communion and Savonarola officiated, praying O Lord, I acknowledge You to be the perfect, invisible Trinity, the Three in One, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; I acknowledge You to be the Eternal Word, and that You did descend into Mary‘s womb, and did mount the Cross to shed your blood for our sins. I pray that by your blood I may gain remission of my sins, and implore You to forgive them; and likewise to grant your pardon for every offence or hurt brought on this city; and for every error I may have unwittingly committed.120 Having received Communion they were led to the Piazza where three platforms had been erected on which stood three gibbets, each in the form of a cross. Attached to the gibbets were chains with which to hang the monks and also to hold their corpses while they were burnt. The crowd was immense, but quiet. Though some who had come close to the gibbets shouted blasphemies and other indecencies. These mainly consisted of people who had been freed after earlier being imprisoned for crimes during the time of Savonarola‘s reforms. Savonarola had his cloak removed and the three monks stood barefooted and bound, in front of the Bishop of Vasona. He read the Pope‘s mandate, and had the three monks clothed in their robes again, so that they could be stripped of them and degraded. As he pronounced the degradation he took Savonarola by the arm and in confusion said, ‗Separo te ab Ecclesia militante atque triumphante.‘ Savonarola calmly corrected him saying: ‗Militante, non triumphante: hoc enim tuum non est.‘21 His formula referred to the 119 120

Savonarola‘s cloak – now in the Museum of St Mark‘s Monastery

Villari – Book 4 Ch 11. Villari – Book 4 Ch 11.

65 The Campanile – bell tower of Duomo

Church on earth (Militant) and the Church made up of those in heaven (Triumphant). He had announced, ‗I exclude you from the militant and triumphant Church.‘ Savonarola‘s response was, ‗From the Church militant you may but from the Church triumphant you cannot‘ 121 With great dignity and calm the three mounted the platforms. The Piazza was silent. The first to be hung was Frà Silvestro, then Frà Domenico and then Savonarola. He was forty-five years of age when his life was taken from him at 10 am. on 23 rd May, 1498. The pyre was set ablaze but amazingly a strong wind blew the flames away from the corpses. People gasped. Then the wind dropped and the flames reached the bodies. As the flames burned through the cords binding Savonarola‘s arms it released them and they moved upward as if giving a final blessing. This caused some of his supporters to fall to their knees in devotion to him and many from that day regarded him as a saint. The Council was congratulated by Rome for the work concluded. St. Mark‘s was closed for a period and its library confiscated. Even the bell of St Mark‘s was found ‗guilty‘ and before being banished from the city it was brought in a cart to the Piazza and publicly flogged by the executioner.41 Pope Alexander VI. Immediately issued a prohibition of the Prior‘s writings, but later relaxed this and the writings were allowed to circulate informally. Being freed from the criticism of the Prior, the Pope now became more immoral and irreligious in his actions resorting to numerous assassinations and other crimes.

Savonarola memorial stone

In 1901 a memorial slab of marble, was placed in the Piazza, just in front of Ammannati's fountain, on the spot where Savonarola was executed. ‗Here,‘ says the inscription, ‗where with his brethren, Fra Domenico Buonvicini and Fra Silvestro Maruffi, on May 23, 1498, by an iniquitous sentence, Fra Girolamo Savonarola was hanged and burned, this memorial has been placed after four centuries.‘

5. HIS PROPHECIES AND PROPHETICAL WRITINGS A dominant feature in the Prior‘s ministry was his prophecies, which were proclaimed both in his sermons and in his publications. Sometimes his convictions concerning the future came as a result of reflection on Scripture. When this was the case it would be that he could see parallels between his day and some Biblical situation and became sure that God would act in similar ways to keep his promises. At other times his prophecies came from visions which he received after long periods of fasting and prayer. When the visions came he would be found for several days in a continuous and complete state of ecstasy. On one of these occasions he saw a sword

121

Villari – Book 4 Ch 11.

66

held in judgment over the city and it became an emblem of coming discipline from the Lord, to which he would often refer. I am weary, O Florence, after the four years of incessant preaching, in which I have spent my strength for you alone. Likewise am I bowed down by constant thought of the scourge I behold drawing near, and by fear lest it overwhelm you. Wherefore I offer up unceasing prayers for you to God. If you do not turn to the Lord, the joyful tidings shall become tidings of woe. 122 However there were also occasions when he would experience such visions actually as he preached. Savonarola described such times as like ‗an inward fire that consumes my bones and compels me to speak.‘ His revelations of the future then seemed to come alive. What are we to make of such experiences? A good guide to any evaluation is the response of those who witnessed the prophecies and fulfilment, first hand. Among the witnesses are those who hailed him a saint, but also those who were indifferent or opposed to him. All agreed that he lived a most holy and exemplary life. They are agreed that he was not mad or mentally disturbed but one of the most self-controlled and balanced individuals. One speaks of his hero —‘He foretold the coming of the king, when no one else thought of it; he afterwards wrote and told to my own ears things which no one believed, and which nevertheless were all fulfilled. No one could have suggested them to him, for they were known to none.‘ 123 Machiavelli, whose name is associated with cunning, scheming and unscrupulousness, spoke of his prophecies and said, ‗of such a man one can only speak with reverence because his life, his doctrines, and the subjects he treated, were sufficient to inspire them (people) with faith‘ 124 If we apply the Biblical test of a prophet – that his prophecies should be fulfilled - the result is interesting. When his predictions are stripped of all secondary details and similes, we discover that nearly all were fulfilled. An example of his prophesying in the middle of preaching a sermon concerned his vision of his own violent death. A youth left his home and went forth in a boat to fish, and, while fishing, the master of the boat steered far out to sea, and out of sight of the port; whereupon the youth burst into loud lamentations. O Florence! that lamenting youth stands here in this pulpit. I was led from mine own home to the port of religion, and I went forth at the age of twenty-three years in search of the two things most dear to me - liberty and quiet. But then I looked on the waters of this world, and by preaching I began to win a few souls; and seeing that I found my pleasure in this, the Lord led me to board a vessel and go out to the open sea, where I now am tossed and beyond sight of land. Storms and tempests are gathering before my eyes; I have lost sight of the port behind me, and the wind bears me farther 122 123 124

Villari – Book 2 Ch 6. Villari – Book 2 Ch 6. Machiavelli, Discorsi sulla prima Deca, Book 1 Ch 11.

67

forward. On my right hand are the chosen, imploring my help; on the left the demons and the wicked, who assail and molest us; I look above, and there is the eternal goodness urging me to hope; I look below, and there is hell, and as a mortal man I fear it, since without the help of God it would certainly be my portion. O Lord! Lord! where have You led me? Through seeking to save a few souls, I have come into a place from which there is no return to peace. From all sides I behold war and discord coming upon me. He was then overcome by emotion and stood motionless and silent for a time, saying, ‗Now let me rest awhile in this storm.‘ People burst into sobbing and tears. Even the reporter recording the sermon wrote, ‗At this point I was overcome by weeping and could not go on.‘ Soon Savonarola resumed his sermon, and he went on What reward, O Lord, what reward shall be given in the life to come to the winner of a battle such as this? ‗The servant may not be greater than his master‘, replied the Lord. ‗You know that after preaching to you I was crucified; and so martyrdom shall also be your portion‘. O Lord, Lord, (his voice was now raised and filled the Church), grant me then this martyrdom, and quickly let me die for You, even as You have died for me. Behold, the sharpened blade already appears before my eyes . . . . But the Lord says to me: ‗Wait still a little while, so that all things may be duly fulfilled, and then you wilt use the strength that shall be imparted you‘. O Lord, I seek only your cross. Let me be persecuted. I ask this grace of You. Let me not die in my bed, but let me give my blood for You, even as You gave yours for me. 125 At this point he left the prophecy and returned to expounding the text from the Psalms, which was the theme of his sermon.

6. HIS PHILOSOPHY Savonarola was of the opinion that: 'An old woman knows more about the Faith than Plato.' 126 This was his response in a city filled with the philosophy of Plato and the ancients, which came from the east through the teaching of those expelled from Constantinople, and with the philosophy of Aristotle from the west from Islamic Scholars expelled from Spain. His own early education had centred on the teaching of the Dominican, Aquinas, and the philosophy of Aristotle. On arrival in Florence he met up with Marsilio Ficino and the Platonic Academy. He always evaluated every philosophy by the one fundamental certainty which he held – that man has a purpose and that the grace of God has made provision in Christ to enable that purpose to be fulfilled.

125

Villari – Book 2 Ch 6.

126

V. H. H. Green, Renaissance and Reformation: A Survey of European History between 1450 and 1660; Edward Arnold, London. 1952. Page 118.

68

It is right here that he parts company with Aquinas who conceded too much to Aristotle. As the Cambridge Academic, Angela Tilby has carefully explained – Thomas Aquinas the great Dominican theologian of the 12th Century, believed in the authority of Scripture, but tried to marry this to the insights of deductive reason. His whole theological achievement was an attempt to reconcile Christian doctrine with the philosophy of Aristotle. 127 Up to Aquinas the Church had tended toward the philosophy of Plato with its emphasis on ‗essence‘ as the true reality. This concept saw the present world as transient and the objects we experience with our senses as changeable, But the essence of these objects was fixed and eternal; existing in some spiritual realm. This was easy for the Church to accommodate to its teaching on the division of the universe into the inherently imperfect, corrupt world of material existence and the perfect, heavenly world of the Spirit. Aristotle maintained that existence is primary and that what we experience through our senses is reality. According to Plato, existence, or the everyday world of objects such as tables, chairs, and dogs, is inherently inferior to essence. Savonarola concluded that Plato‘s theory was deficient, because it is unable to explain the origin of existence. Both of the two ancient philosophies led to deficient definitions of the human soul, reality and creation. Again, if any one will read the philosophical books dealing with the universe, its purpose, and its supposed beginning and end, he will find almost as many errors as there are words. And, although Aristotle and some of his followers have tried to prove that the world is eternal, the Aristotelian arguments are so weak, that any educated man could easily refute them. 128 Savonarola takes the concept of ‗essence‘ and says that the real ‗essence‘ is within. It cannot be denied that an intelligent mind is the essence of what makes us human. Everyone acknowledges that it is the rationality of man which distinguishes him from other animals. This distinction could not exist if a rational soul were not the essence of a man. 129 The Prior‘s principal objection to Aristotle and Plato was that their whole philosophy goes nowhere but stops at the contemplation of speculative science. In his Sermon 22 on the Book of Exodus, he underlined his position: And I say this because some people want to make all of Plato Christian. Rather, let Plato be Plato and Aristotle be Aristotle; do not make them Christians, because they are not.130 In the Triumph of the Cross, he asserts – Philosophers entangle themselves as they try to discover the goal of human life, by natural reason. Nor can they be expected to speak with certainty or clarity 127

Angela Tilby, Science and the Soul; SPCK, London 1992, page 121 TOTC – Book 4 Ch 2. 129 TOTC – Book 1 Ch 14. 130 Timothy Verdon Contributor; John Henderson, Editor; Christianity and the Renaissance: Image and Religious Imagination in the Quattrocento; Syracuse University Press. Syracuse, NY. 1990. Page 527. 128

69

about religion or about virtuous living when they ignore the most important element of life, We need not, therefore, be surprised, that the religious systems of the philosophers are imperfect, and filled with error.131 He was obviously a child of his age with the same scientific assumptions as his fellows. For example, this means that he understands the principles of gravity, but not the reason for it. So he accepts and argues from the Greek philosophical concept of the elements. The stars and planets are more remote from earth than the elements 132, and as the elements are universal causes of things on earth 133 He also accepts the principles of philosophical thought and in The Triumph of the Cross, he gratefully uses the science of logic - particularly using inductive arguments to proceed from the known to the unknown. Savonarola‘s epistemology134 was based on experience plus reason. With these resources a man could proceed using the laws of logic and discover supernatural realities. But this knowledge could only be possible because God in his grace has granted free will to men and placed them in a creation that reveals the creator. Those who live in distant lands where Christianity is unknown have no ground for excuse or complaint. Because all men are endowed with reason, which leads to the knowledge of God, and God has also revealed 135 himself in the natural order of creation. 136 But this knowledge is not sufficient for salvation and fullness of faith. What is required is a further act of grace as God‘s Spirit imparts light and insight and draws a person to Christ. If any one does use their reason and recognise that there must be a creator, and turns to God for understanding, then Almighty God, the Supreme Good, will not fail to reveal himself and His salvation. He will enlighten him, either by inward inspiration, as He enlightened Job; or by the ministry of angels, as He instructed Cornelius the Centurion 137; or by 131

TOTC – Book 4 Ch 2 Elements – in Greek philosophy the four elements are fire, earth, air and water. They were seen as the cause of weather and climate. 132

133

TOTC – Book 4 Ch 3.

134

Epistemology - a branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge. 135

Romans 1:18-20 - The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness, [19] since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. [20] For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse. 136

TOTC – Book 2 Ch 16

137

Acts 10:3-4 - One day at about three in the afternoon he had a vision. He distinctly saw an angel of God, who came to him and said, ‗Cornelius!‘ Cornelius stared at him in fear. ‗What is it, Lord?‘ he asked.

70

preaching, as He taught the Eunuch of Candace 138 through the ministry of Philip the Apostle. 139

7. HIS INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE For Savonarola the key to interpreting the Scriptures was to be found in prayer and a prayerful submissive attitude before the Word of God. He quotes the words of Jesus concerning the need for ‗spirit and truth‘ in the worshipper, and applies it to the ceremonies and exterior rites of the Church in its approach to Scripture. ‗The hour comes, and now is, when true worshippers shall worship the Father in spirit and in truth' John 4: 21-23. He saw the interface with Scripture as an opportunity to meet with Christ and to understand something of the mind of Christ. The reader should be inspired by Scripture. ‗The love of Jesus Christ is the lively affection inspiring the faithful with the desire to bring his soul into unity, as it were, with that of Christ, and live the life of the Lord, not by external imitation, but by inward and Divine inspiration.‘ 140 His foundational belief was in the final authority of Scripture. This was not a belief that was held by most of his contemporaries who normally looked for direction from earthly authorities. (Note that this is reason for him not claiming or appealing to any authority in his Triumph of the Cross. He writes, ‗We will not appeal to any authority, no matter how learned they may be. Instead, we shall proceed as if we had confidence in no one, and depend on reason alone.‘141) For him it was natural to trust the authority of Scripture and he could not understand how anyone could resist the word of the Lord. It was the Bible that had been his guide as a youth; his consolation in grief and it had educated and formed his mind. As noted, it is probable that he had memorised the whole Bible before the age of twenty. The Bible was his main focus of study and meditation. For him it was a living means of communication, revelation and inspiration. He could not even open the Bible without a sense of awe at holding and reading the Word from God. As taught by his grandfather, he continued to cover the margins of his Bible with notes to record his insights and interpretations of each passage.

138

Acts 8:27-31 - (Philip) started out, and on his way he met an Ethiopian eunuch, an important official in charge of all the treasury of Candace, queen of the Ethiopians. This man had gone to Jerusalem to worship, and on his way home was sitting in his chariot reading the book of Isaiah the prophet. The Spirit told Philip, ‗Go to that chariot and stay near it.‘ Then Philip ran up to the chariot and heard the man reading Isaiah the prophet. ‗Do you understand what you are reading?‘ Philip asked. ‗How can I,‘ he said, ‗unless someone explains it to me?‘ So he invited Philip to come up and sit with him. 139 140 141

TOTC – Book 2 Ch 16 Villari – Book 1 Ch 7 TOTC - Introduction

71

Though he seemed able to find a Scripture to describe and direct every course of action, yet he was careful about using proof texts. He urged great care in coming to an interpretation of a passage. He wrote the following directions in one of his marginal notes – It is necessary to be acquainted with languages and history, to continually read and have long familiarity (with the Bible); it is necessary to be careful not to run counter to reason. We must not turn the Bible to our own ends, for by so doing the human intellect would usurp the place of the Divine Word. Divine grace shall be his guide. Therefore let the faithful prepare himself to read the Bible by great purity of heart, by long practice of charity, by raising his thoughts above earthly things; for we may not comprehend this book by the intellect alone, but must also bring our heart and soul to the task. Only in this way can we enter without peril into this infinite world of the Holy Scriptures, and obtain the light needed for our salvation.142 His sermons and his writings reveal his practical hermeneutical approach. His first step was to try to determine the plain meaning of the text. To do this he analysed the text by reference to the original languages of Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic. Next he took note of the historical context of the text and also gave due attention to the literary genre of the text – prophetic, narrative, poetic, apocalyptic, etc. Having looked at the plain meaning and message of the text and what it might have meant for the original author and readership. He then gave consideration to the reason that the Holy Spirit had for including the text in Scripture and preserving it for the instruction and correction of his generation. At this stage his method was to assign each passage to four categories of interpretation - spiritual, moral, allegorical, and anagogical (mystical). Villari gives an example of him using this approach, from Genesis chapter one. ‗In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.‘ The spiritual meaning refers to the spirit, hence heaven and earth signify soul and body. The moral meaning, on the other hand, refers to morality, hence heaven and earth signify reason and instinct. The allegorical meaning is double, referring both to the Hebrew and to the Christian Church: in the first case heaven and earth represent Adam and Eve; the sun and the moon signifying the high priest and the king of the Jews: in the second case heaven and earth signify the chosen people, and the people of the Gentiles, the Pope, and the Emperor. The anagogical meaning refers to the Church triumphant, hence heaven and earth, the sun, moon, and stars signify the angels, men, Jesus Christ, the Virgin, the saints, and so forth.8 Looking back on this period from our vantage point in the 21 st Century we need to realise that most people, at most places and at most times in the history of the Church – have not had access to a Bible. In our day we have developed a devotional discipline that is expected of each believer that involves reading and reflecting on the Scriptures. What we have to realise is that for most people that form of devotion was an 142

Villari – Book 1 Ch 7.

72

impossibility. Therefore there was more emphasis on the public reading of Scripture and a spirituality that focussed more on the sacraments and the Church. The fact that for long periods only the clergy had access to the Scriptures, gave them a position of power. Savonarola lived at this moment of change. Printing had made the Scriptures available to many and would soon enable all literate people to have their own copy. His response was to elevate, teach and expound the Scriptures – and then send the people to read the Word for themselves.

8. HIS GOSPEL The whole basis of the Dominican order was to evangelise by preaching. The main focus of their learning and devotion was the gospel. The Church gave them the canonical title ‗Order of Preachers‘, in recognition of this call to evangelism. But the Constitutions of the Order are even more specific: ‗Our order was instituted principally for preaching and for the salvation of souls.‘ So what is his gospel? First he establishes the reason why we need to be saved. It is because of original sin. Man was created for fellowship with God, who is righteous and holy. Man had a ‗righteousness‘ that was freely given to him, but was lost by an act of Adam‘s disobedience. Hence, we say that man was, at his creation, endowed with original righteousness, with no sense of guilt or fear, and with the body and its five senses subject to the soul. We further hold that if Adam had not deliberately disobeyed God, this original righteousness would have been passed to all his descendents. But it is most reasonable, that, if man wilfully chose to turn away from God, he should be deprived of original righteousness, and of the natural subjection of his senses to reason, and of the immortality of his body. This was the just punishment for his sin. This loss of original righteousness, which Adam incurred, and which was transmitted by him to the whole human race, is what we mean by original sin.143 The consequences of this sin are loss of fellowship with God, a corrupting of our human nature and a coming judgment. There is a penalty. But God who is rich in mercy and compassion has made provision for us. He has provided salvation as an act of pure grace. Christ took the penalty and achieved our salvation by his death on the cross. Only He could make a perfect sacrifice by laying down his holy life. His salvation includes the promise of eternal life. The following quotations are all from TOTC Book 3 Ch 10. Man owed a debt for sin and God, becoming a man, was the only one with the power to pay that debt, for the whole human race. In this fact is revealed the appropriateness of His Incarnation, in which He has united the divine to the 143

TOTC – Book 3 Ch 9.

73

human nature. In this mystery we recognise His power, His wisdom, and His goodness as He has wholly given Himself to the human race, to embrace it, and draw it to His love. But, above all His other attributes, His mercy is shown; because it has led Him to be crucified out of love for us. His justice also is seen in that He has Himself made satisfaction for original sin. Therefore His mercy should create a secure hope in sinners who repent and His justice should cause those who do not repent, to tremble. This is the reason why, since Christ came into the world, so many men have been drawn from sin to holiness of life. When we consider these mercies, and the innumerable blessings Christ has brought to humanity, we discover depths of wisdom that are unfathomable by the intellect of man. (It is because this wisdom cannot be fathomed that it is regarded as foolish by the world.) We also see how only Christ was eligible to suffer for the guilt of mankind. He came, not just to suffer for man, but also to be an example of righteous living. So He chose a most bitter and disgraceful death to teach us that neither shame, nor suffering, should force us to abandon the cause of truth and righteousness. There is not enough time for me to enlarge upon the other reasons for our Saviour choosing His terrible manner of death. I will only add, that those that love Him, find His cross has been a source of sweetness and of light. Only those who have experienced it will understand what I mean by this. Christ died to atone for our sins, and especially for original sin, which was the cause of the patriarchs being detained in Limbo. Therefore, it was right that Christ should, immediately after His death (having bought their release from sin), descend to Limbo and announce their freedom. 144 And it was also right that He should remain for three days in the tomb. Had He stayed there longer, men would have lost all hope of His resurrection; and had He not remained in the tomb so long, they would have denied the reality of His death. Man is free to respond to Christ‘s offer of salvation. This response is made with the help of God who brings His enlightenment to us, draws us to himself and gives to us the gift of faith. This condition for salvation is a most reasonable one; for our ultimate intimacy with God is to consist in the vision and knowledge of God, which no one can attain, except by the supernatural gift of faith. St. Paul says that without faith, ‗it is impossible to please God‘ (Hebrews 11:6) 145 144

1 Peter 3:18–19 - For Christ died for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit, through whom also he went and preached to the spirits in prison. The word prison (Greek – phulake) is a figurative word indicating a cage or holding place. 145

TOTC – Book 2 Ch 16.

74

Faith is the gift of God, given to every believer for his salvation; therefore, my children, do not share the errors of those who say to you, ‗If I saw some miracle, or some man raised from the dead, then would I believe.‘ Those men are deceived, for faith comes not of our own strength, but is a supernatural gift - that is, a light shed from above into the mind of man. And he who would receive this light must prepare his inner man and abase himself before God.146 The Scripture teaches that one of the chief sources is faith in Christ and his love for us. ‗This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe.‘ Romans 3:22 ‗Without faith it is impossible to please God‘ Hebrews 11:6 By faith expressed by love, we mean that in loving Christ crucified above all things, we believe He is truly God and truly man, one with the Father and the Holy Spirit, but a distinct person.147 Man has free will and so is accountable for accepting or rejecting Christ‘s offer of salvation. If any one ask why the will is free, we reply unto them, Because it is will. Those who will be saved are known to God and elected in the purposes of God. But perhaps, you would then ask, ‗Why are some chosen and others cast out?‘ Matters of faith, my son, must be studied by the light of faith, in the manner prescribed to you by the Scriptures; further than this you may not go, lest you should stumble. Who are you are to answer back to God? Has not the potter power over the clay, to knead from the same lump vessels of honour or vessels for base uses? God shows mercy to the elect, justice to the wicked. But should you ask why God has predestined this man rather than that, why John is chosen rather than Peter? Then I shall tell you that such is the will of God, nor can any other answer be given. The Pelagians declared it depended on our good deeds in this life; for, according to those heretics, the principle of well-doing is in ourselves, while its consummation and perfection comes from God. They sought to pass the bounds assigned to us, and fell into heresy. The Scriptures are very plain: they tell us, not in one place, but in many, that not only the end of well-doing, but also its beginning, comes to us from God; even as in all our good works it is God who works through us. ‗It is therefore untrue that the grace of God is obtained by pre-existing works and merits, that through them we are predestined to everlasting life, as though works and merits were the cause of predestination. It is all the contrary, for works and merit are the effect of predestination, and the Divine will is the cause of predestination, as we have before said. We do not receive grace by partaking of sacraments. In the same way, the sacraments are not the source of grace. Grace does not come from either the sacrament‘s own innate virtue, not by power acquired from the actions of Christ. Grace comes from God alone. 148

146 147 148

Villari - Book 1 Ch 10. TOTC – Book 2 Ch 7. TOTC – Book 3 Ch 14.

75

There is no salvation apart from faith in Christ From what has just been said, it is evident, that Christianity is the only true religion. And if this is the case, then there is no salvation except through faith in Christ, and all, except Christians, must be living in error. 149 The motivation behind salvation is the love of God. Tell me, O Peter, tell me, O Magdalene, why are you in Paradise? You sinned even as we sin. You, Peter, who had witnessed the Son of God, had conversed with Him, heard Him preach, beheld His miracles, and, alone, with two other disciples, had beheld His transfiguration on Mount Tabor, hearkened unto His paternal voice, and who, despite all this, at the word of a base woman did deny Him thrice, yet you were restored to grace, and made the head of the Church, and do now enjoy heavenly bliss; how have you gained these blessings? Do not say that by your own merits you have attained salvation, but by the goodness of God, who did bestow so many blessings on you, and vouchsafed to you in this life so much light and grace. And you, Magdalene, later, you were so favoured by the Saviour as to be the first to behold Him risen from the dead, and were made an apostle unto the Apostles. This grace, these gifts, were not given to you because you deserved them, O Mary! but because God loved you and willed your salvation. 150 Savonarola taught that in our freedom of will we should choose to live in ways pleasing to the Lord, as that would be the best way to be receptive to the working of the Holy Spirit. Not only is it in our power, but it is also our duty, to prepare ourselves for the reception of this gift of faith and grace, which is never withheld from those who do their utmost to obtain it. According to him, there are three things required to prepare and dispose us for its reception, - determined belief, prayer, and good works. Such ideas are controversial for those who would want to say that he and the Church of his day taught that good works attract the mercy of God and are our part in preparing for our salvation. Careful reading of his teaching shows that he did not believe such a notion but he did believe that ‗faith without works is dead‘ 151, as the Apostle James says. He also thought that it was more fitting for a person to be like Lydia than Saul of Tarsus in the period before conversion. In Acts we read of both of them. One gave time to prayer and worship152 while the other was breathing out threats and violence against God‘s people.153 Therefore man must co-operate in the act of justification, and do all that lies within him, for God will not fail him. You would like, my brother, to receive the love of Jesus Christ? Seek, then, to listen to the Divine voice that calls you. Daily the Lord calls to you. 149 150 151

TOTC – Book 4 Ch 1. TOTC – Book 4 Ch 1. James 2:26 As the body without the spirit is dead, so faith without deeds is dead.

152

Acts 16:14 One of those listening was a woman named Lydia, a dealer in purple cloth from the city of Thyatira, who was a worshipper of God. The Lord opened her heart to respond to Paul's message. 153

Acts 9:1 disciples.

Meanwhile, Saul was still breathing out murderous threats against the Lord's

76

The other controversy that has been present in the Church for thousands of years concerns free will. Can a man resist God if he is predestined to salvation? Can a man choose to follow Christ, or is the will bound and only able to respond when God creates the response? Savonarola believed that if man did not have free will he would be like an animal living by instinct. If this were the case he would not be in the image of God, because God has free will. Another argument for the immortality of the soul lies in the fact that man, like other animals, has the power of autonomous action. Now, as the other animals move by means of instinct and mind, so it follows that it must also be his intelligent mind, which enables man to move. We know that man is governed by will and understanding. The essence of man, therefore, must be an intelligent soul, capable of volition.154 He also developed a concept of the way God draws us to himself through his providence and how he is able to respond to our free choices. Luis de Molina, a Spanish Jesuit priest, would take up these ideas fifty years later and they would become what is now known as Molinism. It is a theory held today by William Lane Craig and Alvin Carl Plantinga. Molinism teaches that God knows what we would freely choose in every possible situation and he predetermines our choices by controlling our circumstances, so that man freely chooses his actions. This allows God to speak to us and make the gospel meaningful to us so that we are free to receive it, or reject it. This fits with the word of Jesus John 6:44 ‗No-one can come to me unless the Father who sent me draws him, and I will raise him up at the last day. Also with the words of St Paul, as he describes how God uses circumstances. Romans 8:28 And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. Savonarola pre-dated Molina as he described the grace of God working with man, in providence. We must remember that God moves the will of man in two ways. Sometimes by showing him something good, in order to arouse a love for it within him. Sometimes by applying His power to the will of man, in order to influence him to an act of love or of desire. This is just like a shepherd who may attract a sheep by showing it food; or he may use his hand to draw it along. Now, people can influence each other in the first of these two ways, but no man can act on the will of another in the second way. Because the will comes directly from God, it is directly subject to Him, and He alone can move it to will, or not to will. Even though the will is completely in God's power, He never acts upon it in

154

TOTC – Book 1 Ch 14.

77

such a way as to deprive man of his liberty. He always leaves him his free-will, because God works with all things according to their nature and ability. 155

9. GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA – HIS INFLUENCE Much of the adverse comment about Savonarola came from the subsequently restored Medici dictatorship, a byword for corruption and treachery. In the year that Savonarola died, a new figure came onto the scene; an obscure Florentine bureaucrat named Niccolo Machiavelli. 156 Machiavelli did not seem particularly drawn to Savonarola at first, but with time he came to respect him deeply. He refers to his ‗learning, prudence, and goodness of soul‘ and said he was ‗inspired with Divine goodness‘ and asserts that ‗so great a man should be mentioned with reverence‘. Speaking of the demise of Florence, he spoke of Savonarola, saying: ‗The man who said that our sins were the cause of this disaster spoke the truth‘ Michelangelo probably came to faith in Christ through Savonarola‘s sermons. He said that he could never forget the sound of the Prior‘s challenging voice. It is said that the sermons were the inspiration for the painting of the Sistine chapel and that during the whole project, the artist‘s only reading material was a Bible and a copy of the sermons of Savonarola. 157

Today Savonarola has a street in a smart area of Rome, named in his honour. Ironically the street leads directly to one of the entrances to the Vatican and the Papal residence.

155

TOTC – Book 4 Ch 4.

156

Barry James, journalist writing in

John Colet. In England he was a prime influence in the life and ministry of John Colet, who had been in Florence and studied with the Prior. He returned to England in 1496 and began to preach in the style of Savonarola. He interpreted Humanism with a Christian bias believing the Scriptures are the final authority for the believer and the full revelation of salvation. Like the Prior, he attacked the abuses and idolatry in the Church. Though he wanted reformation, he would never have considered leaving the Catholic Church. Like his Florentine hero, he went on to be charged with heresy, in 1512, but the Bishop of London

International Herald Tribune

157

Charles De Tolnay, The Youth of Michelangelo; Princeton University Press. Princeton, NJ. 1943. Page 20.

78

dismissed the case. Colet became Dean of St Paul‘s Cathedral in London and the founder of St Paul‘s School. The Reformers saw him as a courageous forerunner. Savonarola was a great Christian and, and in some sense truly a martyr. Indeed as early as 1499 (within two years of his death) he was being locally venerated as a saint.158 Luther called him a saint, ‗Whereas antichrist has damned Savonarola, God has canonized him in our hearts.‘ He was convinced that the reformation of the Roman Church was impossible after seeing the sacrifice of Savonarola and the Pope‘s response. He realised that spiritual renewal could only come by destroying the unity of the Church, to free it from corrupt leadership. If the Church had listened to Savonarola there would have been no need for the Protestant Reformation.

The Triumph of the Cross went through many editions in the 15th Century. Later printings made it available in Spanish, German, French, Hungarian, Provençal, and Flemish. It became a key text in the curriculum at the College for the Propaganda of the Faith in Rome where those training to be missionaries were taught.

Lacordaire, the preacher of Notre Dame in Paris, used The Triumph of the Cross as the basis for a series of sermons and he praised the Prior for his extensive learning which ‗embraced nearly the whole philosophic knowledge of his time.‘ 159

Today’s Catholics often hold Savonarola in high esteem and think that the church could still stand some reform.

Today’s Apologists are unconsciously influenced by the Prior. They often use single syllogisms as part of their reasoning – without ever realising that the argument was first developed by Savonarola.

Lord we pray not for tranquility Nor that our tribulations may cease We pray for your Spirit, and your love That you grant us strength and grace To overcome adversity Through Jesus Christ Amen. (Savonarola)

158 159

The New Catholic Encyclopaedia, Catholic University of America, Washington DC, 1967 Paassen – page 247

79

THE TRUTH OF OUR FAITH MADE MANIFEST IN THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS

by FRIAR GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA of Ferrara of the Order of Preachers

80

BOOK I THE TRUTH OF OUR FAITH MADE MANIFEST IN THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS

Written by FRIAR GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA of Ferrara of the Order of Preachers. PROLOGUE. The glorious Triumph of the Cross embraces very many mysteries. In attempting to expound them, and to silence the profane and foolish talk of worldly-wise philosophers, I am undertaking a task far above my powers, and can trust only in the help of the Lord. It could look like a waste of time to evaluate and analyse our Faith, when it is based on the miraculous works of our Saviour Jesus Christ (which are obvious to the whole world) and on the teaching of venerable theologians. Nevertheless, there are men living today in such bondage to sin, that, even in the light of the noonday sun, they grope in darkness, and scorn the marvels of heavenly science. I am, therefore, on fire with zeal for the House of God160, and concerned for the salvation of these misguided men. I want to rouse them from their slumber and bring to their memory, the things of Christ, which they have either forgotten or driven from their hearts. Our Faith cannot be proved by natural principles and causes. But, the past and present events of Church history do afford arguments in support of our religion that are so convincing that no logical mind can reject them. At the same time, no one believes that faith itself depends upon these arguments, seeing that it is "the gift of God— not by works, so that no one can boast‖. (Ephes. 2:89) We make use of these arguments in order to – Confirm the faith of people whose belief has been shaken Prepare unbelievers for the reception of supernatural enlightenment, Enable the faithful to refute the arguments of non-believers Expose the irrationality of non-believers‘ arguments so that simple and uneducated people are released from the deception played on them. To use human reasoning for such purposes does not detract from the value of faith. The saying that faith proved by argument has no merit, refers only to the faith of people who refuse to believe without proof. There are those who are enlightened by God, and have embraced the Faith, without proofs. They then go on to strengthen their own belief and that of others, by investigating the grounds of their faith. These deserve praise because 160

Psalm 69:9 - for zeal for your house consumes me, and the insults of those who insult you fall on me.

81

they obey the instruction of St. Peter "in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have‖. (1 Peter 3:15) In this book we intend to be guided by reason alone. We will not appeal to any authority, no matter how learned they may be. Instead, we shall proceed as if we had confidence in no one, and depend on reason alone. By following such a method, we should satisfy everyone, apart from the totally unreasonable.

THE TRIUMPH OF THE CROSS CHAPTER 1 HOW WE ARRIVE AT THE KNOWLEDGE OF INVISIBLE THINGS BY WAY OF THINGS THAT ARE VISIBLE The five senses, in which all our knowledge originates, are only aware of outward physical events. Our mind, on the other hand, is able, by its sensitivity and reasoning, to penetrate to the heart of natural things. As a result, it is possible to know something of things that are invisible and immaterial. By investigating the substance and properties, the order, the causes and the activities of visible things, we are led, by little and little, to an understanding of invisible realities, and eventually to the knowledge of God. This is similar to the way in which we get to know the character of a person by observing their actions and attitudes. Philosophers have contemplated the universe and noted the magnificence of the heavens with the different movements of the stars. They have detailed the variety, activity and individual perfections of the visible worlds. They have gazed on the wonderful harmony, greatness and beauty of these visible worlds, and as far as possible, they have sought to investigate their nature and properties.161 These philosophers have recognised that such natural things are the work of God's hands, and are the means of arriving at knowledge of His infinite power and glory. Likewise, we desire to show that those things which have been seen, and are still witnessed, in the Church of God, are the work of God. By observing these evidences we can obtain something of the knowledge of the glory and infinite majesty of our Saviour Jesus Christ, who is unseen by us.

161

―When we gaze upward to the sky and contemplate the heavenly bodies, what can be so obvious and so manifest as that there must exist some power possessing transcendent intelligence by whom these things are ruled?" Cicero, De natura deorum (On the Nature of the Gods) book 2.

82

Sages162 of old wanted to list and observe, all the visible things of the universe. As they did, the wonderful works of nature forced them to acknowledge God as the First Cause of all things. All natural phenomena are the creation of His unerring wisdom. In the same way, we must bring together and consider all the wonderful works of Christ. By doing this we want to prove that He was the First Cause163 of all things, and that all His activities proceeded from God, who cannot err. We are not saying that these proofs are what cause Christians to believe. Christians are established in their faith through the special revelation of God; otherwise, their faith would not be a matter of trust, but opinion. But such evidences confirm us in our Faith, and prove to our adversaries that our believing is not mindless, but thoughtful and with intellectual rigour. In order to effectively present the works of Christ, (which continue to be performed in the Church), we will describe them using the image of a Triumphal Chariot, which will represent the entire universe.

CHAPTER 2 HOW THE TRIUMPH OF CHRIST TESTIFIES TO THE TRUTH OF OUR FAITH Because the power, wisdom and goodness of God are infinite, they cannot be fully displayed in one finite creature. Therefore, philosophers have tried to understand something of God‘s nature, not by looking at one creature in isolation, but by looking at innumerable objects and the harmony of the relationships between them. It is possible to do this because of the mutual dependence of everything in the universe. In the same way, we cannot fully understand the power, wisdom, and goodness of Christ by contemplating one of His works in isolation. We must bring to mind all the wonders that He has achieved. As we do, we shall be forced to acknowledge His divinity, not based on one isolated point, but built on the foundation of many reasons. Even if we are not convinced by one of His miracles or teachings in isolation, we cannot (unless we are obstinate) fail to be persuaded when we consider His works and teaching collectively.

162

Savonarola is referring to the work of Cicero, (much in vogue in Florence at this time) cited above, where he refers the sages of old and lists their observations and conclusions. 163

First Cause- Savonarola is following the teaching of Aquinas, who was his inspiration. He uses this term as defined by Aquinas, who said that common sense observation tells us that no object creates itself. So some previous object had to create it. Ultimately there must have been an Uncaused First Cause (God) who began the chain of existence for all things. There exist things that are caused (created) by other things. Nothing can be the cause of itself (nothing can create itself.) There cannot be an endless string of objects causing other objects to exist. Therefore, there must be an uncaused first cause called God.

83

Although it may be possible to grasp the mutual dependence of all the marvels of nature, it is not so easy to grasp the relationship between all the works of Christ, at once. I have therefore decided to present them using the image of a Triumphal Chariot. This image should be comprehensible, even to the least intellectual. Let us, picture in our minds, a four-wheeled chariot on which is seated Christ. As conqueror, he is crowned with thorns, and bears the marks of His wounds, showing that it is through His passion and death that He has overcome the world. Over His head shines a light like a triple sun. This represents the Blessed Trinity, which envelops His humanity, and the whole Church, with unspeakable splendour. In His left hand Christ holds the Cross and the instruments164 of His passion, in His right, the Old and the New Testaments. At His feet are the bread and wine of Communion; 165 the oil for blessing and healing;166 and the other symbols of the sacraments. The Blessed Mother of God, 167 the Virgin Mary, is seated beneath her Son. Around, and below her, are vessels of gold, silver and precious stones, filled with ashes and bones of the dead. The Apostles and Preachers go before the Chariot, appearing to draw it along. The Patriarchs, the Prophets, and innumerable men and women of the Old Testament precede them. The Chariot is encircled by the army of Martyrs, forming as it were a crown. They, again, are surrounded by the Doctors of the Church, bearing open books. Around them are circled a countless multitude of virgins, of both sexes, adorned with lilies. Behind the Chariot follow crowds of men and women of all nations and backgrounds - Jews, Greeks, Romans, barbarians, rich and poor, learned and simple, small and great, old and young; all of whom together, are praising Christ. All around this whole host, gathered from the Old and from the New Testaments, are the crowded ranks of the enemies of the Church of Christ - emperors and kings, princes and men of power, sages, philosophers, heretics, slaves and freemen, men and women, rich and poor, learned and simple - people of every race and of every tongue. Whilst around them lie smashed and broken idols, burnt heretical books, and the defeated remains of all sects and false religions. This Chariot, which we have described, symbolises a new world, from which shall spring a new philosophy.

164

The tools used at His crucifixion.

165

―Host and chalice‖

166

―Vessels of balsam and oil‖

167

Mother of God is a title of honour given to Mary the mother of Jesus. The title tells us something about Jesus. It affirms that she was His mother and He had a supernatural conception, but a natural birth. So He was truly human. But He was also divine because Mary had given birth to uniquely conceived child. This child was the Lord – the Old Testament title for God. The title does not indicate that Mary was the First Cause in bringing God into being, but is based on the incident in Luke‘s gospel. Luke 1:41-43 When Elizabeth heard Mary's greeting, the baby leaped in her womb, and Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit. [42] In a loud voice she exclaimed: "Blessed are you among women, and blessed is the child you will bear! [43] But why am I so favoured, that the mother of my Lord should come to me?

84

The triumphal image of the Chariot recognises that the First Cause (the Holy Trinity) is invisible and made known to us by what is visible. The true God is symbolised by a triple sun, above the head of Christ, which represents His visible manhood. Also unseen by us, are the innumerable company of angels and blessed spirits. We must arrive at the knowledge of these spiritual beings by means of the visible beings grouped around the Chariot. And, just as philosophers teach that the clouds are the source of all weather produced beneath them, so we say that the Passion and Cross of Christ are the chief source of all God‘s grace and salvation. As the weather on earth is derived from the activity in the skies above, so the sacraments of the Church derive all their power from the Passion of Christ. In the natural world, the weather promotes particular results, such as the germination of seeds and the like. In our triumphal image, the seed is represented by the teaching of the Gospel, and by the works and example of the Saints (whose bones repose in honour in glorious tombs). The memory of their merits and holy lives continues to produce fruit in the Church. The teaching of the Apostles, Patriarchs, Prophets, Martyrs and Doctors, is represented as the regenerating power of Christ, active in the whole world. As in the natural order, effect follows cause; we represent the effect of countless men and women who have been converted by the example and the preaching of the Saints. But, as in nature, every movement involves overcoming an opposing force, and the growth of one thing involves the destruction of something else (for in all reproductions there are two opposing forces, of which the stronger prevails), so it is in spiritual growth. Christ and His elect have vanquished His enemies, represented by heresy, prostrate around the Triumphal Chariot. The four wheels of the Chariot signify the four quarters of the world, so marvellously enlightened and brought into subjection by Christ. Philosophers, having observed the order of the universe, and considering the wonderful effects of nature have, by searching for their causes, ascended gradually from knowledge of the lower orders to the higher. In this way, they have deduced the knowledge of invisible things and of the Divine Majesty. In the same way, if we carefully examine the works which Christ has performed, and still does perform, in His Church (represented by this Chariot), we shall begin to be filled with wonder. This will lead us to diligently seek out the cause of those works, and as we do, we shall gradually rise to the knowledge of invisible things, and of the divine majesty of Christ.

CHAPTER 3 CONTAINING CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL AND IRREFRAGABLE PRINCIPLES 168 If an argument is to be conducted satisfactorily, the disputants must agree with each other about some point. Because, if they disagree on every point, there will be no possibility of discussion. They may, or may not, of course, think alike on matters of

168

Impossible to refute; incontestable; undeniable; as in an irrefragable argument;

85

minor importance. But they must agree about certain principles, which are so generally accepted that no one denies them. We must, therefore, take up our position on certain acknowledged principles. We cannot argue with one who denies them; because he who refuses to accept these first principles is unreasonable. First, then, we are all agreed that Jesus Christ was crucified by the Jews, and was afterwards worshipped as God, throughout almost the entire world, in the way we Christians adore Him. Jews, heretics, Muslims, Greeks, Romans and barbarians all admit this fact. Acceptance of this belief has never diminished, but has been handed down, from generation to generation. Further witness to this conviction is found in the books written in every language and published throughout the world. There is also evidence in the ruins of Christian churches to be found in every land. These are proof positive that there is not a spot on the face of the earth where Christ has not been worshipped, or is not still adored, or where there is at least some knowledge of Christianity. That is why even unbelievers speak of Christ as the God of the Christians. It would be a waste of time to argue with anyone who denies that Christ was slain by the Jews, and was afterwards adored as God, throughout the world. Such a person would be unreasonable in rejecting the proofs clearly found in books and monuments. And, if it is acknowledged that there has been universal adoration of Christ, the same must be said of belief in the Blessed Trinity, and the honouring of the Eucharist, the Cross, the Virgin Mary, and the Saints. There is further evidence in that the Apostles, who were at first fishermen, preached the Cross of Christ. The Jewish people, the Patriarchs and Prophets, preceded them. Coming after the Apostles were the glorious Martyrs, the venerable Doctors, the spotless Virgins of the Church, and an untold number of monks and priests. Despite the attacks against the Church by both the tyrants and the philosophers of this world, yet idolatry and heresy have not prevailed. The heretics and their heretical books have been destroyed. Even the Roman Emperor169 has been brought into humble subjection to the fisherman. These things are so well known that we can take them as accepted presuppositions, just as philosophers presuppose the truths of science. These truths are acknowledged, not only by Christians, but by nearly every people and in almost every country - even by 169

About the year 313, Constantine the Great, who was previously a man of no religion, is said to have embraced Christianity. The story of his conversion following the vision of a cross in the sky is generally doubted, but it is clear that at first he was supportive of Christians and their worship, but did not regard Christianity as the only true and saving faith. He seemed to regard other religions, including the old Roman religion, as also true and useful to mankind. Initially he wanted all religions to be freely practised throughout the Roman Empire. But as he advanced in life, he gradually came to regard Christianity as the only true and saving religion, and to consider all others as false and impious. Having learned this, he began to exhort his subjects to embrace Christianity, and proclaimed war against the ancient superstitions.

86

Indians and innumerable Muslims. These Muslims accept that Christ has reigned among them and has worked miracles, and although they are in grave error, yet they severely punish all who blaspheme the Christian truths.170 Since, then, these truths are so clearly demonstrated, only foolish and obstinate people would try to refute them.

CHAPTER 4 ANSWERS TO THE OBJECTIONS WHICH MAY BE BROUGHT AGAINST THE FOREGOING PROPOSITIONS But perhaps some one will say: ―If your assertions are true, surely it is strange that no pagan historian or orator should make any mention of them. Strange that they, who minutely describe the wars and other doings of men, should pass over in silence the works of Christ, which are so much greater and more wonderful. (We do admit an exception in the case of certain historians, who, wishing to refute Christianity, have actually rendered testimony to its truth).‖ To these objections we reply, that it is false to say that pagan historians have not written concerning Christ and His Church. Because not only have many authors, both Greek and Latin, fully described His praises, but also many of them have been converted to His Faith. Some have gone on to propagate the Faith by their preaching and their writing. 171 And, if our objectors should reply, that they allude not to those who, after their conversion, have written about Christ, but to those who have remained in their errors; our answer is, that our Faith has been confirmed by its converts. This confirmation is strong because the converts have not only written of the praises of Christ and of the Church, but they have not hesitated to shed their blood for His religion. Not only have those brought up from infancy as Christians written on behalf of their Faith, but also countless well-known men, of different nations, have embraced the truth in their more mature years. And it is a much more convincing proof of the truth of Christianity, that its converts should have died for it, than if they had remained heathens and had written volumes in its praise. No wonder that proud and incredulous men should have neglected to narrate the works of Christ, when, beholding His miracles, they refused to accept His Faith! There are two further reasons why pagan historians have not written in praise of Christ. One reason is the providence of God; the other is their own blindness. God moves all things, both physical and spiritual, and cares for all things; and no one can move himself 170

Here he refers to the way in which Muslims honour Christ and believe him to be a true prophet. In their recognition of Christ‘s status they have reacted strongly against Jews who have denied that Christ is prophet. Muslims believe that the Scriptures are incorrect in relating that Christ died on the cross, and incorrect in suggesting that he is co-equal with God the Father. 171

E.G. St. Ignatius the Martyr, St Polycarp, and St Clement of Alexandria, etc

87

to write, unless God inspires him. Therefore, the heathen historians have not written of Christ, because God did not move or inspire them to do so. God did not inspire them to write for three reasons. First, God ordinarily makes use of fitting means to achieve his end, and the pagan philosophers, who were stained by unfaithfulness and other sins, were not fit to write of the pure and holy works of Christ and of His Church. Secondly, as Christ is truth itself, and came into the world to give testimony of the truth, it was not fitting that men, who, like the pagan poets, orators and historians, perpetuated lies and fables and praised the foulest deeds, should have defiled the pure truths of Christ, by writing of Him. Thirdly, the heathen orators had only the eloquence which springs from natural reason. They sought rather to magnify themselves than to declare the truth. As the works of Christ are above natural reason, it is evident that these pagans were not fit men to expound them. Another reason, which prevented the heathen writers from bearing witness to Christ, was their blindness, caused by their sins. Their boastful, unwarranted pride, so completely hardened their hearts that they dismissed the miracles performed by Christ. Even such as the restoration of sight to the blind, the raising of the dead, and so many other wonders, which none but God could perform. Furthermore, the heathen authors were brought up in the worship of their gods, and in idolatrous fables, so they naturally entertained a hatred for Christianity - the sworn enemy of idolatry. They would not write anything favourable to the Church, because of their hatred of her, and also for fear of attracting the displeasure of those who persecuted the Christians. Again, we must remember that these poets and orators used grandiose flattery to cultivate the friendship of princes, in the hope of being rewarded by them. Because they knew that there was nothing to be gained from Christians who loved truth and professed poverty, it is not surprising that they did not write about Christ. (When the situation is reversed and the Church possesses worldly powers, there is no lack of poets and orators to sing the praises of her princes and prelates - they even lace their eulogies with lies.) If the Gentile authors did not promote the cause of Christ, we need not go far to find the reason of their silence.

CHAPTER 5 THE MODE IN WHICH OUR ARGUMENT MUST BE CONDUCTED As it is possible to gain knowledge of invisible things by means of visible things, we should understand, that there are also some aspects of the nature of God which we can know through human reason, and through natural things. Such aspects are, the

88

existence of God, His unity, His simplicity of being, and similar truths, which philosophers have come to recognise. But there are other aspects of God‘s nature, which we cannot discover through human reason. This is not surprising, because even among men who are equal by nature, philosophers can grasp high and subtle matters, which are beyond the understanding of children and simple people. So it is with God - there are secrets, which no created intellect can investigate. We cannot make sense of many things that we meet with day by day; so how then shall we comprehend God, who infinitely surpasses all things? The divine things, which our natural reason is not competent to discover by itself, are those that we believe by faith. These include, the trinity and unity of God, the divinity and humanity of our Saviour Jesus Christ, and other similar truths. But, although we cannot prove these truths by natural deduction or human arguments, we may, nevertheless, make ourselves very sure of them by their supernatural effects. By natural deduction we know that the propositions, "God exists," and "God is one and infinite," etc., are true, and yet we still do not know or see God as He is. So also, by means of spiritual revelation we can affirm the truth of such propositions, as ―God is three and one," "the Son of God is both God and man‖. Yet we cannot fully comprehend or explain these truths. As nature revelation precedes the revelation of grace, we will begin with those aspects of God, which we are competent to investigate by means of natural evidence and deduction. Afterwards we will look at those aspects, which can be known by their effects, which are supernatural. The truths of the first category, however, we will consider very briefly, since Catholic theologians and philosophers have discussed them so thoroughly, as to leave no possibility of doubt.

CHAPTER 6 THE EXISTENCE OF GOD If we do not mean to blunt our whole argument, we must begin by proving the existence of God. What do we mean by God? All men use this name to designate that which is higher and more excellent than all other things. Some call this highest being the Prime Mover of all things; others call it the First Cause and principle, or the Highest Good and Supreme Truth. But, whatsoever God may be called, if His name expresses the highest and most excellent nature, His existence must be acknowledged. Even philosophers admit this. It is of His existence that I wish briefly to speak. Philosophers have most effectively proved, that everything that moves is moved by something else. Even though men and animals move themselves, there is in them one part that decides to move and another that is moved, because the body cannot move itself without the mind. And, since every movement under the heavens depends on the movement of the heavens, there must be some substance that moves the heavens.

89

Now, does that substance itself move, or does it not? If it does not move, it must be God; who moves all things, but is Himself immovable. But if the substance move, it must then be moved by something else. Now, is that something else immovable, or is it also moved? If it is moved, who moves it? If we continue this chain of argument, we shall see that there must either be one Prime Mover, or else an infinite series of movements with no Prime Mover. The second hypothesis is philosophically absurd. For, if there is no Prime Mover, on which other movers depend, nothing could move, and no order would reign among the highest things. There must, then, be one supreme Mover, whom we call God. We can deduce a similar argument from the causation of things. Everything in the world is caused. Nothing can make itself. Since then many causes have occurred to bring about some effect, and there is an unbroken sequence - we must either assume an infinite series of causes, or believe in one Supreme Cause. The one whom all men acknowledge as God. Again, among natural things we see that one thing is always more true and more perfect than another. This could not be the case, did it not approximate more closely to some supreme truth and perfection. We must, therefore, agree that there exists some Supreme Being. This can be none other but God. Again, we see how, in the natural world, plant life grows through the appropriate stages from start to maturity. This cannot happen by chance, since each always develops in the same manner. There must be some intelligence that directs them. What can this intelligence be except God? To these arguments we may further add, that no natural inclination can be pointless. Now all men are naturally inclined to believe in God. From the beginning of the world, there has never been (as we know from their superstitious rites and sacrifices) any nation so primitive and barbarous as not to believe in a God. Since, then, this belief has been common to every era, and to every nation, it must be based on natural instinct. Again, we see how men, when in danger and deprived of human aid, will, instinctively, invoke the assistance of God. This is another proof that belief in His existence is natural to the human soul.

CHAPTER 7 GOD IS NOT A BODY, NOR THE FORM OF A BODY, NOR IS HE A COMPLEX SUBSTANCE No true philosopher entertains the slightest idea that God has a body, or the form of a body, or is a complex substance. It would be impossible that God should be a body, seeing that He is the immovable mover of all things; for one body, unless it first move itself, cannot set another in motion.

90

Again, as personality is more noble than the body, God, were He only a body, would not be the noblest of all beings. Neither would He be the Supreme Ruler, since the personality governs the body. We must further hold, that God is not the form 172 of a body, as the person is the reality of the human body; because that which exists of itself is far more noble than that which exists only as a concept of something else. Consequently, as God is the most noble of all things, He must exist in Himself, and not in any body. Again, things composed of matter and of form are more perfect than matter alone and form alone; for the simple reason that the whole is always more perfect than its parts. If, then, God were the form or concept of what is body – but did not actually have a body, then He would be less than perfect. The combination of a material body and concept (form) of what makes a body would be more perfect than form alone. It would further follow that God could not act by Himself; since, as form (a concept) has no being without matter, it cannot operate without matter. Hence, as God would need others for His operations, He would not be the First Cause. It is, likewise, evident that God is not a complex being, but pure act 173 and simple substance; for every complex being depends on other simple bodies. Since, therefore, God is the First Cause, independent of all others, and the one on whom all things depend, He cannot be a complex being, but must be simple act. Again, if he were a complex substance, He could not be the first Supreme Being in the universe; because complex bodies do not precede their parts, but result from them; and the union of these parts could not take place, had not some first cause preceded them. We must conclude, therefore, that God is simple substance and pure act. 174

CHAPTER 8 GOD IS THE PERFECT AND SUPREME GOOD, AND IS OF INFINITE POWER. HE IS IN EVERY PLACE AND HE IS IMMUTABLE AND ETERNAL If we believe (as we must) that God is pure act, we are also compelled to acknowledge that He is perfect, the Supreme Good, infinite in power, ubiquitous175, immutable and 172

Form – is used in the Platonist sense. Plato taught that we know many qualities, because they actually exist as ‗forms‘ and the mind comes to recognise them. For example, he would say that we recognise something as beautiful because we know the ―form‖ which is beauty. These forms are actually said to exist – as a reality behind the idea or concept. This Platonic Philosophy was particularly influential in Florence at this time and that is why Savonarola challenges it. 173 Pure Act. Savonarola, in this work defines Pure Act as being ‗superior to all matter and possibility,‘ and ‗God is not a body, but Pure Act‘. The term Pure Act comes from Aquinas, who described God as immutable (unchanging in Character and Emotion). As creatures, we constantly change and as we do we move more toward perfection, or to evil, and so become less perfect. Aquinas argued that God is ‗pure act‘ and so cannot change and become more perfect. For example, His love is perfect already, God is love, and no action on His part could make Him more loving. He is also incapable of any act that would make Him less loving. 175

Ubiquitous – present everywhere, omnipresent.

91

eternal. The greater the simplicity of an immaterial thing, the greater will be its perfection. God being absolutely devoid of complexity, pure act, and simplicity176 itself, we must also conclude that in Him is supreme goodness and perfection. Again, as everything possesses greater power and virtue, in proportion as it is raised above matter, and becomes more formal; God, as pure act, being supremely elevated above all imperfection, and in the highest degree formal,177 must be infinite, and infinitely powerful. And, just as particular effects are reduced to particular causes, universal effects must be reduced to universal causes. Now, being is the most universal of all effects, because it is common to all things; it must therefore proceed from a universal cause, which is God, who is the cause of being, not only by giving it, but also by preserving it. And, since it is necessary that when the cause operates, it must join its power to its effect, God, being His own power, must be united to the being of all things, therefore He must be intimately in all things, because being is more closely allied to nature than any other thing. God, being indivisible, must be in the whole universe, and wholly in each of its parts. He is likewise immutable; because, being pure act, God can know no change. He must necessarily also be eternal; because, were He not eternal, He would be mutable, having beginning and end; and thus He would not be God, but a being dependent on other things, and consequently not the First Cause.

CHAPTER 9 GOD IS ONE It is clear that there can be only one God, not many gods; because the divine nature being simplicity cannot give something of itself outside itself. Every nature which gives something of itself to others, suffers change in its nature, because it becomes diverse. It is impossible therefore, that the divine nature should be shared by other beings. If there were other gods, they would differ from one another; and the cause of their difference would be, either some imperfection, or some perfection. Were the difference an imperfection, the god that had it would not be God, because God is wholly perfect. Were the difference a perfection, the god that did not have that perfection, would not be God. So obviously there cannot be more than one God.

176

Divine Simplicity - Augustine, Anselm, and Aquinas taught that God is totally different to His creatures and creation. He is not complexity, made up of some kind of matter, and located in some particular place at some particular time and subject to development or decay. He just simply IS. And He is, who He is, outside of time and space and its restrictions. He exists eternally and in eternity. This is what we affirm when we say that God is transcendent. 177

Formal – According to Aquinas, the form is what governs a particular thing, or the genus to which it belongs. The formal cause is a thing‘s essence. For example, the formal cause of a man is the essence of what it means to be human. God is pure being, and therefore is the only pure formal cause.

92

A third proof of the unity of God lies in the fact that all things in the universe are most excellently ordered. This perfect order could not be the work of many minds and creators; it must proceed from one. Among animals, such as bees and cranes, we see one ruler directing a multitude of subjects. And since art imitates nature, in the best human governments we, likewise, see power vested in one head, otherwise the government could not stand. In the same way, since the government of the Universe is of all forms of government the most perfect, we see that in it there is but one Supreme Lord and Ruler, who is God.

CHAPTER 10 GOD KNOWS ALL THINGS PERFECTLY AND ACTS OF HIS OWN WILL AND NOT FROM NATURAL NECESSITY It is clear, from what has been said, that God knows all things. We see in the natural order, that those beings that are capable of knowing have a larger and more capacious nature than those that have no cognitive faculty. For, not only do they have selfknowledge, but also their intellect is able to understand the essence of other things. Hence the understanding and relationship of every form of intelligent life is more detailed than just regarding all things as simply lumps of matter. God, then, being pure act, and superior to all matter and all powers, must possess the highest degree of knowledge, and the most complete understanding of all things. God does not understand as men understand, - by receiving the information about things into His mind. Because being simple substance, His wisdom and His understanding are His nature. Being wisdom itself - He knows all things of Himself. And, being power Himself - His power is infinite. Therefore His wisdom must also be infinite. Some men entertain the foolish opinion that God knows and determines heavenly things in great detail, but that His knowledge of earthly things is confused and general. In other words, that man knows more things, or has a more perfect knowledge of them, than God has. Yet, even in merely natural things, the greater and more perfect the power, the more things it embraces and penetrates; and the more elevated a human intellect, the greater is its range of understanding, and the more exquisite its subtlety. Since, then, the divine understanding is in a class of its own, and infinitely perfect, it must necessarily penetrate all things to their innermost being. And, since it is immutable and eternal, it is necessary that it should have perfect knowledge, not only of all things past, present and future, but also of all those which might ever be called into being. In addition, His knowledge has not only existed from all eternity, but continues in the present, and will endure forever.

We must, further, affirm that God acts, not from necessity, but by His understanding and will. The natural world acts in a certain order without understanding how or why. But the order is evidence of intelligence and the operations of nature must be governed by some superior intellect. Now, as the intellect which governs is higher than the nature which is governed, and as God is the first principle of all things, it is evident that He does not react instinctively but must act proactively with full understanding and freedom of will.

93

All forms of natural life are constrained to reproduce offspring that are similar to the parent. Now, as God is infinite power, if He were constrained by instinct or impulse to act, He would end up producing things that were infinite in essence - which would be an impossibility. God does create things – not as an act of re-production, but according to His own purposes. Just as a house exists in the mind of an architect who builds it by means of his intelligence and will, so God also creates all things by means of His intelligence and will.

CHAPTER 11 THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD EXTENDS OVER ALL THINGS If the above statements are true, then there is no doubt that the providence of God extends over all things, not merely over natural things, but over even the smallest human action. The word providence signifies a knowledge of things, with an intention of controlling them, by appropriate means, to achieve their purpose. Therefore, as God is supreme wisdom, He is able to act with understanding and freedom of will, to order and dispose of all things. Also, as He is supreme wisdom, His ordering of all things will be absolutely right. We must acknowledge that in Him is perfect providence over all things. Philosophers have never hesitated to recognise divine providence in the marvellous operations of nature. The disordered and confused state of human affairs has, however, presented a difficulty to them, and has led some among them to deny the providence of God over human affairs. But, if we reflect, we shall see that it is foolish to deny the providence of God in the conduct of human affairs. Because the more noble things are, the more perfectly are they ordered; therefore, as man is the noblest of all beings, his operations must be ordered. The wisest men take more thought and care over things that are near to them, than over those things that are more remote. So man is nearer to God‘s heart and purpose than are other natural things. It would be impossible to believe that His providence governs nature, but does not extend to human affairs. Further, divine providence proceeds from the love of God; and the more God loves a creature, the greater is His providence over it. Since, then, by giving to man a more perfect nature and a higher order of operation than He has given to natural things, God has shown that His love for man is greater than His love for natural things, so we must believe that His providence is exercised in human affairs. Another proof of what we say lies in the fact that it is natural (as we see in the case of animals with their young) for all parents to exercise a certain providence over their children. But as all secondary causes act only in imitation of God, the First Cause, it is

94

evident that He must exercise providence over all things, and especially over man, who is His noblest creation, and whom He loves more than other natural things. We should remember that, if God does not extend His providence to man, it must be, either because He cannot do so, or knows not how to do so, or else will not do so. Since He is infinite power and infinite Wisdom, it is nonsense to say that He cannot care for man, or knows not how to do so. To say that He will not do so, is to detract from His infinite goodness; because no one who is good spurns his own work, and despises its own creatures. Neither would it be right to say that imperfect creatures exercise care of their own, but God in his perfection does not. When every good and wise man cares diligently for human affairs, how shall we say that the God of infinite goodness takes no heed of them?

CHAPTER 12 THE END TO WHICH MAN IS GUIDED BY DIVINE PROVIDENCE God‘s providence works to bring all things to their purposed end, and, since all things have different ends; they must be moved in different ways. Non-rational things are led by natural instinct, and are more ruled by others than autonomous. However, man having free will, can take decisions for himself. As he orders his life and works together with God, so God moves him towards his end. It is therefore essential that he should exert himself to discover what is the last end to which God has called him. He should also discover what are the means available to enable him to order his life in conformity to God‘s designs. Philosophers have worked hard to discover the end of man178. As their reasoning became more profound, and their investigation approached nearer to the truth, they concluded that the goal of human life is the contemplation of divine things. This alone is the proper occupation of the human soul. Reaching this end should be desired for itself because it unites man to God. Man is made for this purpose and is suited to work toward it with only a little help from a few external aids. This, in fact, is the purpose of all things that concern man. For all natural things are ordered for the body of man; his body is ordered for the benefit of his soul; and all the powers of his soul serve to reach this ultimate goal. Art and civil government are intended to provide us with that calm and freedom from passion which enable us to reach this goal of intimacy with God. All things, both natural and artificial, are ordered for this purpose. Providence moves all men toward this end as we seek to conform to the moral virtues. However, providence works with men in such a way, as to leave them the freedom of their will. As they do co-operate with the impulse of providence, they will be acting appropriately to attain to their desired end. 178

Last End or Ultimate End of Man – philosophical term denoting man‘s destiny and purpose.

95

CHAPTER 13 MAN'S ULTIMATE END CANNOT BE ATTAINED IN THIS PRESENT LIFE If we consider what has been said, we shall see how difficult, even impossible, it would be for man to attain to his ultimate end during the course of the present life. For, although it is true that the enjoyment of God is the ultimate glory for man, it is not just any degree of contemplation of divine things which can create happiness for man. Although the contemplation of God forms the happiness of man, this contemplation must be perfect, with the fullest perfection of which human nature is capable. Whereas, during this mortal life, hardly anyone can reach such perfection, because perfect contemplation of God demands complete knowledge of Him, which man cannot achieve. Some men are hindered by physical ineptitude, or by lack of sensitivity to spiritual things. Others are so obtuse, that they can scarcely understand the clearest matters. While others are prevented by duties, or family and work responsibilities from giving time to contemplation. And even those who are able to free themselves from these hindrances must serve a long apprenticeship before they can attain to the perfection of knowledge and contemplation. This is for two reasons. First, remembering that we attain knowledge of immaterial things by means of our experience of material things, it is only reasonable to expect that an extensive knowledge of material things should be required before we can hope to attain to a perfect knowledge of such as are in the highest degree spiritual. Secondly, in order to attain to perfect contemplation, it is essential that we have purity of heart, quietening of our passions, and the possession of moral virtues. These things are rarely met with except among the aged, and even among them they are only possessed by those who have laboured diligently to acquire them. Because the majority of people in the world are still young, and few of them have time to devote to the contemplation of the Truth, it follows that only a small number will be able to find perfect happiness in this life. We should not be astonished at the fact, that it is exceptional to find people capable of contemplation. The limitations of human understanding are proven in daily experience and by the way men are so easily deceived in purely natural matters. How much more easily may we be deceived in things that are divine? All our knowledge of natural things springs from the senses, and what is more fallible than the eye, which tells us that the sun is a tiny sphere, whereas it is much larger than our entire earth? Again, the imagination can so cloud the mind that it makes it difficult for us to believe that any beings exist, except those that have physical bodies, Our understanding, again, often deceives us, persuading us to give credence to false and sophisticated reasoning. This is proved by the many varying opinions even among clever men.

96

The different passions and affections of our soul, and our evil habits, are a further obstacle to our apprehension of the truth. If, then, our intellect is so restricted in its investigation of purely natural things, how much greater will be our difficulty in learning of divine things? The more we consider the hindrances which beset us in the acquisition of knowledge, the more it becomes clear that, if true happiness is only to be found in this life, very few among us can attain it. Children, youths, women, and all such as are not capable of learning, and those occupied in human affairs, must be excluded from the chance of acquiring knowledge, and of attaining, through knowledge, to beatitude 179. Such an idea as this is, of course, absurd, since beatitude is the goal of human life, and that for which all mankind is created. But there is another reason which makes it impossible for man to be wholly happy in this life. This reason is, that happiness being the ultimate good of man cannot be marred by any presence of evil. Because perfect happiness is all sufficient and complete good, when it is attained nothing further remains for man to desire. But where in this life shall we find a man, who wishes for nothing? Just being human with our nature open to so many infirmities, means we cannot enjoy complete immunity from every evil? Daily experience shows us, that even those who, like Priam180, have been reputed to be happy, were beset by many misfortunes. But let us assume that someone has, as far as it is possible in this mortal life, attained to the perfect contemplation of divine things, and enjoys every other good, still even he cannot be called truly happy. As happiness, means perfect tranquillity of the human heart, and since all men have a natural and unceasing desire for knowledge, this desire must be an obstacle to perfect contentment, as long as knowledge is not complete. The number of things in the world that men do not know, and yet desire to know, is almost infinite. Philosophers, after lifelong study, and much learning, have died leaving much unknown. For what we know forms only a small portion of what there is to know, and even our actual knowledge is incomplete. If, then, our intellect is so limited regarding natural things, how can we expect to understand things that are supernatural and divine? The human heart cannot be satisfied with partial knowledge, but always desires knowledge that is more complete. So the more the heart knows God, the more it desires to know Him completely. This means that in this present life, because we cannot attain to perfect knowledge of God, neither can we enjoy perfect happiness. 179

Beatitude - supreme blessedness or happiness found in the presence of God [Latin beatitudo] Generally I have translated this as ―intimacy with God‖ 180

Priam was the king of Troy. He became king after Laomedon and all of Priam's brothers were killed by Heracles in the first destruction of Troy. He was the father of over fifty sons and many daughters. He unsuccessfully defended his city during the Trojan War, at the end of which Troy was finally destroyed. During the Trojan War, the Greek hero Achilles killed Priam‘s son Hector. The Iliad records the moving scene of Priam courageously entering the Greek camp by night and pleading with Achilles to return Hector's body for burial. Priam was later killed by Achilles' son, Neoptolemus in the city of Troy.

97

But, supposing, for argument's sake, that a man, in this world, should attain full knowledge of all things natural and divine, he would still fail to be perfectly happy. This is because complete knowledge cannot be acquired until in old age, when death is near. Even if this knowledge could be gained in youth, it would still be no safeguard against death. The desire for immortality is inborn in all men. All men desire to continue their lives, either in their children, or by some excellent work. A wise man who loves a perfect life cannot fail to hate what destroys it. Therefore, were there no other life than this, the wisest man, whom we assume to be truly happy, could not fail to be saddened at the thought of death. A philosopher would not banish the thought of death, as that would be the act of an irrational man; but he cannot be called happy when he has laboured all his life to acquire some good which he is unable to retain, and who does not know whether his end is to be in bliss, or misery. From these arguments we see that, if there is no life beyond the grave, the lot of man is wretched beyond measure. For all other things are led by nature, and easily attain their goal; but man is surrounded by difficulties, and either fails to find his purpose, or, if after much toil, he succeeds in finding it, he will be unable to retain it. That this should be the fate of God's noblest creatures on earth must appear absurd, even to the most uneducated mind.

CHAPTER 14 THE SOUL OF MAN IS IMMORTAL The arguments presented in the last chapter leave no room to doubt that there is another life; and that the human soul is immortal. As the providence of God carries everything to its own end, if a man cannot reach his ultimate end in this life, he must be made capable of securing it in a life to come. Were it otherwise, the providence of God would not extend to human affairs. There is every proof of the existence of a germ of immortality in the human soul. The operations of the intellect cannot proceed from a physical force, because they extend beyond physical things, and are occupied with God. This argument has compelled philosophers to acknowledge the immortality and immateriality of the soul. It is, nevertheless, so difficult to understand how an immaterial substance can be the essence of the person within the body, that many different opinions have been held about the mode of this immortality in man, which we call intelligence. It cannot be denied that an intelligent mind is the essence of what makes us human. Everyone acknowledges that it is the rationality of man which distinguishes him from other animals. This distinction could not exist if a rational soul were not the essence of a man.

98

Again, it is universally agreed, that the peculiar and highest activity of man is understanding and reasoning. And man is the principle agent of this activity. As man is composed of matter and an intelligent mind, we cannot say that he is capable of reasoning by virtue of the matter of which he is composed, but solely by virtue of his mind. Consequently, as this mind is nothing but the intelligent soul, it is the intelligent soul which is the essence of man. Another argument for the immortality of the soul lies in the fact that man, like other animals, has the power of autonomous action. Now, as the other animals move by means of instinct and mind, so it follows that it must also be his intelligent mind, which enables man to move. We know that man is governed by will and understanding. The essence of man, therefore, must be an intelligent soul, capable of volition. Because we are human we have the capacity to reason. But it is not reasoning that makes us human. If it were then we would conclude that a child, too young to understand, or a man who refuses to use his reason, were not human. If the act of reasoning is not the essential nature of man, but something independent of his true self, then it will not be man, but that rational substance, which works with the intellect. We may, of course, maintain, with Plato, that man is not composed of soul and body; but that he is merely soul, which is united to the body as a motor is joined to that which is movable. But this opinion, if we adopt it, will lead us into many inconsistencies. First, if the soul is the whole of man, to the exclusion of the body, man will not have access to the five senses. When the soul leaves the body, corruption will not ensue; for the substance of a movable being does not change when the motor leaves it. It follows, likewise, that the human body does not live by the intellectual soul, and is not generated by union with the soul; for a movable thing is not generated by union with its motor. Human generation must, therefore, cease; because, according to Plato, the soul is not generated. 181 If the body is not integral to man, then one man will not be able to generate another. If neither the generated body, nor the soul and body together, but only the soul (which is not generated), is man, there will no longer be human generation. No fathers or children. These, and similar absurdities, confront those who will not acknowledge that an intelligent and immortal soul is the essence and integral partner of the body. As the soul is, by its perfection, supreme among all natural and material forms, it partakes of the nature of the body and of immaterial substances. As it does, the form is described as a ‗human‘ body. In its nature as immaterial, the soul is separate from the body. So the soul is not located in or dependent on any bodily organ, as the five senses are. That is why the soul is 181

Plato's On the Soul, Plato believed that the soul was an eternal reality and implanted in the body. This soul consists of three basic energies that animate human beings: Reason, Emotion, and Appetite. Contemporary theories of the psyche also draw on Plato‘s three basic energies of the soul, such as the Freudian designations of Ego, Superego and Id.

99

sometimes called the nexus182 of the world, being the link between the highest and the lowest things. We cannot then escape the conclusion, that the integral essence of the body is a rational soul, which, in spite of the corruptibility of the body, remains incorruptible. This attribute of incorruptibility is proper to all intellectual substances, and is so for several reasons: First, because every perfection must be proportionate to the thing of which it is the perfection, and, as universal and incorruptible things, and principally God, are the perfection of the intellectual soul, whose beatitude consists in contemplating them, the soul must be incorruptible. Secondly, as we know that the completeness of the soul is proportionate to how far it is free from material forces, and able to relate to immaterial and divine things, it is folly to say that the soul becomes corrupted by being separated from the body. Such an assertion is tantamount to saying, that separation from the body is, at one and the same time, both the perfection, and the destruction of the soul! And it is equally futile to argue, that the soul attains perfection of understanding by being separated from the body, but suffers corruption of its essence by separation from the body. For its operation follows nature; and therefore it is impossible that when the operation becomes perfect, the nature should become imperfect. Hence, it is quite unreasonable to say, that the intellectual soul suffers corruption when it is separated from the body. The natural bias of mankind is a further argument in favour of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. We see that all men are anxious about what takes place after death, and that none have been able to persuade themselves, that there is no future life. We see that the desire to know something of the hereafter is found in the writings of philosophers, poets, and of orators. The fact of such a desire is a proof of our immortality; for if there were no future life, not only would this yearning for knowledge about it be of no service to man, but it would be injurious to him, by raising desires doomed only to disappointment. But if we assume that the intellectual soul is immortal, this natural desire to understand something of its future life is, far from being useless. It is both wholesome and necessary because it enables man to direct his thoughts to another life, and leads towards beatitude. It is evident, then, that if we deny that the intellectual soul is the integral essence of the body, and is immortal, we shall be involved in many inconsistencies. We shall find it impossible to understand how man can be a rational animal endowed with free will, and justly liable to punishment for sin. Neither shall we be able to comprehend what is the end of man, and how the providence of God operates in this regard. But, granted that

182

Nexus - a connection or link

100

an intellectual and immortal soul is the integral essence of man, all these difficulties disappear. Since the consideration of the other life, which awaits the soul after death, exceeds the limits of human reason, we will here conclude our First Book. Next we will consider the supernatural truths of Faith. For where reason halts, faith begins. When we shall have shown, as we hope to do in the next Book, the truth of our faith, the immortality of the soul will be beyond doubt.

BOOK 2 METHOD OBSERVED THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK IN our last Book, we considered those things which human reason is capable of grasping. Now it is our intention to discuss those things which exceed reason, and to prove the truth of the Faith, both by natural means, and by the supernatural deeds of Christ. Since present happenings carry more weight than past events, our first argument will be founded on the deeds of Christians within the Church. We speak of such as are Christians in deed, as well as in name, not of bad Christians, who are separated from the body of Christ. We will next examine the works that Christ accomplished in times past, and which are known to all the world. By His own words, ―I have come that they may have life, and have it to the full‖. John 10:10, Christ shows that His chief work lies in the perfection of the Christian life. We will demonstrate the truth of the Faith of Christ: first, by arguments founded on the Christian life; secondly, by others based on the cause of this life; and thirdly, by those drawn from the effects of this life. This chain of reasoning will embrace almost everything that is at present taking place within the Church militant.

CHAPTER 1 SOME TRUE RELIGION EXISTS IN THE WORLD In order to connect what has already been laid down with what still remains to be said, it is necessary to acknowledge the existence on earth of some true religion, or form of divine worship. Religion, or worship, signifies the due honour paid to God, as the universal principle, Ruler, and end of all things. Every effect turns naturally to its cause; submits itself to its cause, in order to become like it; and, in a certain sense, invokes the protection of its cause. By acting in this way, the effect is paying honour and worship to its cause.

101

Now, as man is the effect of God, there must be in his nature an instinct prompting him to turn to God, to become subject to Him, to resemble Him, and to invoke Him, in order to obtain from Him beatitude. As no natural impulse is given us without a purpose, these promptings must spring from religion; and they are proofs that some true form of divine worship exists in the world. This fact is, again, proved on another basis. Man is possessed of reason and free will. As reason is fallible on many points, especially in divine matters, it follows that, if God had not revealed some true form of worship, we should have gone astray, as the heathen did before the coming of Christ. Then we should never have attained beatitude. So our natural instinct would have misled us, and the providence of God would have failed us, in a matter absolutely vital to our salvation. It is clear that a natural tendency to that some form, though frequently through all generations. If there is then God has made better provision of man.

religion is innate in the heart of man, from the fact an erroneous form, of divine worship has existed no possibility of satisfying this natural inclination, for the needs of irrational creatures than for those

It is the property of a cause to infuse its goodness and perfection into its effect, in order that this effect may, as far as is possible, resemble the cause. God, who is the Supreme Good and the First Cause of all things, desires, more earnestly than does any other cause, to infuse His goodness into man in order to bring him to beatitude. Because the fulfilment of man consists in that personal worship in which he subjects himself to God, it is clear, that God cannot have made this personal worship impossible, and that some true religion exists in the world.

CHAPTER 2 RELIGION IS BOTH INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR God can be honoured by man, both in body and in spirit; and, therefore, religion must be both interior and exterior. Interior worship is paid to God by means of the understanding and the will; and exterior homage by means of ceremonies and sacrifices. Interior religion, then, strictly speaking, signifies uprightness of heart before God, and perfection of life. As every effect honours its cause chiefly by its perfection, man cannot pay to God a greater homage than that of a perfect life. This is what constitutes the truth and completeness of divine worship, in the same way as the perfection of a work gives glory to the worker. And, as we pay homage to God, not only in order to honour Him, but also in order to receive blessing from Him; and as a good life is a more sure way of attaining blessing than are sacrifices and ceremonies, it is evident that perfection of life is a more true religion than any exterior form of worship. God is not a body, but pure act: therefore man renders to Him more perfect worship by purity of heart, than by external actions, for ―God is spirit, and his worshippers must worship in spirit and in truth." John 4:24

102

CHAPTER 3 NO BETTER LIFE CAN BE FOUND THAN THE CHRISTIAN LIFE As true religion consists in the perfection of human life; and as no better life than the Christian life can be conceived, it follows that there can be no better religion than the Christian religion. This assertion is easily proved. Animal life is of a higher quality than vegetative life; and among the different forms of animal life there are degrees, with the highest being the one most endowed with sensitivity of feelings. If it is the case that intellectual understanding is superior to sensitivity of feelings, it is certain that the life of man is of higher quality than that of animals. Among men are also found degrees, not of life but of perfection. As man is a rational creature, those men are the most perfect who live closest to the directions of reason. He who lives without reason resembles a beast rather than a man. Again, among those who live according to reason, there are different degrees of perfection. Because the ultimate end of the life of reason is the contemplation of divine things in God‘s presence, so the more perfectly a man separates himself from earthly things, and devotes himself to the contemplation of the divine, the more perfect his life will be. Since the Christian life consists in separating ourselves, not only from temporal things, but also from self-love, and in drawing near to God, by love and contemplation, so as to become like Him, and, so far as possible, to be made one with Him, it is clear that nothing better than the Christian life can exist. As we have already said, the more perfectly a man follows the dictates of reason, the more perfect will be his life. It is evident, therefore, that the Christian life does nothing and permits nothing, not even the least thing, which is contrary to reason; but that it submits in all things to the divine Law. A virtuous life tends to the contemplation of heavenly things, and finds its purpose in this contemplation. Great purity of heart is required for the attainment of this goal. Consequently, as no way of life can purify and prepare us for contemplation, as well as the Christian life does, it follows, that nothing better can be found on earth than Christianity.

CHAPTER 4 THE END PRESENTED TO US BY THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IS THE BEST WHICH CAN POSSIBLY BE CONCEIVED In order to show that there can be no better life than the Christian life, we shall first prove that the goal envisioned by the Christian religion is the best possible goal, and the

103

most reasonable. Also that the resources provided by Christianity to reach that goal are those best suited to that purpose. It is self-evident that the goal held out to us by the Christian religion is the best possible goal, seeing that it is the vision and fulfilment of knowing God, "face to face". 183 Many reasons can be put forward to prove that this clear vision of God is the goal of our human life. First, as we have already proved, man's beatitude cannot be attained in this life; therefore, if he is not created in vain, it must be attainable in the next. But if in the next life, his happiness were to consist in knowing and contemplating God by means of God‘s creation, it would not be complete happiness. His heart would not be at rest, because happiness consists in contentment or fulfilment of all desires. His tranquillity would be incomplete, whether his knowledge of God‘s creation were perfect or imperfect. If he knew God‘s creation imperfectly, his heart would not be at rest, because he would desire that this knowledge should be complete. For we know, by daily experience, that we desire distinct and particular knowledge of the things which we know only in a general and confused manner. Were his knowledge of God‘s creation perfect, he would still desire to know on what it depends. For it is natural to us when we see an effect to wish to know its cause; and the more perfectly we know the effect the more intensely we wish to know its cause. For example, the heavier an object is, with the greater energy it gravitates to its centre 184. In the same way, as man becomes happier and more perfect in proportion to his knowledge of divine things and as his desire for this knowledge increases proportionately to his growth in understanding it is certain that his wish for this knowledge will never cease until he attains his ultimate end. This end can be nothing other than intimacy with God. We know from experience that our hearts can never be fully satisfied by any finite thing. Our intellect is superior to everything finite, because it is able to expand its capacity; and our ability to understand increases with our growth in knowledge. As everything which is inferior to God is finite; and, as our intellect is capable of knowing infinite things, it is true to say that no created thing can fill even one-tenth part of our heart. It becomes, therefore, not merely reasonable, but actually necessary, to acknowledge that the happiness of man consists in the vision of God, who alone is greater than the human heart. Philosophers are agreed that every natural movement leads to some goal, and when it is attained, the thing that is moved finds rest. Now when the human heart finds such satisfaction in God, it leaves nothing else to be desired. And this is because everything 183

Beatitude

184

Savonarola held a view of gravity taught by Aristotle and endorsed by the Church. This described all matter as made of four elements, Earth, Water, Air and Fire. Earth, the basest and least noble, was in the centre. Everything under the sun was composed of some mixture of the four elements. The natural place for heavy objects (made of Earth) was back in the centre. Therefore is a heavy rock was moved from its natural place (the earth) by lifting it up, it would gravitate back to its natural and proper place. Because it was trying to return to its natural place. Medieval ideas of gravity worked fairly well because most objects behaved in the manner described by Aristotle.

104

else, being finite, will bear no comparison to Him who is infinite. Also, because all the perfection of God‘s creation is to be found in its fullest excellence in Him who is it creator. So when the soul of man possesses God, it possesses all things. For the intellect which knows Him, will more fully appreciate His creation. Although our senses can be overwhelmed by excessive stimulus, our intellectual understanding is not injured by excess of knowledge, but becomes more complete. But we must remember that, God is infinite, and is outside the realm of creation. Therefore our intellect cannot fully comprehend Him, just by use of its natural abilities. Nevertheless, our understanding is capable of appreciating infinite things, and may, by God‘s power, be enabled to understand some of what is beyond its natural ability to know. So the ultimate end and happiness of man consists in the vision of God, and he is enabled to enjoy it by means of a supernatural light, which is called "the light of glory". It is plain that no more reasonable or better goal could be devised for human life, than the goal set before us by the Christian religion.

CHAPTER 5 A CHRISTIAN LIFE IS THE BEST POSSIBLE MEANS FOR ATTAINING HAPPINESS. If the vision of God is the goal of human life, God, who has made nothing in vain, must have given us some means of achieving it. Just as it would be useless for us to possess our limbs with which to function – but had no muscular power to move them, so would it be futile to be created for a specific goal, if we have no means of reaching it. The Christian religion teaches, that the resources that enable us to reach intimacy with God are, purity of heart, together with God‘s grace and goodness permeating the soul. We shall see how true and how reasonable this doctrine is, if we remember that a means must be sufficient to achieve its goal. The goal of man is supernatural intimacy with God, the supreme object of intelligence. In order to attain this goal there must be perfect purity of heart, involving the mind and heart completely turning from the love of material things, and turning to the things which are spiritual and divine. This purity of heart is far more explicitly demanded by the Christian religion than by any philosopher. Christianity has included all that philosophy has taught on the subject, but has more clearly defined what is meant by this purity of heart. It has shown that the mere natural goodness, commended by philosophers, is not sufficient to reach the goal that is infinitely superior to anything this material world can offer. Christianity teaches that the purity of heart that springs from our temperament, imagination, morality, from the influence of the stars, or from any other created thing, will not be sufficient to bring us to intimacy with God.

105

Our purity must be the fruit of divine grace. A fuller explanation of the subject may be found in the treatise on The Simplicity of Christian Life.185 Here it is shown that purity of heart, and the perfect Christian life, is not the result of natural love, nor is it the creation neither of the imagination nor even of reason; that it is not influenced by astrology nor by any angel or demon; but that it comes from the grace of God, supernaturally poured into the soul. We need not repeat all that is written in that book, about the right way to attain the perfection of the Christian life. It is enough to say that the most helpful route to perfect happiness is found in living a holy Christian life and by engaging fully with natural and spiritual realities.

CHAPTER 6 THE CHRISTIAN LIFE IS A MOST SURE MEANS OF ATTAINING INTIMACY WITH GOD 186 If, as has been proved, there is a true religion in the world, consisting particularly in uprightness of life; and if the Christian religion surpasses every other; we must acknowledge Christianity to be true, not only in its inward spirit, but also in its outward forms. For there must be some true outward worship which relates to interior religion. Therefore, if Christians live according to the teaching of their Faith, paying due homage to God, both in order to honour Him and to attain to intimacy with God, we cannot doubt that in this way, they will arrive at their ultimate goal. If it is part of divine providence to bring things to their goal through suitable resources, and if there is no better resource than the Christian religion to enable man to attain intimacy with God, who can doubt that the Christian religion conducts man to the eternal enjoyment of this intimacy? Further, if God is just - and we must confess that He is; and if He exercises providence over human affairs, then He will not allow those who have obeyed His commandments and professed the Christian religion to fail to reach their goal. He must either bring some men to intimacy with Himself, or none. If none are to attain to intimacy with God, creation is in vain. Some men, therefore, must be saved, and among them God will not pass over true Christians, who are of all men the best fitted and prepared for intimacy with Himself. If Christians do not reach their goal, we must assume that no others can hope to do so. It would also mean that all we have previously taught and proved is false; and that all men are living without meaning and in confusion. For where there is no ultimate purpose there can be no meaning in life. It would also follow that the decisions man makes on a daily basis would be more unpredictable than those made by the animals. This is only one of similar absurdities that would be implied, if we deny the value of Christianity. 185

De Simplicitate Vita Christianae. This work consists of five short ‗books; or ‗topics‘, written by Savonarola and covering practical advice for living the Christian Life. It was first published in Italian at Florence in 1496, and afterwards in Latin, at Venice, and at the Ascension Press in Paris. It is thought that it has never been published in English. 186 Beatitude

106

It must be acknowledged, then, that the teaching of the Christian religion about the goal of man, and the way in which it is attained, is both reasonable and true.

CHAPTER 7 THE FAITH OF CHRIST IS TRUE, BECAUSE IT CAUSES MEN TO LEAD A PERFECT LIFE In proving Christianity true, we have used arguments based on the righteous life of true Christians. We will now examine the source of this righteous life. The Scripture teaches that one of the chief sources is faith in Christ and his love for us. ‗This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe.‘ Romans 3:22 ‗Without faith it is impossible to please God‘ Hebrews 11:6 By faith expressed by love, we mean that in loving Christ crucified above all things, we believe He is truly God and truly man, one with the Father and the Holy Spirit, but a distinct person. Universal experience demonstrates the truth of what we say. For in the present day it is evident to all, and was more obvious in days gone by, that, as soon as a man grasps the Faith of Christ and becomes inflamed with His love, he begins to lead a Christian life. He goes on to progress in righteousness, in proportion to his growth in faith and love. At the same time, his faith and love are strengthened as he grows in righteousness. On the other hand, those who lead bad lives are lacking in faith; and those that are without faith lead bad lives. As this is a solid truth, we will examine the causes of such transformation of character, which will allow us to deduce proofs of the truth of the Christian religion. First, since all perfection depends upon its cause, no effect can be more perfect than its cause. Therefore, if all the truth and righteousness of the Christian life has its source in the Faith of Christ, it is impossible that the Faith of Christ should not be true. And if this Faith is true, then all should join with the Christians, who confess that Christ is God, and that His religion is the true religion revealed by God. Again. It is impossible that falsehood and evil should be the source of truth and goodness, because evil and falsehood are the absence of truth and goodness. If the Faith of Christ were false, then His love would be useless and evil. But a life as righteous as the Christian life could not spring from falsehood and evil. Therefore, the Christian religion must be true. Furthermore. If this religion is untrue, it is the most stupid lie that can possibly be conceived. It would be extremely stupid to say that a crucified man is God – unless it was true. Now, as the Christian life is a righteous life, it cannot spring from a lie. We could not find meaning and reason for our Christian behaviour if we knew it was based on a lie.

107

It must also be remembered that the capacity for improvement in character is determined by any goodness of character already existing. Now, as truth is essential to our intellect, and purity of heart is essential for our character, so the more a man is purged from earthly affections the better he will know the truth. The more he recognises and embraces truth, the more he will be sensitive to untruth and reject it. On this basis Christians, who are more concerned for truth than some other men, would be the first to know if their religion were false. We see that far from rejecting their faith, Christians cling to it even more tightly as they grow in holiness. Also we note that their increase in holiness is relative to their steadfastness in faith. Therefore, their faith cannot be false. Again, as God is the First Cause moving all things, both spiritual and physical, it is certain that He must move human understanding, and that, apart from Him, no truth can be known. But God will reveal truth to those who are open to receive, rather than those who are closed to Him, and especially when the truth concerns eternal salvation. Since then true Christians are better prepared than are any other men to embrace the truth, we cannot doubt that, if the Faith of Christ were false, they would be enlightened by God to reject it. To think otherwise, would be to doubt the providence and goodness of God. The goal determines what will be the best means to use to reach it. So, he who is mistaken about his goal will also be mistaken about the means he uses to reach it. Christians are neither mistaken about their goal nor about the means that they adopt to attain intimacy with God. Now, as all Christians profess that Christ is their goal, and that they strive to be made like Him in this life in order to enjoy Him in the next, it cannot be erroneous to teach that Christ is God, and is the goal of human life. Again, God has a method in His proceedings. His wisdom governs inferior things by those that are superior to them. And since the cause is always more perfect than the effect, He has ordained noblest causes for the noblest effects, As there is not in the world a more noble effect than the Christian life, it follows that the cause from which it springs must be the noblest possible. Since the Christian life is an effect of the Faith of Christ, we must acknowledge that that Faith, far from being a fable, is the noble cause of a noble effect. All secondary causes are instruments of a primary cause. Therefore Christ, the man who was crucified, is the instrument whereby God chooses to produce that wonderful effect the Christian life. Had Christ, in spite of His assertions, not been God, His pride and dishonesty would have been unparalleled; and God would have used a bad instrument to produce a most perfect effect - a course quite out of keeping with His wisdom. The more closely an effect resembles its cause, the more perfect it becomes. We become more holy and godlier, in proportion to the way we walk in the footsteps of Christ and become like Him. This is a clear proof that Christ is true God, and the First Cause of man. Causes are known by their effects, and one of the best arguments in favour of the Christian religion is the reflection that, whereas heathen philosophers have laboured for

108

years to establish rules of conduct, they have gained but few disciples. Even among them, the most virtuous have never attained to that moral standard of living which has been so quickly reached by innumerable Christians of both sexes and of every race and condition. No one who reflects on this fact can fail to see that there is no comparison between the efficacy of the heathen philosophy and that of the Christian Faith. It is able to change the proud, avaricious, and lewd, to being humble, benevolent and chaste. Consequently every one must acknowledge that Christ, as God, is the principal cause of human righteousness, and, as man, He is the one who makes it possible.

CHAPTER 8 THE DOCTRINES TAUGHT BY CHRISTIANITY ARE TRUE, AND COME FROM GOD The reading, hearing, and study of Holy Scripture are both a cause of our Christian life, and the substance and foundation of our religion, which is the truth of the Faith. Having examined the arguments founded on the Faith of Christ, we now proceed to investigate those drawn from Holy Scripture. We know that there can be no certainty or knowledge about future events - which may or may not happen. Even philosophers, who were truly wise, admitted this. The future is known to God alone, and to man only when God reveals it to him. Man could know nothing, unless it pleased God to reveal it. Holy Scripture, in almost every part, but especially in the Old Testament, has foretold things which would happen and which depended on man's free will. These prophecies concern not only general, but also particular things; and they relate to events which were to occur, not only within one year or in ten, but in a hundred or a thousand, or three or four thousand years. They were to happen not only to the Jews and to Christ and His Church, but were to also concern the Assyrians, Chaldeans, Persians, Medes, Greeks, Romans, and other lesser kingdoms. 187 Now many of the events foretold by the Prophets have come to pass; and the fact of their fulfilment inspires us with confidence that any that have not yet been accomplished will eventually be verified. We must, therefore, acknowledge the Holy Scriptures to be, not a work of human ingenuity, but the revelation of God's providence towards us.

187

The order in which Savonarola lists these kingdoms suggests that he is referring to Daniel chapter 2, where King Nebuchadnezzar had dreamed of a large statue with a head of gold, upper torso of silver, lower torso of brass, legs of iron and feet made of clay and iron. Daniel interpreted the dream as indicating the world powers, which would follow Nebuchadnezzar. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas as well as Jewish scholars, adopted an interpretation, which was current in Savonarola‘s day and continues to have much support today. This sees Babylon as the head and the other sections of the image representing, in order, Medo-Persia, Greece and Rome. Though many Jews including Josephus had interpreted the kingdoms as Babylon, Media, Persia and Greece.

109

God alone has prescience of the future. Therefore, no man, however diligent or wise, can order the wars and doings of kings and princes, and the names and places, and different actions and circumstances of men in such a way that they actually foreshadow things to come. The reason is simple. God holds the ordering of things which are to come; they are subject to Him. They are beyond the power and knowledge of man. The Old Testament foretells the New Testament, and the things which Christ has done and suffered, both in His person and in His Church. Therefore, we have good reason to believe that both the Old Testament and the New are the Word of God. It is not reasonable to say that Christians have interpreted the prophecies of Scripture to make them fit their own ideas. When we take into account the differences of times and circumstances, of language and of authors, the extraordinary uniformity which exists between the Old and the New Testaments would not be possible, were they not the work of one mind. A mind that knows all that has taken place at all times. This uniformity cannot be explained by pure chance, since there is no discord or lack of harmony between the two Testaments, but perfect agreement between them, even in the smallest particulars. What is obscure in one passage is explained in another; and the Scripture interprets itself. Although those who have not studied the Bible may be ignorant of this fact, the truth of what I say will be acknowledged by all who examine Holy Scripture with faith, humility and purity of heart. Because of this harmony between the Old and New Testaments, the Bible possesses the noble quality of an allegorical meaning. But, note, that by ‗allegorical‘, we do not mean some fabulous interpretation - as we find in the poets. When we interpret parables, their interpretation is not called allegorical, but literal analogy. We do not intend the words of a parable to express their literal meaning, but rather to signify a literal meaning underlying those words. An allegory requires, first, that the words should narrate, not a fiction, but some fact that has really occurred. Secondly, that this fact should prefigure some future event. Thirdly, that the fact narrated should have had real significance at the time it took place, and also as a forecast of some future occurrence. As no one but God can compose such allegories, and as the Holy Scriptures are full of them, it is clear that only God can be their author. The language and style of the Bible are matchless, and none of our most learned and eloquent doctors have ever been able to imitate it. Nor has any other writer achieved its style. The Prophets, although they lived at different times and wrote with varying degrees of elegance, have all retained the same mode of expression, which has not been imitated by any other author, and is, in fact, inimitable. This is a clear proof that the Holy Scriptures are a divine creation and not a human work. A further confirmation of what we say may be seen if we observe the effects which proceed from the Scriptures. (The virtue of a cause is known by its effect.) Now, on earth there is no more sublime effect than the Christian life, and as the Bible is a most

110

powerful instrumental cause and foundation of this life, it is clear that it can only proceed from the First Cause of the Christian life, that is God. Long experience teaches us that human learning contributes little in the formation of moral character. Before Christianity was preached, the whole world was wrapped in the darkness of ignorance and sin; but from the time the Apostles taught the truth, mankind has been enlightened and become aware of many heavenly secrets. Even in our own day, we see how the exposition of the Holy Scripture is more effective than any other teaching, in enlightening and consoling men, and in encouraging them to live virtuously. The preachers who talk only on philosophical subjects, and use oratorical techniques, produce scarcely any fruit among their Christian hearers. While our forefathers confined themselves to the simple preaching of the Holy Scriptures, and were able to fill their hearers with divine love, enabling them to rejoice in affliction and even in martyrdom. I also speak from personal experience. At one time (in order to demonstrate the profundity of Holy Scripture to pretentious people188 who possessed only superficial knowledge) my preaching centred on subtle points of philosophy. I found that the people who heard me were left daydreaming. But as soon as I devoted myself to the exposition of the Bible, I found all eyes were riveted upon me. My audience were so focussed on my words, that they might have been carved out of stone. I also found that when I put theological questions to one side, and confined myself to explaining Holy Scripture, my hearers were enlightened and my preaching resulted in the conversion of men to Christ and to transformed lives. For, Holy Scripture contains that marvellous gospel word, which is more effective than a two-edged sword189, in piercing men's hearts with love. This message has clothed the world with goodness, and overthrown idolatry, superstition, and numberless errors. This proves that it has come from God. The more completely the human intellect is purified, the more capable it becomes of grasping the truth. As there is no purity of life as good as that produced by Christianity, the many devout and learned Christians would be the first to discern if the Bible were not the work of God. However, far from denying the divine inspiration of the Scriptures, the Fathers of the Church have left many volumes extolling its teaching. They have also written and preached that it is unlawful to alter one iota of the sacred text. Some of them have even shed their blood, in defence of the divine origin of the Bible. If these men had not been certain that the Scriptures were the work of God, they would have definitely not have sacrificed their lives for such a belief.

188

Sciolists - amateurs who engage in an activity without serious intentions and who pretend to have knowledge. Of Latin origin meaning a smattering of knowledge. 189

Hebrews 4:12 For the word of God is living and active. Sharper than any double-edged sword, it penetrates even to dividing soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it judges the thoughts and attitudes of the heart.

111

Again, truth can never contradict truth. Truth must be in harmony with truth, but always at war with falsehood. Now, as every science agrees with Holy Scripture, it is evident that it must contain, not falsehood, but truth. The leaders in every branch of science have proved that no true science is repugnant to Holy Scripture. Therefore, Christians are not forbidden to study any science, except divination and similar superstitions, which are derided by all true scientists. This harmony between science and the Bible is a proof of its truth. Were the Scriptures false, they would without doubt, contradict science. But instead the Doctors of the Church show that the Bible and science agree; and they are able to explain any apparent discrepancy between them. Further, the human intellect has a natural ability to sense when something is true, so that it can recognise the validity of a genuine defence of truth when it comes under attack. Christianity has been always opposed, both by philosophers and by temporal powers, and has invariably proved itself invincible. This, again, is a strong proof of its truth; for if it had been false, it would inevitably have succumbed to persecution.

CHAPTER 9 THE TRUTH OF THE FAITH PROVED BY ARGUMENTS FOUNDED ON THE PRAYER AND CONTEMPLATION OF CHRISTIANS Faith and meditation on the Holy Scriptures are not only the cause, but also the nourishment and perfection of the Christian life. Experience, both past and present, shows that Christians given to continual prayer, acquire great perfection in a short space of time. They find such delight in spiritual things, that everything else seems worthless to them. This is not restricted to a few educated people, but includes also many who are less knowledgeable. In fact, this is the experience of all, both men and women of every background, who give themselves to prayer. On this fact we intend to establish an argument for the truth of our faith. First, since God is pure act, supreme truth, and infinite light, it follows that the nearer man approaches to Him (in spirit not in body), the more he will partake of the divine purity, truth and light. Now, as the Christian life is more pure and perfect than any other, it must be nearer to God than any other lifestyle. And Christians come closest to God when they are engaged in prayer and contemplation - which makes the soul especially open to God‘s purity, truth, and light. Since it is by prayer and contemplation that Christians are confirmed in their faith in Christ Crucified, and fired with love for Him, it is undeniable that the Faith is divine truth and light. Again, our understanding is naturally inclined to delight in truth, to desire it, and to reject falsehood; and the more a natural inclination is purified, the more passionate it becomes. Prayer clarifies the issues more effectively than any other mental activity; and therefore, if in time of prayer the soul is more inclined to embrace the Faith of Christ than at any other time, this is a proof that the Faith is truth and not falsehood.

112

Also note that Christians make great requests of God, asking in the name of Christ crucified and through His merits. If Christ is not divine and they have no basis for asking in His name, then God would surely point out their mistake and lead them to the truth. If having been shown the truth, they continue to ask in Christ‘s name, their prayers would not be answered. But the reality is that the chief prayer of a Christian is for grace to live a Christian life, and for joy and peace of soul. This prayer, and more beside, are graciously answered in His name, because He is divine and his word is true. Again, no cause prevents matter from being what is desired; and no natural impulse prevents a thing from reaching the desired goal. As intimacy with God is the goal to be attained by a good life and by prayer, but man cannot move himself to pray nor to live virtuously, then it must God who inspires man and makes it possible. God inspires Christians to righteous living, to reverence and reality in prayer, and confirms them in their faith. So it is clear that faith is the means by which we attain intimacy with God, and that this faith must proceed from God. Every cause listens, if we may so speak, to the prayer of its effect, and by this prayer we mean the desire of the effect to be completely what the cause intended. For the effect to be sure of its purpose, it will need to consult its cause. We see in the natural order, that when matter is open to change, the cause does not delay in transforming it into the intended form. God is supreme goodness. He exceeds all causes in listening to the prayer of His effects, when they are open to His involvement in their lives. Now, the Christian life, especially the act of prayer and contemplation, is the best possible preparation for being heard by God and such prayers of Christians are not made in vain. The thing that Christians most earnestly ask God to give them is to be enlightened with the truth. So David, in the name of us all, prays, ‗Look on me and answer, O Lord my God. Give light to my eyes, or I will sleep in death‘. Psalm 13:3190 And therefore we must believe that true Christians are enlightened as to the truth concerning salvation. The more they pray, the more they become confirmed in their faith in Christ. So we have good grounds for believing this faith is true, and not false. A further argument is, that if Christ is not God, it would be blasphemy to believe and to confess that He is one with the Father and the Holy Spirit, and to pray pleading His death on our behalf. How could a good God leave Christians in such blindness, especially when they are the best of mankind and always ready to cut out any error that may dishonour God‘s Majesty? It is absurd to say that God leaves them in their wrong belief because they are obstinate about it. If this were the case, why should He hear their blasphemous prayers? In fact why should He not punish them severely? Again, if the Faith of Christ is false, could there be a more absurd superstition than to adore a crucified man as God? Our minds naturally love truth and abhor falsehood. How then could it be possible that innumerable Christians, among them men of vast genius 190

Savonarola uses the Vulgate text and numbering in the Psalms, so that he records this as Psalm 12: 4. Respice, et exaudi me, Domine Deus meus Illumina oculos meos, ne umquam obdormiam in morte

113

and great learning, could so delight in the contemplation and love of Christ - crucified? And why for His sake, should they not only willingly bear but even eagerly desire hunger and thirst, hard labour, threats, disgrace, scourges, imprisonment, and even death? Truly, God is at work here.

CHAPTER 10 PROOFS OF THE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION FOUNDED ON ITS EXTERNAL FORMS OF WORSHIP So far our arguments for the truth of Christianity have been drawn from the inward aspect of our religion. We will now proceed to proofs based on its sacraments, ceremonies, and other outward rites. Instead of considering them individually, which would be a lengthy task, we will group all the ceremonies and sacraments of the Church under the one which is most holy and important - the Sacrament of the Blessed Eucharist. We know from experience, and since the first days of Christianity it has been proved, that the reverent observance of this act of worship is the cause, the nourishment, and the excellence of the Christian life. Those who regularly receive the sacraments with devotion, become more holy day by day. Those who treat the sacraments with irreverent familiarity become more hardened in sin than other men. We see this fact exemplified in priests, who, day and night, administer the sacraments, and perform the ceremonies of the Church. Those who do so devoutly and for love of Christ are most holy men, so free from earthly affections and so closely united to God, that they are not afraid of anything in their lives being exposed to the public. On the other hand, those who perform their sacred duties with indifference or contempt for holy things are worse than any other men. Besides being guilty of pride, avarice, envy, and other sins, they are in the most hopeless state possible. They are persistent in their attitude and the admonitions, reprimands and good examples, which would cause others to change their ways, are for them only an incitement to scorn, hatred, and worse sin. We see that the same sacraments produce contrary effects in different men. We must now investigate the cause of this phenomenon. Philosophy recognises that contrary effects can spring from the same cause, because of the different nature of the matter affected. For example, we see how the rays of the sun harden the earth, and melt ice, cause a well-planted tree to bear flower and fruit, and wither another whose roots are not deeply grounded. The two contrary effects produced by the sacraments on good priests and those that are bad, cannot result from a false or empty cause. Only God‘s goodness and truth that can produce an effect so excellent as to give birth to the Christian life, and to nourish and perfect it. Because this life is wholly of God‘s Spirit, it cannot be explained by any physical power.

114

Who is there that believes that baptism with water, anointing with chrism, smoke of incense, oblation of bread and wine upon the altar, and other rites and ceremonies, could of themselves, without any other power, be sufficient to make a soul holy? Surely if sacraments were human inventions, or deceits of the devil, they could not produce holy lives. But, perhaps you will say, the Christian life is not produced by these sacraments. Instead, men who do believe the sacraments are of God partake of them and lead good and moral lives, unconsciously supplying the means and power from their own belief system. Why is it then, we would answer, that other men who live morally good lives without the sacraments, never attain to the same degree of holiness, as these good priests? Surely, if sacramental worship were false and useless, those who abstained from it would become all the better. They would not be contaminated by error and priests who have contempt for the sacraments would be the best of men. Everyday experience shows us that the facts are quite the reverse. Again, it stands to reason that as God is the supreme truth, the more closely man draws to God, the more he receives His light and truth. The more a man embraces error and falsehood, the further he recedes from God. But we know that those who share in the ceremonies of the Church and receive the sacraments with real devotion, become so united to God that signs of God‘s presence and light appear in their faces. Many are filled with a joy and bliss that transforms their appearance, in a manner that people find attractive and holy. And although such phenomena were more common in past times than at present, these marvels are still often seen today among men and women, both learned and uneducated. What is the source of these ecstasies, this holy contemplation, this fervour of spirit, and these tears that accompany outward worship? The truth is that if God does not ordain these sacraments, then they are full of absurdities and lies. It would mean that all the signs of spiritual and divine things; our churches, sacraments, altars, priestly vestments, sacred psalmody, and ceremonies are based in falsehood. It would mean that what symbolises Christ would amount to nothing but useless lies. But if these sacraments and rites are a mere mockery, good men would not take such delight in them, nor would they find them helpful in approaching near to God. (As we have noted, the more men are involved in error, the more they draw back from God.) So we must conclude that the ritual of the Church is full of grace and truth. The wonderful ceremonial of the Church, and the holy mysteries that are symbolised are not trivial, or irrational, but everything, even the most minute detail, points to some truth. This proves that they are not a human invention, but a divine ordinance.

115

It is not our intention here to enlarge upon the meaning of the ecclesiastical ceremonies, as this subject will be briefly handled in the next book.191 If, at this point, anyone wishes to know more of these mysteries, he will find them explained in Christian doctrine. Doctrine shows that there is harmony and order in the ceremonies of the Church that at least equals that found in the operations of nature. Unless a person is thoroughly perverse, he will be forced to acknowledge, that our worship is the outcome, not of a human, but of a divine Spirit.

CHAPTER 11 THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY IS PROVEN BY ITS EFFECTS ON THE INWARD LIFE OF CHRISTIANS We have, to the best of our poor ability, proved the truth of the Faith by arguments founded on the inward and outward aspects of the Christian life. We will next proceed to demonstrate its truth by its effects on this life. Its chief inward effect is peace and joy of spirit, and liberty of soul. We see this effect exemplified in the saints of earlier times (when there was more fervour than at present). They enjoyed a serenity and peace of mind which enabled them, not only to remain unshaken in the midst of affliction, but even to rejoice at martyrdom. Because their joy (in the middle of tribulation) increased the more they drew close to Christ, we see that such peace of soul can only come from union with God. He is the ultimate goal and only satisfaction of the human heart; in Him alone, we can find rest. Those who are closely united to Him have such a firm hope of enjoying happiness after this life, that they give less attention to the good things of this world. They do not fear persecution or loss of life, but eagerly look forward to death as the passage to eternal bliss. And, though God is everywhere, He especially dwells in such souls as these, by His grace and love, and by the gift of contemplation. He sustains them by His presence, delivering them from all fear, and giving them such liberty of spirit that they are neither cast down by adversity, nor uplifted by prosperity. This peace, joy, and freedom of soul cannot come from any natural human power, weakened as we are by sensuality and ignorance. It must be a supernatural gift of God, causing us to lift our eyes to the divine light and the intimacy with God promised to us. We can prove that union with God is the cause of this peace of soul, if we reason in the following manner. The soul is one, and all its powers spring from its unity. If the soul is focussed on the activity of one motivating power, then it cannot give attention to the activity of another. Just as in intense contemplation the operations of the senses are suspended, and there is less awareness of great physical pain or pleasure. Humanly speaking it would seem quite impossible that the intellect should enjoy peace and happiness at times of intense bodily torture. And, yet, we see this phenomenon in innumerable martyrs, of both sexes and from every background. 191

Book 3 chapter 18

116

Of course the sages of this world will provide examples of a few non-Christians who have experienced the same ecstasy in the midst of sufferings. But the Christians who have experienced this miracle are innumerable, and the least child who is a true Christian is superior to all the heathen examples, whose erroneous beliefs and perverted desires are obvious in their writings. This power of rejoicing in the midst of suffering is not natural; it is a supernatural gift of God. This again is a proof of the truth of Christianity. Because, if Christianity was proved to be false then this supernatural gift could not come from God, and Christians would be left in their natural weakness, and involved in many errors. The more virtuously a man lives, the more clearly he discerns the truth, and the more he loves good and hates evil. If Christianity were not true, then Christians would live in error, and their persistence in adoring Christ as God, would be criminal. But experience shows us that Christians are strengthened in their faith, and enjoy peace, and joy, and liberty of soul in proportion to their virtue. This certainly would not be the case if Christianity were untrue. The truth of our Faith is also confirmed by the example of the many men and women, in our day as well as in the past, who have entered the religious 192 monastic life. From a desire for holiness, they have left friends and family, riches, pleasure, and even their own will, and have entered a cloister. There they have submitted to strangers; they have promised to observe poverty, owning nothing except that which their superior permits to keep the soul and clothe the body, to fast and watch in prayer as much as they are able, and to practise obedience to all commands. They renounce worldly possessions, earthly happiness and their own will; and yet they live as joyfully, and take as much delight in praising God, as if they had all that the world can offer. They are as one in acknowledging that all their peace and joy of soul is based on faith in Jesus crucified. We cannot dismiss them as fools, because among them are some ignorant people, but also men renowned for their learning, prudence, and judgment - who would quickly recognise their error if their faith were untrue. So we must think that the cause of this wonderful effect is the religion of Christ, which is not false but true. As these religious people are in a life situation that enables a high degree of holiness to be attained, and as they make every effort to advance in holiness, it follows that they are more fitted than other men to discern enlightenment from heaven. Were the Faith false, it would not be possible for its falsehood to be disguised through so many centuries, and among so many worthy men. Nor could these men affirm their religion every hour in their hearts, by their words, their works, and their many writings. Nor would living in the greatest subjection to poverty and sacrifice, create such spiritual liberty and joy. 192

Religious – from the Latin for a rule or order. It is used to describe those who have committed themselves to a monastic order by taking vows, e.g. of poverty, chastity, and obedience

117

Again, every cause, as far as possible, does carry its effect to its end, especially when the effect is open to direction from its cause. So, God being supremely good, carries all things to their goal, (except those things which are unfit to attain it). Now, as there is no better way of cooperating with God than the religious life, it follows that God must draw them to intimacy with Himself, and that their peace and joy come from their intimacy with God. As this aptitude for intimacy with God springs from Christianity and increases with growth in that Faith, it is clear that Christianity cannot be false. Otherwise, God would be fostering errors and spurious joy in the souls of well disposed men, and deliberately leading them astray. All joy is based on love, which is the highest activity of the will, on which all other activities depend. Now, as the happiness of the religious is not centred on possessions, which they have relinquished, and as they unanimously acknowledge that the source of their joy and the hope of another life is Christianity; they cannot be living in error. If they were, their honesty of life would cause them to recognise their mistake and this discovery would rob them of peace of mind. But we see their experience is the opposite, which proves that Christianity is true.

CHAPTER 12 THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY IS DEMONSTRATED BY ITS VISIBLE EFFECTS IN THE LIVES OF CHRISTIANS Another significant effect of the Christian religion is seen in the demeanour of those who profess it. Their appearance and manner lead men to reverence them and hold them in honour. The fiercest men have become gentle, at the sight of devout Christians clothed in humility. Attila, the ferocious King of the Huns, beholding Saint Leo 193 the Pope, in the city of Ravenna, and hearing his words, abandoned the invasion of Italy. Totila194 the savage King of the Goths, could not look directly at the poor and humble monk, St. Benedict, but prostrated himself on the ground until the saint told him to get up. The Emperor Theodosius195, after the slaughter of the inhabitants of Thessalonica, was 193

In 452 King Attila drove deep into Italy and the Roman King looked for peace by sending Leo I (440-461) bishop of Rome to negotiate for Rome. 194

Totila was the nom de guerre of a king whose real name was Baduila. Having conquered many of the city-states in Italy, in 543 he met Benedict, and fell on his face before him. Benedict told him to get up and rebuked him for his cruelty, telling him that he needed to be converted. Totila asked Benedict to remember him in his prayers and departed a changed man who now showed astonishing care and kindness to those he had conquered. 195

Theodosius was responsible for the massacre of 7000 in Thessalonica in 390. When Ambrose heard of this deplorable catastrophe, he went out to meet the Emperor, who---on his return to Milan---desired as usual to enter the holy church, but Ambrose prohibited his entrance, saying "You do not reflect, it seems, O Emperor, on the guilt you have incurred by that great massacre; but now that your fury is appeased, do you not perceive the enormity of your crime? You must not be dazzled by the splendour of the purple you wear, and be led to forget the weakness of the body which it clothes. Your subjects, O Emperor, are of the same nature as

118

banished by St. Ambrose from the house of God, and, not daring to disobey, humbled himself and did penance. Time does not allow me to mention all the examples that I can recall, but it is not necessary to enlarge on what is so clear. Even in our day we have seen arrogant sinners struck by conviction of sin in the presence of holy men; and this conviction has led them to real conversion. Now the cause of this effect is supernatural grace creating all the virtues. For we know how the feelings of the mind or imagination can alter a person‘s appearance. In this way angry feelings express themselves openly on the face - we grow pale with fear, red with shame, while joy makes the eye sparkle, etc. As the internal thoughts and feelings are revealed in the attitude of a person, so the same thoughts and feelings (when they are very intense) often stamp themselves on the body, especially in the eyes and face. So a haughty mind can be recognised by the arrogance of a man's looks; cruelty by his rolling eye; light-mindedness by constant fidgeting. Sometimes sin can infect the very air and the bodies of others - as we see in the case of malignant old women, who can bewitch little children. Good and bad habits, when they are deeply rooted in the soul, cannot be completely disguised and so they do affect the appearance of the face. As we know that every effect expresses its cause. The beautiful and revered appearance of holy Christians can only come from the beauty of their soul. This attitude and appearance is often effective in bringing sinners to conversion. Even though a man be uneducated, if he leads a holy life, his witness will have more influence with his friends than would an eloquent and learned philosopher. More even than by demonstration of or talk of miracles. We see how attentively an audience will listen to the words of a learned preacher, without making any change in their lives. Although his eloquence may be much praised, it will be fruitless if his life does not correspond to his words. In the same way, both in yourself, and not only so, but are likewise your fellow servants; for there is one Lord and Ruler of all, and He is the maker of all creatures, whether princes or people. How would you look upon the temple of the one Lord of all? How could you lift up in prayer hands steeped in the blood of so unjust a massacre? Depart then, and do not by a second crime add to the guilt of the first. The Emperor, who had been brought up in the knowledge of Holy Writ, and who knew well the distinction between the ecclesiastical and the temporal power, submitted to the rebuke, and with many tears and groans returned to his palace. The Emperor shut himself up in his palace and shed floods of tears. After vain attempts to appease Ambrose, Theodosius himself at last went to Ambrose privately and besought mercy, saying "I beseech you, in consideration of the mercy of our common Lord, to unloose me from these bonds, and not to shut the door which is opened by the Lord to all that truly repent." St. Ambrose then unloosed his bonds. The Emperor, who was full of faith, now took courage to enter holy church where he prayed neither in a standing, nor in a kneeling posture, but throwing himself upon the ground. He tore his hair, struck his forehead, and shed torrents of tears, as he implored forgiveness of God. - Theodoret (c.393-466 CE), Ecclesiastical History, V.17-18

119

the past and in our time, many miracles have been done, and crowds have flocked to see them; but they have had little effect in reforming lives. A holy Christian life and witness will lead to the conversion of many. Such a witness will bring the poor, the simple and the educated, to a point of conviction of sin. Indeed many have been so strongly influenced by the holiness of life exhibited by holy Christians, that they have left the world and entered the monastic life. There must, then, be some intrinsic power in those who lead holy lives, which enables them to create such marvellous effects. I say intrinsic, because this power is not exterior, since the body does not, strictly speaking, act upon the spirit. Therefore, the outward features of a holy Christian could not themselves have power to change the will and the understanding of other men. The chief virtue of a holy Christian, and the power which produces both his good life and his outer beauty, is his faith in and love of Christ crucified. And the more this faith and love increase, the more beautiful and saintly does his appearance become. Truth is stronger than falsehood. Now, as we have already said, there is no more effective way of encouraging men to lead a good life, than the example of a good Christian. The example of virtuous heathens led very few to heathen perfection, but those who have been converted by the example of Christianity are innumerable. So the root and essence of the Christian religion cannot be false or futile otherwise it would have less effect on the lives of men than philosophy does. This, as we know, is not the case. God is the primary cause of motion, without Him nothing moves. As He does all things wisely, He uses the noblest causes to produce the noblest effects. Therefore He uses the noble cause of a holy Christian life to create a most noble effect, namely another transformed Christian life. One begets the other, as man begets man, and animals beget animals. Therefore, we must acknowledge, that the example of a good life is a most noble cause and instrument used by God to lead men to true faith, revealed by love. This Faith must be true.

CHAPTER 13 THE TRUTH OF THE FAITH DEMONSTRATED BY THE WONDERFUL WORKS OF CHRIST, ESPECIALLY THOSE WHICH RELATE TO HIS POWER With God‘s help we have proved the truth of the Faith by the every day effects visible in the Church of Christ. In further establishing our proofs, we can bring forward further arguments. These are based on the works which Christ has done in the past and which were known to the whole world. As philosophers investigate the natural causes of the things that they see, we will place before our eyes the image of Triumph of the Cross, described earlier.

120

Philosophers, seeing the greatness and wonderful order and perfection of the Universe, believe God to be the most powerful, the wisest and most perfect cause of causes, and Prime Mover of all things. In a similar way, from the marvels described in the Triumph of the Cross, we want to show that Christ crucified has surpassed, in power and wisdom and goodness, all those that have been honoured and adored as gods. He has done incomparably greater and more wonderful things than anything attributed to them; so that surely ‗the Lord is the great God, the great King above all gods.‘ Psalm 95:3 196 Let us then begin by considering His power, and by placing before our eyes the image of The Triumph of the Cross. Let us approach the issue in this way - either Christ is the true God and the First Cause of all things, or He is not. If He is God, it follows that Christianity is true; and there is no need for further discussion. If He is not God, He must have been the proudest man, and the greatest liar that ever lived. He must also have been exceedingly foolish. For it would have been the height of folly for a man, unaided by wealth or worldly power, ignorant of philosophy and of rhetoric, to attempt, merely by virtue of his death, to fight against almighty God, and to usurp the honour due to God for himself. If He was not God then it would also be a stupid idea to try to convince learned and powerful men that they should acknowledge Him as God and join a new religion that should change the whole world. It would also be folly to inspire his followers with such fervent love for Him, that for his sake they should be ready to lay down their lives for Him. Could any absurdity equal such aspirations as these? If Jesus of Nazareth was not true God, then He was a most foolish and blasphemous seducer.197 How could such a man have been able to supersede the Law of Moses, to struggle successfully against men of authority and learning, against the powers of heaven and hell, even against God Himself? O Jews, why did your God not take vengeance on Him? Tell us Gentiles, why your deities have not overthrown Him? How has it happened that a poor and lowly man, put to death by crucifixion, has accomplished such mighty deeds? What God, I am not talking about men – what God can be compared with Christ? Again, consider how foolish it is to draw a comparison between Jesus Christ and Apollonius, Pythagoras, Socrates, Caesar, or any emperor; since none of them has either proclaimed himself God, or done any deed, which can be compared to the works of 196

Savonarola follows the Vulgate numbering of the Psalms and refers to Psalm 94. 3 - quoniam Deus magnus Dominus et rex magnus super omnes deos 197

C. S. Lewis famously uses this argument in his book, Mere Christianity, I'm trying here to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about him: 'I am ready to accept Jesus as a greater moral teacher, but I don't accept his claim to be God.' That is the one thing we must not say. The man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a greater moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic on a level with the man who says he is a poached egg or else he would be the devil of hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God: or else a madman or something worse. You can shut him up for a fool, you can spit at him and kill him as a demon; or you can fall at his feet and call him Lord and God. But let us not come with any patronising nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to. - Mere Christianity, Collins, London 1952 pages 51-53.

121

Christ. Mohammed, who never called himself God, attracted a barbarous people to himself by force of arms and by sensual indulgence. He spoke admiringly of Christ, but he taught his followers that Christ had only a human nature, like himself. Jesus Christ did not act in this way. His commands to men are most arduous and most difficult to obey. He asked His followers to believe in a God who is one in nature, three in person. His followers must confess that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are true God, of one substance, and that He is very God, the Son of God, one with the Father and the Holy Spirit, and true man, the Son of the Virgin Mary, (who should be honoured as the Mother of God). Furthermore, Christians are asked to confess that the cross, which used to be an instrument of punishment, is a powerful sign of our salvation. And that a little bread and wine is changed, by virtue of certain words pronounced over it, into the Body and Blood of Christ, the heavenly food of our souls, and as such has to be reverenced. We must also believe that no one can enter into the Kingdom of God unless he receives the baptism, which confers heavenly grace. And we must hold with unbreakable grip, every point taught by Scripture, however difficult it may be to human understanding. Neither is an outward confession of faith sufficient for salvation. We must also love the things of God so much as to despise lesser things, and be ready to suffer persecution, and even death itself, rather than offend God in anything. Christ does not promise us riches, or honour, or dignity in this world, but rather poverty, persecution, scourges, exile, prison, and death. In heaven He reserves unspeakable happiness, a share in the glory of the angels, the resurrection of the body, and joy which "No eye has seen, no ear has heard, no mind has conceived.‖ (1 Cor. 2:9) And although the things which our Lord asks of us are most demanding for mere humans innumerable Christians, of all times and conditions of life, have accepted His teaching, and adhered to it so closely, that they have preferred to die rather than to deny it. Let us, then, place before our eyes Christ living in poverty, the reputed son of a carpenter; and let us question Him as to His thoughts. He will reply: Though I am poor and an exile on earth, I propose to lay down laws for the whole human race. These will so change the face of the world, that, although I shall be crucified, men shall worship Me as truly God; One with the Father and the Holy Spirit. And it is my will that the cross and nails and thorny crown, and all the other instruments of my passion, shall be honoured and held in reverence as most precious treasures. Likewise, men shall believe that a little bread and wine is changed into my body and blood, and shall honour it as God‘s presence. They shall confess that the water of baptism cleanses from sin, and that oil and chrism sanctify, and that my doctrine, of which it is not lawful to change one jot or tittle, surpasses all other teaching. My Virgin Mother also shall be honoured and loved throughout the whole world, and my Apostles, who were fishermen, shall be so revered that men shall honour their very bones and ashes. If any mere man were to speak in this way, would we not dismiss him as a madman? But, if, in spite of your ridicule, He should go on to say:

122

It is my will, not only that men should believe these things, but should on their account live in holiness, and for the sake of heavenly things should spurn things of this world, and for love of Me, suffer poverty, hunger, thirst, toil, torture and death. - would you not think that He had lost His senses? And were He to add: I shall accomplish all these things against the will of the whole world, and shall overcome kings and princes, the powers of hell, and the machinations of men. -would you not think Him completely mad? But what would be your opinion of Him, if, when you asked Him with what weapons He proposed to achieve these victories, He should reply: My only arms will be the tongue, used not in rhetorical or philosophical eloquence, but in the simplicity of preaching. And I know that through this preaching many will be converted to Me, and will for my name endure suffering and death, and the blood of my faithful will become the seed of the Church. And so great will be the power of my doctrine that Peter the fisherman and his successors will become heads of the proud city of Rome, and the chiefs of the world. Emperors will humbly stoop to kiss their feet. Good and learned men shall, in every language, compose innumerable books filled with my praises, and in defence of my doctrine. And when my priests shall, with great reverence and solemnity, pronounce my word, all people shall listen to it, standing with uncovered heads. And none shall prevail against Me, but my religion shall endure for ever. Would you not have treated such words as foolish dreams? And, surely, when we consider how all these prophecies have been fulfilled, do we not see that they could not possibly have been accomplished by one mere man, nor by all men, nor by any natural or supernatural power, but only by the infinite power of God? As we observe these things, can we possibly doubt that they are the work of God and that the Faith of Christ is true? What conjurer, what philosopher, what powerful king has ever performed anything like this? Can Mohammed or the heathen gods be compared to Christ? Before Christ‘s coming nothing like these things were accomplished, or even imagined? Neither can we say that these marvels happened by chance, because they had been foretold years before their accomplishment, by the Prophets and Sybils, 198 whose books

198

Sybils - Greek: sibylla - a prophetess. In Classical Greek mythology there were ten sybils located in various Mediterranean countries.

123

are known to the whole world. This is another argument in favour of the truth of Christianity. In the course of nature some causes always produce their effect; others do so nearly always; while some others hardly ever. Again, some arguments, i.e., those called demonstrative, unfailingly compel the reason to accept a proposition; others usually incline the reason to receive it. While others sometimes appeal to the mind, and at other times do not. Demonstration199 abounds in mathematical science, though there is very little of it in natural science, and still less in moral science, which deals with transcendent and divine things. Because our understanding is so limited we are uncertain about the nature of things and we find it difficult to accept things that are not demonstrated as true. If it is difficult to persuade the mind to accept moral and divine things, how much harder must be to get it to accept goodness and contemplation, seeing how the flesh always rebels against the spirit? But it is the hardest thing to get the mind to concentrate on good works. In philosophical schools we see many systems under many founders; but few sincerely love what they learn or teach. Because, very few who know what good works really are, as a consequence of their knowledge, are attracted to live them out. The greatest philosophers, with all their learning and eloquence, have scarcely succeeded in persuading just a few men to believe some things dictated by reason. Things such as God's providence over human affairs and the duty of practising virtue and avoiding vice. If they found that difficult, how much less able were they to bring men to believe transcendent things, and above all to love good works? But the Disciples of Christ, unknown fishermen, were able, by their simple preaching, to persuade the world to accept the truths of Faith and to love these truths. They valued them so highly that they tirelessly pursued good works, and esteemed all earthly things From an early period there were those in the Church who believed that: the classical world, no less than the biblical, witnesses to the presence of God. (David Brown Tradition and Imagination: Revelation and Change, Oxford University Press. 1999. p192.) In Savonarola‘s day, it was widely accepted that God had revealed the coming of Christ, to the prophetesses of the ancient world. This was no more extraordinary for them to believe than for them to believe that God would reveal the coming of Christ to the Magi, by means of a star. So strongly was this belief embedded that Michelangelo incorporated five sybils from Greek mythology alongside the prophets of the Bible, in his painting of the Sistine Chapel. And in Florence the Cathedral bell tower (Campanile) is decorated with sculptures of the prophets and sybils, carved by Donatello. The original Sibylline Books were written by prophetic priestesses in the Etruscan and early Roman Era about the 6th Century BC. Some of these books were destroyed by fire in 83 BC and the rest burned by order of a Roman General in the 4th century AD. What were circulating in 15th Century Florence were imitations from the second to sixth century AD and were a mixture of Greek, Roman, Jewish, Christian and Gnostic stories. These included details of the Garden of Eden, Noah, the Tower of Babel, Alexander the Great, Cleopatra, Roman Emperors and Gnostic and early Christian homilies. 199 Demonstration – refers to a mathematical or philosophical argument in a deductive form, which fully proves its proposition. Often the argument would conclude with Q.E.D. an abbreviation of the "quod erat demonstrandum" (literally, "that which was to have been demonstrated").

124

as dust and ashes. They refused to deny their Faith either for promises or threats, or even for death itself. Surely, if Christianity were false, the Apostles would have had no more success in persuading men to accept it, than philosophers had in getting acceptance for ideals which appealed to natural reason. However, the words of the poor fishermen, alone, would not have been sufficient to convert the world. Their words needed to be confirmed by miracles. And who but God could have enabled them to work their miracles, which were beyond any human ingenuity? But, supposing that the Apostles worked no miracles at all, surely the wonder of wonders would be that a crucified man should be able, just by the words of twelve poor fishermen, to persuade the entire world to embrace His doctrine. Therefore, whether the spread of Christianity is due to miracles or not, we cannot deny that the power of Christ has been beyond any natural power. And, since the First Cause is that which is more powerful than other causes, so the true God must be He that is mightier than any other god. Therefore, Jesus Christ, whose Faith has been victorious over all other forms of religion, must be the true God, and His teaching must be the true religion.

CHAPTER 14 THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY SHOWN BY ARGUMENTS BASED ON THE WISDOM OF CHRIST The property of wisdom is an ability to sort priorities and relationships between things, to achieve a particular goal. So, an artist is considered a master when he can manipulate the elements of his art towards the goal that he wishes to achieve. And it is to the architect, and not to the builders, that the credit is due, for an edifice. But artists as they work towards some limited goal, are showing only limited aspects of wisdom. Only a person who labours for the ultimate goal of human life, and who directs all his energies to that end, is being fully wise. Now, as Jesus of Nazareth has pointed out the true goal of human life, and the true means of obtaining it, and has done this with more clarity and force than any other man, He alone can be called truly and preeminently wise. Again, as the ability to create children is a sign of perfect virility, so the ability to teach is a mark of perfect wisdom. And, surely there has never been a teacher whose doctrine is more sublime, or more useful, than is that of Christ. No one has ever taught with such ease and power. The systems of philosophers are obscure, and mingled with many errors. The teachers themselves are uncertain on many points - such as divine providence, the end of human life, and the things that concern salvation. But our Saviour, Jesus Christ, has enabled even women and children, to clearly understand many things incomprehensible to philosophers. He has

125

also enabled them to hold His doctrine with a grip so strong that even death cannot break it. Further, as the power of a worker is known by the extent and duration of his work, so the wisdom of a preacher is known by the number of ignorant sinners whom he converts, and how quickly they come to the point of conversion. It is not particularly impressive to attract people who are naturally well disposed to what one has to say. But only great wisdom can in a short time, instruct men, women and children of limited education, and can transform the lives of notorious sinners. Christ alone has accomplished such things on a worldwide scale. Therefore, He alone is endowed with incomparable wisdom. Again. It is not very impressive when natural things cause natural effects. For example, it does not surprise us if an inferno is caused by fire. But it would be amazing if were it produced by water. So it is only supreme and infinite power that can act on some natural object, either without tools or with some element that is diametrically opposed to the effect produced. So it is nothing very wonderful that philosophers have been able to teach by means of ordinary methods; but only Supreme Power could have taught using means that the world counts as foolishness. Now Christ, by means of the folly and the disgrace of the cross has imparted sublime wisdom to men. This true wisdom, which can only be acquired by the teaching of the cross, makes all human learning look foolish. Therefore, the wisdom of Christ must be pre-eminent. If true wisdom is the knowledge of divine things, the wisdom of Christ must exceed all other wisdom. We can see this if we compare Christian doctrine with philosophical systems. Because, no one has explained divine things so fully or so magnificently as Christ has done. Theology has cleansed philosophy, and made it complete. The knowledge of God has spread so widely that even the least educated Christians easily understand points, which are stumbling blocks to philosophers. In addition, the preaching of the Apostles has exposed the errors held in the world. Since this dawning of the light of Christ, philosophers and poets have been ashamed of their false gods and fables and have tried to disguise their superstitions under a cloak of allegory. Again. Only great wisdom can comprehend sublime and intricate matters. Christ has taught and easily defended the most subtle doctrine. Without hesitation we declare that His wisdom is incomparable. His doctrine has not only stood the test of argument, but also the test of cruel persecution, under which philoso phers would have denied their first principles. Because their philosophy proceeded from human reason, they would have had neither the strength t o stand by it nor the wisdom to uphold it. But, because the teaching of Christ is supernatural, it is invincible.

126

Christianity is either false or true. If it is true, discussion is at an end. If it is false, Christ must still be acknowledged to have been the wisest of men, seeing that He was able to persuade men to accept difficult and unpalatable doctrines, and to hold to them so firmly, that no human reason or power has been able to uproot them from the world. Nevertheless, in all that Christ has taught there is nothing repugnant to philosophy or to science. On the contrary, Christianity selects truth from all systems, even from paganism. If Christ had not been Wisdom Itself, He could never have founded so wise a religion as this. If His doctrine had b een false, it could not be defended by science. Because philosophers find it sufficiently difficult to defend even truth against their opponents. Even if Christianity were false, we should still have to recognise the extraordinary intellectual gifts of its founder, who has been able to lead His Disciples to sublime holiness of life, by means of subtle lies! But, as there is no harmony between virtue and deceit, and no agreement between truth and falsehood, we are forced to confess that Christ is truly wise. He has a wisdom surpassing that of men. His wisdom is established by the many who have honoured it, not only in their words and writing, but also by their works, and even by the shedding of their blood. Finally. The greatest power of wise teachers is particularly seen in the fact that they only require a short time, to lead their pupils to the complete knowledge. But as no one has shown such a clear proof of this power as Christ has done, it is obvious that He has a wisdom above all men. Every science is based in either the rational or physical world. By rational science, we refer to logic, rhetoric and poetry; which aim to teach us how to weave argu ments together and through reasoning, bring men to accept our ideas. Now, Christ instructed the Apostles in rational science to such good effect that by their preaching they exercised more influence in the world, than had previously been achieved by any human power or learning. True science is either practical and affects our life, or just speculation. What Christ has taught is very practical and relates to our lives so completely that Christians need no philosophy but His. Speculative science may consider divine things, but it will never reach the breadth and certainty as found in the teaching of Christ. There are areas of science that are not required to be understood for salvation such as the knowledge of numbers and figures in arithmetic and geometry. Christ‘s teaching disregards these areas, except for purposes of allegory. Thirdly, speculative science may use our experience of physical things, to lead men to speculation of things that can only be grasped by the mind. The teaching of Christ shows this use of speculative science in the way His preaching abounds in His reference to physical and visible things to picture and illustrate invisible truths.

127

So we see that Christ alone is supremely wise, since He alone has been easily able to lead men to fullest knowledge. Also note, the pleasures of the mind are far greater than those of the senses and the greatest of all intellectual enjoyments is the understanding of supreme truth. Therefore, since wisdom consists in the knowledge and understanding of this truth, the one who loves it most must be the wisest. Now, never has the understanding of truth been so greatly loved, and so tirelessly pursued as in these days. For its sake, men abandon every earthly joy, forget to eat and are oblivious to trouble and pain. In doing this they prove that Christ, their Teacher, is above all human wisdom, and beyond the wisdom of any heathen deities. Indeed, He is the very Wisdom of the Eternal God. 200

CHAPTER 15 THE TRUTH OF CHRIST'S TEACHING IS PROVED BY HIS GOODNESS We have shown that Jesus of Nazareth surpasses all men and all heathen deities, in His wisdom and power. Therefore, if we believe in the existence of any god, He alone can be that God. Our next task is to prove His divinity by arguments founded on His goodness, and to show that Jesus Christ is the Supreme Good and the fulfilment of human life. We must first agree that when men are free to do whatever they wish, they do what they think is good for them. Whether it is a long-term goal or something more immediate, the aim is usually what will bring happiness. This is a natural tendency that is true of people of different character and culture. Though they do not all place their happiness in the same thing. If we can prove that Christ is the ultimate contentment, to which this natural tendency points, it will be clear that He must be the very truth , the First Cause, the Supreme Good, and in fact the true God. In order to make this argument more clear, we must remember, that a natural tendency will be hindered in reaching its goal if it is attached to something with a contrary nature. For example, if a heavy thing is falling to the floor, its fall can be overcome if it is attached to something that can overcome the force of gravity. So, birds with their heavy bodies, are lifted by their wings, while something that is merely heavy falls swiftly to the floor. 200

1 Cor. 1:24 - Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God.

128

Man is composed of a physical and a spiritual nature. It happens that while his spiritual nature tends toward true intimacy with God, his senses disturb and trouble him in the pursuit of this goal. Although his senses cannot force him to evil, they often persuade him to desire inappropriate things. These impulses and the limitations of his understanding are the causes of different human conceptions of happiness. So if we want to learn all about intimacy with God, by looking at the natural tendency of men; we must consider those who live by reason, not those who live like beasts. Just as, if we want to see whether heavy things fall downwards or upwards, we must not choose birds as a test, but must select something simply heavy. So we are more able to discover man‘s Ultimate End by examining the natural tendency of those who live by reason and are less attached to the corrupt desires of the senses. And as no life is so pure and so reasonable as the Christian life, we can discover something of man‘s Ultimate End, from the natural tendency common to Christians. Because Christians are united in their intense love for Christ crucified and see Him as the ultimate goal of human life, it follows that Christ alone is the Ultimate End of man. Again, man's Ultimate End includes his perfection of character and the closer he reaches that perfection; the closer he gets to his goal. Now, as nothing inspires man to live a perfect life more than does Jesus Christ crucified; so those who least resemble Him are the worst of men and are furthest from Him. Therefore He must be the Ultimate End of human life. Further. The desire for the ultimate goal, that is a natural tendency for everyone, cannot be removed or suppressed. So, when men are freed from evil desires, the y regard everything else as of little value in comparison with the object of their natural tendency. They would rather die than give up their pursuit of it. Now, because the life of true Christians is a pure life, and as they desire Christ crucified with such commitment that they would rather die than lose His love, (and would gladly die for His sake), it is obvious that Christ is the Supreme Truth and the Ultimate End of human life. Our argument is further strengthened by the fact, that nothing is so steadfastly desired as He is. When men love other things, they do not love them more than themselves. Men often love things for the satisfaction they provide and they would rather abandon them than die for their sake. We also see that things of the same type tend to have the same characteristics – as all heavy things tend to fall to the ground, if dropped. Therefore, Christ must be the ultimate goal of human life, since men have pursued nothing with the same commitment as they do in following Him. This is why Christians are so closely united together; it is because they love Jesus Christ above all things. For His sake, they also love each other, of what ever race or country they may be. The more their faith in Christ increases, the stronger grows their brotherly love. This would not happen if their Faith were not true, because lies and misunderstanding create discord, not harmony.

129

Again, the soul finds its happiness deepens as it grows in love and comes close to its ultimate end. This happiness enjoyed by Christians, surpasses all other pleasures. This is proved by the unbreakable commitment of the martyrs, who went to death rejoicing and praising God. The numberless monks and hermits prove it; who have given up all things to live in great austerity yet hav e enjoyed incomparable happiness. It is proved by the numerous philosophers who have found such delight in the study of Holy Scripture, that, in order to devote themselves to it, they have abandoned every other branch of learning. Hence we see that the joy which souls find in Christ exceeds all other happiness. If greatest happiness is found in our ultimate goal, then Christ in whom all happiness is found, must be the ultimate goal of human life. In order to bring together all that we have considered about our Ultimate End we reason thus: Things of the same species have a tendency to desire the same things. It follows that men, who share a common humanity, must be made for some purpose which drives our common desire. But there is no agreement as to what is man‘s desired goal and purpose. However, since man finds happiness in things that make sense, it is natural to conclude that this purpose includes rational understanding. And those who live the most rationally are those whose beliefs are most strongly he ld - even to the point of death. These people count all earthly things as worthless compared to the delight they find in their purpose. As they pursue these desires, their lives are transformed in holiness. Now, as all these wonderful effects have never been produced in man, except by Christ crucified, He must be the ultimate goal of human life. 201 Goodness has a way of making its presence known, and Christ has made His goodness known through the unique graces and blessings He made available to all people. His coming has driven our error from the world and filled it with holiness and virtue. He has given to all His followers a quality of joy, which no earthly thing could give. 202 His supreme goodness is also seen in His readiness to forgive sinners and His generosity in enriching them with His gifts. So that ‗where sin abounded, grace did much more abound.‘ 203

201

Col. 1:27 - God has chosen to make known among the Gentiles the glorious riches of this mystery, which is Christ in you, the hope of glory. 202

Romans 14:17 - For the kingdom of God is not a matter of eating and drinking, but of righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, 203

Romans 5:20

130

Those who turn to him from their sins are enabled to lead a holy life and enjoy true peace and happiness, whereas those who forsake Him lose all tranquillity of spirit. What further proof do we require that Christ is the Supreme Good, and the Ultimate End of man?

CHAPTER 16 THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY IS PROVED BY THE POWER, WISDOM, AND GOODNESS OF CHRIST, WHEN CONSIDERED COLLECTIVELY We may sum up in a few words what has been already said about the power, the wisdom, and the goodness of Christ. Had Christ not been God, He would have been the most proud and the most foolish of men. And if (as some hold) the assertion of His divinity was not m ade by Himself but by His disciples, how can a religion of such goodness, wisdom, and power, be the outcome of such a lie? If Christ is not God, who is God? God uses effective means to preserve and govern all things. As no means are so effective for the attainment of a holy life as the faith and love of our Saviour Jesus Christ, we must either conclude that He is the true means whereby we attain intimacy with God, or we agree with the fatalists, that things happen by chance; and we must end in denying the existence of God. Again, if there is any true religion in the world; and if no religion can be supported by such arguments and undeniable proofs as can the Christian religion; where, except in Christianity, are we to find the true religion? Further. No religion has endured the constant and cruel persecution inflicted on Christianity. Other religions, or rather superstitions, have never roused the world‘s hatred as strongly as the Faith of Christ. Yet, in spite of this fact, other religions that persecuted Christianity have themselves died out, even though they were not persecuted. Conflicts have caused Christianity to flourish and grow stronger. How do we account for this fact, if Christianity is untrue? We must also remember that those who have persecuted Christians have been, not good and upright men, but men of infamous life. Is not this a further proof of the truth of our religion? Again. No religion has made converts under the same conditions as those in which men have accepted the Faith of Christ. Because those who have become Christians have done so, not in hope of gaining riches, or honour, or pleasure, but with the expectation of having to bear poverty and shame, torture and death. If these men had not been enlightened by true light, could they have acted in this way?

131

Surely this collection of arguments ought to convince all men of the truth of Christianity. For, although the intellect may not be persuaded by one proof, nor by two, nor by three, a series of proofs carries as much weight as does a chain of mathematical demonstrations, or the sight of a dead man raised to life. If, then, Christianity is true, all other religions must be false, because no one can be saved except by faith in Christ. This condition for salvation is a most reasonable one; for our ultimate intimacy with God is to consist in the vision and knowledge of God, which no one can attain, except by the supernatural gift of Faith. St. Paul says that without faith, "it is impossible to please God" (Hebrews 11:6) Those who live in distant lands where Christianity is unknown have no ground for excuse or complaint. Because all men are endowed with reason, which leads to the knowledge of God, and God has also revealed himself in the natural order of creation. 204 If any one does use their reason and recognise that there must be a creator, and turns to God for understanding, then Almighty God, the Supreme Good, will not fail to reveal himself and His salvation. He will enlighten him, either by inward inspiration, as He enlightened Job; or by the ministry of angels, as He instructed Cornelius the Centurion 205; or by preaching, as He taught the Eunuch of Candace 206 through the ministry of Philip the Apostle.

BOOK 3 METHOD OBSERVED THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK We have already proved the truth of Christianity, by means of arguments based on the past and present works of Christ. But it is our duty, not merely to demonstrate the solid foundations of our Faith, but, also, to defend it against the 204

Romans 1:18-20 - The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness, [19] since what may be known about God is plain to them, because God has made it plain to them. [20] For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse. 205

Acts 10:3-4 - One day at about three in the afternoon he had a vision. He distinctly saw an angel of God, who came to him and said, "Cornelius!" Cornelius stared at him in fear. "What is it, Lord?" he asked. 206

Acts 8:27-31 - (Philip) started out, and on his way he met an Ethiopian eunuch, an important official in charge of all the treasury of Candace, queen of the Ethiopians. This man had gone to Jerusalem to worship, and on his way home was sitting in his chariot reading the book of Isaiah the prophet. The Spirit told Philip, "Go to that chariot and stay near it." Then Philip ran up to the chariot and heard the man reading Isaiah the prophet. "Do you understand what you are reading?" Philip asked. "How can I," he said, "unless someone explains it to me?" So he invited Philip to come up and sit with him.

132

objections raised against it. We must show that while it teaches many things beyond full human understanding, not one point of its doctrine is either unreasonable or unbelievable. First we will discuss the articles of our belief. Next, we will examine the reasons for the different moral commandments imposed upon us. Thirdly, we will demonstrate the justice of the laws, which Christianity has adopted. And lastly, we will explain the hidden meaning of the ceremonies used in our religious rites. It is true that many learned writers have covered these points, fully and eloquently, but we could not omit them in our work, without leaving it incomplete. And, while other authors have handled these matters with great delicacy and subtlety, it is our intention to present them so simply and briefly, that they will be easily understood by the educated, the ignorant and the unbelieving.

CHAPTER I GOD IN HIMSELF IS BEYOND FULL HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, AND CAN PERFORM AN INFINITE NUMBER OF THINGS THAT ARE BEYOND HUMAN UNDERSTANDING If we think, for a moment, of the natural limitations of our intellect, we shall easily recognise that in God there must be many things that exceed our mental capacity. We believe that some great philosophers have reached the peak of human wisdom, yet even they acknowledge themselves to be baffled by some completely natural phenomena. If men of the very highest intelligence have only a very imperfect knowledge of the everyday things of nature, then how can we expect to understand heavenly mysteries and divine truths, which are of a higher order? Again, although men share a common humanity, they differ so much in mental capacity that some can make every effort to understand something, and fail, while others find the matter comparatively simple. Why then should we wonder, if the minds of angels are different from those of humans, that angels know many things which men cannot comprehend? And as God is infinitely superior to angels then His powers must be infinitely beyond reason. And although we can, as a rule, know a cause by its effects, yet when a cause greatly exceeds its effects, the effects only partially reveal their cause. So, God who is infinitely superior to His creatures, can only be partially known by them. In addition, it is not difficult to prove that God can do infinite things that th e human intellect cannot comprehend. Because all our knowledge begins with the senses and our intellect can only grasp things that are made clear to it by means of the senses. No matter how hard we try, we can never know anything which lies beyond the natural world, or which is beyond our imagination.

133

Now, God, being pure act and infinite power, is not tied down to any dimension whatsoever. He infinitely exceeds all created things, both spiritual and physical. So, we are forced to acknowledge, that He can do infinite things, which we can never understand. In fact, He not only can, He has done many spiritual and angelic things, beyond our comprehension. We can give three reasons as to why God should have done many supernatural things, beyond the capacity of human understanding, and should have revealed them to the world, First. He has done so with a view to the salvation of mankind. For, as man is made for God, and for a supernatural goal, he could not reach that goal unless God revealed it to him, and gave him the power to attain it. Secondly. God has acted in this way to humble man, and to teach him to know his own nothingness when compared to the greatness of the Divine Majesty. As we realise that we cannot fully understand even the things that are re vealed to us, we shall become more humble and more reverent towards holy things. Thirdly. Through the many revelations of His mysteries, which God has given to the world, man has acquired a great appetite for eternal truths, and has learned to love God‘s goodness and self-disclosure. Therefore, the fact that we cannot fully understand the truths of Christianity is no reason for rejecting these truths. Instead, it is a reason for making a serious study of the religion that teaches them, and so prove for ou rselves that it contains nothing unreasonable or unbelievable. But to make this more explicit, we will (in the succeeding chapters) present specific examples.

CHAPTER 2 AN EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN DOCTRINES OF THE CHRISTIAN CREED, WHICH EXCEED THE LIMITS OF HUMAN UNDERSTANDING The unique doctrines of the Christian creed divide into those that relate to the divinity of Christ and those that concern His humanity. Regarding His divinity, we believe that there is only one God, not many gods. This fundamental doctrine of Christianity, is not merely believed, but also known by enlightened and learned men. Secondly, we believe that God is Trinity, by which we mean that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, are one God and three persons. These two doctrines relate to Christ‘s divine nature. The next doctrines refer to God‘s divine works. Beginning with consideration of the natural world, we profess that God has created all things, out of nothing.

134

Next, moving to God‘s supernatural works, we declare that God alone can make the creature holy. He does this by means of supernatural gifts, in order to draw the creature to Himself. We next consider the glory God shares with his works. We teach that after death, those who have been sanctified by God, will be glorified in fellowship and intimacy with Him. And that the bodies of the just will rise again, to glory, but the wicked to damnation. Concerning the humanity of Christ, we believe that Christ is true God and true man. He is the Son of God, and Son of the Virgin Mary. He was conceived and carried within her, through the power of the Holy Spirit. For our salvation He was crucified, died, and was buried. We believe that He went down to that part of hell called Limbo 207, in order to deliver the souls of the Patriarchs. We believe that He rose again from death to glory, and ascended into heaven, where He sits at the right hand of the Father; and that He will come again to judge the living and the dead, and to renew the whole face of the earth. Our whole Faith is contained in these twelve doctrines. We also believe all that is embraced in the Holy Scriptures, and all that the holy Roman Church has defined, or shall go on to define. We shall, therefore, proceed to discuss these twelve truths of the Creed, and to show that they contain nothing either unreasonable, or incredible. We have not made special mention of the Blessed Sacrament of Communion nor of the other sacraments, but we shall say more of them when we are explaining the ceremonies of the Church. We have already shown that there is one God, in the first chapter of the first book. Therefore, we shall not say more about it now especially when the greatest philosophers, indeed nearly all men, agree with us in asserting this truth.

CHAPTER 3 THE MYSTERY OF THE TRINITY IS NEITHER UNREASONABLE NOR INCREDIBLE

207

Limbo - In Savonarola‘s time the Church taught that limbo was the resting place of unbaptized but innocent or righteous souls, as those of infants or virtuous individuals who lived before the coming of Christ. The word comes from the Latin limbus - meaning a border, because it was thought to be located on the border of hell. The creeds refer to Christ descending to hell and it is based on the teaching in - 1 Peter 3:18-20 For Christ died for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit, through whom also he went and preached to the spirits in prison, who disobeyed long ago when God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built.

135

We will pass over the first truth of the Christian Faith, that there is one God. So we proceed to the second truth, which is pre-eminently complex, that, God is Unity in Trinity. By this we mean that the three persons, - Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, are not three Gods or three natures, but one God and one nature. In believing that there is one Holy God, we are not teaching anything contrary to philosophy. Although we believe that the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are one God, we do not teach, as Sabellius 208 taught, that one person is called at one time Father, at one time Son, and at another time Holy Spirit. Nor, do we hold, as was held by Arius 209, that the three persons are substantially different, and that the Son is inferior and dependant on the Father, and the Holy Spirit inferior and dependant on both the Father and the Son. We profess, against Sabellius, that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are three distinct persons. We teach, against Arius, that they are of one and the same nature, and equal in power and glory. So that all that belongs to the Father, belongs likewise to the Son and to the Holy Spirit. All that belongs to the Son, belongs equally to the Father and the Holy Spirit, and all that belongs to the Holy Spirit, belongs to the Father and the Son. So the distinction that exists between the divine persons is a relative distinction and not a distinction in nature. By which we mean that the Father possesses all that He has, of Himself, and from none other; that the Son, who has all that the Father has, derives it from the Father; and that the Holy Spirit, who has all that have the Father and the Son, receives it from Father and Son. This does not mean that the Son and the Holy Spirit are inferior to the Father, because they are one with Him in Nature and in dignity. Neither did the Father exist before the Son, nor the Son before the Holy Spirit, because God is unchanging 210 and eternal. The Father could not be God before He was the Father, and was always God and Father. As He could not be Father without a Son, the Son is necessarily co-eternal with Him; and as the Holy Spirit is love, and the Father and the Son have loved each other from all eternity, they can never hav e existed without breathing forth the Holy Spirit. Neither is there any difference of quality in the divine substance, because we believe that each of the persons is one and the same with the divine nature. Human reason cannot understand how there can be three Persons in God, who is pure act and simple substance, yet so completely distinct that one is not the 208

Sabellius – a priest in Rome about 260 AD who taught Modalism. This is the belief that there is one God and he adopts three different forms. This implies that Christ and the Holy Spirit are not distinct persons. 209

Arius – was a third century bishop of Alexandria. He and his followers, the Arians, believed if the Son were equal to the Father, there would be more than one God, therefore Jesus was less than God and a distinct person. The Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople and the Nicene Creed they produced, were specifically to counter the teaching of Arius. 210 immutable

136

other. So that the Father is not the Son, nor the Son the Father, nor the Holy Spirit the Father and the Son, nor the Father and the Son the Holy Spirit. Yet at the same time the Father is the same One Nature as the Son, and the Son as the Father, and the Holy Spirit as the Father and the Son. In God, there is distinction of Persons, but not distinction of nature. In nature when one creature gives life to another it is called generation. The one giving life is termed father and the one receiving life is called, son. So it is with God, one living person proceeds from another living person. We call this procession ‗generation‘. He from whom the oth er person proceeds is called THE FATHER, and the person who proceeds we name THE SON. This generation, unlike that of men and animals, is wholly spiritual and divine. And therefore we say that the Son is THE WORD, THE IMAGE, and THE BEGOTTEN WISDOM OF THE FATHER. But the procession of the Holy Spirit, who is love, is from the Father and the Son, because love is the union between the lover and the beloved, and so the Holy Spirit proceeds immediately from two perfect persons, the Father and the Son. But because, in nature, nothing can be found which proceeds immediately from two equally perfect beings, no special name has been found for the procession of the Holy Spirit. Therefore the general term ‗procession‘ has been retained. It is correct, however, to call this procession the ‗spiration‘ 211 of the Father and the Son, because the Holy Spirit proceeds by love, which implies a certain impetus, or breathing forth, towards the thing beloved. It is for this reason that the person proceeding from the Father and the Son is uniquely called, THE HOLY SPIRIT, although both the Father and the Son are equally Spirits and equally Holy. And because within the intellectual nature of God, there are two processions - one by means of understanding, the other by means of the will – the creed reasons that in God there are two processions and three Persons. Anyone who desires to learn more about the mystery of the Holy Trinity will find inexhaustible treasures of knowledge in the writings of the Fathers. We have stated only the basic substance of the Creed, and have been content to show that in the mystery of the Blessed Trinity there is nothing incredible or unreasonable. Faith teaches nothing contrary to reason, but merely declares, that we cannot, by natural reason alone, arrive at the knowledge of divine things. By means of natural revelation in creation, human reason can know God as the cause and principle. God who is the principle and cause of things, has made revelation of His power, wisdom, and goodness. As the three divine persons are united in these attributes, it follows that natural revelation is not sufficient for reason to apprehend the distinction between the persons of the Blessed Trinity. We do not say that we should not believe this mystery because we cannot understand it. It would be most foolish to gauge truth by

211

spiration - The act of breathing.

137

our intellectual capacity; since in God there are infinite mysteries that the mind of man finds unfathomable. If we further consider the arguments set forth in our second book, we can have no doubt as to the mystery of the Trinity. Our faith in it is confirmed by certain distinct arguments. One reason is that though this mystery is above our reason, it is not contrary to it, but corresponds to similar features in nature. First, the procession or generation of creatures provides a metaphor for contemplating the divine procession. In creatures we see processions of many kinds. Those of a more complex nature are also more complex in an intrinsic sense. For example, there is in inanimate things a certain sort of generation. One fire generates another. The actual substance and quality of the generating fire passing into the one generated. This procession, however, is not perfect nor intrinsic, because it does not remain in the thing that generates, but passes into an object outside of itself. Plants have life and so their procession is more perfect and more intrinsic. This is because that which is generated from a plant belongs to the life of the plant producing it, and is united to it. However, as the thing produced is finally separated from the life of the producer, this procession is neither perfect nor intrinsic. As animals are a more complex life form than plants, we find in them a more complex and intrinsic procession, with a spiritual aspect as well as physical. This procession includes an action of the senses, which remains within the senses themselves. Nevertheless, this action, being caused by an extrinsic object, its procession is not wholly intrinsic. But the procession of the intellect is far more perfect and more intrinsic, because the intellect of itself, without external aid, understands and acts within itself. The way the intellect selects a word as a name and description of some known object, so that the object and its name belong together as if linked by love, is an image of the Trinity. The image has three parts - understanding, word, and love. But, since all our knowledge has its origin in our senses, the creations of our intellect are not wholly, but only partly, extrinsic. We shall find, if we consider the angelic intellect, its procession of word and of love is more intrinsic and more perfect than is the case in the human intellect. This is because angelic understanding is not dependent on the senses, but is wholly intrinsic. Nevertheless, as the whole of the angelic nature depends on God, we cannot say that the procession of word and understanding in the angelic intellect is as intrinsic as if it depended on nothing extrinsic, therefore, it contains some imperfection. We know that creatures have dignity in proportion to their self-sufficiency and intrinsic nature. We also know that every effect endeavours to imitate its cause. Therefore our Faith is not unreasonable in teaching that the nobility of God infinitely surpasses the dignity of all creatures. There is in Him complete self-sufficiency and intrinsic processions, arising from no extrinsic cause, and having no existence apart from His substance. And that all creatures endeavour, as far as they can, to imitate these processions, though they can never equal them in perfection. This is because the divine

138

persons depend on nothing, but are God, the cause of all things. We see, therefore, that the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity contains nothing either impossible, or unreasonable. There exists in the spiritual part of man's nature a certain likeness to the Trinity, namely - understanding, word, and love. This likeness becomes more apparent when man is engaged in actual contemplation of God. When so engaged, his understanding is aware of the divine presence - representing the Father; his mind forms a concept of God and the words he wishes to communicate - representing Son; and experience of divine love which springs from his understanding and his concept of God represents the Holy Spirit. Of course, this human trinity is very remote from the Trinity of God, and differs from it exceedingly. Our intellectual word; and our love, are changeable, and are not the ground of our being; whereas the Divine Word and the Divine Love are eternal and consubstantial with the Father. But in spite of this essential difference, the likeness is a vivid image of the Blessed Trinity and proves that this doctrine is completely in accord with reason. This likeness to the Blessed Trinity exists, not only in the superior, but also in the inferior ranks of creation. We see this in the way the completeness of every creature consists in three things - beginning, middle, and end. The beginning is attributed to the Father, the middle to the Son, and the end to the Holy Spirit. We see another similarity with the Trinity in the way creatures display - substance, power, and operation. We might point out many other illustrations of the Trinity among creatures, and of their tendency to reproduce the number three, as if it were the sum of their perfection. Aristotle, the Prince of Peripatetics212, following not faith but reason, says in his Heaven and Earth: "All things appear to be made up of threes". And Pythagoras also concludes, that "all things are determined and perfected in this number three, which represents beginning, middle, and end," and that "this number has been transferred from creatures to the gods". And "if we speak of two things we do not mean the sum total of things; but when we say three things we mean all things; for without the third thing, the quantity would be incomplete, and therefore imperfect, since perfection means completeness". Pythagoras further adds, "bodies being composed of three things—to wit length, breadth, and height—are perfect quantities". These examples, and the arguments already brought forward, show that our belief in the Blessed Trinity is not against reason, but most credible. By our human standards and observations, the Trinity is even a real probability. Although it is beyond human explanation it is not opposed to natural philosophy. And the fact that it can be analysed using the logic of philosophy, gives a sure evidence of its truth.

212

Peripatetics - from the Greek meaning to walk about. Aristotle founded his Peripatetic School of Philosophy in 335 BC and some writers suggest that it was called this because Aristotle walked about as he discoursed with his students.

139

CHAPTER 4 THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF CREATION IS NEITHER INCREDIBLE NOR UNREASONABLE We have considered the supernatural in its relation to God. We will now look at the supernatural as it regards creation. First, as every one acknowledges that God is the efficient cause, on whom both heaven and earth depend; it is truthful and rational to say that God has created all things in time. He is that certain principle who has made all things, both visible and invisible, out of nothing. For what is an efficient cause, unless it is a cause that gives expression to its effects? And is not the most perfect cause, that which acts upon the most numerous and the most remote things? God, therefore, being pure and perfect, exercises His power over the existence of all things. Consequently, all things depend on Him. It is true that, in earthly things, incompleteness precedes completeness. Nevertheless, strictly speaking, perfect completeness always precedes incompleteness, because every imperfect thing depends upon the perfect. God, therefore, being the most pure and perfect act, precedes all things, and all things are made by Him. We believe that it is most reasonable to accept that all things were made out of nothing, without any pre-existing matter. For, although all things in nature and in art require material on which to operate, God, being the universal cause of all effects, gives being to all things. As existence or being is a universal effect, it can be produced only by the universal cause, who is God. Nothing can exist that has not been produced by Him;213 and even those things which are made out of matter, owe their being to Him who gave being to that matter. For all matter is either made out of something, or out of nothing. If it is made out of nothing, our proposition is proved. If it is made out of something, that something must likewise have been made out of something else. So we must eventually accept either the hypothesis of creation out of nothing, or that matter is eternal. This latter option is so unreasonable that we are driven to accept the first option. Namely, that all things were originally created out of nothing; and, that from created matter other creatures have been produced. Remembering that God acts, not from necessity but by free will, it is not necessary to say, that the world was created from eternity; but that it was made at the time chosen by the Divine Wisdom. The reason for creation taking place at some point in time is hidden in the impenetrable counsels of the Most High. We can however, to some extent, see its congruity with the divine nature and its value to man. God has done all things for the good of His elect. Now this good consists, above

213

John 1:3 - Through him all things were made; without him nothing was made that has been made.

140

all, in the knowledge of God; and man can know God more completely through His having created the world in time, than if He had created it from all eternity. The fact that the world was created in time shows that God is infinitely perfect and infinitely content in Himself, and that He has no need of creatures; otherwise He would not have deferred their creation. Hence, the Christian Faith teaches nothing incredible or irrational about creation. We will now leave this subject. The doctors of the Church have amply dealt with it. They have pulverised the frivolous arguments of Aristotle and other philosophers, who have sought to prove the eternal existence of this world.

CHAPTER 5 THE CHRISTIAN TEACHING CONCERNING THE SANCTIFICATION, GLORY, AND RESURRECTION OF RATIONAL CREATURES CONTAINS NO BELIEF WHICH IS EITHER IMPOSSIBLE, OR UNREASONABLE We have already spoken of the sanctification of man by grace. We have pointed out that man is destined for a supernatural future, which can only be attained by divine grace. God, who always cares for His creatures, supplies this grace to man. We have also given sufficient attention to the glory of the soul, when we proved that the destiny of human life is the vision of God and the light of His glory. We have now shown that the teaching of the Faith concerning the sanctification and glorification of men is both reasonable and credible. We can also confirm the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead. For, although resurrection is not something that naturally takes place, since nature can only create life by the generation of parents, the unlimited and infinite power of God can achieve innumerable other things in infinite ways. Therefore, to God the resurrection of the body is quite easy. Why should He who has made all things out of nothing, be unable to raise the dead, and to make one thing out of another thing? Death does not mean annihilation. The soul remains immortal; and the matter of which the body is formed is changed into other matter. Even were it dissolved into nothing, God could call that nothingness back to life, as easily as He could create the world out of nothing. So we shall see on reflection, that belief in the resurrection of the body is neither absurd nor impossible, but on the contrary reasonable, expedient, and necessary. Because the soul is the form 214 of the body and is immortal, its separation from the body is unnatural. But any unnatural condition is incompatible with God‘s purpose, so it cannot be permanent; and therefore the soul must of necessity return to the body. 214

Form – eternal identity and personhood

141

Again. Without the body, the existence of the soul is incomplete. All things desire to be complete. Therefore, without the resurrection of the body, the soul could never be fully content, because its desire for completeness (in the union of soul with body) would remain eternally unsatisfied. Further. Blessing is promised to those that live righteously and in this life, it is not the soul which lives but the total person. Life, intelligence, and all other activities are not attributes of the soul alone, but of the whole person. It is man in totality who acts, and the soul is the essence of the person that determines the action. Therefore blessing is due not only to the soul, but to the whole man who lives aright. Yet, without the resurrection of the body, the soul alone would receive the reward. Furthermore, since divine providence rewards the good and punishes the guilty; and since the body, as well as the soul, does good and evil, the body equally deserves punishment or reward. But if the body does not rise again, how will justice be satisfied? These arguments prove the reasonableness of our faith in the resurrection of the body. And they also demonstrate that the body must rise to immortal life, otherwise it would die again and would need a further resurrection, and this would continue ad infinitum. We also believe that the body will rise to glory. Matter must reflect its essential identity. So, if the soul, which is the essential identity of the body, is glorified, the body must share something of that glory. It would not be right that a glorified soul should be joined to a body that was not glorified, nor subject in obedience to the soul. Therefore, the Faith most logically teaches that, by the power of God, the glory of the soul overflows to the body. As the body is completely obedient to the soul, it receives vitality from the soul and absolute completeness is achieved. And, since all creation was made for man, who has responsibility for it, the Faith teaches that when man is glorified the whole world will also be glorified. All things will reach their planned destiny. After the resurrection, the body will no longer require sustenance. The motions of the heavenly bodies will cease. The animals, plants, and all compound substances will be dissolved into their elements, purged by fire, and clothed in new and glorious brightness; and we shall be for ever happy with the Lord.

CHAPTER 6 THE DOCTRINE OF THE DAMNATION OF THE WICKED IS CONSISTENT WITH CHRISTIANITY As the just deserve the glory of heaven, the wicked who have turned away from God, deserve the lowest place on earth, where they and their sins may be punished.

142

There is no injustice in punishment being eternal for guilt that is only temporal. Even human law (as in penal execution or lifelong exile), avenges certain crimes by punishment which has no time limit. The wicked are justly deprived of glory for all eternity, and punished for ever in hell, not for committing sins so much as for the wickedness of their will. It is their will, which remained obstinately disposed to sin right to the point of death. Surely, it is most reasonable to believe that those who have preferred temporal pleasure to eternal glory, and if it had been possible, would have continued to make this their choice, should be punished with eternal suffering. They chose to turn from God in this life and after death they will not be in a position to change their mind, nor do anything to merit eternal life. We have already noted that it is not the soul alone, but the whole man who acts. So if it is reasonable that as the just should be glorified in soul and body, the wicked equally deserve twofold punishment. There are other torments in hell besides fire. But because fire is the most active element, it is always spoken of as the chief punishment. This fire does not consume the bodies of the damned, because God‘s power preserves these souls and bodies from destruction. It was by hatred that these souls have turned away from their Creator; their bodies are not under their control; therefore they are capable of suffering excruciating torments in the fire of hell, without being consumed by it.

CHAPTER 7 THE DOCTRINE OF THE INCARNATION OF THE SON OF GOD IS IN NO SENSE, INCREDIBLE, IMPROPER, OR UNREASONABLE. The Christian religion tenaciously believes that Christ is man and that His person lives in two natures. These are His divine nature and His human nature. The union between these natures is so perfect that the person who is God is also man. No parallel to this union can be found in nature, for the simple reason that no perfect created substance can be united to another substance in such a manner as to become one 'with it‘. Even the union between soul and body cannot be compared to the union between the Word and the human nature. The soul is the form 215 of the body; but form is imperfect; and as God is perfection, the Word cannot be the form of the human nature. In addition, the divine nature and the human are in Christ two perfect substances; and therefore the union between them surpasses understanding. We must not, however, say that this union is impossible. God can do many things beyond the capacity of our intelligence.

215

Form – eternal identity and personhood

143

In the union between the divine and human nature, His Divine Majesty suffers no change; but by His infinite power, human nature is raised to a wonderful union with His person. Neither can we call this union improper or unreasonable, because so many blessings have come to the world, from it. The benefits are so numerous that we could not list them all, but we must content ourselves with recalling just some of them. First. The Incarnation has been a most powerful means of enabling man to attain happiness. Man‘s true intimacy with God consists in the vision of the Divine Essence. But when we consider the limitations of human intelligence, and the sublime nature of God, we might have rightly despaired of ever gaining this supreme happiness. But, God, by uniting in His own person the divine with the human nature, (a far greater union than that intimacy between God and the glorified believer) has chosen to offer to man hopes of attaining the glory for which he was created. And since the Incarnation, man has sought for happiness with greater enthusiasm than he did before this mystery was accomplished. Again, by the Incarnation, in which God has united Himself to man (directly, without any intermediary), He has made clear to man that God alone is his destiny. This has taught man to appreciate the excellence of his own nature. The impact on the human race of this wonderful union between God and man, has been to bring true enlightenment. In their quest of true religion and pure happiness, men have abandoned their worship of idols and have given up earthly wealth, status and pleasure. We must also remember that the happiness, for which we were created, far exceeds the capacity of our understanding. So it would have been impossible for us to have had any sure knowledge or hope of it. Even the investigations instituted by the most learned philosophers would have been in vain. Therefore it was most apt that God, in His special care for man, should take flesh, in order to assure man of his future blessing and to confirm his hope of it. Hence, by the Incarnation, mankind has a far more complete and clear knowledge of intimacy with God and of divine things. We know that before the Incarnation, man was preoccupied with the things of this present life. By His Incarnation, God took the most effective step to lift man‘s focus from the earth to the love of eternal things. For, who, seeing this great love of God towards man, would not be moved to love Him in return? 216 And, in reality, since God's love for man has been demonstrated on earth, men have been so fired with desire for divine things, that they have entered into friendship with God and fellowship with His people. And they have regarded earthly ties as of little importance. Again. Certain means are necessary to enable man to gain true happiness. These means are virtue and spiritual wholeness. By the Incarnation these graces have been abundantly poured out upon mankind. The proof of this lies in the fact that, since the coming of Christ, the world has been rich in examples of virtue and holiness. Only the blind could fail to see that the teaching of Christ is the one sure road to blessing. 216

1 John 4:19 - We love because he first loved us.

144

Thus, we see, that the Catholic Faith teaches, in the doctrine of the Incarnation, nothing either incredible or unreasonable.

CHAPTER 8 THE BELIEF IN THE VIRGIN BIRTH OF CHRIST IS CONSISTENT WITH REASON, AND HIS LIFE IS TOTALLY COMPATIBLE WITH HIS STATUS So far we have undertaken to prove the credibility and congruity of our belief in the more difficult truths of the Christian creed. We will now proceed to discuss those that are less complex. First then, if God was able to become man, He could also be born of a virgin. Because conception implies the creation of a person, not of a nature; and birth means the entrance into the world, not of human nature, but of an individual man or woman, existing in that nature. Now, as the person of the Son of God existed in human nature, it was possible for God to be born of a woman, from whom He took that nature. Certainly, God might have formed the body of Christ from the earth, or from some other material. He might have done so; but He did not. He did not because it was more fitting that he should have been born of a woman. In this way we would be moved to humble appreciation at the sight of the Father of all things condescending to have an earthly mother, family and country, and to experience the limitations of human life, out of love for us. It was also most appropriate that He who in heaven had no mother, and whose Father was the God of all purity, should choose for His earthly mother a pure virgin, and that He should have no earthly father. Further, it was highly appropriate that Christ should not have lived a solitary life, but should have mingled with men. He came to earth to preach and to encourage mankind to seek for eternal life. So it was necessary that He should lead an ordinary life and not an austere one, like St. John the Baptist. He should follow, in His eating, drinking, and style of life, the customs of His country, so that men might learn from His words and example. In choosing the common life, He did not in any sense contravene the principles of the spiritual life. For, holiness does not necessarily consist in austerity, but in sincerity and ardent love. Such holiness, by fixing our mind on eternal things, ensures us against elation in prosperity, and depression in adversity. It was also most fitting that Christ should, by His poverty, set an example to preachers, showing them that they ought to be free from anxiety about earthly gain, and from the slightest trace of greed. Even though Christ in His Divine Majesty had sufficient power to transform the world, yet he came in poverty and humility – not relying on any worldly power or learning.

145

His miracles are also something we should reasonably expect to occur, because it was by them that He revealed His divinity. Finally, if we reverently and humbly study all His words and works, we shall find in them the most splendid progression, and most perfect revelation.

CHAPTER 9 THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF ORIGINAL SIN IS NEITHER UNREASONABLE NOR UNBELIEVABLE In order to better understand what has been said, and what still remains to be said, we must consider the subject of the original sin, which has defiled the whole human race. We have already shown that God, in His own good time, created the world, placing man as the head over all things. Man was endowed with an intellectual, immortal and noble soul; and this soul was fitted with an immortal body. The body was obedient in every way to the directions of the soul, which as its form 217, governs the body. As intellectual knowledge depends upon the senses, and the senses cannot exist independently of a physical body, then the only body suitable for the soul is the human body. Nevertheless, we have good reason to believe that God‘s providence, which never fails to act on behalf of His creatures, mercifully kept man free from corruption at the time of his creation. There is a tendency for humanity to prefer to learn through the experiences of the senses, rather than through reason. But God so matched the physical body to its form, the soul, that the inferior tendencies were subject to reason. Hence, we say that man was, at his creation, endowed with original righteousness, with no sense of guilt or fear, and with the body and its five senses subject to the soul. We further hold that if Adam had not deliberately disobeyed God, this original righteousness would have been passed to all his descendents. But it is most reasonable, that, if man wilfully chose to turn away from God, he should be deprived of original righteousness, and of the natural subjection of his senses to reason, and of the immortality of his body. This was the just punishment for his sin. This loss of original righteousness, which Adam incurred, and which was transmitted by him to the whole human race, is what we mean by original sin. We see in man such evident proofs of the truth of this doctrine, that it really does make sense. The providence of God rewards good deeds, and punishes evil ones. When we see 217

Form – eternal identity and personhood

146

a penalty inflicted, we know that some fault has preceded it. We see this when we observe the human body subject to many sufferings - to cold and heat, to hunger and thirst, to sickness and to death. We also see that man‘s mind is blinkered and he lacks self-control, so that he is harassed by the desires of the flesh. Because of these weaknesses, man falls into many sins each day. These sufferings are the evidence of some previous fault. Although man‘s deficiencies may seem natural to his state, God could have supplied them all, if man had not chosen to place an obstacle in the way. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to say, that the defects in human nature, are the outcome of the sin of our first parent, the representative of our whole race. The sin of Adam was at the same time both personal and common to all nature. It was personal, as far as it deprived Adam of original righteousness. It was common, as far as the deprivation extended to all his posterity. From the point of view of the human race, we have had no opportunity to choose to sin or not to sin. But our choosing is not the issue with regard to our sin and guilt. Our loss of original righteousness is the direct consequence of the wickedness of Adam and his sin. And, as he is our head and we are his members, he has implicated us in his guilt. The actual taking of a thing unjustly, with the hand, is theft, and is called sin. Yet the sin is not in the hand, but in the wickedness of him that caused the hand to steal. In similar way, our loss of original righteousness would not be counted sin, nor should we be born in sin, had we not been implicated in the sin of our first parent. His wickedness has affected all the members of his body, and therefore we, who are his members, are all born in original sin. If Adam had never been endowed with original righteousness, and consequently had never lost it, we, had we been born with our present faulty nature, would not have been born in sin. Ours would have been a purely natural state. Because, where there is no deliberate choosing of wickedness, there cannot be sin. It is, therefore, the wickedness of our first parent, which causes the loss of original righteousness. This loss was transmitted by him to the human race and is called original sin. There is nothing unjust in the fact that all men have to suffer the penalty due to one. Man had no natural claim on original righteousness, in the sense in which a man has a right to the use of his limbs. Righteousness was a free gift of God; and the giver has power to choose the time and manner of his gift. If God gave to Adam original righteousness, with the understanding that if he did not sin, both he and all his posterity should keep this gift; but that if he did sin, both he and his descendents should be deprived of their privilege, what ground have we for complaint? Human nature in its entirety was included in Adam. Since, then, original righteousness was something that no human could claim as a right, we could not complain if such a gift had never been given to Adam. How therefore can we complain that, in consequence of Adam's violation of the conditions imposed upon him by God, our nature has been deprived of this gift?

147

Original sin does not, as is often thought, simply mean a wound inflicted on human nature, which has injured it by depriving it of some righteous attribute. Rather it means the loss of that state of original righteousness, to which human nature had no claim. It is as unreasonable to murmur at being born in our purely earthly state, as it would be to complain that we were not sanctified in the womb, or were not created in the splendour of heaven. Man cannot reach intimacy with God without the gift of supernatural grace. Therefore, he who dies in original sin is deprived of eternal life. But this is not the cause of any sorrow or suffering for one who has never known of the possibility of intimacy with God. 218 He is unable to experience ultimate intimacy with God, but he does not suffer from this loss; because God conditions his will, conforming it to His own, and removing any desire for that which is impossible for it to experience. A man who has no claim to an imperial crown, does not grieve because he is not an emperor. Neither does such a soul suffer any sense of pain. On the contrary, it is endowed with all the wholeness proper to human nature - such as the knowledge of natural things, and even the contemplation of divine things, through general revelation. It enjoys all the happiness which human nature can enjoy. Furthermore, God confers upon these souls certain supernatural gifts - such as immortality, and physical health so that they are not affected by human weakness or pain. And, although we believe these souls are in Limbo, we do not know what this implies. My private opinion is, (subject to any future pronouncement of the Holy Roman Church), that after the resurrection, they will dwell on the purified and glorified earth. My reason for thinking this, is, that if the place prepared for them is appropriate for souls that are immortal, with healthy bodies, able to enjoy all the happiness natural to man, then they ought not to be deprived of the light of the sun. Nor of other natural advantages and delights, in which they could have no share were they detained in a subterranean Limbo. 219

We may go further, and say, that such a deprivation would not only be a loss of quality of happiness, but also leave a sense of bereavement. Original sin, although it involves as its consequence, the loss of ultimate intimacy with God, does not imply any enduring sense of pain. So that God, in His dealings with souls that die in original sin, demonstrates His justice and His wisdom. We see also that the Christian teaching concerning original sin is neither incredible nor unreasonable.

218

The person indicated is someone who has died never having heard the gospel. 1 Peter 4:6 - For this is the reason the gospel was preached even to those who are now dead, so that they might be judged according to men in regard to the body, but live according to God in regard to the spirit. 219

148

CHAPTER 10 OUR BELIEF IN THE PASSION OF CHRIST, IN THE OTHER MYSTERIES OF HIS HUMANITY, AND IN ALL THE TRUTHS DEFINED BY THE CHURCH, IS STRICTLY CONSISTENT WITH REASON Our gracious and merciful Father, God, has provided fitting remedies for the defects caused by original sin. These are: first, the faith and sacrifices of the patriarchs; next, circumcision; and thirdly, Holy Baptism. These remedies enable man, by grace, to attain supernatural happiness. And if we do not receive this grace, we ought to blame the negligence of our parents, not the providence of God. But some persons may find a difficulty in the fact, that, although the saints of the Old Testament died in a state of grace and cleansed from original sin, they nevertheless were barred from entering heaven. The answer to this objection is this - original sin was an offence against God, which was held against the whole human race and not to individuals. It was necessary that God‘s Divine Majesty should be satisfied, before the gates of paradise could be opened. And as the human race is composed of an infinite number of persons, the guilt was in a way infinite, and demanded satisfaction, not from one individual alone, but from the whole human race. But, another difficulty may be raised on this point. It may be argued, that God could show mercy and accept from man some payment for sin which he is able to make, and to cancel the debt which he cannot pay. We answer, that, had there been no other possibility of repaying the debt of original sin, God would have accepted the only satisfaction which man was capable of making. But, as He was able to satisfy His righteousness by other means, He chose to make use of these other means. In this way, He could both clear the debt of sin and bring human nature to perfection. Man could not, of himself, atone for sin. Only God, who had never sinned, could make fitting satisfaction for it. He, in His infinite mercy, wisdom, and power, chose to become man, to pay the debt which man owed, and was unable to pay. Man owed a debt for sin and God, becoming a man, was the only one with the power to pay that debt, for the whole human race. In this fact is revealed the appropriateness of His Incarnation, in which He has united the divine to the human nature. In this mystery we recognise His power, His wisdom, and His goodness as He has wholly given Himself to the human race, to embrace it, and draw it to His love. But, above all His other attributes, His mercy is shown; because it has led Him to be crucified out of love for us. His justice also is seen in that He has Himself made satisfaction for original sin. Therefore His mercy should create a secure hope in sinners who repent and His justice should cause those who do not repent, to tremble. This is the reason why, since Christ came into the world, so many men have been drawn from sin to holiness of life. When we consider these mercies, and the innumerable blessings Christ has brought to humanity, we discover depths of wisdom that are unfathomable by the intellect of man. (It is because this wisdom cannot be fathomed that it is regarded as foolish by the world.) We also see how only Christ was eligible to suffer for the guilt of mankind.

149

He came, not just to suffer for man, but also to be an example of righteous living. So he chose a most bitter and disgraceful death to teach us that neither shame, nor suffering, should force us to abandon the cause of truth and righteousness. There is not enough time for me to enlarge upon the other reasons for our Saviour choosing His terrible manner of death. I will only add, that those that love Him, find His cross has been a source of sweetness and of light. Only those who have experienced it will understand what I mean by this. Christ died to atone for our sins, and especially for original sin, which was the cause of the patriarchs being detained in Limbo. Therefore, it was right that Christ should, immediately after His death (having bought their release from sin), descend to Limbo and announce their freedom. 220 And it was also right that He should remain for three days in the tomb. Had He stayed there longer, men would have lost all hope of His resurrection; and had He not remained in the tomb so long, they would have denied the reality of His death. But, as living in this present world is not compatible with the full glory of Christ‘s life, after His resurrection He did not live among men in the same way as before His death. His body was perfect and noble above all human bodies, because of both the perfection of His soul and of His union with the Word. He ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of the Father, as His true and only begotten Son. The expression sits at the right hand of the Father, does not refer to bodily posture, but signifies that Christ, above all creatures, enjoyed the achievement of eternal joy. If it is asked, ―How could His body enter heaven?‖ we answer that the Divine Power can enable two realities to exist together. Further, it is right that the Son of God, who was unjustly judged by men, should be the Head, the Standard, and Judge of the living and the dead. In this His reward corresponds to the suffering which He bore for us. In reflecting in this way, we see that the acts which Christ performed in the world are full of hidden depths of meaning. So we realise that the Christian religion is not only reasonable, but also wonderful, and divine. We have already spoken of the faith which enables us to believe everything contained in Holy Scripture; and we have shown how true it is and how reasonable. We have also shown, that, as the truths of our Faith can come from no one but from God, we are bound to hold them with conviction. But in doctrine as with material things, every movable thing must rest on something immovable. Therefore we acknowledge with certainty, that God has established in His

220

1 Peter 3:18–19 - For Christ died for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit, through whom also he went and preached to the spirits in prison. The word prison (Greek – phulake) is a figurative word indicating a cage or holding place.

150

Church, (over which He exercises special care) some unchanging221 doctrines to which all men must submit. These foundational doctrines contain those principles from which all secondary truths are deduced. Therefore, the Catholic Faith is right to hold that all that the Holy Roman Church has defined, or shall define, is most certain truth. It rejects all other teaching. Because the Church, as we shall show, is the firm and solid foundation of the faith, and our guide to salvation.

CHAPTER 11 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION MOST WISELY ESTABLISHES THE TWO COMMANDS OF LOVE AS THE FOUNDATION OF OUR WHOLE MORAL LIFE We have already shown, that the Christian religion teaches nothing concerning faith, which is either impossible or irrational. We shall now go on to see that this also applies in matters of morality. We have already given sufficient proofs of this fact, when we pointed out that the Christian life is the best life possible. But now we will move from general comments and understand the issues more clearly by looking at particular details. The first principle and foundation of our moral doctrine is the commandment, ‗Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul, with all you mind and with all your strength.‘ (Deut. 6:5; Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). And the second commandment is, ‗You shall love your neighbour as yourself " (Lev. 19.18; Matt. 22. 39; Mark 12.31; Luke 10.37). We must not think that these commandments mean that to love God and our neighbour from natural virtue or inclination, is sufficient to gain salvation. Our love must come from supernatural grace, which we should prepare ourselves to receive. Therefore, the first principle and foundation of the Christian moral life, is the obligation to love God, by means of supernatural grace. Our whole purpose is to love Him more than ourselves; and to manage ourselves and everything we have, for His glory. St. Paul expresses this precept in this way, ‗So whether you eat or drink or whatever you do, do it all for the glory of God.‘ (1 Cor.10:31). But since the rebelliousness of human nature draws us away from loving God, the command adds, ‗You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart.‘ This means that by an act of the will we shall choose to love Him, in such a way that we are controlled by our decision rather than by our desires. By the heart is meant the source of those desires of our nature which separate us from God‘s love. 221

Jude 1:3 - Dear friends, although I was very eager to write to you about the salvation we share, I felt I had to write and urge you to contend for the faith that was once for all entrusted to the saints.

151

And since the will also goes astray, when it is not controlled by reason, the commandment adds the words, ‗and with all your soul," – referring to the will. The soul in animals is the principle of life and motion, which distinguishes animate from inanimate beings. In a similar way, the will controls all the powers of the rational soul. Therefore, God commands us to love Him with our whole will. So all our activities may be directed to Him; our love, desire, joy, fear, and hope, may all be centred on Him; and our whole soul may turn, in horror, from all that is contrary to His will, or derogatory to His honour. The decisions of the will depend entirely on reason, because we cannot desire what we do not know. This is expressed by the words in the commandment, ‗with all your mind‘ indicating our understanding and reason. Our minds must be turned to God, who should always be the main focus of our contemplation. But we are bound to honour God, not only with our souls, but also with our bodies; physically working for His glory. Therefore, the commandment concludes with the words, ‗all your strength‘. Observe the word all, remembering that when someone is loved for himself or herself then love does not measure and limit itself. When someone is loved totally, then the proportion of love offered is also total. Since God is our destiny, we are commanded to love Him with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our mind, and all our strength. That is to say, that, both inwardly and outwardly we must be wholly directed to God. Then as we lead holy lives, God may be glorified in us, as the cause is honoured by the perfection of its effect. This commandment also teaches us the way in which a man ought to love himself. Even self-love must be directed to God, who must be glorified in man, as in His own creation. As the love of others is not as instinctive to man as is self-love, we are taught how we must love our neighbour by the words, ‗You shall love your neighbour as yourself‘. This means that your love of others shall be governed by the same motive that directs your love for yourself. You should desire that your neighbour knows the same holiness of life, and the other blessings, which you want for yourself. Then, in him, God will be honoured and glorified, by his holy life. Surely nothing can be conceived as more reasonable than these two commandments. On them depend all other laws, both human and divine. Therefore Christians regard everything they command or imply, or results from them, as sacred and unbreakable. Any attack as on them as false or wrong is clearly impious and of the devil.

152

CHAPTER 12 THE EXCELLENCE OF THE MORAL TEACHING OF THE CHURCH We have already shown how reasonably Holy Scripture sets before us the two tables of the Ten Commandments. One table teaching us our duty to God, and the other shows what we owe to our neighbour. As each man is part of a community, he must be in a right relationship with both the head of the community, and his fellow-members - that is to say, with God, and with his neighbours. Man is in a right relationship with God, when he loves Him with all his heart, soul, mind and strength. But as we owe three duties to our civil rulers, namely: loyalty, reverence, and obedient service. The Christian religion sums up our obligations to God in three commandments. The first commandment tells us to honour the one only true God, and none other; the second, to reverence His Holy Name; the third, to pay Him obedient service, by honouring His day, by both personal and corporate acts of worship. From these three commandments spring all the other obligations that relate to man's service to God; and by disobedience of them, he forfeits his eternal salvation. The second Table of the Law concerns man's duty to his neighbour. This consists in doing him good and avoiding injury to him. The first commandment of this Table is, ‗Honour your father and your mother‘. And the honour which we are to show to our parents means, not merely that we must honour them in our words, but also help them by our good works. The next three commandments forbid us to injure anyone. We can do harm to others in three ways, first by injury to their person; second by injuring someone closely connected with them; third, by injuring their property. That is why the first of these commandments forbids homicide; the second prohibits adultery; and the third theft. And, as we are commanded to abstain from injury to others, not only in deed, but also in word or desire, the next commandment forbids false testimony; and the two following warn us against coveting either the wife, or the property of another man. But, it may be asked, why are only these two particular forms of covetousness specified, when other forms would seem equally criminal? I answer, that the evangelical law punishes, not only our actions, but also our interior wrong desires and affections. These two kinds of evil desire are given special mention because men might hesitate to condemn them. They would consider a rebellious attitude of heart, or unfaithfulness against God as inexcusable; and they would look on contempt of parents, or desire to bring death or dishonour on their fellow men as equally wrong. But a covetous longing for the property of others seems so natural to man, that unless such covetousness had been expressly forbidden, he would not have regarded it as sinful. We see, therefore, how perfectly Christian Commandments for mankind, cover all areas of life and every thought and action. They are so complete that all other precepts, and

153

all philosophical systems of ethics, may be reduced to these Ten Commandments. They even include important points, which heathen sages have never considered. Certain expectations are also attached to the Commandments. The whole of the Christian life leads to the perfection of divine love, which cannot be attained without purity of heart. So, the teaching of the Church divides the Christian Law into two parts; positive and negative precepts. The positive laws deal with true love expressed in good works. The negative laws concern purity, by forbidding all that can defile the soul. Now, in order to completely express this love and purity, Christ has given us certain directions. He exhorts those who want to be holy, to sell all that they have and give it to the poor and to observe chastity. They should also embrace the religious life, as a way of turning from earthly possessions, in order to become entirely devoted to the contemplation of eternal things. As they do they will, in a certain sense, be at one with God. In these directions, we recognise the perfect wisdom of the Christian religion, in all matters related to morality. Nothing, required by reason is neglected; and nothing against reason is expected. Comparing this system with any other school of ethics will show a marked superiority, as great as the distance between heaven and earth, or the difference between light and dark.

CHAPTER 13 THE PERFECT REASONABLENESS OF THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION AND CODE OF JUDICIAL LAW The Christian judicial system can be proved to be highly reasonable. In every process, there is some principle, which is the standard for other related things. So, there must be in law some principle or standard which is the Eternal Law, or absolute rule of Divine Wisdom, governing all the decisions and actions of creatures. From this Law all other laws take their authority; for the power of the first law is felt by all inferior laws. This rule and standard exists in God, as the Supreme Ruler. Creatures experience it as those governed and created by Him, subject to His providence, and conscious of the character of His law, which draws them to their destiny. Rational creatures are subject, in a special way, to divine providence. Divine Law also, in a special way, governs them, and their obedience to this Law makes it necessary that they should also be ruled by a certain natural law. Now, the origin of this natural law is the light of reason, placed by God in man, making clear to him certain principles, both in practical and in speculative matters. These are known as first principles or natural laws. From these first laws all other laws are deduced. And they are deduced either as conclusions drawn from demonstrated principles, (as is generally the case in speculative science); or as axioms laid down and approved by prudent men. The latter is the case with artists, who formulate general rules, to be applied in particular cases. So, an

154

architect, in erecting an individual building, will follow certain principles, universally observed in all architecture. In matters concerning morals, law is administered by means either of conclusions drawn from universal natural laws: e.g., murder is forbidden; to poison another is to murder him; therefore, giving poison to others is forbidden. Or else, the law is applied by means of certain definite rules, laid down by legislators, applying the universal natural law to particular cases. For instance there is a general law declaring that crime must be punished; but the particular penalty to be inflicted for a particular crime must be determined by the judgment of prudent men, and for the common good. Such laws must, evidently, vary according to circumstances. These are called positive, or human, laws. We see, at once, that these differing positive laws do not govern all men; whereas the natural laws are invariable and binding on all races. They are binding, not merely in so far as they are general principles, but also in the case of the particular laws deduced from these general principles. Because true principles cannot give rise to false conclusions. But, as natural law would not suffice for the government of human life, the assistance of the Divine Law is also necessary; and this for several reasons. First, because, law directs man to the attainment of his ultimate goal; but, as his ultimate goal is supernatural, natural law is not sufficient to guide him to it. Secondly, our understanding is so feeble, that, the more we descend to particulars, the greater difficulty we experience in judging aright. The Divine Law is therefore necessary, to enable us to arrive at the right conclusions in particular cases. Thirdly, human law does not punish or forbid everything that is sinful; it allows many lesser evils in order to ward off the greater ones. Therefore, a law was necessary, which would show man that guilt, unpunished by human law, would be avenged by Divine Law. Fourthly, human law does not judge the thoughts and motives of the heart, but only exterior actions. Therefore, the Divine Law was necessary in order to teach us that we must be perfect within as well as outwardly in our actions. Because, Divine Law punishes the sins of the heart. This Divine Law may be called a compendium of the Divine Commandments, and it is revealed through the light of the Faith. Therefore, we speak of it as being essentially the grace of the Holy Spirit. From this grace spring all the commandments of which we have spoken. From these universal laws are deduced, (either by conclusion or by specially formulated axioms), all particular laws. The particular laws, derived from the Divine Law, are called Canonical Laws. Those deduced from natural law are termed Civil Laws. The laity are governed by Civil, and the clergy by Canonical Law.

155

There is no opposition between the Divine and the natural law. But, as grace perfects nature, the Divine Law perfects the natural law; and all that relates to the Natural law relates, likewise, to the Divine Law. The moral teaching of our natural reason is said to belong to the Natural law. The duties imposed on us by the light of grace are called the commands of the Divine Law. We must not, however, imagine that everything that is contained in the Divine Law belongs to the natural law; for the sacraments and the truths of the Faith relate solely to the Divine, and not to the natural law. The Divine Law, then, regulates the Christian religion. It excludes nothing that is in accordance with truth or morality. It recognises nothing contrary to them. Therefore, as Christians, we do not despise the good and reasonable laws, of either uncivilised nations, or of heathen philosophers. On the contrary, we select from those laws all that is true and good, and recognise it as from God, who, for the sake of His elect, has created all truth and all goodness. On the other hand, our religion is so against all fables or falsehood, that it will not even authorise books such as those written to glorify the Faith and the deeds of the Saints, unless the author is trustworthy, and the truth of his writing proven. And, if some unjust law exists in the government of the Church; it exists, not because of a fault in the Christian religion, but through the impiety of some tyrant, whom the Church condemns and denounces. Thus, we see, that the Christian religion is most reasonably administered, by means both of Civil and of Divine Laws.

CHAPTER 14 THE SACRAMENTS OF THE CHURCH HAVE BEEN INSTITUTED BY CHRIST, AND ARE ADMIRABLY MATCHED TO THE NEEDS OF MANKIND In this chapter we intend to consider the ceremonies of the Church. And, as her sacraments are the chief ceremonies - all other rights being authorised from them - we will begin by proving how absolutely reasonable these sacraments are. In this way, all the other rites of the Church will become clearer. Christ, by His passion, is the universal cause of our salvation. But in the law of nature, a universal cause only operates by means of particular causes, which apply its virtue to particular effects. So it is most reasonable that there should be some particular cause of our salvation, whereby the virtue of the passion of Christ should be applied to our souls. This particular cause is found in the sacraments of the Church, which are the channels of Christ's grace to the soul. As a particular cause must represent and be subject to the universal cause, or an instrument to the agent; it is most reasonable and fitting, that the sacraments should have this same characteristic. They are composed of external signs and of words, which represent Christ, the Word of the Eternal Father, who was united to human nature.

156

And, since none can be saved without grace, we can truly say, that these sacraments are Christ's instruments for granting grace. We do not mean, that the sacrament‘s power is able to produce the final effect of grace. We speak in the sense used by philosophers, when they say that man is created of man and of the sun's heat; not meaning that either human or solar power is capable of producing the intellectual soul of man. We must remember that an instrument acts in two ways. First, by its own nature. In the case of a saw, the metal of which it is made and its serrated shape, mean it is able to cut wood. Secondly, by the power and action of the agent. In the case of the carpenter using a saw, he gives a specific form to the wood. But, this power does not always produce the ultimate effect on that on which it is worked. For example, humans are instruments used by God to create new life. But they do not create the intellectual soul of man, which is created directly by God. They are only instrumental in the final make up of man, and in the union of soul with body. In the same way, the sacraments are not the source of grace. Grace does not come from either the sacrament‘s own innate virtue, not by power acquired from the actions of Christ. Grace comes from God alone; but the sacraments open up the soul to receive His grace. Theologians call this work of the sacraments in opening up the soul, their character. We see a proof that the sacraments are a means of receiving grace, in the good life of those who receive them. We see proof in the conversion from vice to virtue, and in the progress in holiness made by those who receive the sacraments. As we have referred to these proofs in the preceding Book, we will say no more about them for the present.

CHAPTER 15 THE NUMBER OF THE SACRAMENTS IS REASONABLE Christ is the universal cause of our salvation and of the spiritual life by which we live for God. We understand this spiritual truth by the likeness, which it bears to some physical truths. So we must come to understand the sacraments which are instituted for the spiritual life, by comparing them with those things which are ordained for physical life. Now, in physical life we have: first, generation, in which life is acquired; secondly, development, in which the body grows to maturity; thirdly, nutrition, in which the life is preserved. So the vegetative life possesses powers of generation, of growth, and of nutrition. In the animal kingdom, sickness may attack this new life, but nature provides suitable remedies. And as new life cannot occur without a parent, some life giving power must exist in the world. Sacraments in the spiritual life, correspond to the way these physical needs are met.

157

The first is Baptism, whereby man is born again in Christ. The second is Confirmation, whereby grace is increased within him, and he is made strong enough to endure the trials, through which all must pass on their way to eternal life. The third is the Blessed Eucharist, without which the spiritual life of man would become weak, as his body would become weak without food. The fourth is the Sacrament of Penance, for the recovery of spiritual health, and inner healing. The fifth is Extreme Unction,222 for the healing of the soul, and, (since bodily sickness is sometimes caused by sin), in some cases it restores health to the body. When recovery from sickness is not expedient, it enables the soul to pass more devoutly and easily, to eternal life. The sixth Sacrament is that of Holy Orders, which provides fathers for the spiritual life. Since the spiritual life could not endure, were the human race to be extinct, we have the Sacrament of Matrimony! This is the seventh Sacrament of the Church. So we see, that, in the physical realm the source and resources of physical life can be seen as, either the means of support for the life of children, or as means of ruling the life of the children. So in the spiritual realm, Christ has ordained seven sacraments to be the means of nurturing and ruling the spiritual life. We see, then, how wisely, and how advisedly, Christ has instituted seven Sacraments in His Church.

CHAPTER 16 THE RITES USED IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS ARE BOTH REASONABLE AND APPROPRIATE The elements and symbols used in the administration of our sacraments are ordained to enable our development. Let us first consider Baptism, the sacrament of regeneration. We know that birth signifies the change from non-being into being, and those that are born are all born in original sin. They are born without grace or spiritual life, and as they go on to sin they put themselves further from the experience of grace. Therefore, it was most fitting that

222

Anointing with Oil. James 5:14 - Is any one of you sick? He should call the elders of the church to pray over him and anoint him with oil in the name of the Lord.

158

Christ should give to the sacrament of Baptism power to remit sin, and to confer grace and spiritual life. Also, as bodily stains are washed away by water, it was fitting that water should be chosen as the element of this sacrament. And, as we can only be born once, it is reasonable that Baptism can only be conferred once. The formation of spiritual life consists in a constant and courageous confession of the cross of Christ, and in boldly enduring insult for His sake. In order to produce this commitment in us, He has instituted the Sacrament of Confirmation. Those who fight under a commander wear his emblem or badge; and so those who receive Confirmation are signed on the forehead with the cross, in order to show, that they must not be ashamed to be the soldiers of Christ. The sign of the Cross is made with oil and balsam. The oil signifies that the conscience of the person anointed must shine, like oil, with the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Just as Jesus was endowed with the gifts of the Holy Spirit when he was anointed, and was called Christ. (Anointed one). The balsam symbolises the sweet odour of holiness that should emanate from Christians. It is appropriate that only bishops should be empowered to administer this sacrament, because they are the leaders of the army of Christ; and only the captains of an army can adorn their soldiers with their insignia. It is appropriate that the outward signs of the Blessed Eucharist should be bread and wine, as this sacrament is ordained for the nourishment of the spiritual life. And as food is absorbed by the body which is nourished, we believe that Christ exists in this sacrament, not only by His power, but in His substance; and that He is present in order to unite Himself so intimately with them that receive Him with faith and love, as to become one with them. Furthermore, as the Blessed Eucharist is a memorial of His passion, in which His body was broken and blood was shed; it is appropriate that His body should be given to us in the form of bread, and His blood in the form of wine; although Christ Himself is wholly present in both the bread and the wine. When we consider the sacrament of Penance, we must remember that physical health comes sometimes, from natural strength of constitution, and sometimes from the assistance of a physician and medicines. The same thing holds true in the spiritual realm, but with certain limitations. The health of the soul cannot come entirely from our own inner resources – because no one is able to deliver himself from sin without grace. Neither can health come entirely from external assistance – because the cooperation of our will is always required. Spiritual health therefore, needs both an external and an internal agent.

159

We call a man physically sound, when he is free from all weakness caused by disease, and in the same way we say that the soul is healed, when it is freed from all the sickness caused by sin. Now, sin produces three bad effects. The first of these is rebellion of the soul against God, and hatred between men. The second is the penalty incurred by its guilt. And the third is a loss of grace and weakness of will; because sin causes the soul to be more liable to evil, and less inclined to good. Therefore, the sacrament of Penance is designed and ordained as a remedy for these three evils. This sacrament begins with contrition, which delivers the soul from rebellion against God and causes it to repent of sin and to return to its Maker. It frees it from the penalty of eternal death, which cannot remain due to a soul in grace and love. And it creates, within the soul, a desire for good and a hatred of evil. But, as all men do not offer complete contrition, it does not always remit the entire penalty of sin. To deal with this, the Lord has added two other parts to the sacrament of Penance. These are confession and satisfaction. A man may wish to pay, in this life, the penalty, which remains due to him after incomplete contrition; but he cannot know what this penalty may be. Therefore he must submit himself to the judgment of Christ, to whom alone he owes satisfaction. But, as Christ is glorified in heaven and invisible to us, He has left in His place, as His ministers, the priests of the Church. However a judge cannot select a suitable penalty, if he is ignorant of the crime. Therefore a sinner must make confession to a priest. This confession is the second part of the sacrament of Penance. It follows that the ministers of Christ, in their judicial capacity, must be invested with a twofold power. First, they must have the authority and knowledge to judge the gravity of sin. Secondly, they must have the ability to bind and to loose. This power of binding and loosing is known as the ‗power of the Keys‘. Now, as the sacraments are the instruments of grace, it is quite certain, that by the ‗power of the Keys‘, a penitent obtains more grace, and fuller remission of punishment, than he could receive just by contrition. However it sometimes happens that contrition and confession are not sufficient to remit the entire penalty incurred by sin. Therefore, a third part has been added to the sacrament of Penance, namely satisfaction, or the performance of a penance as instructed by the priest. Christ, to deal with human weakness, has specifically ordained the sacrament of Extreme Unction. As bodily sickness is often both a result of sin, and the cause of serious spiritual harm, a sacrament was necessary which should repair this harm, and heal both soul and body. Or should at least enable the soul to pass more easily, and with greater holiness into the next life. The sacrament of Penance does not always remit the entire penalty due to sin; nor does it always remove the inclination to sin or the reluctance to do good. In fact, these evils

160

are often increased in times of sickness, by pain and anxiety of mind, which hinder the dying from remembering and dealing with their sins. At the hour of death, there may be many remnants of sin in the soul of a man, which require powerful assistance, to enable him to enter into eternal glory, in a purified state. Now, this assistance is given by the sacrament, which we call Extreme Unction - to denote that it should only be administered in a near death situation. The element used in this sacrament is oil, which has been chosen because it is often used to soothe physical suffering. And, as in sickness, the physician tries to apply his medicine to the root of the disease, so in Extreme Unction, the organs of the five senses are anointed, because they are often the means we use to carry out our sins. We must next consider the sacrament of Holy Orders. As we do so, we shall see that it has been ordained for a good reason. When Christ withdrew His visible presence from the Church, He needed some representatives to dispense the sacraments to the faithful. As they were to be His instruments, it was also necessary that they should in some way be like Him and able to represent Him. Because Christ is both God and man, His ministers had to be men, not angels. But men endowed with some share of His divine power. And, as they would not be immortal, they needed the ability to confer this power to their successors, until the end of the world. Under the terms already explained in relation to the sacraments, this power has been effectively bestowed on the ministers of Christ, through the use of certain formulated words and signs, such as the laying on of hands, the presentation of the chalice and Bible, etc. But, as the power of ordination is given to enable the ministers of the Church to administer the sacraments - of which the chief is the Blessed Eucharist - we must consider the degrees of ordination with relation to this adorable sacrament. We know that every power designed to produce an important effect, is served by other and inferior powers. For example, an architect who intends to erect a building will be assisted by stonecutters and other labourers. The sacrament of Holy Orders is instituted, mainly to consecrate the Body and Blood of Christ, to distribute it to the faithful, and to cleanse them from sin. So there must be some ministers of a rank or order especially called to prepare the faithful to receive the sacrament. This order is the Priesthood. Priests must be assisted in their offices, by those in lower orders, who will, according to their status, take part in various sacred rites. The lowest Order of Doorkeepers, is instituted to prepare the people, to separate the faithful from unbelievers, and to exclude the latter from the Church. Next in status comes the Order of Readers, whose duty it is to instruct neophytes223 in the Faith. Then Exorcists, who must deliver them from the power of the devil. The office of those in the higher orders is to prepare the 223

Neophytes - A newly ordained priest or a recent convert. From Greek meaning a new plant or new growth.

161

faithful for the sacraments, and to assist in the celebration of the Blessed Eucharist. Thus the Acolytes224 prepare the vessels and elements used in the sacrament; the Subdeacons place the unconsecrated elements in the sacred vessels; and the Deacons distribute the consecrated elements to the faithful, as the precious Body and Blood of Christ. Only Priests, Deacons, and Sub-deacons are in Sacred Orders, which is made up of only those who have the authority to handle the most sacred elements. Deacons, Subdeacons, and Acolytes also assist the priest in preparing the people. The Deacon reads the Gospel to them, and the Sub-deacon the Epistle, and the Acolyte carries the lighted candles, which are intended to show reverence for the Holy Scriptures. As the sacraments must be administered by fit persons, it is reasonable that Episcopal 225 authority should exist in the Church, as the superior power appointing such fit persons. Episcopal power does not exceed the authority of the priests with regard to the consecration of the Body of the Lord. But it is superior to the priestly power in all that concerns the body of the Church, and the resolution of any disputes in its government. Although there are many different bishops in many parts of the earth, the Church is one and the whole company of Christian people are under one head. In this there is unity of Faith, and no danger of division springing up within the Church; caused by differing opinions. The power given to the ministers of Christ cannot be taken away nor transferred to another, nor forfeited by any sin. When the sacraments are administered by sinful priests, none of their efficacy is lost because their virtue resides in the sacraments themselves, not in the ministers. Neither do those who receive the sacraments from unworthy priests, become unworthy themselves. Because priests are only Christ‘s instruments and when a person is blessed through the sacraments, they become more like Christ, not more like the instrument. Finally, the sacrament of Matrimony is a most suitably ordained estate, for the public welfare and for the preservation of the human race. And also for the multiplication of the faithful, to the Glory of God. As far as it concerns the good of the Church - the union of a man and woman is a true sacrament, blessed by the ministers of Christ, representing the union of the Church with our Lord, and conferring grace on those who enter it devoutly. There is only one Christ and one Church and as Matrimony represents the union between them; the marriage oath must be unbreakable, so that God may be glorified and the Holy Church perpetuated. From what we have said, we think it is plain that there is nothing unreasonable or impractical in the principal ceremonies of the Church.

224

Acolyte - someone who assists a priest or minister in a liturgical service; a cleric ordained in the highest of the minor orders in the Roman Catholic Church. 225

Episcopal / episcopate – bishop or overseer

162

CHAPTER 17 ANSWERS TO CERTAIN OBJECTIONS BROUGHT AGAINST THE DOCTRINE OF THE BLESSED EUCHARIST Men have raised many great difficulties as they have tried to understand the doctrine of the Blessed Eucharist. Therefore we think it is right give some space to their consideration. When we declare that the whole body of Christ is contained in a little bread, and all His blood in a little wine; and that, at the same time, the whole Christ is in heaven - it seems as if we are affirming an impossibility. Because Christ can only be present in this sacrament in one of two ways. Either, the bread is changed into the Body of Christ; and this appears to be out of the question. Because a thing that comes into existence by a change in another thing, has no existence before this change. It only begins to exist when this change has taken place. If, then, the bread is changed into the body of Christ, His body cannot have existed before the bread was changed into It. Just as the serpent came into being when the rod of Aaron was changed, but had no existence previous to this miracle. Therefore the body of Christ which is in the Blessed Eucharist, is not the body which is in heaven, but another body newly produced. Or else, we may say that the body of Christ, which is in heaven, becomes local by moving into the Blessed Sacrament. But this also seems impossible. First, because His body would need to leave heaven altogether, or it would have to be in two places at once. Secondly, because becoming local does not stop at one place and time. We know that many Hosts226 are consecrated at the same time and in many places. Thirdly, because one body cannot be in more than one place at the same moment. In addition, how can a full-grown body be contained in a little bread, and all Its Blood in a small chalice? Again, it seems impossible that accidents227 can exist without their substance228. We know from experience, that the consecrated bread and wine do what accidents alone could not do (e.g., nourish, warm, and strengthen the body) and that if the consecrated wine were consumed to excess, would produce intoxication. Furthermore, the consecrated elements are subject to destruction by burning or putrefaction, etc., which could not affect mere accidents. 226

Hosts – the bread of Holy Communion

227

Accidents - of bread or wine are how it looks and how it tastes.

228

Substance - of the bread or wine are what it IS i.e. bread and wine.

163

And, again, if the elements are divided into small particles, how can the Body of Christ be present in each fraction? Our answer to these objections is, as we have said before, that the infinite power of God can do more than we can conceive. What is impossible to nature and to man, is possible to Him. In the Blessed Eucharist there is nothing beyond the power of God. For we say that the body and blood of Christ are present in this sacrament by conversion. This is not impossible to God, although it is impossible to nature, which cannot change one thing into another thing already in existence. If the infinite power of God can create something out of nothing, can it not, much more easily cause one substance to be transformed into another, and the substance of bread and wine to become the substance of the body and blood of Christ? Since, the body of Christ is not present in the Blessed Eucharist by becoming locally present through His descent from heaven into the host, but solely by conversion, we must recognise that His presence in heaven differs in substance from His presence in the sacrament. In heaven His whole body occupies a place and time; like other bodies. But He is present in the host, in an indivisible manner, and in a sense so wonderful, that this whole body is present in every fragment of the host. This means of existence is possible only to God, whose power exceeds the bounds of our intelligence. Notice that in the Blessed Eucharist the body of Christ is present in the appearance of bread, and His blood in that of wine. But because His blood, His soul, and his divinity never leave His body, and His body never leaves His blood, the whole Christ is, naturally, present in every particle of bread and drop of wine. Furthermore, Christ is not located in a place, when present in this sacrament. Although there are many hosts on many altars, He is not in many places but in many sacraments. We see this in our own nature, because we know that our whole soul is in every part of our body, and yet we do not say that it is located in different parts of our body. It is a spiritual essence within the body. As God has created all things out of nothing by His own power, without the aid of other causes, He can produce all natural effects without using secondary causes. Therefore, although, naturally speaking, substance upholds accidents; God can preserve accidents without the help of substance. Many philosophers have maintained that quantity can exist without substance; and we say that in the Blessed Eucharist, not only quantity, but all other accidents, by the power of God, exist without substance. Not only does God enable accidents to exist without substance; but He enables them to do, and to suffer, that which substance would do and suffer, were the accidents joined to substance, e.g., to nourish, to intoxicate, to putrefy, to burn, etc.

164

These actions and sufferings do not extend to the Body of Christ, but only to the accidents. Therefore when the host is broken, the fracture does not affect the Body of Christ, which remains entire in each particle.229 Many other difficulties may be levelled against the doctrine of the Eucharist, but the solution we have given to the difficulties above, will pave the way to the solution of all others. And it will be seen that the Catholic Faith does not ask us to believe anything in this doctrine which is impossible for God,

CHAPTER 18 THE CEREMONIES OF THE CHURCH ARE RATIONAL Having shown that the sacraments of the Church are consistent with reason, it will not be difficult to prove that other ecclesiastical ceremonies are equally rational. For the sake of brevity we will confine our attention to a few of the most important. First, then, the honour paid by Christians to the cross, and to representations of Christ and of His Saints, may seem irrational to some people. However we must remember that images may be viewed in two ways. We may consider the material of which they are made, gold, silver, wood, or stone. Certainly Christians do not honour images on this basis. Or, we may consider images as representing some thing or person. And this is the way in which Christians view them. They pay honour not to the image itself, but to the thing or person represented. Just as when subjects honour a picture of their sovereign, they honour, not the picture itself but the one who is depicted. Therefore we pay honour to images that is due to those whom they represent.

229

Savonarola seems to be making reference to the hymn of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) – Lauda Sion (Zion offer Praise). Written at the request of Pope Urban IV. The verses include Sub diversis speciebus, signis tantum, et non rebus, latent res eximiae. Caro cibus, sanguis potus: manet tamen Christus totus sub utraque specie. A sumente non concisus, non confractus, non divisus: integer accipitur. Sumit unus, sumunt mille: quantum isti, tantum ille: nec sumptus consumitur. Fracto demum sacramento, ne vacilles, sed memento tantum esse sub fragmento, quantum toto tegitur. Nulla rei fit scissura: signi tantum fit fractura, qua nec status, nec statura signati minuitur. Here beneath these signs are hidden, priceless things, to sense forbidden; signs, not things, are all we see. Flesh from bread, and Blood from wine, yet is Christ in either sign, all entire confessed to be. And whoe'er of Him partakes, severs not, nor rends, nor breaks: all entire, their Lord receive. Whether one or thousand eat, all receive the selfsame meat, nor do less for others leave. Nor a single doubt retain, when they break the Host in twain, but that in each part remain what was in the whole before; For the outward sign alone may some change have undergone, while the Signified stays one, and the same forevermore.

165

We give to the cross and crucifix the worship of latria230, which is the worship that we pay to God. We honour an image of the Virgin Mary with an inferior honour, yet with greater honour than that which we give to representations of the other saints. We honour the saints as the blessed friends of God. We erect their images in order to recall them to our memory, to inspire ourselves to virtue by their example, and to raise our hearts in prayer to God, through their intercession. There can be no doubt that pictures and statues (representing holy objects) are as helpful as books, especially to uneducated simple folk. We know invisible things by means of things that are visible. And we build and consecrate material churches to symbolise the spiritual Church. By the sight of these earthly things we enable ourselves to lift our minds to the contemplation of divine mysteries. The stones of the church signify Christians united in the Faith; and the lime that cements them is love, which joins the hearts of the faithful together. The foundation stone is Christ and the stones around it represent the Prophets and Apostles. The high walls symbolize the heights of the contemplative life. The roof represents the active life exposed to the storms of temptation. (The spiritual temple differs from an earthly building in that its foundation is in heaven.) In the length of the church, we behold the permanence of the true Church; in its height, the difference of merit among its members; and in its breadth, the number of the faithful throughout the world. The sanctuary reminds us of the virgins of Christ, and the nave of those living in the married state. (The sanctuary is smaller and more holy than the nave, as virginity is holier and rarer than matrimony.) The cemetery in front of the church reminds us of false Christians buried in sin. The altar represents Christ, on whom we offer our sacrifices, saying at the end of every prayer, "Through our Lord Jesus Christ ". The belfry signifies the Holy Scriptures, with which we will be able to discern the snares of our enemies, and to fight against them. The bells are preachers calling together the Church militant and triumphant. The windows represent the holy doctors who pour the light of their teaching into the Church. From the whiteness of the interior walls we learn purity of heart and action. The twelve candles, burning before the crosses of consecration, represent the twelve Apostles, who have enlightened the world by their preaching of the cross of Christ. The doors signify the sacraments, especially Baptism, by means of which we enter the Church. The lamps symbolise the continual illumination of the Holy Spirit. The holy water may remind us of the tears of penitents. Finally, the sacred vestments and vessels, the psalms, hymns, and the whole order of ceremonies, represent the divine mysteries. Time does not permit us to explain further, but from what has been said, it is evident, that nothing in Christian doctrine is incredible or unreasonable.

230

Latria - The highest kind of worship offered to God alone; - distinguished by Roman Catholics from dulia - the inferior worship paid to saints.

166

If any one desires further instruction, and will read, and carefully reflect on, the works of the Doctors of the Church, he will understand that our religion is the work, not of men, but, of Him ‗The true light that gives light to every man‘. 231 Daily experience proves to us, that many good men, reflecting upon these mysterious rites, forget themselves, are raised above worldly thoughts and earthly things, and that their ‗citizenship is in heaven‘.232

231 232

John 1:9 Philip. 3:20

167

BOOK 4 INTRODUCTION THE METHOD OBSERVED THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK If only all men were sincere and zealous in the pursuit of truth. It would then be far easier to open their eyes to perceive it. Their intellect would lead them towards it, and seeing its perfection, they would readily embrace it. 233 Indeed some men are so strongly attracted to truth that they speak it even when they don‘t intend to! The knowledge of a thing leads to the knowledge of its opposite. For instance, if we know which side is right we shall also know which side is left. And if we know what is true, we shall easily know what is false. Although truth is always at war with falsehood, nevertheless, he who sides with truth will always be victorious. Therefore, when men hold different and contrary opinions, the opinion that is most probably true is the one supported by sound reasoning. Now there is much conflict in matters of religion, but the arguments in Christianity are much stronger than those that can be advanced in support of form of belief. Christianity must undoubtedly be the true religion. This is the we shall seek to prove in this book - first in general terms, and then in arguments.

favour of any other point that particular

CHAPTER I NO RELIGION EXCEPT CHRISTIANITY CAN BE TRUE From what has just been said, it is evident, that Christianity is the only true religion. And if this is the case, and if there is no salvation except through faith in Christ, all, except Christians, must be living in error. Again, if a virtuous life is the outcome proposed by all religions, and if there is no better life than the Christian life, there can be no religion superior to Christianity. Any other religion must be either equal or inferior to it.

233

Romans 10:2-3 - I can testify about them that they are zealous for God, but their zeal is not based on knowledge. 3Since they did not know the righteousness that comes from God and sought to establish their own, they did not submit to God's righteousness.

168

If other religions are inferior to Christianity, Christianity must be the best; and we are bound to embrace it, and to reject all others as useless and superstitious. But if there is a religion equal to Christianity, it must be the same as Christianity. For, unless it proposes the same goal as Christianity, and the same means of reaching that goal, it cannot be called equal; it must be inferior to the Christian Faith. Furthermore, if we know a cause by its effects, and if Christian holiness is the perfection of human life and, if we see no equal effects produced by any other religion, Christianity must be true. Especially as its effects are so quickly and so easily produced, and its power is so marvellously shown in the conversion of men. Therefore, there can be no danger of error when we reject all other creeds, and hold to the Faith of Christ. In order to make what we say more obvious, we will move to particulars, and will discuss different forms of religion. But, as it would be useless to attempt to discuss all the superstitions which have ever existed, we will reduce them to six. These are - heathen philosophy, astrology, idolatry, Judaism, heresy, and Islam. In our analysis of these false religions, we will ignore the different opinions and divisions, which have existed among philosophers, astrologers, idolaters, and heretics. Instead, we will examine their teachings from the position of their generally understood meaning.

CHAPTER 2 THE DEFECTIVE AND ERRONEOUS RELIGIONS TAUGHT BY HEATHEN PHILOSOPHERS We must preface our remarks by observing that the teaching of heathen philosophy, even where its leaders have not taught erroneous doctrine, is, in all that concerns salvation, exceedingly poor and insufficient. Nor can we wonder at this, seeing that their only guide was the light of human reason. Because the true goal of human life must rule all our actions, those who wish to lead men to a virtuous way of living ought at least, to know what it is! Now, the heathen sages could have no such knowledge, because it exceeds the bounds of human reason, which was their only source of enlightenment. However if they could not know the ultimate goal of man, they had even less idea of how he might reach it. Therefore, all that they could teach about religion was necessarily incomplete, uncertain, or wrong. What sane person, then, would abandon Christianity, for the beliefs of heathen philosophy? Even though the best among the philosophers held that the goal of human life is the contemplation of divine things, what they meant by this is very confused. This is because they cannot speak with any certainty about their goal.

169

If they were asked, whether, by this contemplation, they meant contemplation of this present life, or of the future life, they could not answer with any certainty. However, it would be wholly unreasonable to expect ultimate intimacy with God in this present life because of its perils and troubles. And as the philosophers could not discover anything about the future life, by means of mere natural reason, whatever they might say about it would be unproven, and therefore not accepted by men. If they thought intimacy with God would be achieved after death then they would involve themselves in the intricate question of the immortality of the soul. This is a difficulty, shown by the many different opinions held concerning it. But the greatest difficulty on this point arises from the fact, that the soul can have understanding when separate from the body. It would appear, that, with regard to the activity of reasoning, the soul cannot be the form 234 of the body; for it seems as if that which can act without a body, can exist without a body. This is why Plato insisted that our soul is not the form, but the mover of the human body. Aristotle, on the contrary, maintains that the soul is the form of the body. 235 However he uses such ambiguous expressions about the intellect, as distinct from the soul, that his commentator, Averroes236, adopted the irrational error of supposing that there is in all men an intellect, existing independently of other powers. But I believe that Aristotle, being a very wise man and knowing that natural reasoning cannot reach complete knowledge of the matter, purposely spoke very cautiously about it, for fear of losing the argument. As a result, the philosophers who followed him, remained in a dilemma. For, if they called the soul the form of the body, it seemed that the soul must reasonably be supposed to be mortal. If they said that the soul was not the form of the body, it was impossible to see how man could be said to be man, seeing he did possess an intelligent soul.

234

Savonarola is here referring to the teaching of Plato who said that forms are the eternal realities and qualities that allow us to interpret what we experience. So the forms of equality, honesty, truth and beauty, etc are eternal and unchanging. When we judge or evaluate something, we do so by reference to its form. Plato then went on to say that if we are aware of eternal forms it must be because the soul has knowledge of them from the past, and they have not been taught or discovered. If the soul arrives in the world with such knowledge of eternal things it must be because the soul is eternal. 235

Aristotle had a different view of forms to that of Plato. He taught that a form is a quality linked to a reality. For example, a doctor is a person (reality) plus the quality of medical training and expertise (form). He also saw form as made up of various eternal qualities held together, rather as bricks may be assembled to make the form of a house. But if the arrangement is broken down into a pile of bricks, then the form is lost. In this view the form is not an eternal reality. If the soul is a form made up of eternal qualities linked to the body, then when the body dies the form is lost – therefore the soul is not immortal. 236

Averroes (1126 - 1198)(Arabian name -Abdul Muhammad Ibn Rushd) He was an Islamic Arabian philosopher who lived in Spain, working as a physician. His philosophical teaching, called Averroism, was based on Aristotle's belief that any event or existence can only be explained by discussion of its material, formal, efficient and final cause.

170

And, if they had nothing but the light of natural reason, but they held what the Faith teaches, they would have found themselves in just as great a difficulty as they were before. That is: although the intellectual power of the soul operates independently of any bodily organ, even so the substance of the soul is the form of the body. When they would have been asked, where this form came from – they could have given no sure answer. Because, if this form is of a higher quality than all physical things, it cannot have been produced by any power of nature. Because these philosophers did not believe in creation, neither could they say that it came from nothing. And, even if they had made such an assertion, they could not have produced any reasonable proof of what they said. Their opinion, consequently, would have been treated with contempt. Therefore some philosophers tried to evade the difficulty, by maintaining that souls existed from eternity, before bodies. However this opinion involved them in still greater confusion. For, while they held that souls were made from eternity, before bodies, they could provide no reason for the soul not being the form of the body. At the same time they also fell into many other inconsistencies, provided as examples by the Peripatetics against the Platonists. And, although Aristotle said that the intellectual soul comes from without, i.e. not from natural generation, - his expression is very ambiguous; because it neither explains from where, nor how, the soul comes into the world. And if, as he maintains, the intellectual soul is immortal, and the form of the body, it cannot, at the same time, exist before the body, nor pass from one body to another. Therefore, if the soul is not produced by some power of nature, I do not see how Aristotle can deny creation. The philosophers who are not informed by faith, but assert that the soul is immortal, and is the form of the body, expose themselves to further difficulties. They may, with good reason, be asked whether the world has also existed from eternity, and whether it will last forever. If they reply, without being able to prove their words, that the world had a beginning and will have an end, their views will be held in derision. If, on the other hand, with Aristotle, they maintain that the world never had a beginning and will never have an end, they must also hold that there has existed an infinite series of years and days. But if man is the most significant creation in the world, no one can reasonably say that the world has existed without man; and therefore infinite numbers of men must have died. If they go on to say that the soul is immortal, and is the form of the body; and if it does not pass from one body to another, there must have been an infinite number of souls. This is, clearly, an irrational hypothesis. Of course, those who hold this view will, maintain that it is not irrational; but in so doing, they have to face new difficulties. For, as the soul is the form of the body, it is against its nature to be outside the body; and we know that the soul only leaves the body by compulsion. But compulsion or violence cannot have eternal consequence for so noble a thing as the soul. However, those who hold that souls will never return to their bodies must actually believe that souls, in spite of their dignity, are eternally banished from their bodies, by violence.

171

On the other hand, if they believe in the resurrection of the body, they must believe in the resurrection of an infinite number of bodies, which is impossible. They could hold that, after a very long time, souls will return to their former bodies, and will become what they formerly were; and that they will repeat this separation from, and return to, their bodies an infinite number of times. But they have no reason, or proof, on which to establish this hypothesis; and we are right in treating it with contempt. And, certainly, such a supposition is irrational and absurd, implying, as it does, that we, and all that exist at present, must have already existed an infinite number of times. In these and in similar difficulties, Philosophers entangle themselves as they try to discover the goal of human life, by natural reason. Nor can they be expected to speak with certainty or clarity about religion or about virtuous living when they ignore the most important element of life. We need not, therefore, be surprised, that the religious systems of the philosophers are imperfect, and filled with error. We shall understand this more fully if we consider the different erroneous conclusions they have reached. And we shall see how poor and feeble is the unassisted light of reason. The highest power of an agent is shown when it exerts itself to its utmost capacity. Now human reason has been exerted to its utmost capacity by the greatest philosophers, who have reasoned to the utmost of their ability. We see this by the fact that the other philosophers who have succeeded them, have never found anything new to say. If they have come up with some fresh theory, it has been a very insignificant one. Since, the very greatest philosophers have been so grossly mistaken in matters concerning salvation, it is evident that the natural light of reason is an untrustworthy guide. Of course, the earliest philosophers, who asserted that the ultimate end of man is to be found in riches, glory, pleasure, or some other material good, were far more completely deceived than those who taught that it was to be found in the contemplation of divine things. But their teaching was vague, and left men with great uncertainty about the issues of their salvation. Again, there are as many opinions and errors about the nature of the intellectual soul as there are philosophers. Setting aside the fallacies enumerated by Aristotle in his first book, De Anima,237 even the Aristotelian philosophers themselves entertain endless different views. Some teach that the human understanding is one thing, and others proclaim it another; so that their disciples remain in utter confusion. This confusion would be even more inextricable, if the Faith of Christ had not enlightened the world. Again, if any one will read the philosophical books dealing with the universe, its purpose, and its supposed beginning and end, he will find almost as many errors as there are words. And, although Aristotle and some of his followers have tried to prove that the world is eternal, the Aristotelian arguments are so weak, that any educated man could easily refute them. 237

De Anima – ―of the soul‖.

172

But what are we to say of the number of the angels, or, as the philosophers call them, the separate substances? Aristotle is influenced by the motion of the heavens and represents the angels as equal in number to the stars, as though they were created solely to move the stars. This is of course an absurdity. However it is probable that Aristotle was not teaching this as a rational certainty, but merely giving an opinion. Again, the heathen schools of philosophy, besides their many grave errors, had nothing definite or certain to say about the nature of divine worship. Their ideas concerning divine providence are wild imagination. So, far from being profitable for man's salvation or honouring to religion, their teaching was merely a source of confusion for mankind. Nevertheless, we must not despise the valuable part of the old philosophy, but rather make use of it ourselves. Even though it is not sufficient to bring us to salvation, it is often of great assistance to us in refuting the enemies of the Faith.

CHAPTER 3 THE FUTILITY AND SUPERSTITION OF THE TRADITIONS OF ASTROLOGY Astrologers claim to be reputable philosophers, and teach that the heavens and the stars govern human affairs. In regarding the sky as our god, they imitate some of the ancients, who worshipped the sun and the stars. Therefore, we will use plain arguments to demonstrate their error, and show that because of man‘s understanding and will, the stars are not the cause of the actions a man performs. Superior things cannot be governed by their inferiors. And as the intellect is superior to any mere body, it cannot be controlled by either heavenly or any other bodies. Again, it has been proved by philosophers, that no body operates without movement. 238 Consequently, non-moving things, such as non-physical substances including the intellect, are not subject to bodies. That is why the more a mind is freed from physical agitation and activity, the more it works with speed and clarity. We also know that everything that is ruled or moved, whether by heavenly or earthly bodies, is physical, and subject to time. But our mind transcends the restriction time and space, and can relate to immaterial things, and even to God.

238

Savonarola refers to ‗On The Heavens‘ by Aristotle Book III.2 (c 350 B.C.) The necessity that each of the simple bodies should have a natural movement may be shown as follows. They manifestly move, and if they have no proper movement, they must move by constraint: and the constrained is the same as the unnatural. Now an unnatural movement presupposes a natural movement which it contravenes, and which, however many the unnatural movements, is always one. For naturally a thing moves in one way, while its unnatural movements are manifold.

173

It could not do this by means of any physical force; because no agent can act in ways that exceed its nature. So, the power of the heavenly bodies cannot, strictly speaking, act on our understanding, because the power of our understanding far surpasses that of the firmament. Many believers in astrology are troubled by this argument and try to avoid the problem by saying that the stars are not the direct, but the indirect cause of our actions and choices. The intellect (they argue) makes use of sensitive powers, especially of imagination, memory, and thoughts, which are dependent on physical temperament. And as our body, like all other composite bodies, is related to the rest of creation, these heavenly bodies do, in a certain sense, influence our mind. We all know, of course, that difference of mental function is the result of difference of temperament. But no one who reflects on the nature of the mind or of free-will, can possibly believe, that the heavens can in any way influence our choice, or rule the course of human events. Everything that happens due to the presence of the celestial bodies in our universe happens through natural causes; being naturally subject to these bodies. Therefore, if the operations of free-will were the result of the influence of these bodies, these operations would be natural and not voluntary, originating not from free-will, but from natural animal instinct. The absurdity of this opinion can be easily demonstrated. First, we know that all things of the same nature, which live by natural instinct, come to the same end, by the same means, and in the same manner - just as all heavy things fall to the floor if dropped. But men, in both natural and contrived situations, reach different ends and use different means. Therefore, their operations are not natural, but voluntary. Secondly, natural operations are always, or almost always, well ordered because nature tends not to err, whereas human operations are not always error free. Thirdly, natural operations, as far as they are natural, do not vary. All swallows build their nests and feed their young in the same way; and sparrows, and every species of bird, follow their own specific method of carrying on these operations. But, human operations are so diverse, that we see scarcely two men who act in the same way. This is because man is guided, not by instinct, but by free will. Again, if human choice was directed by instinct, then virtue and vice must be imputed to nature and not to individuals. Such a view would destroy all ideas of injustice, or purpose, or of providence in human affairs. Since nature is governed by God and is immutable239, man would necessarily be left to act according to his instinct. We can imagine what would then be the state of human affairs. But, to return to our first proposition. Since the mind in its operations exceeds all bodies, the will also exceeds them; because its love and desire even reach to God. Therefore, the will cannot be subject to any physical power. 239

Immutable - unchanging

174

Further, as means are suited to their end; and as the ultimate end of man exceeds any physical thing; the operations of the mind and the will are suited to spiritual goals by being free of the influence of all bodies – including the influence of heavenly bodies. And, although our bodies are subject to the environment, including celestial bodies, and even if their influence might lead us to act against reason, yet we have so much power that we are able to resist their influence. Such strength of will shows that our actions and choices are not subject to the heavens, but to our freedom of choice. So if the firmament is not, strictly speaking, the cause of our actions, it cannot be called our god. For God is the First Cause, who does all things, and acts in all things. However some claim that the heavenly bodies are animate. They say that the stars do not control our mind and will, but they are influenced by the life force in the heavens. The following arguments will easily demonstrate the fallacy of this idea: First, an instrument that is not suitable for a particular job, is useless. To say that the heavenly bodies are instruments of the life force of the universe, which act on our mind, is to describe instruments that are useless. Because, it has already been proved that the power of the heavens is not strong enough to overcome the influence of the mind and will Secondly, the life force of the heavens cannot use the celestial bodies as instruments to immediately and directly affect the mind, or will. This is because physical influences cannot immediately act on what is spiritual. But the power of the heavenly bodies may, certainly, affect our physical temperament, and by means of it may influence our imagination and inner feelings. These feelings may in turn, suggest to our mind some advantage to be sought, or peril to be avoided. But no one is obligated to act on these feelings. We are always free to think, or not to think of what we choose; and experience proves that man is master of his actions. Therefore, it is unreasonable to say that the stars and the firmament, or the life force that animates them, is God. Because God is the one who is directly responsible for the existence and operation of all things. He is the one who directs our mind and will; although in directing it He always respects our liberty, because He directs all things in a way that is sensitive to their nature. Therefore, all worship given to the heavens, or to the stars, or to the life force of the universe, is empty and dangerous. These bodies are created for the service of man; and no one ought to worship that which is meant to be his servant. So we see the folly of astrologers who assign to the heavens the government of human affairs, and pretend to direct men by observation of the stars. But, even in these enlightened times there are some nominal Christians who try to uphold the fallacies of astrology through their practices. For example, they say that freewill is subject to God and not to the heavens, but there is an intuitive part to our nature, which directs the actions of most men, and it is subject to astral influences.

175

They also say that God governs human affairs by means of the stars, as secondary causes, and therefore by means of the stars they can foretell future events. Indeed so far does the Father of Lies lead them astray, that they delude men into trusting the stars more than they trust God. So they persuade them not to undertake anything without first consulting the heavens. This system of astrological divination so little deserves the name of science, or of art, that the best philosophers have judged it unworthy of notice, and just ignore it. Both Plato and Aristotle dismiss it. The latter many times proves that astrology cannot provide any knowledge of the future. Because future events, which may or may not happen, cannot be known of themselves, as they do not yet exist. Nor can we foresee future events by looking at their cause, since they have no definite or determinate cause. These events are uncertain and wholly undetermined. But, granted that man could arrive at some knowledge of the future, he certainly could not obtain it by looking at the heavens, as the universal cause of lower things. Certainly no knowledge of particular events can be obtained by the contemplation of a universal cause, but only by the investigation of close and particular causes. Physicians do not use the stars to try to discover the causes of sickness, nor do they endeavour to cure by an astrolabe.240 Instead, they investigate to find the particular causes of the illness, and the physical condition of their patient. So, nothing can be more foolish than to attempt to investigate future events, (which will arise from the free-will of individuals and from particular causes) by the mere contemplation of the stars and planets. Astrologers say that different virtues and powers reside in different parts of the heavens. The absurdity of this pretence shows the stupidity of their other superstitions. The very greatest philosophers, who certainly were far wiser and better informed than astrologers, have never discovered any virtue in the heavens, claimed by astrologers. The astrologers go on to claim that these virtues or powers act upon the earth by means of the moon and the motion of the heavens. They say that the variety of events on earth is caused, primarily, by the variation in brightness and from the motions of the planets and stars. The variation between people and situations is a secondary cause. So according to their opinion, if we wish to foretell future events, it is not sufficient to know the variation of brightness and motion in the heavens; we must also understand the details of particular situations, without which the celestial bodies cannot act. But, for reasons already stated, we could not, even if we had this knowledge, arrive at any certainty concerning the future. How likely is it that we will find such certainty merely by gazing at the stars - especially concerning events which depend on free-will?

240

Astrolabe - an ancient instrument used in medieval times by navigators and astronomers to determine latitude, longitude, and time of day. The device employed a disk with 360 degrees marked on its circumference. Users took readings from an indicator that pivoted around the centre of the suspended device like the hand of a clock. The sextant replaced the astrolabe in the 18th century.

176

But, even if we assume with astrologers, that divine properties reside in the heavens, this does not prove that their astrology is not foolish. For such properties can be nothing but the universal causes of the things which take place on earth. The stars and planets are more remote from earth than the elements241, and as the elements are universal causes of things on earth, the celestial bodies must be very remote causes. Now, merely by understanding the generative life force of nature in general, we cannot know the method of reproduction peculiar to individual species of animated life—such as animals or plants. Still less can we arrive at such knowledge merely by contemplating the heavens. But, although it is an absurdity, let us concede to astrologers, that the effect of the astral bodies is more particular than that of the elements. Their divination would still be idle folly because our senses, (which are the source of our knowledge), can never investigate anything so far remote as the forces of the heavens. The greatest philosophers have never discovered these forces. We cannot understand the properties even of many things which we handle every day! So how can astrologers, who do not have the mental capacity or the learning of the philosophers, pretend to analyse the powers of the stars? But, they would have no reason to boast of their idle superstitions even if they did understand these powers. Because the particular causes that exist, cannot have been created in vain, since nothing has been made without a purpose. If there are certain particular forces residing in the heavens, e.g., one controlling the reproduction of mankind, another the reproduction of oxen, etc., we should have to say, that earthly causes only exist to prepare earthly things to submit to the power of astral forces. Therefore, for the purposes of divination, an astrologer could not be satisfied by the mere contemplation of the heavens. The heavenly bodies impact differently on matter, according to its varying condition. So if matter has not been duly prepared, it is incapable of receiving any astral influence. And, as there may be many obstacles in the preparation of matter, an astrologer could not gain any sure knowledge of particular things by merely gazing at the skies. For example, let us suppose that the force contained in one particular star is adapted to produce grapes from a vine. We cannot, by merely gazing at the star, calculate the crop which that vine will yield, because many things may hinder its fruitfulness. For example, it may be planted in unsuitable soil; it may be cut down; cattle may nibble at it; or some other star may injure it, by causing either drought or too much rain. By merely looking at the sky we cannot know which of these, and many similar incidents, may occur. And if we can arrive at no more certain conclusion about purely natural thing like a grape, how much less can we trust our judgment concerning things which depend on the endless variation of free-will? Therefore, when we consider the false principles on which astrology is based, and the changeable nature of man's desires and will, we shall see very clearly that the conduct of 241

Elements – in Greek philosophy the four elements are fire, earth, air and water. They were seen as the cause of weather and climate.

177

human affairs does not depend on the stars. And it is an absurdity to try to direct man's lives by studying the heavens. It is not our intention to argue at any greater length against such folly. We will rest content with having proved that any religion, that has ever been, or ever shall be invented, for the worship of the stars and other heavenly bodies, is meaningless and superstitious. Count Giovanni Pico della Mirandola,242 is a man whose wonderful intelligence and wealth of learning must be numbered among the great works of God and of nature. In his book of disputations243 he has successfully refuted and completely demolished the claims of astrologers to any powers of divination. So that anyone who reads his treatise intelligently, and does not then despise astrology, must be considered a very unreasonable man. In order, furthermore, to convince everyone of the folly of astrologers, I also have composed and published a work, in everyday language,244 disproving their teaching. So anyone who wants to, can read these books and discover how stupid it is to give any time to such a superstition, or to trust in it.

CHAPTER 4 IDOLATRY IS THE MOST USELESS OF ALL THINGS We have already shown that the religion of philosophers, who worshipped the First Cause, was insufficient for salvation; and that the teaching of astrologers was most useless and dangerous. How much more contemptible, then, is worship given to images 242

Count Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 – 1494) was an Italian prince who gave himself to study, particularly philosophy and theology. He studied in many of the major universities of Europe, learning several languages. While still a young man he arrived in Rome and confidently put forward 900 propositions for a debating tournament, but his arrogance was condemned and he fled to Florence where he taught and found the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici. In Florence he was celebrated for his learning and he came to know and admire Savonarola. Villari says of them – Any one comparing him with Pico, the one full of charm, courteous, sociable, and buoyant; the other full of gravity, lonely, severe and almost harsh, might have judged the two characters to be thoroughly antagonistic and incapable of coming to an understanding. Yet from that day each felt drawn to the other, and their sympathy went on increasing. Neither fame, flattery, nor self-conceit succeeded in spoiling Pico‘s heart. His nature, unlike that of the other learned men of the day, was essentially good, and readily receptive of the holy inspirations of truth and goodness. Thus, despite all real and apparent dissimilarities existing between them, these two men became united in an enduring friendship. (Villari; Life and Times of Girolamo Savonarola; Book 1 ch 5. Pico died November 17, 1494, probably poisoned because of his close friendship with Savonarola. He was buried at San Marco‘s in Florence and Savonarola took the funeral. 243

Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinicatrium (Disputations Against Astrological Divination) - was published in Latin after his death, and at the very time Savonarola was writing this work. Pico particularly condemned the practices of the astrology in his day, and destroyed the belief system of astrology itself. 244

Savonarola published his work in Italian, in Florence in 1495. Later a Latin edition, Contra Astrologiam Divinatricem (Against Astrological Divination) was published.

178

of wood and stone, made in the likeness of men or beasts? Surely, such a religion needs no refutation; since every one can see that it is foolish to honour insensitive objects. To excuse their folly, some men say that they do not honour images themselves, but the gods dwelling in them, just as Christians honour the images of the saints. Therefore we shall show that the worship which they pay to these gods was and is, both impious and superstitious. This is a fitting place to discuss this subject, because we have been looking at extremes and now we need to speak about things midway between God and the heavens; the realm of spirits245 which were the gods of the pagans. We must remember that God moves the will of man in two ways. Sometimes by showing him something good, in order to arouse a love for it within him. Sometimes by applying His power to the will of man, in order to influence him to an act of love or of desire. This is just like a shepherd who may attract a sheep by showing it food; or he may use his hand to draw it along. Now, people can influence each other in the first of these two ways, but no man can act on the will of another in the second way. Because the will comes directly from God, it is directly subject to Him, and He alone can move it to will, or not to will. Even though the will is completely in God's power, He never acts upon it in such a way as to deprive man of his liberty. He always leaves him his free-will, because God works with all things according to their nature and ability. Because man, as man, is immediately subject to God; and to Him alone, as to the Prime Mover and Ruler of all things, he owes Him the worship of latria.246 He is bound to pay honour to angels, only as far as they reflect the glory of God. Therefore, the Christian gives all his worship to God. He honours the saints and angels, not as gods but as the friends of God. He desires that they should pray for him, and ask from God the things that he, by himself, cannot obtain from God. He praises God in His saints, and thanks Him that He has given such glory to His creatures. This is a lawful and holy way of honouring God and angels. But idolaters adored their idols, burnt incense to them, and implored favours of them, believing them to be true gods. But some may argue that, although the heathens adored many gods, their worship was really directed to Almighty God, whom they adored in all their other gods. We shall show that, even if this were the case, it would not justify the folly and evil of idolatry. First, because the people of the heathen nations could not appreciate such distinctions, and were therefore misled; and secondly, because the heathen ceremonies were largely composed of absurd and immoral rites. It cannot be argued that such

245

disembodied spirits, or souls which have left this world and were worshipped by some pagans

246

Latria - The highest kind of worship offered to God alone; - distinguished by Roman Catholics from dulia - the inferior worship paid to saints.

179

ceremonies were practised only by impious men who wanted to debase the worship of idols, since they were observed throughout the whole world, even among great men. But we will not now argue this point any further. We will confine ourselves to proving that the idols worshipped by the heathen, were not gods, but evil spirits, in whose person God could not be honoured. It is proper that every intelligent spirit should submit itself and pay homage to its First Cause, which is God. It should also seek to influence lower spirits to do the same, so that God, the worker of all-good, may be glorified in all things. But the spirits worshipped by idolaters, whilst frequently giving answers to those who questioned them, never turned men to true religion, nor to a well-ordered life. In fact, we read that they acted in completely opposite ways, undermining all order, deceiving men, and usurping the honour due to God. In this way they filled the world with so much sin and ignorance, that mankind had no knowledge of God. Again, good spirits do not work evil, nor encourage hatred, nor inspire vice. But we read of the pagan deities, that among them war, dissensions, sacrilege, incest, and many other horrendous crimes, were common; and the extraordinary stories of their lives set a bad example to all mankind. Furthermore, God being self-sufficient and needing nothing, does not desire our worship for His own sake. He encourages us to worship for our own profit, as a way to leading us to wholeness and blessing. Therefore, every good spirit ought, as far as possible, to obey this divine command, and to teach others to worship God, in order to gain intimacy with God. Consequently, had the heathen deities been good spirits, they would have worked to make men virtuous and spiritually complete in the knowledge, love, and desire of God. Now, on the contrary, they deceived mankind by so many useless lies, that truth and virtue were far better taught in the schools of philosophers like Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, than in the temples of the gods. And those philosophers, who despised or ignored the pagan religions, were men of better morality than the heathen priests. Further, if the heathen deities had been good spirits, they would have given to mankind some assurance of obtaining what it desired; that is intimacy with God and true virtue. In doing this they would have proved that they watched over the interests of man as guardians, whose duty it was to direct all things to their proper end. They would have particularly wanted to assist, as they knew that even philosophers could not arrive at knowledge of this truth, because of the weakness of human intellect. But, far from acting helpfully, the pagan gods confused the minds of mortals, and prevented them from obtaining this knowledge. Good spirits are not liars, and do not deceive men; because falsehood is always evil. But we read of the gods of the ancients, that they frequently misled their questioners by giving them false and ambiguous answers. Again, as we have already shown, the knowledge of things to come is a divine prerogative, so, had the heathen gods been good spirits, they would not have claimed

180

such knowledge. But, unlike our prophets they did not say, "This is what God says". They spoke from themselves, pretending to have knowledge of the future, and seducing men into superstition. They also pretended to disclose details of future events by means of animals‘ entrails, or the song and flight of birds, and similar foolishness. Good spirits would not only have abstained from all this; they would even have forbidden them to their followers. Neither would good spirits have encouraged magical arts, which led to gross immorality and the sacrifice of innocent people. On the contrary, they would have loathed such practices, and would have strenuously forbidden them. Again, no good spirit would take pleasure in cruelty. But we read that the sacrifices offered to the heathen deities, not only included the slaughter of beasts, but of children and young women. Their own fathers killed them because the gods desired these massacres, and delighted in them. When pagan temples were destroyed, following the preaching of the Apostles, innumerable bones were found of men and women, but mostly of children, of both sexes. We could record endless evils which have sprung from idolatry. What we have said will be sufficient, seeing that, through the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ, this false teaching has been swept from the face of the earth. The heathen religions have likewise been effectively refuted and exposed by our forefathers, who were men of learning. Surely if the pagan idols had been gods, their worship could never have been completely exterminated, as has been the case.

CHAPTER 5 A REFUTATION OF JEWISH UNFAITHFULNESS AND SUPERSTITION From what we have been saying it is clear, that, before the coming of Christ, the light of natural reason was obscured. This was to such a degree, that, without His help, mankind would have been so blinded by sin as to sink below the level of irrational animals. Therefore, man needed supernatural light. But many have made a bad use of the supernatural revelation that is the source of this light, - chiefly among whom are the Jews. Therefore we intend to dispute with them and to show them their errors. Although they glory in the Old Testament, they pervert it by their strained and erroneous interpretations. Now, all their hope is centred on the Messiah, for whose coming they still look. If we are able to prove to them that the Messiah has already come, and is Jesus Christ our Saviour, then they cannot deny that our religion is of God, and that they are in error. And, although the proofs given in our Second Book ought to be sufficient to convince them, (because if Jesus is not the Messiah, who can come who will be greater or more

181

worthy than He?), we will, nevertheless, provide some further special arguments founded on those very Scriptures in which the Jews believe. We shall, however, discuss these points very briefly, as they have already been very fully dealt with by learned men. We have promised in this Book not to appeal to the witness of any authority, but to reason alone. But here our reasoning is based on the authority in which our adversaries believe, because this is most convincing for them, and most profitable to other unbelievers. Therefore, on the authority of the Prophets, we shall prove that Jesus Christ of Nazareth, crucified by the Jews, is the Messiah of the Patriarchs and Prophets, and that He was, in many ways, foretold and foreshadowed in Holy Scripture. First, however, we must establish some self-evident principles. It was known to all the Jews, that God had promised to send them a Saviour and a great Prophet. He would be called the Messiah, and all men were to hear and obey Him as God Himself. So Moses says to the people: ―The Lord your God will raise up for you a prophet like me from among your own brothers. You must listen to him. For this is what you asked of the Lord your God‖ (Deut. 18:15-16) And, again, the Lord speaks in these terms to Moses: ―I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brothers; I will put my words in his mouth, and he will tell them everything I command him. If anyone does not listen to my words that the prophet speaks in my name, I myself will call him to account.‖ (Deut. 18:18-19) So It is certain, and acknowledged by all the Jews, that the details concerning the Messiah were foretold in the Mosaic Law, in the Psalms, and in the Prophets. That is to say, there are many predictions concerning His race, place of birth, the time of His coming, His life and teaching, His works, and many other things unique to the Messiah. It is also known, throughout the world, that the Old Testament, interpreted by Christian doctors, shows that all that is written of the Messiah is true of Jesus of Nazareth. In fact, so aptly do the prophecies of the Old Testament apply to Christ and to His Church, that if the Jews were not so loud in proclaiming the antiquity of Moses and the Prophets, their predictions might be taken as forgeries created by Christians. Let us then ask the Jews whether Jesus of Nazareth is the true Messiah. If He is, they ought to become Christians; because they have been commanded to hear and to obey Him. If He is not the Messiah, how is it that God has allowed all the predictions unique to the Messiah to be demonstrated to the Jews, since He commanded them to follow Him who would display these qualifications? If Christ is not the Messiah, we must say one of three things. God did not know that Jesus was to come into the world. God knew but could not prevent His coming God had the power, but not the will, to oppose His coming. Any of these answers would be unworthy of a sane man.

182

If God foreknew the coming of Christ, and could have prevented it, why did He not do so, since he had imposed such strict commandments upon the Jews? It would look as if God had deceived the Jews. It would look as if He could not condemn Christians for following Jesus of Nazareth, seeing his whole character and career was described by all the Prophets and who was greater than all other men. Certainly if He is not the Messiah, we should not expect anyone greater would perform greater wonders than He did. If He is not the Messiah, God has deceived the whole human race through Him. Let the Jews then search the Scriptures, and see what distinguishing mark they expect to see in their Messiah, which is not clearly seen in Jesus of Nazareth. Again, Holy Scripture predicts the time when the Messiah is to come. This time, as we can see from the Scriptures, has long since passed. So, if no man has ever been seen on earth, possessing greater power, wisdom, or goodness than Jesus of Nazareth, how can we doubt, that, if the Messiah has already come, He was Jesus? Many passages in Holy Scripture indicate the time fixed for the coming of the Messiah. In Genesis we read: "The sceptre will not depart from Judah, nor the ruler's staff from between his feet, until he comes to whom it belongs and the obedience of the nations is his.‖ (Gen. 49:10). Again in Daniel we read: " Seventy ‗weeks‘ are decreed for your people and your holy city to finish transgression, to put an end to sin, to atone for wickedness, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal up vision and prophecy and to anoint the most holy. "Know and understand this: From the issuing of the decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until the Anointed One, the ruler, comes, there will be seven ‗weeks‘, and sixty-two ‗weeks‘. It will be rebuilt with streets and a trench, but in times of trouble. After the sixty-two ‗weeks‘, the Anointed One will be cut off and will have nothing. The people of the ruler who will come will destroy the city and the sanctuary. The end will come like a flood: War will continue until the end, and desolations have been decreed. He will confirm a covenant with many for one ‗week‘. In the middle of the ‗week‘ he will put an end to sacrifice and offering. And on a wing of the temple he will set up an abomination that causes desolation, the desolation shall continue even to the consummation and to the end." (Dan. 9:24-27). We can easily see from these words, that Jesus Christ is the true Messiah. Because the seventy weeks mentioned have passed long ago and there is no one except Christ with whom we can connect these prophecies. In the Holy Scriptures, as we learn from Leviticus 23 and 25, a week may signify either seven days247 or seven years248. Now, seventy weeks of years amount to 490 years. And this period has elapsed four times between the days of Daniel and our own time. 247

Leviticus 23:3 There are six days when you may work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath of rest, a day of sacred assembly. 248

Leviticus 25:8 'Count off seven sabbaths of years—seven times seven years—so that the seven sabbaths of years amount to a period of forty-nine years.

183

And, if any one should object, that Daniel meant by a week neither seven days nor seven years, but some longer period, we would ask him what the longer period may be? He will not be able to answer in terms that we can accept, because any period unsupported by Holy Scripture, will be his own invention. Surely, if by a week God intended to signify a number of days and years not mentioned in Scripture, He should have made Daniel aware of the fact. Otherwise He would have rendered Daniel‘s prophecy useless, and a cause of confusion and error. It must, therefore, be conceded that the time appointed for the advent of the Messiah is past; and that He has already come. It is useless to answer, that, although the weeks predicted by Daniel have elapsed, the Messiah has not arrived. That would involve arguing that neither Daniel nor the other Prophets do indicate how soon after the close of the seventy weeks Christ is to come. If there were any truth in this sort of argument, then it would follow that the Prophets never foretold anything with certainty, concerning the Messiah. However, Daniel expressly says, "Know and understand this: From the issuing of the decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until the Anointed One, the ruler, comes, there will be seven ‗weeks‘, and sixty-two ‗weeks‘. and again: "He will confirm a covenant with many for one ‗week‘. In the middle of the ‗week‘ he will put an end to sacrifice and offering." The meaning of these words certainly cannot be applied to any one except Christ. Therefore we see that He is the one referred to in this text. Otherwise God would have led us into error, by letting us believe that what was actually spoken about someone else, referred to Christ. But let us now proceed to an exposition of the words. It is clear, from what has already been said, that Jesus came into the world, in order to dispel error, and to lead men to holiness of life. So the time of His coming is plainly indicated by the words, ―Seventy ‗weeks‘ are decreed for your people and your holy city"; because they indicate that He was to preach first to the Jews. And the next words, "to finish transgression, to put an end to sin, to atone for wickedness, to bring in everlasting righteousness," have worldwide implication. And, because all the prophets speak of Christ in the same way, Daniel continues, "to seal up vision and prophecy and to anoint the most holy," by which we understand the anointing of Jesus Christ, at His Incarnation, with the unction of the Holy Spirit. But, as many different things were accomplished at the same time, Daniel describes them all together.

184

First he mentions "seven weeks," because at that time, as we read in Ezra and Nehemiah, the temple and city, destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, were, with the greatest difficulty, restored. Secondly, he next speaks of "sixty-two weeks," because during that period, as we learn from the book of Maccabees, the Jews were severely under attack from their enemies. Thirdly, Daniel refers to "one week," because at the beginning of one week Christ began to preach, and in the middle of a week He was crucified, because He preached for three and a half years.249 His Apostles followed Him, and they taught the Jews that the legal sacrifices and ceremonies need no longer be observed. As the reality had come, it was right that the things that foretold His coming should come to an end. The Church Fathers show that Christ began to preach, and was killed at the predicted time. (Because their books are widely read, I will just give a brief outline.) As the Jews denied Christ before Pilate saying, "We have no king but Caesar," they were justly condemned by God, and the Gentiles chosen by Him in their place. Their rejection is signified by the words, "the people that shall deny Him shall not be His 250―: in punishment for their sin, they were dispersed. Therefore, the Prophet continues, "and a people"; the Romans, "with their leader that shall come"; Vespasian251 and Titus252, "shall destroy the city and the sanctuary,‖ the Temple. And, as the Jews were completely routed and dispersed, the prophecy concludes with the words, "and the end thereof shall be waste, and after the end of the war the appointed desolation ". God had promised to the Patriarchs and Prophets to send the Messiah, who would open heaven to them and give them a new law. So we read in Jeremiah: "The time is coming," declares the Lord,‖ when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah. It will not be like the covenant I made with their forefathers when I took them by the hand to lead them out of Egypt, because they broke my covenant, though I was a husband to them,‖ declares the Lord. "This is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after that time," declares the Lord. "I will put my law in their minds and write it on their hearts. I will be their God, and they 249

Savonarola, quoting the Book of Leviticus, has already said that the "week'' of Daniel's prophecy is to be interpreted as being a week of years, that is seven years. He here explains that in the middle of a seven year period (one week) following his three and a half years of preaching, the Lord was crucified. Daniel 9:27 He will confirm a covenant with many for one 'seven'. In the middle of the 'seven' he will put an end to sacrifice and offering." 250

Savonarola is here quoting from the Vulgate version of Daniel 9.27 - And after sixty-two weeks Christ shall be slain: and the people that shall deny him shall not be his. et post ebdomades sexaginta duas occidetur christus et non erit eius et civitatem et sanctuarium dissipabit populus cum duce venturo et finis eius vastitas et post finem belli statuta desolatio 251

Vespasian, b. 9 AD He became a trusted aide of the emperor Nero and was put in charge of the suppression of the Jewish Revolt (66 AD - 70 AD); by 68 AD most of Judaea was recovered, although Jerusalem remained to be taken. 252

Titus, b. 39 AD the eldest son of Vespasian. In 67 AD went with his father to suppress the Jewish Revolt. In 69 AD, Vespasian returned to Rome to assert his claim as Emperor. Titus continued the campaign and in 70 AD, Jerusalem was routed, the temple was destroyed and most of the population killed.

185

will be my people.‖ (Jer. 31:31-33). Therefore Daniel says, " He will confirm a covenant with many for one ‗week ". This means, that Christ would, by His death and His preaching, along with that of His Apostles, confirm the covenant of the New Testament. This was not to all, (because all would not believe), but to many in one week; the last week, "In the middle of the ‗week‘ he will put an end to sacrifice and offering " because in the middle of this week Jesus Christ was crucified. And, as He was pictured and predicted by the sacrifices of the Old Law, it was right that when He, the true Light, came, these foreshadows should flee away. The Temple was consequently rendered useless, and in God‘s will it was profaned and utterly destroyed. Therefore Daniel continues, ―And he will set up an abomination that causes desolation.‖ This abomination refers to the statue of the Emperor Hadrian, which would be set up where the Ark of Moses had stood. In the eyes of the Jews every idol was abominable. The expression "abomination" may also refer to the Jewish sacrifices, which were to become abominable before the Lord. Finally, as the Jews will not come to faith in Christ until the end of the age, 253 Daniel concludes by saying, "the desolation shall continue even to the consummation and to the end ". This is confirmed by the Prophet Hosea in the words: "You are to live with me for many days; you must not be a prostitute," that is, ―you shall not worship idols‖. This prophecy foretells the fact, that, after their return from Babylon, even to this present time, the Jews have not fallen into idolatry (except for a short time in the period of the Maccabees254). The Prophet continues, "nor be intimate with any man," meaning that the Jews would not belong to Christ; "and I will live with you." For the Israelites will live for many days without king or prince, without sacrifice or sacred stones, without ephod or idol. Afterwards the Israelites will return and seek the Lord their God and David their king. They will come trembling to the Lord and to his blessings in the last days. (Hosea 3:3-5) This prophecy most distinctly points to Jesus of Nazareth. And if we study the other Prophets carefully, we shall see His coming is foretold by them all.

253

Referring to Romans 11:25-28 - I do not want you to be ignorant of this mystery, brothers, so that you may not be conceited: Israel has experienced a hardening in part until the full number of the Gentiles has come in. And so all Israel will be saved, as it is written: "The deliverer will come from Zion; he will turn godlessness away from Jacob. And this is my covenant with them when I take away their sins." As far as the gospel is concerned, they are enemies on your account; but as far as election is concerned, they are loved on account of the patriarchs. 254

Maccabees – were a Jewish family of second and first century B.C. that brought a restoration of Jewish political and religious life. They are also called Hasmoneans after their ancestor, Hashmon. The Maccabees appear in history as the family of a priest, Mattathias, who opposed the Syrian ruler Antiochus. Who had desecrated the Temple by offering a Greek sacrifice, and begun a religious persecution. On his death the leadership passed to his son Judas Maccabeus, (who gives the name to the movement). He took over Jerusalem and re-consecrated the Temple in 165 B.C. This is celebrated in the Jewish Hanukah festival. Later the house of Maccabees made several efforts to overthrow Roman rule. Their history is recorded in First and Second Maccabees and the Antiquities of Josephus.

186

But, returning to our original point, we observe that the time for the advent of the Messiah has already passed. Not only the time determined by the Holy Scriptures, but also the time indicated by many Jewish scholars. So, as no other man has appeared bearing the characteristics which were to distinguish the Messiah - except Jesus of Nazareth, every one must conclude that Christ is the Messiah promised in the Law and the Prophets. This truth is further borne out by the last Jewish captivity, as we shall see if we compare it with the Babylonian captivity, by which it is typified. The captivity of Babylon was a punishment on the Jews for their many sins, especially for their idolatry, which of all crimes is the most heinous. Nevertheless, even during their captivity, they were always consoled by the presence of their leaders and prophets and holy men; and their exile did not last for more than seventy years. But their present captivity255 has lasted for more than 1400 years, which they have endured, deprived of any sacrifices; without princes, prophets, or priests. Neither has God assigned any limit to the time of their captivity. Yet, they have not incurred this punishment because of idolatry, since, as we have said, they have not fallen into this sin since the time of the Babylonian captivity. Why then have the Jews been scattered over the face of the earth, so that all men know some Jews personally? Surely, if idolatry is the greatest of all crimes, and if they have not committed it for hundreds of years, their punishment ought to be a lighter one than that which they once incurred for idolatry. It must be that they are suffering for an offence even more heinous. This offence is, that, with malicious treachery and hatred they crucified the true Son of God, whom they knew to be the Messiah by His life, His miracles, and the prophecies concerning Him. They have, with a few exceptions, continued this hatred until now. And it is for this crime, and in order to give testimony to our faith, that they have been dispersed over the earth. Again. For a very long time, no sign of holiness or of true religion has appeared among the Hebrew people. They have been distinguished by avarice and other sins. The gift of prophecy has dried up and is not found among them. God does not now show that they are his people with any special sign, as He did in the past. On the other hand, the Church of the Gentiles shows signs of holiness of life, true religion, and the wonderful works of Christ and of His saints. This is verified by the prophecy of Malachi, who records God saying to the Jews, "I am not pleased with you, and I will accept no offering from your hands. My name will be great among the nations, from the rising to the setting of the sun. In every place incense 255

Captivity – refers to the exile and being ‗held‘ away from God. Savonarola says that this exile will end when the Jews ‗return‘ to the Lord. "For the Israelites will live for many days without king or prince, without sacrifice or sacred stones, without ephod or idol. Afterwards the Israelites will return and seek the Lord their God and David their king. They will come trembling to the Lord and to his blessings in the last days. (Hosea 3:3-5)

187

and pure offerings will be brought to my name, because my name will be great among the nations," says the Lord Almighty. (Malachi 1:10-11) If God, who is out of relationship with the Hebrew people, is not in relationship with the Gentiles, then He must have utterly forsaken the human race. Again, if it is true that God does not despise small things, then neither does He despise great things. By His Prophets He has foretold many events and matters concerning the small kingdoms of the Idumeans, Moabites, Ammonites. They are far less important than the deeds of Christ and of His Church. Surely, then, it would be an extraordinary thing if He were to remain silent about these wonderful works. Especially as before the coming of our Lord, He did predict all the evils which have since befallen the Jews. Now, because the rejection of the Kingdom of Christ by the Jews was a far greater and more enduring calamity than any other, it is reasonable to suppose that God would have warned them of it. Just as He warned them of the lesser evils which would come upon them from Nebuchadnezzar, and other kings and nations. Would He mention them and yet have made no reference in the Scripture to the advent of Christ? But, the Scriptures do consistently mention Him. By comparing His works with the predictions of the Prophets, we see that the only prophecies that can apply to Him and His works are those that refer to the Messiah. Therefore, we are driven to conclude that, either God has deceived us or Jesus Christ is the Messiah. If, again, we study history, we shall see, that, before the coming of our Lord, God continually displayed His wonders among the Jewish people. But since the advent of Christ, no marvellous sign has ever been performed among them. This proves that they are forsaken of God. That the Almighty has abandoned them is further shown, by their lack of understanding. Because their doctrines are so full of foolish fables, that no one with any sense would teach them. And their expositions of Holy Scripture are so palpably wrong, that one wonders why shame has not prevented their publication. Or why they are not ashamed of creating the fallacies in which they abound. We could bring forward many other proofs to refute of the Jews. But the scholars of the Church have written very fully on this matter, so that what we have said is sufficient. However, if anyone will study these arguments against the Jews, together with those given in our Second Book, he will most certainly conclude, that Jesus of Nazareth is the true God, and the Messiah foretold by the Prophets.

CHAPTER 6 THE MALICIOUS UNTRUTHFULNESS OF HERETICS We must next consider the case of heretics, who, while acknowledging Christ and the Gospel, embrace many errors. It would take too long to refute every heresy. Therefore, as scholars have devoted themselves to this task, we will simply, by means of reasoning, refute the principles common to them all.

188

First, then, we will prove that it is necessary that the Church should be governed by only one head. If heretics believe that divine providence rules the world, and especially the Church, by which such great deeds have been accomplished, they must, to be consistent, admit that the form of government ordained by the Lord of all things must be the best. Now, the best government is a monarchy; because, by it a nation is brought into closer unity, than by a government administered by many. The goal of such a government is unity and peace. Therefore, the government adopted by the Church should be the best kind of government - its government must be a monarchy. Again, the government of earthly things should naturally follow the example of the government of heavenly things. The more closely it resembles it, the more perfect it will be. Therefore, the government of the Church on earth should follow the pattern of the Church in glory. It is ruled by God alone, so only one ruler must administer the Church on earth. Further, spiritual things are more perfectly ordered than are natural things. Now in nature we see that wherever society exists there is only one ruler. For instance, bees have only one queen, and the only one heart regulates the limbs of the body. Therefore, as the government of the Church is spiritual and supernatural, it is superior to all other governments, and it must be administered by only one governor. Now, all heretics accept with us either the New Testament alone, or both the New Testament and the Old Testament, although they dissent from us in the interpretation of the Scriptures. But both in the Old and in the New Testament, it is distinctly said that the Church is to have one head. " The people of Judah and the people of Israel will be reunited, and they will appoint one leader.‖ (Hosea 1:11) "There shall be one fold and one Shepherd," says our Lord (John 10:16). No one can reasonably understand such words as meaning, that after His ascension, Christ would be the Head of His Church in such manner that no earthly head would be required. In that case, He would have created endless confusion and discord. There would have been no one to adjudicate between the many opinions concerning faith and morals, which would have arisen among Christians. Therefore, our Lord spoke to St. Peter alone when he said, "Feed My sheep" (John 21:17). And again, "I have prayed for you, Simon, that your faith may not fail. And when you have turned back, strengthen your brothers." (Luke 22:32). Here He shows that He left St. Peter as His vicar256. He made his intention still more clear when he said, " And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven." (Matt. 16:18-19)

256

Vicar - from Latin vicarious, meaning, a substitute or representative

189

However it should not be supposed that Christ gave this status only to St. Peter, to the exclusion of his successors. Because Christ Himself declared that the Church should continue forever in the form established by Him. Speaking to His disciples, and addressing all the faithful, He said, " Surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age." (Matt. 28:20) And again, through Isaiah, He says, "Of the increase of his government and peace there will be no end. He will reign on David's throne and over his kingdom, establishing and upholding it with justice and righteousness from that time on and for ever. The zeal of the Lord Almighty will accomplish this." (Is. 9:7). These passages clearly indicate, that the office given by Christ as a responsibility to St. Peter, besides being helpful, was essential for the Church. By a perpetual succession of vicars, the Church‘s government is guaranteed forever. So it follows that, as St. Peter was chosen by Christ to be His vicar and the shepherd of the whole Church, all his successors must inherit his authority. And, because the Bishops of Rome hold the office of Peter, the Roman Church must therefore be the mother and ruler of all churches; and the whole body of the faithful must be in unity with the Roman Pontiff. Therefore whoever teaches things contrary to the doctrine of the Roman Church, stops following Christ, and follows heretical ways. And, as all heretics dissent from the teaching of the Church, they have all turned from the right way, and are unworthy of the name of Christian. By heretics we mean those who falsify the Holy Scriptures, choose a religion to their own liking, and then are obstinate in sticking with their error. Again, it is often said: "Truth unites with truth, and all truths confirm each other". But heretics so completely disagree between themselves, that they have scarcely a point in common. They are perpetually flinging abuse at one another; and no solid argument can be found in their teaching. This in itself proves how far they have strayed from the truth. But the doctrine of the Roman Church regarding faith and morals is a unity; and her almost innumerable scholars, never dissent, nor desire to dissent, from it. Again, the Kingdom of Christ within the Church militant will endure until the end of the world. In fact even after the earth has been made new, this kingdom will continue in the Church triumphant. Now, as many heretics have risen against the Roman Church, and have been absolutely crushed, it is clear that they cannot have formed part of the Church, and that their teaching was not of God. Again, the sinful lives of many heretics prove that they have not been sent from God. Not one, even among the most eminent of the heretics, has been held in the same honour as the saints of our Church. (Even their bones and ashes are solemnly honoured and the day of their death is commemorated by praises of their holy lives.) Heretics also commit numerous errors not only concerning Holy Scripture, but also regarding natural reason and true philosophy. This is another proof that their teaching is not inspired by God.

190

But we need not further discuss their errors, since they have been fully refuted by holy scholars. And their heretical doctrines (I speak of those that have been more public in their attack on the Church), have been almost entirely uprooted. This itself is a proof that they did not come from God.

CHAPTER 7 THE UTTER IRRATIONALITY OF THE RELIGION OF ISLAM Please note – In these days of Internet search engines, it would be possible to access material in this chapter without reading my disclaimer at the beginning of this document. This means that some of the writing of Savonarola, which is robust in language, could be read and be thought to have my approval. Such material could be hurtful or offensive to members of the Islamic Community, when I intend no offence. So rather than risk offending anyone, I have chosen to remove the whole chapter and reference to Islam. I do this in the hope that the document may be a help and a blessing to all those who read it, and with my respect and thanks for the help of Islamic Scholars who have enriched my understanding. If for purposes of scholarship some person needs to consult this chapter, then they should make a request to me at [email protected]

CHAPTER 8 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION WILL REMAIN TRUE AND UNWAVERING UNTO THE END All religion must arise either from natural reason, from supernatural revelation, or from a union of the two. Therefore, if there are any religions or superstitions, besides the ones mentioned, we would be bound to refute them too, using the same arguments that we have already detailed. All religions founded by men, depend solely on natural reason. This was true of the religion of the ancient philosophers; based on the principles of human reason. We have already shown that such a religion will not be sufficient to bring us to salvation. Such religions may be founded on false principles of reason. This may occur in one of two ways. They may be based on false ideas concerning natural things, as in the superstition of astrology; or like idolatry, on false ideas coming from Satan.

191

Further, no religion can exist based on supernatural revelation unless it is firmly established by both the Old and the New Testaments. A false religion may, like Judaism, be based on the Old Testament alone; or, it may be based on misinterpretation of the New Testament; like heretical sects; or like Islam, it may rest on an assortment of the Old and the New Testaments. But Christianity is founded on both the Testaments, and is illuminated by both natural reason and by supernatural revelation. The religions which we have enumerated - philosophy, astrology, idolatry, Judaism, heresy, and Islam - are the chief religions in the world. And since Christianity, in rationality, in miracles, and in all other ways, surpasses them as much as heaven dominates earth, or light darkness; it is plain that Christianity must be the true religion and the sure harbour of salvation. But to prevent any niggles; we will add that even if someone in the future proclaimed the arrival of a new religion superior to the Christian Faith, this would not dim the glory of Christianity. However at present no better religion than that of Christ exists, so we ought to follow it until a better one appears! But it is unreasonable to think that a religion can exist which is superior to Christianity. Because the Faith of Christ sets before us the best possible goal, the most certain means of obtaining it, and the greatest and most wonderful achievements, it can never be superseded by any other system. Yet, supposing, for the sake of argument, that a religion superior to Christianity, should arise, it would not condemn our Faith. Because Christianity, as we have shown, comes from supernatural revelation and is compatible with human reason; it must have come from God. So no other religion can contradict it. Any religion better than Christianity would have to approve and commend the Christian Faith. Because any such religion would have to arise either from natural or supernatural understanding. From whichever of these sources, such a religion would have to approve and commend Christianity. For truth is always in harmony with truth; and whatsoever arises from natural or supernatural understanding must come from God. He is the Creator of natural and supernatural understanding, by which He enlightens the world with His truth. Were natural and supernatural understanding opposed to each other, then one would have to be false, and God would be teaching men both falsehood and truth at the same time. This possibility is obviously absurd. If God were to confuse us in this way, we should be incapable of knowing the truth. To put us in such a situation is foreign to God‘s divine nature. Therefore, if any other true religion were to arise in the world, it would be, of necessity, bound to approve Christianity, and to commend it as the truth that leads to eternal life.

192

CHAPTER 9 EPILOGUE Arguments carry greatest weight when accumulated. Therefore, the conclusion of our work will consist of a brief summary of the line of argument it has pursued. We began by asserting that the faith of Christians in the teaching of Christ, and their observance of His commandments, is not founded on frivolous motives, but on most rational grounds. Every intelligent man who considers the greatness and the wonderful harmony of the universe, will be convinced, that there must be a God. There must be a Supreme Cause and Prime Mover of all things. For, as some other thing moves everything that moves, there must be some Prime Mover. Further, the spirit is of higher status than the body, and God has a status above everything, therefore He must be a spirit and simple substance, or pure act. So it follows, that He is perfect, Supreme Good, Supreme Power, Immutable, Eternal, and One. Anything that has knowledge and status above material things has a greater degree of freedom from physical restrictions. God, therefore, must be highest Intelligence, and possess free-will. He must act, not out of compulsion, but by the choice of His will. He is involved in all things through His intelligence and will; even in the smallest things. So we must acknowledge that His providence cares for all things, and especially for man, for whom He has created everything in the realm of nature. So it is part of God‘s character and desire, to guide man to his Ultimate End, that is, sublime intimacy with himself. But, such intimacy with God cannot be attained in this present life, in which we are encompassed by misery, and enjoy only a scant knowledge of God. Therefore, if we are to be consistent we are forced to believe in another life, and to maintain that the soul is immortal, and that it is the form of the body. In this way the Catholic Church in dealing with the realities of life, teaches nothing unreasonable or unintelligible when speaking about God and the final blessing of man. If we next call to mind the picture which I drew of the Triumph of the Cross, we shall see that Christians, in confessing the Faith of Christ, show the truest wisdom. For, when we take in account man's natural predisposition to religion as a means for obtaining blessing, then the need for some religion to exist in the world cannot be denied. The purpose of religion is a good life, and a good life is that true religion in which God is perfectly honoured. So then as no better life than the Christian life exists, we must confess Christianity to be the true religion, through which man is safely led to ultimate blessing. If it is a hard matter to believe that Jesus Christ, who was crucified, is both God and man, we must bear in mind, that if this article of Faith were an error, believing it could not produce, foster, and develop the Christian life. Yet actually this truth produces more holiness among Christians than does any other truth of our faith.

193

Again, we know that the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, on which our whole Creed is founded, must be from God. Otherwise, the innumerable events which they predict would not have been verified. Nor would the Scriptures have borne such abundant fruit throughout the world. If our Faith were false, men of real integrity could not fail to discern its errors, especially when they are engaged in contemplation and prayer. But we see the opposite; that such men are the boldest champions of the Faith. Again, if our Faith were false, its external rites could not, as they do, create holiness in those who practise them reverently, nor deprave those who desecrate them. Nor, if the Faith were untrue, could it give to the hearts of Christians such peace, and joy, and freedom; so as to make them even count affliction as a blessing. Nor would it give their appearance such sincerity and calm, making them respected among all men, and a powerful witness to Christian living. Furthermore, when we consider the power of Christ, by which He has overcome all gods, emperors, tyrants, philosophers, heretics, and barbarous nations. when we remember how His work has been accomplished - not by the sword, nor by wealth, nor by human wisdom, but by the daily torture and death of His martyrs. when we think of His divine wisdom which has spread so quickly, enlightening the world and cleansing it of its errors. when we reflect upon His mercy, which has powerfully attracted multitudes to His love so, that not only have they renounced all earthly possessions, but have gladly suffered martyrdom rather than deny one ‗jot or tittle‘ 257of the faith Can we be hesitant about the truth of Christianity? What god, or what man, has performed similar wonders? If these marvellous works have been performed without a miracle; this itself would be the greatest of miracles! But if they have been worked through miracles, these miracles prove that Christianity is from by God. If we next study the teaching of Christ, we shall see that it contains nothing irrational. The very mystery of the Blessed Trinity is pictured in creation. Again it is reasonable to believe that God is the Creator of all things, since everything needs an efficient cause. Likewise, since man is destined for supernatural happiness, it is logical to believe in the sanctification and glorification of the soul, and the resurrection of the body; because without the body, the soul would be incomplete. Furthermore, in order that the senses, especially the eyes, of glorified bodies, may have something more

257

Matthew 5:18 For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. The tittle was a small textual markings in Hebrew, and the jot may have referred to the smallest Greek letter, iota or the smallest Hebrew letter, yod, or from the textual marking for a verb in Hebrew. The expression indicates – ‗smallest detail‘.

194

perfect and worthwhile to appreciate, it is rational to believe that this earth will also be glorified. As God is able to do more than we can conceive, He was able by His power to become man. And it was most fitting that He should become incarnate, in order to teach us about the hope of our ultimate intimacy with God, the true way to obtain this goal, and also, that He might make satisfaction to the Eternal Father for our sins. It was also appropriate that He should have been born of a pure virgin, and to die upon the cross, to teach us to face even death for the sake of righteousness. Again, it was appropriate that He should rise again in order to give us hope of our resurrection, and that having been unjustly judged by the wicked; He should become the Judge of the living and the dead. Again, nothing can be more in harmony with reason, than the moral and ethical code of Christianity; since no life is so perfect as is the Christian life. This Christian life is fostered by the life of the Church; whose doctrines contain all that is best in the teaching of philosophers and sages. Again, there is nothing irrational, or absurd, in the ceremonies of the Church. This is proved by the holiness of life that results from devout observance of them. Where else shall we find a religion established on such solid grounds of reason as Christianity? Philosophers ignore the true destiny of human life. Astrology is a web of superstition. Idolatry contains neither morality nor truth. Judaism is refuted by its own prophets of old, and by the present captivity of its followers. The discord between heretics, and the death of their sects, is a strong proof that they are in error. Islam is an outrage against every principle of philosophy. Christianity alone is resplendent with natural and supernatural reason and is adorned by holiness, wisdom, miracles, and wondrous deeds. Consequently, can any intelligent man hold back from a wholehearted acceptance of the Faith of Christ? Can any one fail to see the rashness and stupidity of those who reject a religion which has been blessed by God and preserved by Him through centuries of persecution, and consecrated by the blood of innumerable martyrs? Surely, every man of sound judgment acknowledges Christianity is true. Every man must believe that another life exists, into which we all must pass and that each one of us must stand before the awe inspiring Judge. He will place on His left hand the wicked condemned to eternal punishment, and, on His right, the good who will enter into everlasting bliss. In unutterable glory they shall see and enjoy fellowship with God the Trinity. They shall rejoice in the grace of our all-conquering and triumphant Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ, to whom be power, and divinity, and wisdom, and strength, and honour, for ever and ever. AMEN.

195