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Cornell University Library
GN549.C3 P35 Bronze age and the Celtic world
by Haro
3 1924 029 873 670 olin
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Overs
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD BY HAROLD PEAKE, F.S.A.
BENN BROTHERS, LIMITED BOUVERIE STREET, E.C.4
LONDON 8
:
1922
kb^O-X.
PRINTED AND MADE IN GREAT BRITAIN BY HEADLEY BROTHERS, l8,
DEVONSHIRE STREET,
E.C.2
J
AND ASHFORD, KENT.
DEDICATION To
the
liberality
anonymous
made
lectures this
benefactors
whose
possible the delivery of these
work
is
gratefully dedicated.
'Mi
Cornell University Library
XI
The
original of this
book
is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright
restrictions in
the United States on the use of the
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029873670
PREFACE
THE
substance of the following pages was delivered in February last in a
series of six lectures at
volume
form
the
matter
The University
been somewhat
has
In
College of Wales, Aberystwyth.
re-arranged
and the
latter part
expanded.
So many attempts have been made during the locate the
Aryan
cradle
and to trace the wanderings
considered presumptuous for the author
to
last
century and a
of the Wiros,
venture
that
quarter
to
may
be
it
on a further suggestion.
can only plead that most of the previous attempts have been made by
philologists,
usually with Uttle or no archaeological experience, while the discoveries of
quarter of a century have placed the inquirer to-day in a
The evolution and
superior to that of most of his predecessors. leaf -shaped
position
He
which
the
last
vastly
is
distribution of the
swords seem to provide a crucial test by which to gauge the value of previous
suggestions.
The author has
felt
that
it
would be
for the convenience of the reader
the footnotes at the bottom of the page to the smallest possible describing each
In
many
the fact
cases,
is
it
end of the volume.
The author would
his
argument and
which authorities are
the original authorities in the notes and bibUography.
appHes specially to Chapter
II,
like to
and to some extent to those immediately take this opportunity of thanking his
so kindly placed their knowledge
the Principal and other authorities of
while
would be more useful to quote a recent
accessible volume, preferably in Enghsh, in all
he reduced
dimensions,
where the subject matter does not form the basis of
than to include
who have
fully in the bibliography at the
not in dispute, he has thought that
and readily cited,
work quoted very
if
and experience
The University
fully
This
following.
many
friends,
at his disposal, especially
College of Wales, Aberystwyth,
for inviting
He
him
and Professors H.
to deliver the lectures,
J.
Fleure and H. J. Rose.
wishes also to thank the Rev. Professor A. H. Sayce, Professor
W. M.
Flinders
Petrie
and Miss M. A. Murray, who have sent him valuable notes, Mr. E, Sharwood
Smith
for
many
for
much
help with classical references. Professor J. L. Myres and Dr. S. Singer
helpful suggestions.
for procuring
Especially are his thanks due to Mr. J. H.
Le Rougetil,
drawings of swords froni the Buda-Pest Museum, to Sir Arthur Evans,
Dr. A. J. B.
Wace and
Mr. S. Casson for photographs and drawings
from Crete
V
and
Athens,
the
specimens
at
Naturhistorisches his
Dr.
to
museum and
W. Smid and
Graz
Museum for
Dr. F.
for
sketches
and notes on
and Laibach, and above aU to Dr. Adolf Mahr, at Vienna, for drawings of the swords
an immense amount
thank the authorities of various museums in their collections,
Neumann
and the Trustees
of help in other ways.
for permission to publish
of the British
Museum
of
the
and other objects
He
in
wishes also to
drawings of specimens
for allowing
him to reproduce
Plate HI.
These are only some of the
many
kind friends
and who have helped him with suggestions and returns his grateful thanks. to
him by the
officials of
the
He
who have
given him assistance
in verifying references.
To
all
these he
wishes also to acknowledge the great help afforded
London Library, the Society
of Antiquaries, the
Royal
Anthropological Institute, the Hellenic Society and the Royal Asiatic Society, and to
take this opportunity of thanking them for their unvarying courtesy.
HAROLD PEAKE. 2gth June, 1922.
CONTENTS CHAPTER
PAGE
PREFACE
9
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF PLATES
AND MAPS -
-
ii -
-
... -
-
THE PROBLEM II THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS III EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS IV THE PROSPECTORS V THE CELTIC CRADLE I
-
-
-
-
-
19
-
-
34 48 61
MANY INVASIONS VII THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD VIII THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS IX GREEK LANDS AND THE BASIS OF CHRONOLOGY X THE IRON SWORD XII
App. II
71 -
81
-
92
-
104
117
A RECAPITULATION THE ARYAN CRADLE
AND Q'S XIV THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS XV CONCLUSION App. I CHRONOLOGY XIII
15
-
VI
XI
13
126 132
P'S
144 -
-
,
-
-
168
170
-.---.. --------
MATRILINEAR SUCCESSION IN GREECE
i53
-
-
-
173
BIBLIOGRAPHY
177
INDEX
191
AND MAPS
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE 1
MAP OF CELTIC LANDS AND THE CELTIC CRADLE
2
POTSHERD FROM KOSZYLOWSCE, GALICIA
3
BOWL DECORATED WITH RED OF HAGHIA TRIADA
-
-
-
LINES, DISCOVERED IN
THE GREAT
-
-
-
-
4
CARINATED VASE FROM SPAIN
_
-
-
5
SILVER VASE FROM HISSARLIK
6
BELL BEAKER
7
NORTHERN BEAKER
8
GROOVED ITALIAN DAGGER
9
RIVETED DAGGER-HILT
-
II.
-
a
-
l6
-
65
-
65
THOLOS -
77
78
-
...
78
-
.
.
yg
-
-
-
83
_..-.---------
-
10
LEAF-SHAPED SWORD
11
BRONZE HILT OF LEAF-SHAPED SWORD
12
TANG, WITH FLANGED EDGES, SHAPED TO FIT THE HAND
13
CONVEX AND CONCAVE BUTTS
14
{a)
SECTION NOT UNLIKE THAT OF A SPEAR-HEAD
(&)
RHOMBOID SECTION WITH CONCAVE SIDES
-
.
-
-
-
-
84 84 85
-
86
-
87
15
SPINDLE-SHAPED SECTION
------
88
16
THE CUTTING EDGE OF THE BLADE BEGINS AN INCH OR TWO BELOW THE BUTT
90
17
SPINDLE-SHAPED SECTION WITH MODIFIED EDGE
-
9I
18
DEVEREL-RIMBURY URNS
-
-
-
-
-
102
19
URN OF TYPE
"
"
-
-
.
.
io2
20
FIVE TYPES OF RACQUET PINS
-
-
II9
21
RACQUET PINS FROM THE KOBAN
-
22
SWORD FROM ZAVADYNTSE
-
23
24
MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF TYPE G SWORDS IN FRANCE MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF IRON SWORDS IN FRANCE
25
TYPE G SWORD FROM FINLAND
_
26
MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF SWORDS AND DIALECTS
3
"
-
-
-
-
-
88
-
-
.
-
-
-
go
120
-
-
-
-
-
121
-
-
123
-
-
124
-
IN ITALY
j^O 150
OF PLATES
LIST
END OF VOLUME)
(AT
PLATE
AXES FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN AND WEST EUROPE
-
DAGGERS FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN AND WEST EUROPE
AN ETRUSCAN PROSPECTOR
-
FIVE HUNGARIAN DAGGERS
-
SIX
LARGER DAGGERS
-
-
A,
FROM HUNGARY
SWORDS OF TYPE
C,
FROM HUNGARY
-
SWORDS OF TYPE
D,
FROM HUNGARY
SWORDS OF TYPE
E,
FROM HUNGARY
SWORDS OF TYPE
G.
-
-
SWORDS FROM ENGLAND
-
'
-
-
IV -
-
V VI
-
VII
-
-
VIII
_
_
.
jx
-
-
-
X
-
-
XI
-
-
XII
_
xill
.
xiV
-
-
II
-
SWORDS OF TYPE
SWORDS FROM GREEK LANDS
-
III
-
-
I
-
-
THE SEVEN TYPES OF LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS
SWORDS FROM ITALY
-
-
-
.
Chapter
I
THE PROBLEM
FOR
in the
and the
hundred years the
the last fifteen
Isle
Celtic tongues
have been spoken only
extreme north-west of Europe, in parts of Ireland, the west of Scotland,
Man,
of
in Wales, Cornwall
and Brittany, and
for
some
httle
time
these languages have ceased to be spoken in Cornwall and the Isle of Man.
But we have ample evidence that these tongues had once a wider pushed westward in the
first
by the spread
instance
language as the empire increased
its
of
Roman
and the Latin
and Strabo, we
time throughout
all
era,
We
of the
first
such material as has been furnished by
shall find that languages of the Celtic type
Europe west
slopes of the Alps.
especially
who
its fall.
however we examine the evidence which has come down to us from the
century before the Christian Caesar
culture
and were
bounds, and stiU more by the Teutonic tribes
invaded the western half of that empire and brought about If
range,
were spoken at that
Rhine and north of the Pyrenees and the southern
shaU note also that these tongues were spoken in
many
parts of
Spain and in North Italy, though in both these areas they were of relatively late introduction.
Again there
is
been shortly before. east, at least, as
tongues
may have
another area in which Celtic speech was in use at that time, or had This
ago.
the mountain or Alpine zone of Central Europe, as far
a hne drawn from Cracow to Agram.
been spoken at one time
The problem before us then
is
is
to inquire
how and when they spread To do this we shall have
first
still
It is possible, too, that
such
further east.
in what. region the Celtic tongues originated,
to the areas in which
we
find
them two thousand years
to review the condition of these areas both from the
standpoint of prehistoric archaeology and physical anthropology, to see whether the evidence derived from these sciences, taken together with that drawn from comparative philology
and the study
of place-names, can help us to reach a solution.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
i6
But the problem into c,
is
further
compUcated by the
fact that the Celtic languages fall
In the one occurs the sound qu, which has in later days become a hard
two groups.
while in the other this sound has become labialised and converted into a ^ or
&.
It
has been thought by some that the qu peoples, spoken of usually as Goidels or Gaels, arrived
first
from the common
FIG. I.
C37mri,
came
others.
We
later
Celtic
—CELTIC
grammar and
LANDS AND THE CELTIC CRADLE.
from the same centre
;
have, therefore, to determine
Celtic languages arrived in the west,
Lastly,
home, and that the p peoples, called Brythons or
we
this if
view
we
is,
however, strenuously denied by
can, not only
whence and when the
but whether they came in one, two or more waves.
find that the Celtic tongues, as spoken
syntax, and not a few words too, which divide
to-day, contain elements of
them
off
sharply from those
THE PROBLEM
17
groups of languages to which they are in other respects akin.
some that non-Celtic languages, such late times, while it is still
all
by
believed
it is
as Pictish, survived in this region until relatively
well-known that a primitive non-Celtic tongue, the Basque,
spoken in the fastnesses
before us
Also
of the Pyrenees.
It is
important, therefore,
the factors which enter into the problem, that
people were here before the
some extent famihar with
Celts arrived,
first
if
we
we should
is
are to have
inquire
what
and that we should make ourselves
to
the different races and cultures which preceded the Celtic
all
invaders. If
true fair,
if
we
pass across England and Wales from east to west, and the same
we
cross Scotland,
while as
we
find, first of
we proceed we come
that the population
This dark type
is
almost as
mainly
and
across elements which are darker
Wales and the West Highlands we of slender build.
all
is
tall
and
shorter, until in
find the majority of the people are small brunettes also to be
is
met with
in Ireland, especially in the
west, the part of that island in which the Erse language has best survived. It is
because the Celtic tongues, whether qu or p, are spoken chiefly by people
of this small brunette type, that
it is
frequently called the Celtic race, and yet
all
the
evidence of ancient authorities goes to show that 2,000 or 2,500 years ago the Celts were
looked upon as a consideration as
tall, fair
we make our
Here
is
another difficulty which must be taken into
inquiries, for
no solution can be considered sound which
people.'
cannot, without straining the evidence, answer
As we have seen the main were the British
Isles
all
these questions.
areas which were Celtic-speaking in the time of Caesar
and Gaul, west
of the
Rhine
;
these I shall term Celtic lands,
leaving out Spain and Cis-alpine Gaul as areas into which the Celtic invasion arrived at
a relatively late date.
Now,
besides these Celtic lands Celtic tongues were spoken in
the Alpine zone, and perhaps at one time stiU further east. Celtic languages
it
from
this area that the
have been thought by some to have entered the lands of the west.
They cannot have been introduced from Spain but
It is
or Italy, into which they were late entrants,
has been suggested by some writers that they arrived from the north-east, from
the Baltic region.
have existed
It is true that there is
some
slight evidence that Celtic
in this area, but the balance of evidence, as I shall
I
Beddoe
(1885) 29
;
Holmes
(1907) 434, 437, 440
;
place-names
hope to show, seems to
Macalister (1921)
2.
41-49.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
i8
prove that Celtic people arrived there relatively late and not in large numbers, and that they were never the dominant people of that region.
Alpine zone and the lands to the east of
it.
This area, from the Jura to the Iron Gates,
from the northern slopes of the Carpathians to the southern shall
term the
convince
Celtic cradle,
my readers
that I
and
am
There remains only the
I trust that the
correct in so doing.
foot-hills of the Alps, I
evidence which I shall produce will
Chapter
II
THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS
OF
the earliest inhabitants of Celtic lands
it is
the
true, a
men who
number
of tools
made
we know
little
of flaked flint,
We
or nothing.
but they
tell
us
little
of
In spite of the recent admissions by the eminent
fashioned them.
French archaeologists who have examined the new discoveries at Foxhall,' there
no
have,
httle difference of opinion as to the
human workmanship*
is still
of rostro-carinates, eoliths
and such hke early attempts, and no human remains have come
to light
which can be
attributed with any probability to this horizon.
When we come
what
to
surer ground, for no one
Acheul types.
is
now
But the only
usually termed the lower palaeolithic period
we
denies the origin of implements of the Chelles
are on
and
St.
which can with certainty be attributed
skeletal remains
human jaw from the Mauer sand-pit near Heidelberg, ^ and the famous Piltdown skull.-* Few people now beUeve that the Galley HUl skeleton dates from to this period are the
so remote a time,' while the discoverer himself has disclaimed so early an origin for the
Ipswich man.*
To attempt
to reconstruct a
human type from a mandible
to carry far the principle of ex pede Herculem,
and
as yet there
alone would be indeed
is little
agreement among
anthropologists as to the exact date, or for that matter the exact reconstruction, of the
Piltdown
skull,'
though the ingenious hypothesis that a unique human cranium without
Burkitt (1921)
«
Moir (1921) 390-411
;
»
Macalister {1921)
148-177.
3
Keith (1915)
1.
1.
228-244
456, 7
;
Schotensack (1908).
4
Keith (1915)
1.
293-452
;
Dawson,
5
Keith (1915)
1.
178-193
;
Duckworth
«
Nature, 12th October, 1916.
7
The question
is
2.
well discussed
etc. (1913)
(1913)
by Macalister
;
;
Man xxii.
;
Boule
33.
(1915)-
Macalister (1921)
{1921) 1. 196-204,
19
1.
222,
who
where other authorities are
gives
numerous
references.
cited.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
20
a jaw, was found in close association with a unique troglodyte mandible has now, I
understand, definitely been abandoned.^
Thus
known
Uttle or nothing is
tools,
but when we come to the middle palaeolithic period the case
some
difference of opinion
the view advanced
still exists,
Le Moustier
the climate was becoming colder on the approach of the last or
thought by some that
Wiirm maximum and
Laufen
it
climate definitely improved believe that
features of the
industry,
Audi
there
it is
is
Everyone
is
man,
man have been
other, the t57pe
9
Obermaier (1906-7). Burkitt (1921)
1.
in
is
Osborn (1921) 585,
" Vid.
difficult to
to consider the type of
man who was
flint
many
responsible
them, have
implements of Le Moustier design, and none have as
make
of skulls
this correlation impossible.'^
and skeletons, about two dozen
found, the great majority in Celtic lands
;
respects very variable.
in
aU,
of
but, though there
series, sufficiently
strong to
men on
the
There are vast differences observable
6.
95-97
;
Macalister (1921) 1.
I.
47;
215-218, 255-259, 585-590.
Macalister (1921)
1.
584,
where other authorities are
infr. p. 6.
Macalister (1921)
explain certain
for several skeletons of this type, or parts of
" Obermaier (1906-7); Burkitt (1921)
'3
be
from the Piltdown skull on the one hand and from modern
8
«>
will
it
lasted until the
archaeologists of great repute
a general resemblance between aU the members of the off
in the regions
agreed that the authors of this culture were of the type
number
considerable
mark them
though
have survived the
maximum, and
more doubtful, but many
is
yet turned up under conditions which
is
authorities to
survived, too, the second
when we come
been found associated with
Neanderthal
glaciation,
as yet no general agreement as to the duration of the Mousterian
as Neanderthal
A
by most
appeared as
flints."
different
for this work.
known
believed
first
an earher and warmer time
did so," and unless this was the case
it
Though
is
in
others seems
have lasted through the temporary ameUoration of the
to
Whether
retreat.
had flourished
This industry
lying to the east." first
it
Wiirm
their
While
is different.
by Obermaier^ and
to be gaining ground, that in Celtic lands the industry of
it is
beyond
of the first inhabitants of Celtic lands,
1.
285-314, where
all
authorities are fully cited
;
Keith (1915) 118.
cited.
THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS
21
between the skuU from Chapelle-aux-Saints,"* the highest form yet discovered, and
woman, which
that of the Gibraltar man/' or rather
As
Europe.
far as one can judge
is
the most primitive yet found in
from the descriptions which have appeared as
I write,
the skull recently found at Broken Hill in Rhodesia differs from that of Gibraltar hardly if
at
aU more than the Gibraltar
skull differs
from that found at Chapelle-aux-Saints.
In the latter case there are several intermediate forms, in the former such
may
yet turn
up, for Africa has, as yet, produced but one other skull of this type, that found not
long ago near Constantine in Algeria, no description of which has,
I
beheve, yet been
pubhshed. Skulls of this type have been so frequently described,'^ individually
that
unnecessary to give another detailed account.
it is
they are large and massive, the vault
is
low,
It will
and they are
be
and
collectively,
sufficient to
say that
specially distinguished
having over the eye sockets a heavy and continuous projecting ridge, known as a
which
is
one of the distinguishing features of the large anthropoid apes.
of importance
is
that the head was so attached to the body that
it
by
torus,
Another point
could not have been
held absolutely erect, and must have produced a slouching gait, though the degree of this slope varied considerably in different specimens,
skuU was quite halfway between the slope
and
in the case of the
the Gibraltar skuU
of
Rhodesian
and that
of the
gorilla.'^
But
is
it
unnecessary for our purpose to pursue this question further, for with
the arrival of modern man, after the last glaciation was past, Neanderthal
appeared. clear
That the two races met, though not necessarily
from the
fact that at Audi, near
man
in this continent,
dis-
seems
Les Eyzies, in the Dordogne, we find a culture,
which in some respects resembles that of Le Moustier, and in others the succeeding culture
That these two races interbred
of Aurignac.'^
have appeared an unsightly beast to take place, the union must have been
'4
Macalister (1921)
H Keith
1.
298-301
(1915)
1.
122-124, 156.
««
Keith (1915)
1.
102-136
'7
Smith (1922) 464, 465
>8
Burkitt (1921)
1.
;
;
;
who
cites
his
modern
is
unlikely, for Neanderthal
successor.
sterile, for, in spite of
In any case,
much
if
man must mating did
that has been written to
Boule (1911-13).
Macahster (1921)
1.
but a different view
is
285-314.
held
by Woodward
{1922) 579.
72, 92, 97, 98. 2a
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
22
the contrary/' there traits in the
men
no
is
any
distinctive Neanderthal
glaciation seems to
have culminated about
clear evidence of the survival of
of later days.'"
The second maximum
of the
Wiirm
modem man
15,000 B.C.," and about that time, or conceivably earlier, in
North
known
Africa,
if
we may judge by the appearance Whence he came
usually as Capsian."
may have
that he
adduced
is
first
arrived
of a fresh type of flint industry,
uncertain.
It
has been suggested
reached the north from tropical Africa,*^ but no evidence has been
in support of this hypothesis.
It
seems more likely that he came from Asia,
probably by means of the Sinaitic peninsula, or possibly across the Straits of Bab-el-
Mandeb.
This
much
is
certain
;
about
this
time the Capsian culture
is
found extending
along the north of the continent, from Egypt as far west at any rate as Algeria, and
perhaps beyond, though at no point but one coast.**
The one exception
is
in Egypt,
as far south as Luxor,"' so that
movements passed up the seem probable that
who
predecessors,
in
found far from the Mediterranean
is it
where implements of
we may be
satisfied that
this
type have been found
modern man
in his earliest
Nile valley at least as far as the First Cataract.
Egypt the invaders came
retreated before
It
would
into touch with their Neanderthal
them up the Nile valley towards Luxor, where Dr.
Seligman has found implements of Le Moustier type more developed than any discovered elsewhere** ;
it is
possible that
some retreated further south and may even have reached
Rhodesia.
Other of these Neanderthal refugees seem to have gone westward, and perhaps passed up the Italian land-bridge to western Europe
had come for the
into contact with the Capsian culture of
They were followed
Audi industry.
'9
Macalister (1921)
1.
581,
">
Macalister (1921)
1.
313
who ;
«'
Vid. Appendix
22
From
23
Macalister (1921)
1.
s+
Burkitt (1921)
95, 106.
;
if
1.
before long
135.
I.
Capsa, the old
1.
name for Gafra in Tunisia 576-580.
25
Seligman {1921).
2^
Seligman (1921) 128.
;
Morgan,
it
was probably
these,
who
North Africa, who were responsible
cites Hrdlicka.
Keith (1915)
so
etc. (1910-1).
by the
invaders,
and
in Celtic
THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS lands at least were soon exterminated, though
23
just possible that they survived to
it is
a later date further east.*^
The
culture of the
started in
newcomers
Europe about 12,500
is
A
B.C.
discovered and described, and though present day, there
is
known
many
great
of these
all
and seems to have
as that of Aurignac,
skeletons of this period have been
show us men very hke those
among
a considerable range of variation
them.'*
The
of the
skulls of
the upper palaeohthic periods, apart from the Chancelade skull*^ to be discussed later,
may no
be divided into three marked groups, though
strict
uniformity
among
all
members
the
it is
well to
remember that there
is
All the skulls of this period,
of each group.
however, are long, for the broad-headed t5^e, so prevalent in Central Europe to-day, did not arrive until the closing phase.
Of the
we have only two examples,
of these three groups
first
from the Grotte des Enfants, near Mentone.'" differ in
some
by the name
But
the mother and son
as these are the earUest in date,
and
respects very markedly from the remainder, they have been distinguished
owner of the cave, the Prince
of the Grimaldi race, after the
This type was small, being
less
than 5
ft.
3
of
Monaco.
height, the skulls were of the
in. in
long variety, having length-breadth indices of 68.5 and 69.2, and the jaws and teeth
known
project, so that they exhibit a character
This latter character
as prognathism.
has caused the race to be termed negroid, and unjustifiable deductions have been drawn
from
this term.
affinity
between
It
has been shown, however, that there
this
is
no reason
for supposing
type and the negro race of tropical Africa.^' Both of these skeletons
were found in a contracted position, and that of the boy was covered with red
Our second group in the
all
more recently
it
in
is
the Cromagnon, and
cave of Cromagnon, near Les Eyzies.
used to cover
any
is
ochre.^'
based largely on the skeletons found
By many
anthropologists this term
is
the skeletons from this period except those of the Grimaldi type, but
has been shown that
all
these remains cannot conveniently be placed
one group, for the distinguishing characters are but faintly visible in some and totally
absent from a large number. ^^ 27
Macalister (1921)
1.
581.
The term
is
now becoming used 3'
«8
Fleure (1920).
sa
29
Testut (1889).
33
30
Keith (1915)
1.
62-68,
in
a more restricted sense.
Keith (1915)
1.
66.
Keith (1915)
1.
65.
Fleure {1920).
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
24
The Cromagnon type
is tall.
The men were
often 5
though the women were frequently much shorter, than the average in Europe to-day, but not very high
having a cranial index of about 74
their breadth,
faces were short
face
and
unusual, and
is
It is often is
thought that this disharmonic
seems likely that
seems probable that
It
in. high,
they were long as compared with
;
were narrow, but their
their nose^
this
disharmony
trait,
is
one of the most
the long head and the short face,
it
it,^'
to be the result of a crossing of
no other evidence to indicate that it
11
ft.
Their heads were large, larger
evidence of the mixed ancestry of the race which exhibits
occurred,
or 5
in.
Cromagnon man.^*
we might expect Cromagnon man is
and
called disharmonic,
striking characteristics of
10
This combination of a long head and a short
relatively broad. is
;
ft.
was the
this
and
if
were the case
this
two other
and
case,
if
There
races.
such crossing had
took place before the Cromagnon type reached Europe.
it is
to the
men
of the
Cromagnon type that we must
"attribute the beginnings of that art, which reached its finest development in a later age,
and has provided the most conspicuous as well as the most pleasing feature
of the upper
palseohthic culture. ^^
Lastly
we have
the type represented
Barma Grande
(one of the skulls from B.G.
skulls generally
known
as B.G. i
and
2),
the
by Briinn I.,Briix,Lautsch, Combe
Capelle,
now in the Musee de Menton, but not the woman from the upper layer in the Grotte
des Enfants, the Calotte du gravier de fond at Grenelle, the Denise fragments, as well as
by one
or
(No. 21,
two
i.)
is us^ially
skulls of the transition period
and a few
from palaeohthic to neolithic foimd at Ofnet
of those belonging to the
same period found at Mugem.
The t5^e
high-headed as well as narrow-headed, and tends to have the orbits horizontally
lengthened, the glabella and supraciliaries strong, the fore-head retreating, the nose
broad and the upper jaw projecting (alveolar prognathism). usually between 68 and 72
Thus we Grimaldi,
;
the stature
is
moderate or
The
cephalic index
find during the period of Aurignac three groups of long-headed
Cromagnon and Combe
Capelle, and, especially
Grande cave and the Grotte des Enfants, of these types, while at Solutre
skulls
is
low.^'
men, the
on the Riviera, in the Barma
which show various apparent combinations
and Laugerie Basse we
find the last type showing
34
Ripley (1900) 39, 173.
36
Parkyn
35
Ripley {1900) 39, 40.
37
Fleure (1920) 19-21.
{1915)
;
Burkitt (1921)
1.
192-272.
THE FlRSt INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS modifications to
some extent towards the
the later palaeolithic periods, and the combinations of
far as
Combe
characters in the skulls of Obercassel (Magdalenian period) in point of time
is
modern men.
characteristics of
and intermixed types occupied west and central Europe, so
25
is
it
These types
was habitable during
Capelle and
Cromagnon
The
noteworthy.
earhest
the Grimaldi, which has been found only near Mentone, and there
are reasons for beUeving that its distribution lay around the western Mediterranean,
then an inland sea.
This view
is
supported by the fact that marked alveolar prognathism
has been noted among the natives of Algeria and Morocco, and
uncommonly met with
in
Spain
it
;
is
has been attributed to a different cause. as
it
has been noted
among
also very It
is,
marked
I
am
told that
it is
not
Portugal, though here
in
it
however, of old standing in that country,
the skulls from Mugem,^^ which are believed to date from
the close of the palaeolithic age.
A
some
similar feature has been noted in
of the skulls
from the Algerian dolmens. ''
To
the Cromagnon type, pure,
it is difficult
to ascribe
any other
from Cromagnon, and those from Lafaye Bruniquel, but some characters are well in the
in
to the north of the
some Barma Grande
and
east,
North German
or Briinn type,
and seems rather plain.
It
is
in
the
of
The type
skulls.
Dordogne and perhaps near the western Pyrenees
The Combe CapeUe
day."*"
is
shown
skulls besides those
Cromagnon
said to survive
is
North Spain at the present
seen to have occurred on the whole
to focus in Central
was probably the
Europe and the southern part
latest to arrive
associated only with remains of late Aurignac type,
more
on the scene,
for it
and has been more frequently
found in the succeeding Solutre period.
Thus we
see that
by
the close of the period of Aurignac, about 11,000
three groups of long-headed
men
B.C.,
we have
in Celtic lands, and that, though they overlap, they
are tending to obtain for themselves definite areas of distribution.
During the closing years of the Aurignacian period the climate had been getting milder and perhaps drier, and steppe conditions prevailed over
more further
east.
Herds of horses arrived and were hunted
a kind of antelope, was found as far south as the Dordogne, 38
ConSa
39
Bourguignat (1868)
4°
Ripley (1900) 165-179.
much
(1919) 121, 122. 43, 48, 49, PI. vii., viii.
if
of
France and
for food
and the
still
saiga,
not beyond, during the
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
26
succeeding Solutrean period.
when France was invaded by a new
latter period/'
to artistic efforts, but
them
These Steppe conditions are more characteristic of the
who were
able to fashion very skilfully
The
in chasing the beasts of the steppe."*
Combe CapeUe,
are
people, not given, as far as
more common during
later phases of the previous age,
made weapons
of flint to aid
group the
fact that skulls of our third
this period
we know,
and have only been found during the
when, as we have seen, steppe conditions were already
approaching, leads us to suspect that
it
is
man
to this type of
the invasion of Celtic lands which took place at this time.
that
we must
attribute
The Cromagnon men seem
to
have retreated to the south-west and to have taken refuge in the fastnesses of the P5n:enees,*^ while the
invading hunters dominated the southern part, at
the
least, of
Celtic lands.
But towards 9,500
B.C.
the cUmate began again to deteriorate, and the steppe
conditions passed gradually to those of tundra.
The steppe animals
towards South Russia and Turkestan, and most of the
east,
them
seem to have followed
for food,
in their wake.
It
men
retreated to the
of Solutre,
who hunted
seems doubtful whether the
Solutrean invasion reached Britain, though implements of this t37pe are said to have
been found
here,"^
and Proto-Solutrean
stations are reported as occurring in England."*'
It
has been claimed recently that this type reached the south of Sweden,*® but this view
is
not generally accepted in that country.*'
On had
the departure of the Solutrean invaders the remnant of the aborigines,
fled to the
mountains in the south-west, and there developed their art to a much
greater pitch of perfection,
now
returned to France, and once again, as the
Madeleine, became the dominant race in Celtic lands.
comrades had
who
fled
It
north to Britain on the arrival of the
men
of
La
seems possible that some of their
men
of Solutre,
and had survived
there throughout this period, for, though no industry has been found in the British
I ThusBurkitt (1921)
I.42, 127, butMacalister (1921) before the beginning of the Solutrean period.
42
Burkitt (1921)
1.
43
Burkitt {1921)
1. 132, 135.
44
Burkitt (1921)
1;
45
Burkitt (1921)
1. 129.
4<'
MonteUus {192 1).
*''
Nordmann
(1922).
130-133.
129; Macalister (1921)
i.
434.
1.
373, 376, 582, states that the steppe conditions had passed
THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS
27
which can accurately be described as that of La Madeleine/* in the
Isles
meaning
of that term,
we do
French
strict
find traces of the culture of Aurignac, persisting perhaps
until stiU later times. It
these
must not be thought, however, that the Combe Capelle race never reached
Combe
the skeletons which have been found here have been classed with the
we have
But, as
group.«
seen, this race
some
of that country, for
some
culture of Solutre did so or not seems uncertain, but
Whether the
isles.
was present
in France, at
Uttle time before the arrival of the
any
rate in
men with
of
Capelle
some parts
the culture of
Solutre.
The
colder
chmate
of the Magdalenian period has been
the Biihl advance of the Alpine glaciers,^" which reached
lands gave
for
up on the hitherto open
forests sprang
place
way
lands.
As the tundra conditions
deer.
As the
forests developed it
in Celtic
became increasingly
to traverse great distances or to intermingle as freely as they
There was a tendency for separate groups to develop in different regions
we
about 7,500 to
to forest, the reindeer migrated to the north and north-east, while their
was taken by the red
men
maximum
After that the climate slowly improved, though the precipitation increased,
7,000 B.C.
and
its
shown to coincide with
arrive at the next period, the Azilian,
we
had done ;
difficult
before.
so that,
when
find very different types of people in various
parts of Europe.
Even before the from the north,
close of the
Magdalenian period a fresh type had arrived, apparently
we may judge from
if
the skeleton found at Chancelade in the Dordogne.
This skeleton bears a close resemblance to those of the modern Eskimos,^' and since the latter have retained a type of art reminiscent of certain phases of culture,'*
we may
Magdalenian
suspect that Chancelade men, following the departing reindeer, passed
north-eastward to the tundra of Siberia. It
was between 7,000 and 6,500
B.C.
that a fresh
wave
of Capsian people
Africa began to invade Spain," into which peninsula they introduced what
East Spanish
Art.'*
48
Burkitt (1921)
«
By
degrees they pressed the Magdalenian
Sollas (191 1) 348-350,
Fleure (1920) 21-25.
33
Osborn (1918) 516-518.
5°
Burkitt (1921)
1. 43.
54
Burkitt (1921)
5'
Testut (1889)
Clark (1920) 288-291.
;
1.
273-285.
is
known
Cromagnons
where
5*
1. 232.
from North
all
as
to the
authorities are cited.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
28
Pyrenees, where their culture declined to that which
passed on through Celtic lands, bringing with them a
and seem
to
have reached the British
Isles before
we know
as Azihan."
The invaders
new culture, known as Tardenoisian,'*
5000
B.C.
These people seem to have been another variety of the same long-headed race, which
had developed
into a distinct type in
North
Africa,
and had
there, perhaps,
greater or lesser degree with the descendants of the Grimaldi men, at the beginning of the period of Aurignac. their descendants, they skin,
If
were of rather short,
we may judge by
It is possible that the
is
those
known
to be
as the Mediterranean race.^'
may
account for that small dark type, often showing marked
alveolar prognathism, which has been found in certain out of the Sardinia,
who seem
with
Grimaldi elements in their composition, and which are sometimes
found comparatively pure,
Apuha and
whom we met
with long narrow heads, brown
slight build,
dark hair and eyes, the type which to-day
mingled to a
way
regions, such as
and which are known to some anthropologists as lapygian,'^ and
have been termed Ethiopic by Ruggeri.'^ This
new population seems
to exterminate its predecessors, but settled
while the
and made no attempt
to have been peaceably inclined
Cromagnon men remained
down
in the lower lands
mountain zones
in the
and by the sea
of the Pyrenees
shore,
and the
Dordogne, and the Combe Capelle type survived in Central Europe and among the of Wales.
It
of agriculture
seems almost certain that the newcomers were
and the domestication
of animals
;
as
some
been found by the sea shore and on the banks of streams, to a considerable extent on fish It
still
it
hills
hunters, quite ignorant
have
of their settlements
seems likely that they lived
and moUuscs.
would appear, then, that the t5^e which we know as the Mediterranean
and which has given to Wales, Scotland and Ireland the majority
racCi
of their small brunette
men—except — the Chancelade variety ^which we meet with in the Celtic lands of western Europe during
inhabitants,
is
made up
of the descendants of all the types of long-headed
the upper palaeolithic period. of
That the Combe Capelle type survives on the moorlands
Plynlimmon has been shown by Fleure
:
examples of an africanoid type with alveolar
prognathism are not uncommon in Wales and in the poorer quarters of our big Keane
55
Macalister (1921) 1, 525.
58
Brace (1863)
56
Macalister (1921) 1. 537, 538.
59
Giufirida-Ruggeri (1921).
57
Sergi (1901).
65,
66
;
(1908) 360.
cities,
-
THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS and the Cromagnon type only seems to be missing or at any
29
The
rate relatively scarce.
main element, however, which has gone to make up the Mediterranean race as we now
know
it,
seems to be that which entered Europe through Spain, with Capsian culture,
during the closing years of the Magdalenian period.
These people have
no small amount
left in
the west, not only considerable vestiges of their blood, but
of their language, or to state the matter
of these people has left a
marked
More than twenty years ago syntax of Welsh and Irish
effect
Mr.,
now
upon the tongues which succeeded Sir
John Morris
some important
differs in
more accurately the language it
in the west.
Jones^° pointed out that " the
respects from that of the languages
belonging to the other branches of the Aryan family," and suggested that these points, in
which too the
neo-celtic tongues differed
influence of a language which
He
the Celtic tongue.
had been spoken
many
pointed out that
when the English tongue
sometimes
from ancient GauUsh, were due to the
is
in these lands before the introduction of
of these peculiarities,
spoken by Irishmen,
sjmtactical arrangements in force in the language of ancient dialects
similar
the
to
Egypt and among the Berber
spoken by the natives of Algeria, the Kabyles, Shawiya and Tuaregs.
Now
the Egjrptians and
anthropologists as typical
Grimaldi blood;
it
other peoples of North Africa are considered
members
of the western part seem, as
of the Mediterranean race,
we have
seen, to
all
though the inhabitants
would seem then that we may accept the suggestion
these Mediterranean invaders,
by
have incorporated no small amount of
Morris Jones that the syntax of Welsh and Irish
by
were
which occur also
is
of Sir
John
a legacy from the language spoken
who reached Spain about 7000
B.C.
and formed
the bulk of the population of the British Isles about 5000 B.C.
So
far
west, but a
Europe.
we have been deaUng with word must be
It
some
was during the Azilian
in Central Europe, positively,
said of
the early inhabitants of the Celtic lands of the fresh arrivals into the Celtic cradle in Central
period, about 6000 B.C., that a
coming from the
east.
Of their
earlier
but there are reasons for inferring that their
new
race appeared
abode we know nothing
line of
approach was by the
Kopet Dagh and the Armenian highlands, and that they came ultimately from the slopes of the
60
Hindu Kush and the western
Jones, Morris (1900).
side of the
Himalayan massif.
This race,
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
30
which
is
from the
called the race of Ofnet,
found in the caves of Ofnet, in
skulls
Bavaria, had a broad head, the outline of which as viewed from above consisted of
two segments
back of the head, the other the
of circles, the one forming the
The brow-ridges
are slight, the nose short
and
straight, the eye-sockets
rectangular, the cheek-bones not very prominent
Upper Danube
basin,
and the progeny
low and almost
and the chin weak and undeveloped.^'
This race seems to have met and mated with the remnants of the in the
front.
Combe
Capelle race
have been a type
of this union seems to
with a pear-shaped head as seen from above, with a rounded back, indistinguishable
from the type found
later in the Swiss lake-dwellings
Europe at the present day, and which
The Ofnet this time or
mountains of Central
as the Alpine race.**
perhaps
though probably in small numbers, for a skull found at
later,
what are beheved to be
neolithic surroundings, belongs to
Other broad-headed skulls of this or the Alpine type, dating from about
this type.*^ B.C.,
known
in the
race seems to have spread westward into the Celtic lands, either at
Crenelle, near Paris, under
5000
is
and
or a Uttle earlier, have been found at
while others of this type of about the
Mugem on
the banks of the Tagus,**
same date have been found
the caves of
in
Furfooz in Belgium.*'
Whether any so early a date
is
of
this /broad-headed Asiatic strain
No
uncertain.
skulls of this
reached the British Isles at
type and date have been discovered,
but broad-headed types occur sporadically in Wales, Ireland and the western islands of Scotland,
which
may
conceivably represent descendants of early Ofnet or Alpine
immigrants.
Somewhat
later,
seem to have arrived
in Central
plateau, bringing with
animals,
before
B.C.,
fresh
waves
of
broad-headed immigrants
Europe from the Armenian highlands or the Anatolian
them the knowledge
and the custom
and poUshing axes
4000
of grain, cultivated fruits
of erecting pile-dwellings in
of flint or other
hard
stone.**
and domestic
marshes or lakes, and of grinding
Such knowledge seems to have
reached even the west of Switzerland by 4000 B.C. and to have spread later throughout the massif central of France, which was 61
Macalister (1921)
«»
Macalister (1921)
1.
«3
Macalister (1921)
1.
1.
541, 542.
542. 542.
akeady peopled by men
of the Alpine
64
Corr6a (1919) 123.
65
Osbom
66
Peake (1922)
(1918) 481-485. 1.
64, 65.
type.
THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS But the
art
responsible for well
polishing hard
of its
introduction,
known throughout
to fight the encroaching
than the people who were
stone spread further
and during the next few centuries
the Celtic lands of the west
;
31
this art
had become
the need for more efficient tools
woodland must have encouraged
this
How
art.
far
the
elements of agriculture had travelled with the art of grinding axes seems uncertain, for few,
any, unquestionable neolithic dwelling sites of this time within this area
if
have been found or thoroughly explored.
The scanty evidence
at our disposal seems
to show, however, that the people of the west were possessed of
some domesticated
animals, so that the inhabitants of Celtic lands had passed from a purely hunting stage before 3,000 b.c.
There
which
is
one other culture, introduced into Europe perhaps by another race,
must not omit to mention,
I
as
it
may have
provided another element, albeit
At Mullerup,
a small one, in the early population of Celtic lands.
of Maglemose, in the west of the island of Zealand, there
important dweUing
site
but
to
English-speaking
is
known
was discovered at Svserdborg,
students
as
much
in the south of the
the
Maglemose
same
it
was
first
assumed that
from the Azihan and Magdalenian, though
it
this
More culture,
island.*^
this culture,
speculation as to the race which was responsible for
presence of harpoons
igoo an
culture.*''
what appears to be the same
have been found associated with
skulls or skeletons
has been
in
to Scandinavian archaeologists as the
recently, in 1917, another settlement, exhibiting
No
was found
moss
with a very distinct culture, including harpoons and other
implements of horn and bone, which Mullerup,
in the peat
culture
it.
was a
and there
Owing
direct
to the
derivation
has been pointed out that the Maglemose
harpoons are very different in form from the Azilian, and resemble more nearly some
found in eastern Russia.*' Azilian
origin.
Still
the majority of authorities treat this culture as of
Others, reljdng largely on the resemblances of certain elements of
culture to those found at
some very
late Aurignacian sites in
South Poland, beUeve
the people and the culture to have arrived from that region.^"
suggested another explanation." 6?
Osborn
68
Johansen (1918-19).
69
Burkitt (1921)
(1918), 487, 488.
1.
155.
Recently
I
have
Noticing the resemblance between the Maglemose 7o
Burkitt (1921)
7i
Peake(i9i9).
1.
156.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
32 culture
and a
slightly later civilisation
has been found at several
sites associated
suggested that in the Maglemose people of that
My
my
we may perhaps
Mongoloid t5^e,
have
I
see the first arrival in
Europe
suggestion has not been well received in Scandinavian circles,
and
submitted
to
it
While duly appreciating the value of that
with skulls of
the
race,
Nordmann has
M.
as East Scandinavian or Arctic, which
which now peoples a large part of the north-east of
Mongoloid
continent.
known
all
very searching
though
courteous criticism.'*
the evidence he has cited,
I
am
still
of opinion
view, though far from proved, meets the existing evidence as well as,
if
not
better than, its rivals.
The importance
Maglemose problem
of the
certain sites in the British Isles
and perhaps
rightly,
Oban and on a
claimed to be of this or of Azilian
more
closely
still
purpose
amd
an early occupation
site
Svaerdborg.
Certain
raised beach on the island of Oronsay, are
culture,''^
while other finds at Holdemess are said
the Maglemose culture.
More recently
''*
Crawford has suggested that certain implements, which he and at
in the fact that
lies
have produced an industry which has been claimed,
be akin to that of Mullerup
to
discoveries in the caves at
to resemble
for our
I
still
Mr. O. G.
S.
discovered last year
on the Newbury Sewage outfall works at Thatcham, Berks.,
bear close resemblances to some found at Svaerdborg.'^
soon yet to appraise the value of these resemblances.
It is too
Some
of these
sites,
notably those at Oronsay and Thatcham, appear on some grounds to be somewhat
later
than the settlements at Mullerup and Svaerdborg.
This does not, of course,
disprove their cultural connection.
It is
conclusions from such evidence, but
we may note
Azilian times, or perhaps later
fresh elements entered the British Isles
Baltic region,
and that
it is
still,
unwise, at present, to draw any that
it is
positive
possible that during late
at least possible that these elements
may have
from the been of
the Mongoloid race.
People showing slight Mongoloid traits Wales, though, as far as in I
I
any particular areas how
am
;
uncertain.
Nordmann
73
Macalister (1921)
far it
(1922). 1.
be found sporadically throughout
can ascertain, this type has not been noted as prevalent
But we cannot be
?«
may
533-535.
may
be noted in the west of Scotland or in Ireland
sure that the introduction of this Mongoloid strain 74
Burkitt (1921)
75
Peake
&
1. 108, 155.
Crawford (1922).
THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF CELTIC LANDS dates from so early a time, as
introduced
much
by the
later
it
is
quite possible that the type
33
may have
who may perhaps sometimes have
Vikings,
been
carried Finns
with them in their forays.
Though
the
after
more than once and
Azihan times the culture of
close of
in
more
respects than one,
we have
Celtic
lands changed
no reason
at present
for
suspecting the introduction of fresh racial elements before the beginning of the Bronze
The
Age.
Campignian
origin of
culture,
which seems to have flourished over the
northern part of Celtic lands, in one form or another, from about 5000 to 3500 still
a matter of dispute, but
it
doubtful whether the solution of the
is
B.C., is
problem
is
Hkely to introduce a fresh element into the population of the Celtic lands.
The vast mass
of the population of this area about 3000 B.C. were the descendants
of the long-headed populations of
In some parts of the south the Cromagnon type
period.
or
mixed form,
Combe
as did the
of the Grimaldi type
The
Europe and North Africa
which most truly deserves the name
commonly
penetrated, though
And we must Baltic
and
France, it
is
their
a
less
all
numbers are not
Such then, as
came
it
that
some Mongoloid
be well
Alpine
type
peoples,
had Isles.
from the
have been great .^^ seems to have been the
when people hved
in small,
and outside commodities were rarely met with, and then tribe.
As we
shall see, the next
were to introduce fresh elements.
76
may
a few settlements in this country,
population of Celtic lands in the true neolithic age,
only bartered from tribe to
it
had, as yet, reached the British
may have made
likely to
from Africa, and
though
the
elsewhere,
far as our evidence extends at present,
self-contained communities,
latest
these long-headed types.
extent
realise that it is just possible
Siberia,
persisted, in a pure
used, seems to include all the varieties before
doubtful whether
and ultimately from
though
to
palaeolithic
especially in fishing villages.
of the Mediterranean race,
mentioned, as well as a modified mixture of Central
upper
Capelle type further north, while a modified form
prevailing tyipe seems to have been that which
In
may have
was found from Portugal to Wales,
to reahse that this term, as
in the
Fleure
& James (1916)
114
;
Beddoe
(1885) 8-13.
thousand years or so
Chapter
III
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS
UNTIL
gradual
of
During the
drifting.
movements
of people
age,
palaeolithic
had been by means
when the
population
by hunting, the people wandered over considerable areas in search game, and the inhabitants of different regions frequently met and mingled
supported of
the close of the stone age the
itself
As the
with one another.
forest conditions arose during the close of the
Magdalenian
period these wanderings were restricted in scope, and with the gradual introduction of
domesticated animals and the practice of agriculture during the neolithic age, more
communities arose.
settled
Thus the
different types
and the communities became more speciahsed, both
mixed in
less
with one another,
type and culture, as their
wanderings diminished.
A new
method
commerce developed. lived in a region
become
of intermixture was, however, soon to arise, as the practice of
that even during the palaeolithic age, tribes
It is possible
where
flint
or other suitable
material was abundant,
some advanced type
skilled in the fashioning of
bartered their spare products for other commodities. exist,
must have been very limited
in extent,
of
or
who
who had
implement, sometimes
Such operations,
if
they did
and confined to bartering between
neighbouring tribes.
During the neolithic age it
this simple principle of
was probably more frequent,
must have been Hving
Some
well
in regions
favoured regions
since communities
exchange continued, though
had a narrower range, and some
where suitable raw material was scarce or non-existent.
also
had begun to develop regidar commerce.
inhabitants of the island of Santorin, the ancient Melos,
The
had before metal was known
organised an export trade in obsidian goods, for they held a monopoly of that excellent volcanic glass in the .^gean region'.
•
It
seems
Bosanquet (1904) 216-233. 34
likely, too,
that the people of the Lipari
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS islands traded in the
same material with south
Italy, Sicily
35
Some
and Malta.'
of the
natives of the French department of Indre-et-Loire, finding themselves possessed of great quantities of beautiful honey-coloured
the neighbourhood of Le Grand-
flint in
Pressigny, exported implements, both finished and in
and the same
places in France, ^ if
we may judge from
Graig Llwyd/
is
the rough,
many
to
distant
probably true of the dwellers on Pen-maen-mawr,
the extensive remains of their industry recently discovered at
The industry
of
Le Grand-Pressigny seems, however, hke the obsidian
trade in the Mediterranean, to belong to the closing phases of the neolithic age, while
the Graig
Llwyd factory may
well date from the bronze age.
So long as these products case of tribe
of local industry were distributed
Le Grand-Pressigny and Graig Llwyd, the old method
was
Santorin,
and doubtless
possible
was the scene
organisation for export
neighbouring
methods were
became necessary.
To
carry
is
as
definite
from one island to a besides
some
the ship has been equipped
economical to provide a fuU cargo, and this would be more than one small
community would need of
such
and a
ineffectual,
goods
When
from tribe to
island,
the mainland requires a ship and a crew,
representatives of the makers to effect the sales. it
land, as in the
of barter
But when an
continued.
of production, such
or to
isle
still
by
some days'
the needs of
or could afford to purchase.
or weeks' duration,
many
when the
This leads to trading voyages
ship can call at a
number
The inland inhabitants have
communities.
and the most serviceable ports became
of ports to
meet
also to be catered for,
in their turn fresh centres of distribution,
and
need a depot under the supervision of a representative of the makers. Thus, even before the close of the stone age, we see developing, especially in the Mediterranean region, the beginnings
of
an organised commerce,
involving
visits
paid by ships and their crews to distant ports and foreign communities, and sometimes leading to
the
estabUshment
of
small
foreign
trading
settlements.
introduction of metal these features increased rapidly, and, as
bronze age had been in existence for up, mainly
by
sea,
many
but sometimes by land as Mosso
»
Peet (1909) 150
3
D6chelette (1908-14)
4
(Warren 1921)-
;
i.
(1910) 365-367-
355-66i passim.
centuries,
well, so that
we
With the
shall see, before the
an extensive trade had grown bronze became known and used
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
36
over most parts of Europe which were not too remote from the sea to be affected by
Thus a considerable minghng
sea-borne commerce. place, not
by the sudden
arrival of large
numbers
peoples
of
and cultures took but by the
of invading hordes,
constant infiltration of small bodies of merchants and seamen.
The
origin of the discovery of metal
suggestions have been made. strikingly conspicuous metal,
who beheve
those
is
still
was the
cowry
shell as
an amulet
For some reason the
spread.'
of the
and used, though there are
to be noticed
first
that copper was almost
somewhere on the African shore of the
most
All investigators are agreed that gold, being the
if
not quite as early a discovery.
Smith has made interesting suggestions
Elliot
unknown, though many ingenious
Red Sea
for fertility shells did
;
in
both
cases.
He
Professor
beheves that
a cult arose which involved the use
such cults are well-known and widely
not ultimately satisfy the people, or
the
supply diminished, and they made models in gold, deposits of which were found in that
Thus the virtue
locahty.
transferred to the material,
the amulet,
of
residing
originally in its form,
and gold became and has
since remained
became
a lucky and
fortunate possession.*
Copper, on the other hand, he believes to have been discovered in Egypt.
The
inhabitants of this country had, in neolithic days, been in the habit of mining malachite in the Sinaitic peninsula,
and grinding
they apphed to their eyes. the
ill-effects of
are
constant
a
on
slate palates into
Green powder thus applied
glaring sunUght,
source
this mineral
of
and perhaps served
ophthalmia.
Professor
is
a powder, which
said to save the wearer from
keep away the
also to Elliot
flies,
which
Smith suggests that an
Eygptian, grinding his lump of malachite on his decorated slate palate, one day met
with an unusually hard lump, which he could not grind
temper he threw the offending morsel into the later
on
in the ashes
fire,
no doubt with the same formula, produced an identical its
ore
was made.^
I
result,
A
5
Smith, G. Elliot (1919) 143, 150-153. Smith, G. Elliot (1919) 221-225.
7
Smith, G. Elliot (191 1)
4.
fit
of ;
repetition of this action,
and so the discovery
must admit that
at one time I
the possibility of this explanation, as I questioned whether the heat of a
'
In a
doubtless with words of objurgation
he found a small red bead of copper.
reduction of copper from
satisfactorily.
of the
doubted
fire of
dung,
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS now and probably then ore. To satisfy me on
also,
this
the only available
would be
fuel,
z^
sufficient to
Mr. R. H. Rastall of Cambridge kindly
point,
laboratory experiment upon a piece of malachite, and as a result assured
heat of a dung
would be ample
fire
reduce the
me
made a that the
for the purpose.
While admitting that Professor EUiot Smith's theories are both possible and suggestive,
I
problems.
inclined
feel
to
another,
offer
more prosaic solution
albeit
Primitive men, whether in prehistoric times or
to-day, and, dare I say
it,
this is
among backward
more advanced
circles, of collecting
with natural perforations, or through which holes could readily be
des
if
two
enfants wore
drilled,
small objects
and stringing
necklaces or bracelets for the adornment of their
The
Such customs carry us back a long way.
persons. Grotte
make
or wire to
peoples
perhaps more true of primitive women, have a habit,
not, I believe, quite extinct even in
them upon a thread
to these
bracelets
composed
old Grimaldi
woman from
the
of perforated shells, while her son,
The
indeed he were her son, had worn on his head a chaplet of the same materials.^
Alpine inhabitants of the North ItaUan lake-dwelhngs used the vertebrae of pike for the same purpose.' practice I
know
Whether the use
not, for
it
may
it
may
Christians,
proved a safe and convenient way
certain,
and
for
this
Preacher was right and
everything
Leaving the cause unsolved, we
modern man
is
else,
may
religious
still
accumulated wealth seems more practised.
Perhaps after
the
all
was vanity.
in Europe,
first
and the
vertebrae of fish are easily damaged,
perforated stones, which would have been
in later
be content to note that the practice dates
from the
arrival of
That
be relatively modern.
of storing
purpose the custom this, like
some
be that such religious associations, though found to-day
among Buddhists, Moslems and days
of strings of beads originated in
and may be much and
store
much more
But
would have been
durable.
quartz, with natural perforations, were worn sometimes
older.
set
Pebbles of
by our Saxon
shells
by
clear
forefathers,'"
but such stones are scarce and would have been prized accordingly. I picture to
myself the
first
discoverer of gold as a
young man wishing
the favour of a maid, or perhaps to purchase her from her father.
8
Macalister {1921) 1. 353.
9
Mosso
" Peake
I
to obtain
imagine such a
(1910) 205-209.
& Hooton
(1915) 98, 117. 3a
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
38
youth going in search of some
Walking down to a
on a necklace.
probably to drink or to
Picking
exceptional beauty. it
was
thin, so that
We
up and examining
it
Though
of its natural lustre,
is
found in a native
hammer it
it
;
it,
and
state,
At
it
first it
Later
could be melted.
metallic-looking ores, such as chalcopyrite,
and sometimes
that, since the
It
also
Then would
and
easily
a bright metaUic lustre
was obtained only
still
until recent fell
into the
it
soon came to
in a native state,
times around Lake
and
fire,
experiments were
is
uncommonly
in
in those of the first."
still
a matter
tombs
it
was thus
made with
other
So
of
Copper
uncertainty.
of the second predynastic period
rare,
however, are they in the
two cultures must to some extent have overlapped,
that the knowledge of this metal was introduced into Egypt people.
much
and the metal age had come.
made
these discoveries were
objects have been found not in Egypt,
into the
malleable
also
is
could well take second place, and being less rare
Later some copper ornaments probably
Where
it
where
it
could not compare with gold for beauty, or in the permanence
and was hammered, not melted, as was the case
discovered that
he found he could bend
too, is capable of exhibiting
be used freely for decorative purposes.
Superior."
brilliant yellow stone of quite
gold rush.
first
copper, too,
clean.
bed a
with the aid of a stone he was able to fashion
modelled with a stone
when
its
can imagine that his success would have been assured.
have followed the
Now
it
stream, perhaps to wash, though more
clear
he noticed in
of being strung
Here he had something which was perforated, strong, rare and
sought-for bead. beautiful.
fish,
and durable and capable
object, rare
it
latter,
seems possible
by the second pre-d5mastic
has been suggested recently that these people, with a copper culture,
bringing the knowledge of wheat
and the
cult of Osiris,
from somewhere between Damascus and Beyrut,'^ and Egyptian calender are sound, we
may
if
came from North
Syria,
Breasted's views upon the
expect that they entered the Delta 4241 B.C. or
thereabouts.'*
In Mesopotamia
we
we
are not very sure of our dates at so early a period, nor have
got any clear evidence of the earliest copper civiHsation of that region,
" Lubbock (1865) 201, 202.
13
Newberry
" Breasted
i4
Breasted (1912) 597.
(1912) 28.
(1920).
but the
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS
39
beautiful copper lions brought back from Tell-el-'Obeid, near Ur,
show that
at the time
me
tells
3500 and 3000
Small foundation
that their date
may
be placed with
figures, cast
which date from the time of Ur-Nini, about 3000 describing
his
Hall'',
when they were made the art of working copper must long have been
known, and Dr. Hall B.C.
by Dr. H. R.
excavations
Anau
at
between
sohd in copper, have been found
Raphael Pumpelly,
b.c.'^ while Mr.
Turkestan,
in
fair certainty
found copper
he
that
states
implements in a deposit, which on other grounds he dates between 8000 and 7000 B.C'
While there site,
no doubt that copper was found
is
who
there are few people
Taking
all
agree with the early date claimed for
the available evidence into consideration,
known and used
we have no by any
village
by Mr. Pumpelly.
seems likely that copper was
in western Asia as early as 4500 B.C.
and might conceivably have
we can judge from we have
Gold, as
it
Anau
it
been known as early as 5000 far as
in the lowest layer of the
B.C.
;
that
it
was known before that seems unlikely as
the evidence available at present.
seems to have been the
seen,
first
metal to be discovered, though
sufficient reason for believing that its discovery
preceded that of copper
Objects of gold have been found in graves of the second
considerable period.
pre-dynastic period in Egypt, as well as some of silver and of lead,'^ so that before
3500
metal age had passed
B.C. the
It will
its
infancy.
be seen from what has gone before, that the discovery of metal must have
taken place somewhere in western Asia
knowledge spread were traded 4241 there
of all
from
and from
may have
in quartz veins in the granite
Wadi
city to city,
Persia.
Foakhir,'' but
fourth or fifth dynasties
it
is
silver
arrived in the
and
same way.
Hall (1920.)
'«
Gowland
"7
Pumpelly (1908)
(1912) 247 i.
;
32
King et seq.
So
far,
then,
which have been Gold,
it
is
true,
not clear that these sources were tapped before the
in later days the principal source of supply
;
about
but
;
mountains by the shores of the Red Sea, and
had, however, been inaccessible to traders until Mernere had '5
lead,
The
and the objects
Le Grand-Pressigny and Graig Llwyd
no evidence of organised trade, for the gold,
was found
Armenia or
knowledge was carried into Egypt with an invading people.
found in the pre-dynastic tombs,
in the
in Asia Minor,
tribe to tribe
like the stone axes of
B.C. this is
first
;
(1910) 72, 360.
made
was Nubia which the
18
Breasted (1912) 28.
19
Breasted (1912)
first
6, 94.
cataract
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
40
passable for navigation about 2570 B.C."
probably from
Silver
was always imported from abroad,
Cilicia.^'
There are reasons for believing that some, at any period of the Old
Kingdom was
that Dr. Gladstone
King Khasakhemui,
we
for
him an
analysis of the gold object found in the
who
was antimoniate
He found on
b.c.
of gold.
Now
it
no known source of
is
Transylvania. ring
is
this gold object
tells
me
this ore, telluride of gold
tomb
of
a red crust, which he
all
that he has been advised
and antimony,
except in
the gold found within the Carpathian
of this nature, but as the richest sources lie in Transylvania,
worked by the Romans, the conclusion
me
appears that antimony will only combine with
have been informed that
I
tells
reigned, according to the chronology
gold in the presence of tellurium, and Professor Petrie that there
used during the
Professor Flinders Petrie
of foreign origin.
of the second dynasty,
about 3200
are using,
stated
made
rate, of the gold
where gold was
the same, that before 3200 B.C. the Egyptians
is
were obtaining gold from Central Europe.
As
it
seems unlikely that gold would be carried between such distant points as
the valleys of the
Danube and the
tribe, especially since there are so
Taurus range, sea commerce. Nile,
it
seems more
Not that
I
Nile
many
likely that
by the old method
of bartering
from
tribe to
physical obstacles on the route, including the
we should
would imply a
see here evidence for
direct sea
trafific
an organised
from the Danube to the
but that some intermediate people, probably some islanders in the Mgeaja, the
people perhaps of Melos or Crete, traded on the one hand with settlements near the
mouth Melos
Danube and with
of the
those in the Delta as well.
The obsidian trade
may well be as early as this, in fact it seems to have been on the decline by 3000
and we
find Cretan trade flourishing only a few centuries later.
islands
might well have been responsible for
Oversea trade, then, was in existence,
building,
making copper
which must at
M Breasted
(1912) 136.
" Breasted
(1912) 94.
nails
this stage
and
wire,
B.C.,
Either or both of these
this traffic. if
not very highly developed, during the of copper,
and the
must have given a great impetus
to ship
early days of metal, the centuries preceding 3000 B.C.
possibihty of
of
The knowledge
have passed from the use of
rafts
and dug-outs
to
'
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS that of boats built as
we know them now.
respects than those which
oversea
But a new
still
further
some
encourage
to
traffic.
The manufacture
of
implements of
and obsidian had reached a high pitch
flint
of perfection during the early days of metal,
and although the new materials were
valuable for ornaments, copper knives were, in stone ones, as the metal particularly those
those
discovery, greater even in
have been describing, was
I
41
made
is
soft
the well-tried
who were
to display their wealth, preferred copper
daggers to
its
edge easily turned.
more
ornate,
poor, or untouched
more novel and had a
scarcity value.
by the fashionable snobbery,
which was probably more
flint article,
than
many men,
of flint, for they were
Those, however,
respects, less serviceable It is true that
and
who wished
many
preferred
effective for its purpose.
But with the discoveryJhat_Jhe3xldJ±LQfla-^oi^^^
per cent,
copper produced an alloy of considerable hardness and no
of- tin,„tp
toughness
little
the
as well,
from which could be made implements which seldom chipped or turned, and which could ha ve_ihsiL edges quickly "r^ewedjby hammering or grinding
"Happen, the days of copper came quickly to an end, and the
even in obsidian,
fell
upon
evil days.
merely a luxury, but a really serviceable to an
end and ushered
in the true
How, when and where I
was disposed
was
It
it
implements,
which made metal not
man, which brought the stone age
metal age.
this discovery
to think that
such an accident
traffic in flint
this discovery,
article to
dM
was made
was perhaps
a mystery.
is still
in Spain,
At one time
where both these metals are
found, that the discovery was accidentally made, but evidence which has come to
hand quite recently has disposed
of this idea.
Professor Sayce has recently pubhshed
an extract from a tablet found iaJhe-ioyaLlibrary-^jlAssur," dra^^'up'in the reign of Sargon 28u'6"b.c.
of
Akkadj, whose date has
it is a geographical description of that
of the provinces, at the close of which
it is
.
JljsJrpmLa,jiacjiinent
now
been- filially fix«d at
monarch's empire, giving a
said that his conquests
list
had extended " from
the lands of the setting sun to the lands of the rising sun, namely to the tinland (Ku-Ki)
and Kaptara first
there
(Crete) countries
was a tendency
beyond the Upper
Sea
to interpret this passage as though
Mediterranean, and must refer either to Spain or Brittany « Sayce
(igai)-
(the
;
Mediterranean)."
At
Ku-Ki was beyond the
but this
is
to misunderstand
— THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
4^
As Professor Sayce says
the passage.
with the Syrian coast
may
;
beyond that were Kaptara or Krete and the Tinland."
well have been Cyprus, or
easily accessible
Now
from
" the western extension of the empire ended
:
some other
island in the Mediterranean, or
^-— that
is
it
shows us that^g^rly as 280Q b.q
th£_£ab5dioaiians_4Jffii£_XQgiiisant. of the existence of tin,
value as an ingredient of bronze
can only mean that they were using
this
;
and doubtless aware
Sargon's rule extended to Ku-Ki, which
had a trading post
Asia,
there.
sites is at present uncertain.
have been worked at an early date,
Armenia and at Diarbekir
in the
.
its
to harden
that
may perhaps mean no more than that some of What seems important is that the discovery
and bronze had been made before 2800
though at what
it
of
The passage imphes
the copper, which they had worked so well centuries earlier.
of the value of tin
some region
it.
the importance of this passage
his subjects
Ku-Ki\
exist
B.C.,
somewhere
in western
Copper mines, which are known to
south of Trebizonde, near Erzeroum, in
upper valley of the Tigris
ancient tin workings have
;
been found further east in Khorazan.^^' But the local supply of tin was apparently insufficient,
and merchants from the Persian Gulf were carrying on a trade
commodity with a place
in the Mediterranean region,
even
if
in
this
they had not already, as
seems probable, established a definite trading post in Ku-Ki.
Thus we
see that a definite organised trade, both
by
estabhshed in the eastern Mediterranean region before 2800
sea and B.C.,
by
land,
and that
had been
this included
a new and important feature, the search for and importation of raw materials as well as the export of manufactured articles.
Now,
as I have
shown
elsewhere,"* at a date
during a period which closed_abput_220o
B.C.,
which cannot be very much
later,
the eastern Mediterranean was in close
trade relations AYith Spain, and. was exploiting the "mineral resources of thai peninsula.
At present
it is
uncertain^who these traders were, but they seem to have been in touch
with Crete, the Cyclades and the second city of Hissarhk, and perhaps"too with Cyprus.
Though we have no evidence that
these traders were from the Persian Gulf, they were
trading between Spain and the area in which subjects of the Babylonian first
organised »3
Ku-Ki probably
and
if
they were not
Empire, they were at least carrying on the metal trade
by the people from the Persian Gowland
lay,
(1912), 245, 252.
Gulf. m Peake (1916)
2.
119, 120.
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS Quite recently
it
has been stated that there
is
no
43
clear evidence that the Spanish
copper mines had been worked at so early a time/' but the data cited by
me
to prove conclusively that the early settlements of El Argar
trade relations with HissarUk
baUs of a certain
of clay
burnt
seems to
city,*^
How
type,''''
me
it
must have been
have shown
I
direct or indirect
which exactly resemble some found by Schliemann
to place this early connection
How
Hissarlik II. in 2225 B.c.^^
seem to
and the discovery throughout the Spanish peninsula
early this Spanish trade began
the fact that
But, as
II.,
had
Siret'*
we cannot
in existence for
long
it
elsewhere,^" there
beyond
reasonable doubt.
all
yet say with certainty, beyond
some time before the destruction
continued in the same hands is
in the
evidence that while
it
of
also uncertain.
is
lasted,
and certainly
before 2000 B.C., the eastern traders not only passed through the Pillars of Hercules
and discovered the both
tin
and gold were
close of the third
trade
tin fields in the north-west of the peninsula,
but learned also that
to be found in the rivers of the south of Brittany.
miUenium, probably several centuries before
Before the
its close, this
Levantine
had reached the Morbihan, where stone axes have been found which repeat the
shapes of copper axes from Cyprus. ^^
Now,
we compare
if
copper
the
and bronze
axes
found
throughout
the
Mediterranean, from Cyprus to Spain, and those found along the west of Europe from
Spain to Brittany, we find a gradual change in form from the triangular axes of Cyprus
and widely splayed edge.
to the western type, with semi-circular butt
The
earliest
types are found only in the east, the more developed only in the west, for in the east
they followed a different
line of
we
that the type develops as
overlapping at series of
many
axes shown in Plate
again
several of
It is true,
however, in a general
I.,
This can better be understood by reference to the
which could probably be made more
aU the specimens
we take the copper
in local
museums and
daggers, with broad butts
and
perfect,
were
it
private collections.
slightly ogival blades,
which have been found in Crete, and compare them again with those found
Leeds (1922).
29
Peake (1916)
1.
169.
s«
Siret (1908, 1909, 1910).
30
Peake
2.
119, 120.
11
Hildburgh
3'
Peake (1916)
J8
Schliemann (1880) 349,
^5
way
pass westward and northward, two or more varieties
points en route.
possible to get drawings of If
development.
(1922). figs.
245, 246,
(1916)
2. 119,
120
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
44
South Italy and MonteraceHo
at Scurgola in
Malta." Spain. Brittany and the west,
we
the butt and lengthening in the blade,
till
commonly known
as the rapier, but
a dirk (see Plate
Sicily,"
shall find the
we come
which
I
in
and with other types from
type gradually narrowing at centuries
later
of the
northwards seems to indicate a
the movement, but
think might more correctly be termed
if
spreading further and further to the
At present we must be content with an
illustrations of
and the dates more minute and
aU the specimens found in these regions were
and
find these early traders seeking for copper, tin
shown by various
authorities that
of
The wealth
Museum
at Dubhn,'^
certain ornaments,
known
It
of gold
ornaments of
this period
more distant
we have been
would alone be
sufficient evidence
;
as lunulce or crescents, were exported
Denmark and Germany.^* to
it
has been
the gold-fields explored at that time none was is
needless
here to
found in the island,
which have passed into the melting pot, but hundreds of which are
National
any other
gold, or
the evidence which has been adduced to establish the early working
of these deposits.
most
among
than the Irish gold-fields in the Wicklow HiUs.^* all
details
exact.
precious commodities, on the north-west of Europe before 2000 B.C., and
recapitulate
outline of
doubt not but that the evidence would be more convincing and the
Thus we
type
axe and the dagger as they pass westwards and
line of trade,
north-west as the centuries pass.
richer
the
to
II.).
The gradual evolution
available, I
in
but we know also that
and reached Brittany,
It is likely, too, that gold objects of Irish origin
reached
This shows us that Ireland was in touch with the trade routes
places.^''
and
discussing,
this in turn accounts for the vast
numbers
implements of early types which are to be found in aU museums and private not only in Ireland
stiU in the
but throughout Great Britain.
itself,
3>
Peet (1909) 194, quoting B.P. xxiv. 208
33
Zammit
34
Crawford (1912)
35
Armstrong
36
Crawford (1912)
1.
37
Crawford (1912)
2.
(1917) PI. xxi. 1.
194,
;
214, 260,
142, quoting B.P. xxii. 305.
fig. 2.
where the literature on the subject
(1920).
195, 196, with 42.
fig.
map
(fig. 8).
is
summarised.
of
bronze
collections,
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS It
45
would seem probable that the early traders from the Mediterranean
we
reached the Baltic at about the same date, for
find there, too,
also
an early bronze
industry, which, while bearing a close resemblance to Central European models, exhibits also western
and Mediterranean
t57pes.3^
The search
for
amber probably induced our
traders to go to this distant region, for amber, like the precious metals,
request in Mediterranean lands, for again readily be made.
in
was a substance from which beads could
it
was probably these traders who
It
was much
•
carried with
them the news
of
the Irish gold-fields, and in due course other traders, starting out from the Baltic, joined
We
the gold rush.
found
in
have already seen that a gold crescent
Denmark, we can
Now
if
we
plot out
on a
some years ago by Mr. O. G.
generally
map
But throughout the Unes,
if
S.
of the
British
Crawford, ^^
lands or limestone
distributed,
work has been
Isles
hiUs
we
the sites at which have been
map
was published
of flat celts
shall notice certain striking
exist these finds are fairly
features.
numerous and
Crawford showed, these areas were open grass lands.
as
for,
Irish
find, too, other evidence of this trade.
fotmd the bronze implements of this period, and such a
Where the chalk
of
country these
rest of the
produced, would intersect near Dublin
sites string ;
out into long
lines,
and these
these lines seem to indicate trade routes,
passing through thickly wooded and probably uninhabited country on their
way
to the
Irish gold-fields.
One such
route starts from Southampton and passing Winchester, crosses the
Kennet at Newbury, where it
was met perhaps by a route from Chichester.
it
Thence
passed by the head waters of the Thames to a point on the Cotswolds not far from
Cirencester,
where
it
may have
been joined by other routes from the south-west.
It
descended the scarp slope of the Cotswold at or near Broadway, crossed the Avon near
Evesham, and the Severn
at Bevere Island above Worcester.
Thence
west side of the valley, crossing the river again below Shrewsbury.
it
passed up the
Its course across
north
Shropshire seems to have lain on the watershed between the Tern and the Perry, if
we may judge from
evidence of a later
Llanarmon-dyffryn-Ceiriog, alia
M.A.N.
J«
cf. inter
39
Crawford (1912)
40
Peake
(1922) 2.
it
date,''"
crossed over to the
(1908-9) 5,
1- 186, fig. 2.
fig. i, 11, fig. 5.
thence passing from Ebnal towards
Dee
Valley, where
we can
pick up
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
46
Corwen,
fresh evidence near
From
the head of
sUghtly north of west, instead of passing
Bala lake
down the Mawddach
Cwm
Bychan.
This
required to establish
is
reached
it
Roman
so-called
steps
the best attested route so far traced out, but further work
course with precision
its
and
Valley,
by the
the coast somewhere to the north of Harlech, perhaps at
seems to have turned
it
is
the way.
all
Another route from the Yorkshire coast through York to the Aire gap has been described
by Colonel E. Kitson
Clark,'*'
while some years ago I traced several from
the borders of the Fens into Leicestershire, where they the route passed through
Ashby-de-la-Zouch
seemed to be pointing to the Peak
met
at
Bardon
Hill
Burton-on-Trent,
as far as
thence
;
where
it
There appears to be a route running
district.*^
thence by Macclesfield and Knutsford towards Warrington, while there are signs that the route through the Aire gap also turned south towards the same spot.
Warrington a number of the south.
axes have been found,*^ some on the north and some to
The northern settlement was
things found there or batyx
fiat
t5rpe.''*
and dating from
This type and the
the place of origin.
The
fact that
this
in the
time
flint of
is
which
parish of Winwick,
it is
made both
Warrington, therefore, rather than Chester, was the
Crawford's
map
also
own
indicate
Denmark
as
both these trade routes run to Warrington, which seems I think,
a port, from which in the early bronze age Baltic traders set
its
and among the
a battle-axe of the so-called boat-axe
then to have been an island in the middle of the Mersey, shows,
and the Mersey holds
Near
first
that here
we have
Dubhn
sail for
predecessor of
Bay.'*^
Liverpool,
as the earUest estuary used for the western trade.
shows that a similar trade route must have crossed Scotland from
the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde and the Mull of Galloway, but no details of
such route have been worked out.
Much work
yet remains to be done before the courses of these trade routes can
be traced with precision and their dates fully established, but enough has been I trust,
to
show that
in addition to direct sea routes
from Brittany, the Irish gold
said, fields
tempted traders to cross both England and Scotland on their way from France and
4>
Clark (1911).
44
42
Peake
» Crawford
43
Crawford (1912)
(1911). 1.
196.
Evans
(1897) 212.
(1912)
1.
196.
EARLY TRADE WITH CELTIC LANDS These traders would have needed provisions
the Baltic/®
47
these would have bartered bronze axes to the people settled on the chalk
limestone
hills.
The journey
and probably uninhabited
and
for
downs and
was through a densely wooded
across the Midland plain
area,
and
for the journey,
Wales they kept mostly to the
in passing through
valleys, while the bulk of the population grazed its
sheep on the high moorlands."''
The few axes found must have been such
as were lost
by the way, and considering the
number found
traffic.
this indicates
an extensive
In Ireland the traders probably employed the natives to wash the alluvial gold
No
they had also to barter with them for their suppUes.
;
wonder, then, that bronze
implements of the earhest type have been found, almost more abundantly in that island than in any other part of Europe, while the number of gold objects found there Doubtless the natives worked the gold
unsurpassed elsewhere. their
own
and they seem
account,
home-made metal
also
to
fields
sometimes on
have tried to supply themselves with
There are veins of copper ore in various parts of the island,
axes.
which they seem to have discovered, but
tin
is
to
aU intents and purposes
It is possible, too, that the traders refused to divulge the secret of the tin
would have been strange indeed had they not done time at
made themselves axes
least,
plausible explanation of the great
The foregoing relations
than
outhne
my
disposal
will serve to
ago, though in small
of copper.
number
To do
;
nor
Peake
and so the native
This, at least, seems so
of copper axes
found in that
aUoy.
It
Irish, for
a
be the most
island.
foreign elements reached Celtic lands
numbers
who
these people were
(1917).
47
Peake {1922)
48
Crawford (1912)
2. 1.
197,
fig.
9.
its
the subject justice would require more space
show that ;
and
the time yet ripe for more detailed treatment.
is
chapter.
46
so,
absent.*^
of necessity, but a brief account of the early metal trade
with Celtic lands.
at
is
is,
is
This
some 4000 years
must be considered
in the next
Chapter IV
THE PROSPECTORS
IN
many
parts of the world there are to be found
monuments
sometimes rudely shaped by hammering, which from the
stones,
used have been termed megaUthic monuments.'
more complex chamber, approached by a
many
types
;
size of the stones
These consist of burial chambers,
Other monuments consist
stone-lined passage.
of circles or alignments of standing stones, or single stones
There are
unhewn
on four or more uprights, or a similar but
either a simple slab or capstone supported
position.
of rough,
only set in
an upright
some, like the dolmen or simplest burial chamber,
or the simple standing stone, are widely distributed, while others have a restricted range.
One type
of elaborate temple
is
found only in Malta and in the adjacent island
Such monuments have these features
of Gozo.^
in
common
:
the stones are large,
they have not been hewn with chisels or axes, and they are orthostatic or set on end.
Frequently associated with these megahthic monuments are other
which are believed to belong to the same culture, though the association clearly established.
Such are bee-hive
stones, but not infrequently
is
is
not so
round towers, and dry walls with polygonal
These are often found in close association with the erections of
masonry.
An
huts,
structures,
larger
where true megalithic structures are absent.^
attempt has been made to show that the dolmen originated in Egypt, and
closely connected with the mastaba, the
Elsewhere
I
have endeavoured to show that there are reasons
the origin of these structures to the
resemblances
'
tomb used throughout the
may
inhabitants
better be explained
Fergusson (1872)
Peet (191 2) 98-113
1
Peet (1912) 1-4
4
Smith
;
Borlase (1897)
;
'
;
Ashby,
etc.
;
;
of the
earhest dynasties.*
why we
cannot attribute
Nile Valley,
by supposing that the idea
and that the
of the former
Peet (1912).
Magri (1906)
;
Zammit (1910).
see also Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1916) 21,
(1913).
48
who quotes
Patroni (1916).
was
THE PROSPECTORS
49
introduced into Egypt, perhaps at the beginning of the second pred5niastic period, from
some
region, such as Syria,
common
derived from a It
where dolmens were known, or
ancestry.^
has been suggested by some inquirers that the fashion of erecting such
monuments
megalithic
to centre until
regions between Ireland and Polynesia.*
which has been associated many
number
use of conch shells and a or even within the
it
others, such as terrace cultivation, irrigation, the
same miUenium, nor
by saying that a
early date, that
developed
these regions often
was carried to aU these places simultaneously
is it
asserted that the people
happen that a daughter which the parent
The
Roman
idea
introduced
may,
I think,
became widely disseminated
regions in which
it
at
it
be
an
took root, and that
Thus
might
it
might ultimately become spread through part of the region
had
arisen.
A
parallel
Christianity, especially in these islands.
period of the
who
in time fresh centres for dissemination.
cult
cult
cult or religion
many varieties in the
became
widely scattered
not suggested that this culture, with
It is
of others,
better expressed
one place, and
in
many
reached
to these widely scattered regions were of necessity the same.
it
and
of orthostatic blocks arose at one time
was carried by degrees from centre
in
both had been
else that
may
The new
be drawn from the spread of
faith reached Britain during the
occupation and thence spread to Ireland
disappeared from the former,
it
;
later,
when
it
had
passed from Ireland to lona and thence back to
England.
We
need not discuss the whole of
wider area than the lands of this interesting thesis of megahthic
copper, tin,
we are considering.
which
One of the most
is
concerned with a
essential features,
that the people, whoever they were,
is
monuments and
amber and
this hypothesis,
pearls
allied practices, ;
they were, in
who
however,
spread the cult
were traveUing in search of gold,
fact,
much
silver,
merchants in search of precious and
easily portable commodities.
Now
Perry,''
that megalithic
who has
specially
monuments
5
Peake (1916)
«
Perry {1915)
7
Perry (1915).
Smith
this part of the hypothesis,
maintains
are invariably found in association with metalliferous
2. 116, 117. :
worked at
(1915).
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
50 deposits, first
amber coasts and pearl
sight very convincing.
A
fisheries,
and he has produced maps which appear
careful examination of his megalith
map shows
that
he has copied that of Fergusson, pubhshed in 1872,* and which represents far
monuments than does that published by
accurately the distribution of these
A. Lane-Fox in 1869.^
Neither of these maps, however, gives us a
summary
Much work has been done on
of the facts.
many
were produced,
fresh areas
map
but no one has recently attempted to make a
The French
any country except Holland." dolmens
in
France, and pubhshed a
it
has been possible to test
Perry's contention
many
is
substantially true,
it
made
a
in early
days
;
of
of the
list
number noted
in
each
with sufficient accuracy, we find
that
giving the is
in process of formation.
and that there
a definite relation between
is
areas rich in megaUthic structures and deposits of metal which are
have been worked
maps
have been deducted
anthropologists have
summary
really reUable
European megaUths, or those
of the
department," a catalogue of the British megaliths
Wherever
least
less
Colonel
this subject since these
have been added, and two at
at
known
to
the megalithic areas of the Baltic coincide fairly well
;
with the coasts producing amber.
Nevertheless there are
and which are known or suspected
to
have been worked
many
spots, rich in metals,
in early days,
where megaliths,
have not hitherto been noted, and on the other hand, dolmens and other such structures occur, sometimes with great frequency, in
commodities.
The problem
is
areas devoid of metals or other precious
not quite so simple as
it
would appear from Perry's
account. StiU, looking at the it
matter broadly in the
light of information available at present,
monuments
does seem that, in western Europe at any rate, the megalithic
thickest in or around those regions which produced gold, copper, tin
which were readily with the
accessible to maritime traffic,
fines of trade
which
I
are not destructive to the hypothesis. in the
main coincide with the
In the British
Isles
we
metalliferous areas, though in
with lead ores than with the metals previously mentioned.
*
Fergusson (1872) map,
9
Lane-Fox
(1869) 66.
p. 533.
'»
and amber, and
and that they coincide very
The
described in the last chapter.
Aberg (1916)
22, 23,
cluster
closely
exceptions, too,
find that the megaliths
some
cases
more
closely
As lead does not seem
map
" D&helette (1908-1914)
i.
to
ii.
384-386
;
Mortillet (1901) 32.
THE PROSPECTORS have been used in north-west Europe before looo connection be implied, date from a
But a
number
large
Sahsbury Plain and
much
megaUthic
of
B.C.,
later period
S^
these
found in
structures are
any
the region surrounding
These are some of those open chalk
in certain parts of the Cotswolds.
As we have
if
than that which we are discussing.
and hmestone areas already mentioned, which were the in this country.
monuments must,
early centres of population
seen, certain trade routes to Ireland
seem
to traverse
these regions, and here the merchants would have obtained their supplies of food for
the rest of their journey cult here,
it
;
would not surprise
and that these populous areas formed
The long barrows
of Wiltshire
us, therefore,
if
they introduced their
fresh centres of dispersion.
and the Cotswold
true of those in South Wales, have been thought
areas,
and the same
by some Scandinavian
to be closely related to the types peculiar to the Baltic region.
believed that the
from the dolmens to the chambered barrows Sweden.
The stone
circles,
archaeologists
in the evolution
Denmark and
{sepultures a galerie) of
which are conspicuous in the Salisbury plain
absent in France, and seem to have originated by the Baltic.
It
merchants coming from the south as by those adventurers who came
some
of
whom we
have seen passed across
this
area, are
would seem, then,
that some at any rate of our English megaliths were introduced, not so
Baltic region,
probably
Knut Sterjna"
Dr.
Enghsh chambered long barrows represented a stage
is
later
much by from the
country to the port at
Warrington. In France, too, though megaliths are more numerous and finer in the Morbihan,
where we have seen that
tin
and gold were found, than elsewhere
they cluster thickly in Finist^re, and in a curved Mediterranean coast near Narbonne.'^ Finist^re
line
from that department to the
The occurrence
and the adjoining departments may be due
in that country, yet
of so
many
megaliths in
to the need of the early traders to
take refuge in the inlets of that region, while endeavouring to round the dangerous
That they did so not infrequently
promontory. inlets of
numerous hoards
which we are
of bronze implements,
discussing.'*
" Sterjna (1910). '3
Lane-Fox
is
(1869) 66.
M D^chelette (1908-14)
ii.
map facing p.
512.
shown by the occurrence near these most
of
which date from the time
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
52
The
band
across the country clusters
running through the Carcassone gap,
now
most thickly
followed
by the canal du
to indicate that a land route through the pass
was
by
sea.
alternative to rounding the Iberian peninsula
just north-east of the line,
This seems
midi.
in use at this time,
From
this
hue the
as a safer
cult seems to
have spread north-eastwards, though these momunents grow scarcer the further we leave this
line.
which these monuments are foimd, which
Lastly, there are certain islands in
do not seem to have produced any wealth of the type required, notably Sardinia and
We
Malta,
have also an isolated group near Taranto.
islands,
and points en
points
of
call
route with
good harbours hke Taranto, would have been convenient
to these traders, as
Greek merchants.
Tarentum was afterwards
Here, and perhaps too at Syracuse, they
but from the wealth of
its
seems probable that such
It
megalithic
monuments we may
to the Phoenician
may
well have
and
had depots,
well believe that Malta was
Here we have a small
the base of operations for the western and northern trade.
very isolated and with excellent ports, with a population primitive and docUe
island,
;
such a spot would be a safe depot in which to collect and store valuable merchandise, until
was convenient
it
seas of the east.
to ship
it
through the more traversed and perhaps pirate-infested
Thus, though there are more exceptions to his rule than Perry would
lead us to suspect, these exceptions do not seem to
weaken
his h3^othesis,
but rather
help to prove the rule.
Now
in Britain
them such albeit
and the north generally these monuments, or at any rate some
as dolmens
from
its
and long barrows, are beheved
latest phases
;
to date
from the neohthic
nevertheless there are instances
in
is
clearer,
age,
Scandinavia and
Brittany of the discovery of copper tools and gold beads in these tombs.''
south the evidence of metal in association with them
of
Further
but in Malta the only
bronze implements discovered, the hoard found in 1915 in the temple of Hal Tarxien,'*
had been deposited above three This at
first
feet of silt
which had accumulated on the temple
floor.
sight seems to mihtate against the theory that these structures were the
tombs and temples
of miners.
iJ
Sterjna (1910)
''
Zammit
;
D^chelette (1908-1914)
{1917) PI. xxi. fig. 2.
i.
393.
THE PROSPECTORS I
In the
do not think, however, that these first
instance
it is
and these were probably
must have been
them with
53
facts are necessarily fatal to the hypothesis.
probable that gold and amber were the objects of search,
For a long time metal implements
to a large extent exported.
rare in these regions,
and the people might well have hesitated to bury
The
metal were modern and new-fangled, while burial
their dead.
tools of
customs are singularly conservative, as we can see at any English funeral.
and miUenia
had been customary
it
the next world
what kind
;
with a metal instrument
and
bury with the corpse weapons of stone
of a reception It
would the deceased have had on
would have been a great
In matters of burial and
taken. safer,
?
to
religion,
risk,
which are in
people, even after metal
so these
his arrival
which was seldom
if
ever is
was known, continued to bury stone Israelites
with
of Malta, too, were erected without the use of metal tools, as
and
temple,'^
for use in
fact one, the older course
implements with their dead, just as Joshua circumcised the
The temples
For centuries
flint knives.'^
was Solomon's
probable that while this cult lasted no metal object might be taken
it is
within the shrine.
It
was only
after
Hal Tarxien had been deserted, and
its floor
covered with three feet or more of dust, that traders in bronze, or perhaps pirates,
who knew not
the ancient cult, ventured to bury their treasure in the desolated
sanctuary.
In a recent paper Mr. Thurlow Leeds has suggested that the dolmen originated in the Iberian peninsula, in the basin of the Tagus,
The
Europe. '5
first
and thence spread throughout west
type he beheves to have been polygonal with a short gallery of
approach, lined with large stones, and this gallery seems, from his plans, to have been
somewhat
in the nature of
an ante-chamber.
He
further shows that such primitive
dolmens are derived from cave tombs, found in the neighbouring region, and in these caves the antechamber seems more apparent. early dolmens with certain rock-cut
tombs
all
the facts into consideration
it
recently^" he has
Sicilian
tombs from those
Joshua
»8
I
Kings
V. 2
;
vi. 7.
cf.
Exodus
iv. 25.
if
I
in Portugal.
seems more likely that the Iberian caves and
dolmens are derived from the rock-cut tombs of south-east
'7
compared these
at Castellucio near Syracuse, though,
understand him aright, he would derive the
Taking
More
'9
Sicily.
Leeds {1920) 229.
" Leeds
(1922).
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
54
As
to the date of this trade
we can say
We
httle with certainty at present.
have
seen that objects have been found in Spain which seem to point to a connection with
Hissarhk
In the temple of Hal Tarxien in Malta were found certain carved stones
II.
with a double spiral ornament", which exactly resemble some in the Syracuse museum,
These tombs have been
which had closed some of the rock-cut tombs near that city."
by Signer
relegated
Orsi to the period he calls Siculan
and to
I.,
this period belong
the rock-cut tombs at CasteUucio, in one of which was found several pieces of carved ivory,
This city was founded
which closely resemble a piece found in Hissarlik IP^
about 2500
B.C., or
about 2225
B.C.**
perhaps some centuries
The trade then which we
during the latter half of the third millenium tablet already quoted
may
and seems to have been sacked
earlier,
B.C.,
and
in the light of the
begun some centuries
well have
must have taken place
discussing
are
Babylonian
How
earlier.
soon the
trade and the megalith cult passed on from Spain to Brittany and thence to Ireland
and the Baltic unless of
we
is
uncertain, though
postulate that megalithic
Sweden
becomes
difficult to fit in all
monuments were known
as early as 2400 or 2500 B.C.
We may
needed.
it
*=;
in
the successive cultures
Denmark and
in Brittany a still earlier date
the south
seems to be
then suggest tentatively that the Atlantic trade began before the
close of the first half of the third millenium.
All this seems to indicate that the rock-cut
came from Asia
fore-runner of the dolmen,
mastaba.
;
tomb with an antechamber, the
the antechamber also occurs in the Egyptian
Professor EUiot Smith believes that
antechamber, developed in Egypt,^* but of this
I
this
do not
structure,
feel confident.
been introduced into that land from the north-east by his Giza identified, as I think
and the use
they may, with Newberry's people,
folk.
of
the
may well have If these may be
It
who introduced wheat and
the
second pre-dynastic culture, we must postulate the use of rock-cut tombs with
" Zammit
(1920) PI. xxxiv.
»
Sergi (1901) 284,
n
Peet (1909) 204,
M Peake »5
»'
(1916)
1.
The megalithic
fig. 3.
fig. 78. fig.
75
;
D&helette (1908-1914)
structures people, or beaker-folk.
Smith
(1913).
ii.
75.
169.
had passed through several stages before the cf.
Sterjna (1910).
arrival in Jutland of the single grave
THE PROSPECTORS antechambers before
and
in Syria before
4000
55
Rock-cut tombs and dolmens, dating from
b.c.
just after the discovery of metal, are not
uncommon
some parts
in
of this
region/^
Some
years ago Professor Fleure was engaged in a detailed survey of the physical
characters of the present inhabitants of Wales, and the results of this inquiry were
pubhshed in
Among the many He describes it
in 1916.**
connection.
this
types noted was one which as
:
Glamorgan
coast, the
Newquay
He
north Pembrokeshire, and other places."^' our dark, stalwart,
broad-headed
men on
of special interest
" powerfully built, often intensely dark,
men
broad-headed, broad-faced, strong and square jawed coast, the south
is
characteristic of the
district
(Cardiganshire), Pencaer in
states in another place
certain
Ardudwy
coastal
;
"
We
found
patches, often curiously
Later on he states that a similar type has been
associated with megaliths in Wales."^"
noted in Ireland, about Wicklow, in South Devon, and perhaps Cornwall, in the gulf of
Saint
around Narbonne,
Brieuc,
in
the
Asturias and around
Oviedo, on the
Andalusian coast from Motril to Moguer, in the gulf of Salerno and thence past the gulf of
Taranto to Bari, on the Adriatic.^' It will
thus be seen that this type appears to occur in just those regions in which
megahths and traces is
that in some
way
of early
I
It is
Some
not
uncommon
many
those described
by
which
Ripley.
Early in 1914
I
I
fact,
we have been
Fleure has told
me
in Liverpool, especially in shipping circles. I
had noted
in Athens,
usually lunched, a type which I was unable to place I
drawn
of our commercial centres, especially in sea-port
years previous to the publication of Fleure's paper
in the restaurant at
well-off.
inference Fleure has
cannot find that he has published the
that he has noted the type in
towns.
The
these people were connected with the ancient trade
Though
discussing. 3^
mining have been found.
among
noted, too, that they looked prosperous and were evidently
noted the same type
'7
Macalister (1912) 12-20.
as
Fleure and James (1916).
«9
Fleure and James (1916) 117.
30
Fleure and James (1916) 137.
31
Fleure and James (1916) 138.
3s
Fleure and James (1916) 139
;
in Alexandria, especially
Fleure (1918) 1. 16
;
common among
Fleure (1918) 2. 222, 223.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
56
Both these occurrences puzzled me
the successful Greek cotton merchants.
1916 Fleure's paper seemed to offer an explanation.
among
the same type in Venice and Florence, and of successful
merchants of the renaissance
;
I
then remembered having noted
the portraits in both those cities
me
also occurred to
it
until in
that the type could
often be seen in London, especially in the city.
When
it
became
clear that here
was a type, not recognised or described by any
previous anthropologist, and one, moreover, with a rather unusual distribution, felt
that
it
should receive a name, which should identify
nor with
or present,
any language,
any place or country,
confusion, nor with
neither with
was
any people past
equations would inevitably lead to
such
for
it
it
for its place of origin
was uncertain.
Since
the distribution of the type seemed to be in maritime trading centres, or else in those areas which were connected with ancient mining or trade,
have been associated with these in
America and
metals,
who go
made on
Constant observations since
they are remarkably clever, especially at in
trade
than
in
commodities, when
it
is
not in
money
is
by this name they will now be
money making, and their
called.
trade
that they engage more
is
commonly
in
oversea
The type seems intermediate between
itself.
that of the Mediterranean and of the Alpine, stature which
that this type must
people of this type have shown us that
and that
manufacture,
felt
out to search for gold or other precious
" Prospectors," and
we decided to term them
was
Taking therefore a name, commonly used
enterprises.
in our colonies for those
it
and suggests a
sometimes, though not invariably, found
cross,
but
the
among them suggested
great
that
the cross was probably between the Mediterranean and the eastern Alpine or Anatolian type, rather than with the
and stumpy western Alpine.
short
had reached the west and north from somewhere as
had
in all probabihty the cult of
Further than this
of metals.
Now,
it
in
century portraits.
Florence, both
A glance
at
megahthic monuments, and certainly the knowledge
the present population and in the fifteenth
some
Fleure and James {1916) 139 ;
in the eastern Mediterranean region,"
among
Dennis (1883)
ii.
that they
the Prospector type has been noticed not
33
261
felt
noted,
34
i.
was
was not possible to trace them.
as has already been
uncommonly
It
332
;
;
of the pictures
Fleure (1918)
1.
Taylor (1874) 94
;
16
;
on the Etruscan tombs,^* and the
Fleure (1918) 2. 222, 223.
Lovett-Cameron (1909) 188.
THE PROSPECTORS
57
on the alabaster sarcophagi, shows us a type corresponding very
portrait statuettes
closely to Fleure's description.
The Etruscans
a mysterious people, and various views which have been
are
expressed as to their origin have led to no
we
the neoUthic and early bronze
according to tradition, that the Etruscans arrived from Asia Minor,
find,
probably in the eleventh century
have archaeological evidence settled near Bologna,
perhaps a httle
B.C., or
of the arrival of another
About 800
later. ^s
I
give a very
well,^*
but
this,
may have
wrong impression. of the
with this view.
east, agrees well
The Prospectors,
wherever we meet them, are merchants and business men, and not the kind of lead warlike expeditions, or to bring as I hope to
show
all
Italy within their empire.
in subsequent chapters, the
were a warlike, conquering
tjTpe,
men
it
would be the men
That such was the case seems to be indicated by the is
On
men
to
the other hand,
responsible for the Villa-Nova culture
given to imperial expansion, and
one or other were the conqueror
which
Latin
were the people who so closely resemble our Prospectors, and the fact that
they are said to have come from the
if
to
while true in one
would suggest that the Etruscans proper, the Etruscus obesus
writers,
that
The
Later traditions suggest that the Etruscans extended their
empire over the ViUa-Nova area and to the south as
may
who
where they developed a culture known as that of Villa-Nova.
some extent amalgamated.
we
B.C.
people from the north,
Etruscans and the Villa-Nova people certainly exchanged products, and
sense,
Leaving out
confusion of thought.
may have come down from
of account such evidence as ages,
little
far
it is
more
likely
of Villa-Nova.
frescoes in a
on view in the garden of the Etruscan museum at Florence.
tomb, a copy of In these
we
find
depicted a country house, with domestic scenes, and a portrait of the owner, a fair
man
with a narrow
This
man
is
any
and brown beard, wearing a fox-skin head-dress.
totally unlike the Etruscus obesus of
seems to be of that at
face, blue eyes
rate, of the
fair
Nordic type, which, as
Villa-Nova people.
in the Regulini-Galassi
It
I
most
paintings,
and
caste,
seems probable, too, that the bodies buried
Herodotus
also of this type.^'
35
Dennis (1883)
i.
xxxv.
36
Dennis (1883)
i.
xxviii.,
37
Dennis (1883)
i.
37, 264-269, 388, 413, 414, 455.
who
tomb
hope to show, formed the ruhng
and other warrior tombs were ;
of the other
i.
94.
quotes various Latin writers.
All this seems
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
58
to suggest that the Villa-Nova people at one time conquered Etruria, then their empire as far south as Naples
and Pompeii.
extended
The Etruscan prospectors would
not have been averse to this extension of the dominions of their war-lords, as their trade was doubtless increased thereby.
But though
it
it
may
be argued that megaUthic monuments are not to be found in Tuscany,
was once
said that this
was the
case.^^
This, of course,
is
true,
but the
Etruscans are beUeved not to have entered Italy until after iioo b.c, when such erections were in
Some
most places obsolete.
of the earhest of the Etruscan tombs,
however, look as though they had developed from the dolmen form,^^ though they are
made
of well-wrought stone, rock-cut
we have
polygonal walUng, which, as
uncommon,*" and there Morris Jastrow
common
occurrence,
and dry
seen, often occurs in megalithic areas, is not
a very fine example of this work at Fiesole.
studying the religion of Babylonia, was struck with
junior,-*' in
Here
in Etruria.
only mention three points
I will
Etruscans, lived in city states
known
of
resemblances between the reUgious practices of that country and those in
certain
vogue
is
tombs are
;
:
the Sumerians, hke the
the Sumerians were governed
as Patesi, while the Etruscans
had
by
priestly magistrates
similar officials called
Lucumons
;
lastly
both peoples were addicted to the practice of hepatoscopy, or the art of divining by
means
of sheeps' livers,
and made models
of the livers to aid their students.
models have been found in Sumer and Etruria, and nowhere
else
Such
except at Boghaz
Keui, on the Halys, the ancient capital of the Hittites. Relatively few sculptured figures of the Sumerians have those which have been found
and with broad
some
of the
heads,"*
Sumerian
M. de Morgan from
show us a sturdy
and some reliefs.^
Susa,-**
of the Etruscan
Dennis (1883)
ii.
458
Dennis (1883)
ii.
275.
40
Dennis {1883)
ii.
116.
41
Jastrow (191 1) 147-206, but specially 192
4J
King
but see Peat (1912)
(1910) figs. 20, 23, 24, 39. 40, 44, 45
Dennis (1883)
44
Morgan
i.
261,
ii.
332.
(1905) PI. xv., xvi., xxiii.
short in the neck
paintings resemble fairly closely
show us heads which bear a
39
43
tomb
tall,
to us, but
Besides this some of the small statuettes brought by
38
;
people, not very
come down
;
;
close resemblance to those
76.
see also
Modestov (1907)
Langdon
(1920).
388ff.,
PI. xi. fig. i
;
who quotes Cara PI. xii. fig. 9.
(1894-1902)
ill.
338.
THE PROSPECTORS found on the Etruscan alabaster sarcophagi.
59
from Etruria to Sumer,
It is a far cry
but tradition brings the Etruscans from Asia Minor, and Boghaz Keui
an intermediate station, though probably not the only one.
may have
But we have seen that the
Babylonians were engaged in trading for tin in the Mediterranean region in 2800 so that
not altogether impossible that the Prospectors
it is
instance from the Persian gulf, where they had been of course, possible that the Prospector
A
should prefer to state
Such absence
Persian gulf. seen
or, as I
region
some
B.C.,
and
is,
monuments do not
have not yet been observed near the
As we have
derived from the rock-cut tomb, and such
is
As yet we know
tombs, and dolmens too, occur in Syria.
Mesopotamia before 3000
it,
it
of that population.
that megalithic
is
B.C.,
in the first
as Sumerians, though
not, however, fatal to our hj^othesis.
is
seems hkely that the dolmen
it
may have come
was not the only element
very natural reply to such a suggestion
occur in Sumer,
known
been
still less
of their contents
little ;
about the tombs of
we may
yet find in that
sepulchre, perhaps built of sun-dried brick, perhaps of slabs of stone, which
bears a closer resemblance to the dolmen than does the Egyptian mastaba.
The contention
that several lines of evidence point to the Sumerians, or certain
is
groups of them, as being the traders who travelled the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of
Europe
in search of precious metals,
spread of the megalithic culture.
Now,
as
and who are somehow responsible
we have
seen, the Prospector
a merchant, we do not find him as a rule among miners and
have accompanied these expeditions, and perhaps It
may
skilled
sailors,
is
for the
normally
yet sailors must
miners also in some cases.
be that the cult of the dolmen, or the rock-cut tomb which preceded
it,
belonged to one or other of these humbler peoples, perhaps recruited from the coast of Syria.
Or
may
it
after the fashion
be, again, that the Prospector, being unable to
The
latter
is,
I
am inclined to
think, the
and other megalithic structures are found
Palestine to the west«, in the Crimea and the Caucasus.*^ east in Seistan*^ while both these
45
his
dead
customary by the Persian Gulf, devised another plan more convenient
for use in strange lands.
since dolmens
bury
Peet (1912) 115-118
46
Peet (1912) 114
47
Pumpelly
;
;
Macalister (1912) 17, 18 (1894)
i.
261-266.
;
solution,
round Sumer, in Syria and
Stone
and dolmens occur further
Morgan
(1905) 114.
all
more Hkely
circles are
found to the
east in India.
Fergusson (1872) 438-445.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
6o
Time
will
Prospectors,
show whether the
who seem
suggestion, which I
have been responsible
to
have put forward, that the
for introducing the use of
metal into the
west and north, to which they came in search of precious ores, started originally from the Persian Gulf, or whether, indeed they were but sojourners in southern Mesopotamia,
having arrived there by sea from some more distant land, bringing with them the seeds of civilisation) as the legends of Oannes, the exalted fish-man, as given
by Berosus, seem
to indicates.'*^
Be
this as it
may, there seems to be adequate evidence
eastern Mediterranean
and going
first
and amber, seems equally
of gold, copper, tin
and
Sicily,
That the prime object
the British Isles and the Baltic.
monuments
to Malta
are found associated with
and thence to Spain, Brittany,
of such trade
man,
whom we
weU
towns of Europe.
we have
Lastly
B.C.,
Further, a certain type
found Hving in no small numbers in most of
seen that this trade, then in the hands of Babylonians,
had reached the Mediterranean by 2800 between 2600 and 2300
could
becoming a successful merchant at many of the sea-port
these megahthic areas, as
as
is
megahthic
the sites whence these commodities
all
term the Prospector,
was the procuring
certain, as does the fact that
be obtained, as well as upon the land routes connecting them. of
of a trade, starting in the
B.C.,
and scarcely
was
touch with Malta, Sicily and Spain
in
later
had reached Brittany, Ireland and
the Baltic.
Thus
it
seems clear that the Prospectors, in search of metal, reached Celtic lands,
where their descendants it
may
may
yet be found.
What
language they spoke
have been aUied to Etruscan or to Sumerian.
cosmopolitan habits, one of the country in
may
which they
settled.
We
(1910) 53.
But judging from
;
their
can,
then, hardly expect to detect
any
modern Celtic languages, unless undeed it be some
loan words connected with the metal trade.
King
uncertain
surmise that they were polyglot, and adopted the language
survivals of the Prospector tongue in the
48
is
Chapter
V
THE CELTIC CRADLE
WE
have seen that there
mountain zone the
that
Cradle,
good reason
is
of Central
the west,
and now
was from the
it
Europe, which we have decided to
tongues spread over
Celtic
for suspecting that
call
that
the Celtic
we
have
traced the movements of foreign influences into Celtic lands during the earher phases of the bronze age,
we must
was about 6000
It
inquire B.C.
what was happening meanwhile
in this Alpine cradle.
that the Ofnet race had arrived in this region, where they
had mingled with some remnants thought, the Alpine type, which
we
the
of
find
Combe
Capelle race, thus producing,
dominant in the mountains to-day.
found reason for believing that further waves of Alpines, coming the Armenian highlands, had arrived
by 4000
B.C.,
and
more often at
grass
;
have
believed from
fruits,
such as the apple,
cherry.'
These people settled down or
is
is
and that these had brought with them
domesticated animals, the germs of agriculture, and a few plimi
it
We
it
their heads,
this could
in the
mountain
valleys,
by the margins
of the lakes,
where broad expanses of marsh produced luxurious crops of
be converted into hay, with which to feed their cattle during the long,
snow-bound winters.
On
the harder slopes above they tilled their patches of grain and
planted their orchards, while for security from the bears and wolves which infested the forest-clad mountains, they built their dweUings upon piles in the marshes, or in the shallow waters of the lakes.
same and
dwellings,''
less
Thus they, and
their cattle,
which were
stalled in the
could be safe from the attacks of wild beasts, or the more adventurous
scrupulous of their neighbours.
'
Schenk {1912) 188.
»
Keller (1866) 57. 297,
61
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
62
Remains zone, from
have been found throughout
of such pile-dwellings
Geneva and Neuchatel
in Switzerland,
We
plain.*
learn, too,
writers that similar pile dweUings existed in Paeonia,' probably in
This
additional proof,
is
mountain
the
and Annecy and Bourget
Laibach in Carniola on the edge of the Hungarian
Salonika, as well as in Asia Minor.*
all
in Savoy,^ to
from
classical
Lake Beshika north
of
that were needed, of
if
the route by which these people had arrived in Europe.
made
Several anthropologists have
a study of the mental characters of these
made
Alpine people, and, although these studies have been
for the
most part
the description holds good for the inhabitants of the Alpine region.
been
summed up by "
is
true
A
Ripley
in France,
These have thus
:'
certain passivity, or patience,
is
characteristic of the Alpine peasantry.
aU the way from north-western Spain, where Tubino notes
its
This
degeneration into
morosity in the peasantry, as far as Russia, where the great inert Slavic horde of north-eastern Europe submits with abject resignation to the pohtical
...
the house of the Romanoffs.
As a
rule
.
.
the Alpine type makes a
.
comfortable and contented neighbour, a resigned and peaceful subject.
most persistent attribute to the Alpine Celt perhaps, better, to locahty.
He
his
is
;
.
.
If
Ripley says that they are socially conservative, and this ;
last is
tendency
pohtics.
that
It
is
soil, or,
excellence ;
he
cities,
days in peace."
true in the sense that
but an examination of the constitution of their villages leads one
to beheve that they are very democratic and, in fact, inclined to this
The
.
he migrates to the
he generally returns home to the country to spend his
they dislike change
.
so that, once settled, he clings to his
patrimony through aU persecution, cUmatic or human. .
.
extreme attachment to the
seems to be a sedentary type far
seldom migrates, except after great provocation
despotism of
usually confined
to village
affairs,
and rarely penetrates national
must be remembered, however, that Soviet Russia
Marx came from the Alpine Munro
3
Keller (1866)
4
Smid
5
Herodotus
'
Hippocrates xxxvii.
7
Ripley (1900) 549, 550.
;
(1890)
v. 16.
is
zone.
(1908), {1909) 117-126
;
;
Schenk
communism, though
{1912).
other authorities are cited in
fn. p. 118.
mainly Alpine, and
THE CELTIC CRADLE Thus we
63
and hard-working,^ while
find that these people were patient, plodding,
the long, snow-bound winters had encouraged habits of thrift, for
provide during the
They were not
summer a
sufficient store of
was necessary to
food to last through the cold weather.
hunters, and in no sense sportsmen, and seem to have been lacking in
They
the spirit of adventure.
feared the waste and
its
As we have
wUd
and lived
inhabitants,
and had
their self-contained villages, with the drawbridge up,
neighbours.
it
little
contact with their
they were extremely democratic in their
seen,
in
outlook,
probably with a strong tendency to communism, and they shared everything in common, perhaps even their wives.'
During the early days of these lake-dwellings, in what period, there seems to
have been
Combe CapeUe man seem
But towards the
the population.
about 3000
to have
B.C.,
little
is
known
as the Archaic
remnants of
to disturb their peace," for the
become extinct or
to
have merged with the
close of the second period, that called the
or perhaps rather later,
there
is
rest of
Robenhausen,
evidence of the appearance of
intruders into this region.
The newcomers were few up the Rhine they were
valley.
tall,
From
in
number, and seem to have arrived from the north
the skeletons found in the tombs of this period
north of Europe, and
who
are
Such were the people
known
of the
we can
it."
similar in type,
It is true
that
in all probabihty, to this time,
9
Peake (1922)
1. 30, 31, 54, 55,
and
(1912) 191, 344-
" Schenk (1912) 460, 461, 544. 18.
and
it
is
period, but
the
though a greater
Perhaps the few facts available would be better explained
In this connection compaxe the thrifty Paeonian maiden mentioned by Herodotus
2.
in the
we have few remains from
'
" Keith (1915)
dominant
though the long-headed
attribute with certainty to this
broad skuU found at Nagy-sap belongs, age has been claimed for
still
mountain zone during neolithic times,
race seems to have appeared here earlier.
the Hungarian plain which
men, who are
to anthropologists as the Nordic race."
Hungary were
possible that the inhabitants of
Schenk
find that
long-headed men, with strongly marked eye-brow ridges, and bear a
close resemblance to those tall, fair-headed, grey-eyed
10
we
for
v. 12, 13.
a late survival of communal marriage, Kovalevsky
(1891).
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
64
by supposing that the Alpines occupied the whole mountain
and that about 3000
regions surrounding the Hungarian plain,
and the mountainous
zone,
B.C.
Nordic intruders
entered Switzerland from the Rhine Basin, and the plain of Hungary, perhaps, through the Moravian gate.
As we pass eastwards from the Carpathians the woodland disappears
;
we
enter the steppe lands which reach far
steppe occupies the whole of the
a belt,
glacial sands
and
Rumanian
plain,
gravels,
and north
West
wide, as far west as Lemberg.
fifty miles
becomes
rainfall
less
and the This
into Asia.
of the Dniester runs in
of this he
large stretches of
which must have carried an open heath vegetation, and so
almost continuous open land stretched at the northern foot of the Carpathians from
Odessa by Lemberg and Cracow to Breslau.'^ In this open region, bounded on the east
Pohsh
we
forest,
this has
The people
discovered.
the Dnieper and on the north
by the
which we are discussing a very peculiar culture
find at the time
been called the Tripolje
by
culture,"*
from the
responsible for this culture
aside certain " areas " for the disposal of their dead.
site
near Kief where
hved
it
in pit-dweUings,
Usually,
if
was
;
first
and
set
not invariably, they
burnt their dead and placed the ashes in urns, which they deposited in these areas, but it
has been said that they sometimes buried the corpses, though no descriptions of such
skeletons have appeared.
some
of
land, at
it
incised,
They made vast
quantities of pottery,
but they were ignorant of the potter's wheel.
any rate during
much They
their later phase, for half-cooked corn has
of
it
painted,
cultivated the
been found among
their remains.
This culture
is
found throughout south-western Russia, south of the Pripet
marshes, and west of the Dnieper that
river in
;
it
is
sometimes found extending, too, east of
the governments of Chernigov and Poltava.
throughout the steppe region of Rumania, while westward
open country as culture has been
far as Breslau.
Southward it
it
is
found
extends through the
Pottery somewhat resembhng that of the Tripolje
found in Serbia, Thrace, Thessaly and the north-west corner
Asia Minor.
'3
Vidal de la Blache in Lavisse (1896)
'4
Minns (1913) 133-140.
I.
i.
30-39,
map
facing p. 54.
of
THE CELTIC CRADLE The
Tripolje culture
and the terracotta
of
is
figures of
two
types,
known
women, which the
B
A
as
and B,
is
Judging by the pottery,
common on both
are fairly
culture
65
types of
On
the more advanced.
hand no metal has been found on these copper
and
axes
uncommon on
When
perforated
stone
the sites exhibiting
this
was
culture
the other
sites,
axes
A
while
are not
culture.
discovered,
first
was beheved by some that here we had the of the
sites,
early painted wares of Greece
and
it
origin
Crete,''
but later on the discoveries at Cnossos showed that at that place painted pottery FIG. 2.
plain
and incised wares
it
;
POTSHERD FROM KOSZYLOWSCE,
mentally different.
between these two industries was abandoned.
by
from the It
tholos
may
erroneous, there
Haghia Triada
at
be, after
that the Tripolje ceramic
during
may have
period
relations, either
in
however, in the Newbury
all,
in Crete, figured
that, while the suggestion
ancestral to that
is
of
Crete
is
been some connection and mutual
A
direct
suggests
that there had been trade
or indirect,
this fits in
between Crete and the
FIG. 3.
BOWL, DECORATED WITH RED LINES, DISCOVERED IN THE GREAT " THOLOS " OF HAGHIA
2400
very well with the trade between Egypt
and Transylvania, about 3200
made
idea of a connection
Minoan
north-western shore of the Euxine, between 2600 and
and
is,
all
This resemblance and the presence of copper
borrowing.
B.C.,
also noticed that
a potsherd of Tripolje ware, from Koszylowsce in Galicia, which bears a very
Mosso.'*
axes
So
There
striking resemblance to another of the second early
period,
was
the shapes of the pots at these sites were funda-
GALICIA.
Museum
had developed from
chapter III.
The
B.C.,
to which reference
Tripolje settlements of
TRIADA.
was
Type
(From Mosso's "Dawn of Mediterranean Civilisation.")
A
belong, therefore, to a period which closed certainly as early as 2400
trade
and perhaps as early as 2600
came 15
B.C.
For some reason,
it
would appear,
this
to an end about this time, and the importation of copper axes ceased. stern {1906),
'«
Mosso
(1910) 112,
fig.
67.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
66
The cause
of this interruption
is
uncertain, but
it is
perhaps permissible to suggest that
the inhabitants of Hissarhk H., like their successors in Hissarlik
and so culture
we
restricted the traffic through
must
it
as to kill
it.
VL, held the
The disappearance
straits
of the type A.
certainly be equated approximately with the rise of Hissarhk IL, for, as
Type B.
shall see, the disappearance of
culture practically s5mchronises with the
destruction of that city.
As we have seen
this people usually,
by M.
for the skeletons referred to
any case they have not been their physical characters
and
and perhaps invariably cremated
Chvojka,''
may
We
described.
their dead,
not have belonged to this period
;
in
have, therefore, no direct evidence of
Some
racial affinities.
years ago Sir Arthur Keith, '^
discussing the origin of the " Bronze age invaders of Britain," a people which I shall
describe in the next chapter
must have
that they
before 2000 B.C., they
by the name
set out
of the Beaker-folk, argued with
left
that Tripolje settlements of type B.
Gahcia
came
to
still earlier,
an end.
For
that
is
to say about the time
this reason I
that the Tripolje culture was due to the Beaker-folk, and
my mind. Now the Beaker-folk,
force
As they reached Britain about or perhaps
from Gahcia.
must have
much
I see
argued in 1916''
no reason to-day to
change
tall,
strongly built,
and with rather broad heads.
but as Keith has shown, they
differ in
The
Alpines in the mountain zone.
more robust,
Age
often called Bronze
their cranial index
flattening of the occiput
is
is
many
or
Round Barrow men,
They have
are rather
often been termed Alpine,
important particulars from the typical
difference lies
mainly in this
:
they are
taller,
lower, seldom rising above 84, while the conspicuous
absent,'"
These characters suggest a cross between the Alpine and Nordic types, and is
a possible solution, as they he
midway between the Alpines
of the
mountain zone
and another people, to be described next, who occupied the steppe lands to the
and who
closely resemble the Nordic tj^e.
seems to have remained '7
fairly uniform, so that,
Chvojka (1904) 223, quoted by Minns (1913)
'8
Keith (1915)
2. 21.
19
Peake (1916)
1.
" Keith
On
165, 166.
(1915) 2. 13.
140.
the other
if it is
this
east,
hand the Beaker-folk type
a cross,
it is
a stable cross, which
THE CELTIC CRADLE suggests that
rather
it is
one of long standing.
Combe
palaeohthic race, such as that of
are of great importance to our problem."
unscientific digging,
many
of their remains
and the few
and some long-headed
find evidence of another people,
Unfortunately
have come to
and
however,
open to objection, as several other folk at
is
kurgans throughout this region.
less of
the result of
as
light
they have been called Kurgan people."
The
them
These people buried their dead in barrows,
or kurgans,
for this reason
we know
expert exploration have been meagrely
results of
published in very unaccessible proceedings.
different times
chief peculiarity of the people I
This name,
have buried in
am
dealing with
that they buried their dead in a contracted position, and that skeletons have been
found thickly covered with red ochre.
men
skeleton I
it
Capelle.
and apparently beyond into Turkestan, we
than we could wish, for
is
t57pe,
consider
the steppe lands east of the Dnieper, and stretching thence to the confines
of Asia,
who
we should
be, then, that
a cross between the broad-headed Ofnet
as
On
may
It
67
or
nomad
have suggested
The graves
red men.^^
For
this reason
This again
in its place steppe-folk or
of these
men were
some
writers have called
them red
not quite a satisfactory term, and
is
nomad
steppe-folk.**
They contained
poorly furnished.
usually a few
stone or bone implements and a certain type of pot with a hemispherical base.
The
evidence available a few years ago led to the belief that they were in a neolithic condition
and
totally ignorant of the use of metal, but
Koban and
basin, disclosed a considerable
some recent
number
discoveries at Maikop, in the
of objects of gold
and
silver.
From
this
similar finds Rostovtzeff*' has argued that these steppe-folk were responsible for
a considerable civilisation of their burials, I
am
;
but, taking into account the poverty displayed
disposed to think of them as
sometimes raiding the richer and more advanced long reached a chalcohthic stage.
Maikop
Rostovtzeff
is
still
living in a neolithic state,
civilisations to the south,
we
" Minns " Myres »3 Minns >4 Peake »5
which had
which brings them within
are discussing. (1913) 142-145; Zaborowski (1895) 125-130, 134-135
(1906) 541. (1913) 142. (1916) 1. 163 fn.
Rostovtzeff (1920) no.
but
probably right in attributing the
discoveries to the early part of the third millenium,
the period
by most
;
Rostovtzeff (1920) 60, 109-1 11.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
68
That these people were nomads seems
and from the poverty one grave at
least,
clear
from the
tombs and the absence
of their
little
steppe lands are the
home
we
of wild cattle,
and
shall not
owners of large bands of
cattle,
possess
have, in
since the grassy
be far wrong in believing that
they were by this time passing from a hunting to a pastoral stage. fact,
We
of dwelling sites.
evidence that they possessed the horse,**
we
evidence
They
were, in
which, like cow-boys, they drove from pasture
to pasture.
Professor Myres has argued for a very wide distribution of these people, in fact
from the Elbe to Tobolsk, and southwards to Bosnia and extensions seem, as
we
we
shall see, to date
from a
later period,
Thrace.^''
Some
of these
and during the time which
them seem
are discussing, roughly the period of Hissarhk IL, the bulk of
to have
been restricted to the steppe regions east of the Dnieper, though they roamed the belt of parkland lying to the north,
How far they had
beyond.
and perhaps even penetrated the dense woodland
extended eastward
is
next chapter, their more distant excursions in this direction
We know a robust
something of their physical type.
race, with
is
Bogdanov
less fair.*^
The colour
Sergi states that
his collection of
well have been later.
us that they were
tells
of the hair has
a tendency for hair in graves to become pale.
certain.
may
shall see in the
a large and long head, an elongated face, and, according to some
examples, with hair more or there
we
uncertain, but, as
it
varies
from 65 to
81,"'
The
but
kurgan skulls are some of other types.
it
been disputed, as
cranial index
is
seems likely that among
Bogdanov
tells
us that in the
kurgans to the west of the area several broad skulls occur, but with skeletons,
and the average index
or Beaker types.
is
higher.
This
may
robust
be due to admixture with Alpine
;
in this case I
have suggested that
it is
government
of
came twenty-three ^ Zaborowski
the kurgans
Kursk, where the steppe lands reach further north than skulls
{1895) 310.
which
showed
singular
uniformity
^
Sergi (1908) 309-316.
27
Myres (1906) 542.
3"
Peake (1919)
»8
Bogdanov
31
Bogdanov
(1892).
due to admixture
From
with a Mongoloid type which was already occupying this region.^"
elsewhere,
less
In the north, too, as one approaches the middle valley of the Volga,
the broad tj^e appears also
at Souja,3' in the
not quite
197.
(1892) 4.
;
nineteen
THE CELTIC CRADLE of these child,
It
trifle less so.
among
a
possible that a considerable variation of head-form
is
these people, especially on the outskirts
of
region,
their
seem to have come into contact with more broad-headed neighbours. is
women and
were markedly long headed, and the remainder, belonging to three
only a
existed
69
where they
But Bogdanov
probably right in concluding that the pure type was a long-headed one, though the
skulls
seem not to have been
so
Mediterranean peoples of the west.
narrow as was frequently the case among the
Normally the length-breadth index seems to have
varied from 73 to 76 though both higher and lower indices have sometimes been found.
The most
striking
about this people
feature
skeleton, or the body, with red ochre.^^
the
body being buried
This custom
is
in clothes
and cap
widespread, and, as
palaeolithic age, being
It
is
the custom of covering
the
has been suggested that this arose from
of skin, deeply impregnated with this pigment.
we have
seen,
was not uncommon
upper
in the
found at the beginning of the Aurignacian period in the case of
the Grimaldi skeletons found buried in the Grotte des enfants.
We
seem here to be
in
the presence of the survival of a custom which dates from the times of Aurignac. It will
the
Combe
be remembered that during the closing phases of the Aurignacian period
Capelle type
makes
its
appearance in western Europe, and about the same
time arrived the horse, which was hunted for food. conditions
had become better established in the
which drove the
artistes of the
this period,
of this tjqje, were covered with red ochre."
little
later,
when steppe
we have the great Solutrean invasion
Dordogne to the Pyrenees.
seems to have been predominant during
was
west,
A
The Combe
and the Briinn
Capelle type
skeletons, one of
As the climate
which
deteriorated,
tundra conditions prevailed, the Solutrean invaders departed, apparently to the Until a large
number
of the skulls of our steppe-folk, found in the kurgans,
and east.
can
be compared with the relatively few crania of the Combe Capelle type which have survived from the upper palaeoUthic age,
but the evidence cited above makes
it
would be dangerous to come to any conclusion,
it
reasonable to suggest
long-headed hunters of the horse, with their fine laurel-leaf spears, to the steppe lands of South Russia
3»
Minns (1913)
33
Osborn (1918) 337.
142, 143;
that
perhaps
may have
the
retreated
and Turkestan, and there converted the animal
Zaborowski (1895) 126; Rostovtzeff (1920)
60,
no.
6a
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
70
which they had hunted and ate into a means whereby they could roam with greater ease and rapidity over the grassy plains.
rendered
easier
the
domestication
hippophagists to beef-eaters. their
roaming
now dominant
cattle,
me
that
we
would have
which in turn changed them from
horse,
which
will
become
are here dealing with that
in northern Europe, 34
of the horse
Their robustness and long-headedness, combined with
and devotion to the
instincts
proceed, have convinced type,
of
The subjugation
Peake {1916)
tall, fair,
which we term the Nordic 1. 162,
163
;
(1922) 1. 51.
clearer
race.^*
as
we
long-headed
Chapter VI
MANY INVASIONS
THAT
large tracts of Asia
have been subject to a gradual process of desiccation
has been made clear to us by the reports of the successive Sir
Aurel Stein,
who has shown
us
that
regions,
once held a flourishing population.
desert,
who accompanied
Huntington,'
the
It
which are
explorations of
now uninhabited
has been suggested by Ellsworth
Pumpelly expedition to Turkestan,
that
the
process of desiccation has been neither continuous nor progressive, but has been subject
and the alternation
to intermittent action
which he has adduced of the out
his
Palestine
thesis,
and
fall
of the
Dead
The evidence
dry and wet periods.
of the level of the Caspian sea
which has been further strengthened by his
and on the shores
It is part
rise
of
later
seems to bear
observations in
Sea.*
Ellsworth Huntington's hypothesis that during these periods of
of
drought, or hght precipitation, the population of the steppe lands, which had grown in
numbers during the previous years
of heavier rainfall,
have found
it difficult
to obtain
adequate pasturage for their flocks and herds, and have in consequence dispersed to
more favoured
regions.
desert into the
more
in the history of the rainfall
may make
all
To
fertile
he attributes the great raids from the steppe and
zones adjoining them, which have been so marked a feature
Near East.
He
points out that a relatively small diminution of
the difference between a sufficient and inadequate crop of grass,
and should the crop be for the steppe-folks,
this
insuflficient,
the flocks and herds, the sole means of support
would inevitably perish unless driven to moist er
serious even one dry year
may
»
Huntington (1907)
Huntington
How
be has recently been brought home to us by the Russian
famine in 192 1. '
regions.
(1911).
71
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
72
This thesis has been severely attacked,
Huntington's conclusions
may
especially
by
Peisker,^
require modification in detail, his
made upon
to have withstood the attacks
though
Still,
main contention seems
Mr. Brooks* has recently shown us that
it.
the climate of Europe has passed through considerable changes since the ice age, and that such changes
He
come down
and
attributes these largely to changes in coast line,
The Pumpelly
and water. taken
place
in
reports^
Aralo-Caspian basin, by means tends to show that
changes
are
needed
of
to
level
have
connect
the Obi valley, with the Arctic Ocean.
of
we may expect
small
in progress.
to the relative masses of land
show that considerable changes
and but
Turkestan,
and may yet be
to relatively recent times
the
All this
considerable variation in the climate of this region,
while Huntington's evidence of changes in the level of the Caspian Sea seems to prove that such variations have not been always in the
same
inclined to see in this the destruction of forests
and
by the
Mr. Cook
direction.
their conversion into grass-lands
Ught
Huntington attributes the four great irruptions
rainfall that
from the Arabian desert which have been recognised by Semitic
which spread the doctrine of Islam over the Near East
movements
too, the various
of the
Huns and
Tartars.
;
for such
the last of
scholars,''
same cause he
to the
attributes,
One may reasonably add
that even one dry year during the period of Ught rainfall
may
be
sufficient to
to this
account
an exodus.
Now,
have endeavoured to show on a previous occasion,^ such a period
as I
light rainfall
seems to have occurred between 2400 and 2200
been of somewhat longer duration. B.C., or
steppes.
end,
however,
primitive process of cultivation which he terms Milpa agriculture.^
It is to periods of
2225
is,
It
perhaps a Mttle
earlier,
would seem that about
and from the evidence
I
this
Minns was inclined to beHeve that
M3^es (1911) 104-119.
1
Brooks
8
Peake (1916)
5
Pumpelly (1908)
9
Minns (1913) 142.
'
Cook
(1921) 321-323.
had been
This destruction has recently been questioned, and 7
32.
it
buried one of their dead on the site formerly
Peisker (1911) 325-328.
i.
may have
time the Tripolje culture came suddenly to an
3
(1921).
it
an invasion of nomads took place from the Russian
who had
occupied by a Tripolje " area."
though
further gave reason for believing that about
at Khalepje,'
destroyed by the steppe-folk,
B.C.,
of
1.
172.
MANY INVASIONS it
may have abandoned
has been suggested that the Tripolje people
73
^
this region, driven
out rather by drought than by the attacks of the steppe-folk.
Be
this as
it
may,
be determined, there
is
for further excavations are
needed before the question can
no doubt that these nomads disappeared from the steppe
time and were found in the Tripolje region.
for a
Further we have evidence that a people
resembling them appeared soon afterwards in Thessaly, bringing with them pottery
which appears to be derived from that of the Tripolje
seem to have been responsible which
also
shows
on the Caicus." been found
Moreover, the kurgans, characteristic
of
these
have
steppe-folk,
up the Sangarius
into the plateau of Phrygia.'^
to be dealing with an advance of a steppe people, comparable with
from
irruptions
the
much
Arabian desert which did so
to
the course of history in Mesopotamia, and destroyed the Old and Middle in
pottery,
with that of Tripolje, occurs later at Hissarhk and at Yortan
Caria, as well as eastwards
Thus we seem the various
II.," while
over Thrace and even over Asia Minor from the Hellespont southwards
all
and
to Lydia
affinities
of Hissarhk
for the destruction
Others of this type
culture.'"
change
Kingdoms
Egypt.
A
further corroboration comes from Turkestan, from the
the south kurgan, the lower layers belonged to the period
contained a copper culture and a three-sided
having Middle Minoan
affinities."
seal,"*
mounds
known
Anau
as
Anau.
of
III.,
In
which
which Mrs. Hawes recognised as
This settlement, which seems
to
have been in
touch with the Elamite culture of Susa,'® came suddenly to an end at a date which
Pumpelly
fixes at
abandoned
is
about 2200 b.C'
not quite
clear,
Whether the settlement was destroyed or merely
but what
to an end at exactly or almost exactly the
have
same
many
Wace & Thompson
" Peake (1916)
« Minns
(1912).
1.
(1913) 133-140.
'3
M3n:es (1906) 542.
'4
Pumpelly (1908)
is
that two
date.
also suggested'^ that in this last case
an hypothesis, advanced
10
important for our purpose
on the edge of the steppe, those of Tripolje and Anau, came
agricultural communities
I
is
i.
43.
we may perhaps
see
some proof
years ago from legendary and linguistic data
'5
Boyd & Hawes
(1912) 33.
"'
Pumpelly
(1908)
i.
48.
'7
Pumpelly (1908)
i.
50.
'*
Peake (1916)
1.
171.
of
by Terrien
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
74 de Lacouperie.'' discoveries at
Sea,
whom
This ingenious author,
Anau were made,
Bak
he called the
kings of Elam,
left their
who had been dead many
years before the
suggested that certain tribes, settled near the Caspian tribes
and who had been under the influence
settlements about 2200 B.C.,
and
the
of
on a long trek towards
set out
China, into which land they introduced the beginnings of culture and the germs of
the Chinese script.
This hypothesis was badly received when
it
appeared.
Few
had
of its critics
taken the trouble to master Lacouperie's argument, which was advanced in a most confused style.
Sir
believed that there
Robert Douglas,'" however, a sinologist of no mean reputation,
was a considerable amount
the theory was overlaid
by many
fanciful
of truth at the
bottom
Recently M.
conjectures.
of
it,
though
Cordier*' has
The
dismissed the whole idea as imaginary and based on inaccurate hnguistic data. question, I venture to think, needs re-examination, for at of peasants, in touch with
suggested
Anau we
find a settlement
the Elamites, abandoning their village just at the date
by Lacouperie.
All this evidence seems to point to the fact that owing to drought, either of a
who
prolonged order or lasting for two or three consecutive summers, our steppe-folk, buried their dead in a contracted position covered with red ochre, suddenly
left
the
steppe lands between the Dnieper and the Asiatic frontier, and dispersed in search of
Two
wetter regions and richer pastures.
settled agricultural civilisations
borders, the Tripolje settlements in the Ukraine
same
time, driven out either
and those
at
Iranian plateau,
their
Anau, disappeared at the
by the drought or by the advancing hordes.
That some went to the east as well as to the west seems probable, afterwards, in the reign of
on
Hammurabi, 2123-2061
who had akeady tamed
the horse."
and established the Kassite dynasty about 1760 horse into the valley of the Tigris."*
B.C.,
b.c.,'^
for
we find not long
bands of steppe-folk on the These entered Mesopotamia
and were the
first
to introduce the
Whether or no other bands passed further to the
eastward we have no positive evidence, but, as we have seen, there seem to be reasons
'9
Lacouperie (1887) 113-119;
»»
Douglas (1899)
" Cordier
(1920)
3. i.
27, 28.
{1894) ch. iv., v.
" King
(1915) 215.
J3
King
(1915) 320.
14
King
(1915) 215.
MANY INVASIONS some reached Tobolsk,"' and there were at one time
for suspecting that
in the
upper basin of the Yenesei**.
must attribute
who were
may
this easterly
lording
75
it
It
seems probable that
As
movement.
it
to this period that
over eastern Armenia, were of the same stock as the Kassites,
we
same
we
Geographical
causes.
would lead us to suspect that ample pasturage could have been
found also among the
hills
surrounding Balkh.
The westward movements
have already dealt with
I
do no more than recapitulate them Tripolje region,
people dwelhng
seems probable that the Mitanni barons,
attribute their arrival south of the Caspian to the
considerations, too,
it is
fair
As we have
here.
and probably occupied
and
elsewhere,*'
I
need
seen, the steppe-folk entered the
this district as far as Breslau.
Some
of
them
passed southwards along the western shore of the Euxine, and crossing the Danube, settled in Thrace,
where numerous kurgans are to be
Others seem to have passed
seen.*^
on further south, and eventually reached the Thessalian introduced Dhimini ware and the cult of the horse.
It
may
appearance of these strange horsemen in this region which gave
which they
into
plain,
be that rise to
it
was the
the stories of
the Centaurs.
Some bands
of the latter party
seem to have separated from the main body and
advanced down the GaUipoU peninsula. elsewhere, destroyed Hissarlik found.*'
but
it
It
may
among
II.,
These,
as
I
have endeavoured to
show
the ruins of which two of their skulls were
be that these were responsible for the rude villages of Hissarlik
III.,
seems more probable that they would have passed on to the grassy steppes in the
interior of the
Now
AnatoUan peninsula.
the bulk of the people of Asia Minor at this date, as at the present day,
were of that eastern Alpine, Anatohan or Armenoid type, best represented by the
modern Armenians. fight well to
command
These people are not by nature warlike, though they
defend their homes
of a
more
;
will
sometimes
but in no case are they aggressive, unless under the
miUtaristic type.
A
few centuries after the events which we have
been discussing, we find an aggressive, military power growing up in the peninsula, at
under several chiefs or
first
kings,'" in which,
I
think,
we may
»J
Myres (1906) 541.
*'
Myres (1906) 542.
»«
Lapouge
»J
Schliemann (1880) 507-512
«7
Peake (1916)
30
Hall (1913^ 337-338.
(1899) 245-249. l,
;
see a miUtary
Virchow
(1882).
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
76
These separate, though perhaps federated, states ultimately coalesced
aristocracy.
into
who attacked and sacked Babylon
the great empire of the Khatti or Hittites,
in 1746 B.C.3'
Whether or no any quite clear, for
it
would seem that some
of an earlier date.
To
Hungary
of these steppe-folk entered
we
these
at
this
of the long skulls found at
will return later.
It
time
Laibach
may
would have avoided such
were already occupied by their distant
them
The balance
out.
relatives,
we can
rich pastures, unless, indeed, they
who were powerful enough
of evidence seems, however, to suggest that,
any Nordic steppe-folk had arrived here
earlier,
be
seems probable that the grassy
steppes of the Hungarian plain would tempt these wandering horsemen, and scarcely beheve that they
not
is
some
of
to keep
whether or no
these invaders from
the
steppes must have entered the fertile plain of the middle Danube. It
has been pointed out by Minns,^* that " in the far west of Russia, between the
we
Carpathians and Kiev,
find in the neolithic period distinct
traces
of
connection
with the coasts of the Baltic," also that there are found " northern types of axes and
amber."
Zaborowski," also has drawn attention to the resemblance between some
of the contents of the kurgans for this reason that
igi6
in
I
and the culture by the shores
suggested^* that at a date prior to that
discussing, perhaps about 3000 B.C.,
of the Baltic, of
Belgium" about that time.
I
of these steppe-folk
was
we have been
had passed to the shores
some
have elaborated the argument
of
at present available
not easy to
we have
some
It
and were the long-headed men who are found occupying the lowlands
met with the approval
as
of the Baltic.
it is
of the
Swedish
make
since,^^
archaeologists.^'
a conclusive case one
seen, the neolithic culture of this area resembles in
but
it
has not
With the evidence
way
or the other, but,
some points that
Baltic, Nordic types appear in the Baltic region, in Belgium, in the
of the
Rhine basin and
pass thence to the Swiss lake-dwellings, while other long-headed types, which
however have appeared
later, are
found in the west of Hungary and the eastern slopes
Taylor (i88g) ii8, 119.
3"
Hall (1913) 199.
35
3»
Minns (1913)
3'
Peake
33
Zaborowski (1895)
37
Nordman
34
Peake (1916)
132.
1.
125.
163.
may
(1919) 201, 202. (1922).
MANY INVASIONS of the
mountain zone.
^^
some
All these points lead one to suspect that at an earlier date
of these Nordic steppe-folk, driven
by a former period
doubtless
drought, had
of
migrated north-westwards to the colder regions around the Baltic Sea, where the type, already
tall,
relatively fair
more pronounced
We
and long-headed, developed
later these characters to
degree.
have seen that the Tripolje people had departed from
Galicia, driven
a
away by drought
or
by the invading
Ukraine
the
and
Traces of pottery,
steppe-folk.
bearing some resemblances of that of the Tripolje culture, have been found in various
we
places to the south, just those places where
had
find that our steppe-folk
settled.
This suggests that the steppe-folk had conquered these people, and taken captive some of their women,^' If
Keith
is
who
in all primitive tribes are the potters.
right that our Beaker-folk
came from
Galicia,
we must suppose
on leaving the Ukraine they passed westward and entered Bohemia,
for
it is
from
country, as Lord Abercromby has shown,^' the
that this
northern
beaker seems to have been derived.
But Leeds has
lately suggested,""
made some
was
also
the
beaker
by
Sir
originally
in
years ago
developed
and
this suggestion
Arthur Evans,*' that Leeds
Spain.
has
published a map, showing that beakers of the earliest tj^je are found most abundantly in Andalusia, cARiNATED VASE FROM SPAIN, lines
of
and he
One
dlstributiou theucc throughout west Europe.
migration carried them to north Italy,
where
it
points
to
traces their of his
the Brenner
Pass.
Now
many
the Spanish and western beakers differ in
northern type, though
it
is
characteristic of
important respects from the
both to be decorated with parallel and
Leeds thinks that the beaker developed in Spain from
horizontal bands of ornament.
a type of pot, which he terms carinated, and which
38
Peake (1916)
39
Abercromby
40
Leeds (1922)
4'
In the discussion following Crawford (1912)
is
found associated with megalithic
1. 166.
(1912) ;
i,
see also
15.
Abercromby
(1912)
i.
1.
lo-
198
;
see also
Abercromby
(1912)
i.
11.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
78
monuments Brittany,
pot
such distant points
at
the
Pjnrenees,
distinguished
is
Denmark, the
as
Spain, Algeria, Taranto,
by having a hemispherical
Isle
of Arran,
and Malta.
Sicily
Guernsey and type of
This
way
base, while the sides, half
up,
have a knee or angle, above which they are concave.
Now may
of course possible that the bell-beaker
it is
be derived from this carinated vase, though intermediate
forms seem to be lacking.
am
I
by
certain types of ware not
form of which
is
however,
inclined to think,
that this beaker has a double parentage, too,
Spain
of
and has been
uncommon
best
shown by a
may
be, the bell-beaker,
influenced,
at Hissarlik
II.,
the
vase found in that
silver
city.""
However FIG. 5.
have been
ii.
carried,
amongst other
places, to
thence northward to Bohemia, where part of that province. in the plain of
which has invariably
a convex base, seems to have been evolved in Andalusia, and to
—SILVER VASE
FROM HISSARLIK
this
it is
North
Italy,
and
localised in the western
Here another type of pottery, called cord vases, which had developed
North Germany, had been already introduced, and the northern t5^e of
beaker, which has a flat base, seems to have been derived from a
combination of both types.
Some resembling
years ago Dr. O. Reche« described a people, very closely the
Beaker-folk,
Bohemia during the Baltic, that
is
as
inhabiting
closing phases of the
to say about the time
we
men but marrying
These invaders entered
Bohemia
the
women and
Silesia in force,
especially
megaUthic period in the
are considering.
population there intruded invaders of the ating the
and
Silesia
Nordic type,
Into this
extermin-
adopting their customs.
but
FIG. 6.
only penetrated into
BELL BEAKER.
in small numbers.
This seems to point to the fact that some of our Tripolje people were, as seen before, occupying Silesia, while others had settled in Bohemia.
4>
SchUemann
(1880)
figs.
254, 255, 300, pp. 357-367
quotes Montelius (1900) 119. 43
Reche
(1908) 220.
;
fig.
781, p. 468
;
see also
we have
Here they were
Abercromby
(1912)
i.
10,
using,
where he
MANY INVASIONS and had perhaps taken over from an been
developed
79
earlier people,
a
t57pe
of beaker,
which had
from the cord pottery of northern Europe, influenced by a few
imported specimens of the bell-beaker, which had come ultimately from Spain.
Soon
the steppe-folk, passing through Galicia and southern Silesia, entered Bohemia, and
some, at any rate, of the Beaker-folk moved northwards.
shown how they
left
Lord Abercromby^ has
through the Elbe gap and passed northwards
between the valleys of the Weser and the Rhine.
we
north to Jutland, where culture, characterised
««»*'
'"""****"'\
them introducing the
find
by the presence
forated stone axes, which
Some went
of
single grave
beakers and
we have met with
further
those per-
before in the Tripolje
area.
Others passed into the low countries, where they occupied the region
between Utrecht and Gelderland
lying
in
the
south
and
FIG. 7.
NORTHERN BEAKER. Drcuthe iu thc north.*'
Thence some passed to
Abercromby beUeves that they crossed the channel and
point,
passed
and northward
westward
however, that though the crossing
may
by
It
land."**
actually have been
at the narrowest
seems more
made by
was no new thing
in these
parts.
likely,
the Straits of
Dover, the Beaker-folk coasted along the southern and eastern shores Britain, for maritime trafi&c
Lord
this country.
Great
of
Some, who landed
near the Moray Frith, seem to have been accompanied by a few pure Alpines,"^ whose
blood has
left
a marked
on the present population of Aberdeenshire.*^
effect
While
they settled in the upland regions of England and Scotland, especially on the open
downs and limestone
they penetrated very Uttle to the west, which was
hills,
Few
dominated by the Prospectors.
none that can be depended upon in It
has
4«
Abercromby (1912) i. Aberg (1916) map i. Abercromby (1912) i.
47
Lowe
48
Grey
49
Crawford (1912)
45
it
16,
they
;
Crawford (1912)
1-
190.
67, 68.
(1902-1904).
&
Tocher
(1900). 1. 188,
189
;
Abercromby
{1912)
i.
some form
spoke
has been conjectured that
66
and
Ireland.*'
been thought by some that
Indo-European tongue, and 44
signs of their presence appear in Wales,
38, 39.
it
of
Aryan or
was they who introduced
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
8o
into these isles the Goidelic or Gaelic dialects.
by M.
This view has been well answered by Rice Holmes/' and his arguments
Loth.5°
are as valid to-day as
when they were
was
of bronze,
written.
We
are forced to admit that
we
are
spoken by the Beaker-folk.
in total ignorance of the language It
This opinion has recently been restated
knowledge
at one time believed that they introduced into this country the
and graphic pictures were drawn
of the
way
in which, with their superior
weapons, they conquered the stone-using aborigines.
Few, however, of their graves,
either here or in Jutland, contain objects of metal,
and those which have been met
with seem to conform more to south-western than to Central European types.'"
must
not, however, be
assumed too hastily that they were
in complete ignorance of
metal, though they did not possess implements of that material on their arrival as
we have
seen, the
doubtless carried thither as in Jutland
more accurate
among them,
and
Tripolje
people,
by ^gean
Britain,
traders,
in
their
period A, had
and the perforated
as of an article once possessed but long since lost.
5"
Holmes
5>
Abercromby
(1907) 195, 428-440. (1912)
i.
54.
for,
used copper axes,
originals.
to say that a tradition of the former use of metal
Loth (1920) 259-288.
;
axes, used in the Ukraine,
seem as though copied from metal
5"
It
It
would be
may have
lingered
Chapter VII
THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD
WE
have seen that the Alpine people were the
mountain zone, west of the Hungarian
there
at
an early date, bringing with them
in pile-dwellings
Hungary seems
and the germs
of
uncertain, though
inhabitants of the
and that they had arrived
plain,
from the east the custom of living
Whether they were hving
agriculture.
it is
earliest
possible that they dwelt in the ring of
also
in
mountain
land that surrounds the plain.
Nordic folk had arrived in both areas by 3000
from the Russian steppes.
It is also
the steppes arrived about 2200
B.C., especially in
and
in the
methods
of
life,
has been suggested,
fresh invaders
the Hungarian plain.
we have termed the
some extent ahke, there were considerable
racial elements
it
more than probable that
the population of the whole of the area, which to
coming,
B.C.,
from
Thus, though
Celtic cradle,
was
both in the proportion of
differences,
between the people of the mountain zone and
the inhabitants of the plain.
Though members
of
both
mountain zone, and are found
Alpine
the
and
living together in the
Nordic
same
villages,
have intermarried, at any rate to any considerable extent,
we
find skulls both of the long-headed
show evidence Hallstatt,
of
mixed
ancestry.'
races
inhabited
the
they appear not to
for at a
much
and the broad-headed tj^es, but few
if
later
date
any which
The evidence obtained from the cemetery
which dates from 1000 years or more
at
seems to point to the same
later,
conclusion.^
Now
the Alpine people, as
of the soil, patient
we have
but lacking in the
seen, are thrifty, steady, hard-working tiUers
spirit of
adventure.
The
Nordics, on the other
hand, are strong, active, courageous and adventurous, devoted to the horse and •
Schenk (1912)
^
191, 536-539. 544-
81
Peake (1922)
1. 70.
6
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
82
accustomed on
back to drive bands of
its
judge from the views of
many
of their
cattle over the grassy steppes.
modern
work, such as ploughing the land or digging the
and have a contempt
to sheep or mutton,
also has a natural instinct for governing
As
down
have shown elsewhere,^
I
if
soil,
just as they prefer cattle
and vegetarians.
wives from the subject
marriage
:
known
in India.
In this
With a strong
racial
the Nordics decHne to
take
serf.
may
we have
the germs of the caste system so well
This custom has given
rise to
which existed until lately among aU royal and
regulations,
in time take place,
Athens and
Rome seem to imply a similar point of view.
feature of
the strict marriage
many
Europe, and among the descendants of the Visigoths in Spain. of
marked
Similar objections to such inter-marriages are a
the Briton throughout the empire.
settle
the Nordic becomes a lord and his people
and, though irregular unions
strictly forbidden.
is
The Nordic
two such peoples come into contact, and
call it to-day, colour prejudice,
class,
and beef
and administration.
a privileged nobility, while the Alpine becomes eventually a
we
we may
representatives, they despise menial
for fish-eaters
together, there can be but one result
exclusiveness, or, as
If
noble
families
in
The marriage laws
Another steppe-folk, entering
a mountain zone fiUed with an eastern Alpine population, issued a similar edict, which
they credited to their tribal god.*
ever,
in the
mountain zone Nordic and Alpine
harmony, as lord and
together, apparently in if
Thus
serf,
lived
never intermarrying and rarely,
mating with one another.
In the plain, however, the Alpines seem to have been absent, or at any rate few in
Here we
number.
may
well imagine the Nordics continued their
nomadic
existence,
driving their cattle from one pasture to another.
Thus the population tended
divide into two groups, the people of the mountains
and the people
When
the
first
to
of the plain.
group of Nordics arrived in this region, both they and their
Alpine predecessors were ignorant of metal, but a few centuries later implements of
copper began slowly to penetrate the whole area. east,
up the Danube
valley, either
from Hissarhk
II.
Perhaps these arrived from the or from those
^gean
merchants,
who, as we have seen, were trading for Transylvanian gold, or taking copper axes to the Tripolje folk.
3
Or
Peake (1922)
it
1.
may
70-72.
be that other ^Egean folk had by this time reached the head
4
Deuteronomy
vii. 3.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD of the Adriatic,
and were making
the amber coasts of the Baltic.
the
It is probable that
from Fiume, along the eastern
Danube must have been
the Elbe gap, and on of flat celts, to the
One
thence to the mines of the Erz-gebirge and
thing
by
believed that
Rhone
valley
This
Europe.*
was thickly
is
known
first
was the main hue
by the
it
continued through
distribution
It
was
at one
approach into
of
many
until
time
Central
the case,' for that valley
centuries after metal
remained
it
had become
in Switzerland.
seem to have ceased
for a time
;
II.
communications from the
the irruption of the steppe-
have interfered with trade, especially by land, over
north iEgean
and Euxine
Perhaps,
areas.
other route may also have ceased for a time. that this was the case, but in due course
it
too,
after
the
Hungary trade by the
arrival of fresh hordes of steppe-folk into
any
thence
;
wooded, and the inhabitants of most of
folk appears to
the
mountain zone towards Linz, where
appeared in the western Mediterranean,
After the destruction of Hissarhk east
can be traced in
that metal reached the mountain
we now know was not
in a neoUthic state
fairly early
coast.^
and that
when metal
latter route
crossed in dug-out canoes
various routes, indicated
amber
is clear,
foothills of the
zone from the east and not from the west.
the
both Unes of trade began
miUenium, and the general course of the
in the third
outline
way
their
83
There
is
some evidence
was resumed, and was at
rate in fuU swing again long before 1600 B.C., though, judging
by
the type of weapons found, this trade was rather with Italy and the
west than with the
We
^gean and
8.
RIPATRANSONE.
the eastern Mediterranean.
have seen in an earher chapter that the people of the Mediterranean had
developed a type of dagger of a somewhat triangular form, made copper and subsequently of bronze.
concave
FIG.
GROOVED ITALIAN DAGGER FROM CASTELLANO, NEAR
sides,
perhaps at
first
5
Lissauer (1904) map.
«
Mackenzie (1907-8) 351.
This dagger, as
we have
as the result of constant grinding,
7
Peake
{1914).
first
of
all
seen, frequently
of
had
and thus attained an
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
84
We
ogival form.
the
have noted
length of the blade
remained
straight,
also
that the breadth of
the
North
increased. Sometimes, especially in
and grooves were cut
the
in
of
in
in the first instance
ornament, though in time
elaborate
In
decoration.
The
five or
which were three,
number, was not
it
instance
first
even
a question
became the motif
the
as
Italy, the sides
blade parallel to the sides.
object of these grooves,
more
diminished
butt
it
of an
had a
severely practical value, for a dagger so grooved, thrust into
body
the
of
an enemy, could be more
readily
extracted than one of which the whole surface was smooth.
began
This grooving
with
straight-sided
the
was afterwards applied to those
daggers, but
of
ogival form.
The people as
we have
and
their
of the Mediterranean race were,
seen, rather short
and
of slight build,
daggers were relatively small.
were not used very frequently, we in
—RIVETED
DAGGER-HILT FROM FOSSOMBRONE.
FIG. 9.
handle
was
of
open warfare, but were more usually employed
to stab an
obsolete
enemy in
in the back, a
some
custom not yet
Mediterranean
Such handles were riveted on
so long as the butt of the latter
was
imagine,
lands.
The
bronze, often handsomely chased, and sometimes decorated
with thin plates of gold.
method
may
They
of attachment
to the blades,
was wide and the blade not too
proved satisfactory.
for the butt to diminish in breadth
But, as
we have
and the blade
long,
and this
seen, the tendency
to increase in length,
which suggests that open combat was becoming more fashionable or more necessary,
and that a greater reach was needed.
The narrowing
of the area
fig. io.
threw an ever increasing
shaped
LEAF-
of attachment, strain
and the lengthening
on the riveted
ineffective.
Still,
joint,
of the blade,
which must have become more
the Mediterranean peoples up to the
last,
and
more
except in the ^Egean area,
continued to use this long dirk, or rapier, with riveted handle.
But the trade with Hungary
carried these daggers from Italy into Central Europe,
THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD and the Nordic inhabitants, both
But being big men, with
customers.
face to face, they
demanded
such a demand always
dimensions.
matched both
shows
in Greece
and accustomed
larger daggers,
and
Thus we
supply.
mountains, were good
of the
to
and
their foes
as
find these weapons, closely
western
its
half,
Hungary, and growing to greater and greater
in
five daggers
Italy
meet
demand was met,
this
the Mediterranean basin, especially in
in
Plate IV.
and
larger
common
increasingly
large hands
by an adequate
is,
resembhng those in use becoming
the plain and
of
85
found in Hungary: the two
and elsewhere
first
can be
in the Mediterranean
region, the third in Italy only, the fourth in the northern part of that
peninsula, while the fifth
been able to find one
The grown
to
rare outside
is
Hungary, and
from Bondo
parallel,
in the Grisons.^
increased size of the daggers, which in
enormous proportions, as may be seen
all
else,
paid
much
themselves to discover some as
we
some
had
cases
in Plate V.,
The Nordics,
the weakness at the riveted joint more apparent.
above
have only
I
made
fighters
attention to their weapons, and they set
way
to
overcome
this difficulty.
This
led,
shall see, to the evolution of the leaf-shaped sword.
During the bronze age there were several types of sword use in various parts of the Old World.
We have seen how the
in
typical
Mediterranean sword or long dirk developed by slow degrees in the
west from the triangular copper daggers of Crete. in
^gean and
Greek lands we find other types, which seem to be derived from
swords of Asiatic in
In the
origin,
Mesopotamia or Egypt
and which had an independent development some, too,
;
may have
FIG. ir.
BRONZE HILT OF LEAF-SHAPED SWORD.
been derived from the copper daggers
of Cyprus.
But
there
is
one type or group which stands apart from the others.
examples the blade narrows rapidly near the butt, then expands slowly its
greatest breadth about two-thirds of the
more
rapidly, then very quickly to the point.
of the lanceolate plantain, a
8
way down
PI. Vll.a. fig. 13 in
till it
then
;
it
many
reaches
narrows
This gives a shape not unlike the leaf
form not uncommon
B.P.
the blade
In
in other leaves
;
hence the name
Trento Museum. 6a
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
86
But many examples from
leaf-shaped sword.
this group, in other respects indistinguish-
able from those described, have sides which are nearly parallel,
To
these cases the term leaf-shaped
by a long
tradition,
Leaf-shaped hilts or
and so
will
it
may
swords
is
be well to retain
it
But the name
Owing
types with bronze hilts have hitherto
and several
and tracing out
greatest
and
outside Hungary,
The
those with
:
bronze
amount
of
attention,
have devoted pages to describing them
They
their evolution.^
the other types.
hallowed
is
to the beauty of their decoration, the
received the
archaeologists
so.
whole group.
for the
be divided into two sub-groups
pommels, and those without.
common
not so appUcable.
sometimes quite
are not, however, very
in all cases are
details of their
much
rarer than
form lead us to believe that
they are contemporary with some, in fact with most of the other
and the elaborate decoration present
types,
in
most cases shows us
that they were an expensive and ornate form, used probably
by
the greater chieftains, while the other types were the cheap and plain
weapons used
either
by the
lesser nobles or
by
the rank and
file.
The simpler type
of
sword has no bronze
hilt,
but in
its
place
a long tang, usually but not invariably with flanged edges, and
shaped to in
fit
This tang
the hand.
which the rivets are
is
pierced
by
several rivet holes,
sometimes found adhering, and these
FIG. 12.
TANG, WITH FLANGED EDGES, SHAPED TO FIT
THE HAND.
rivets
were used to secure on either side of the tang pieces of
wood, bone or horn, which with
it
formed the
In some cases
hilt.
such swords have been found with wood or horn
These are obviously a cheaper form of
hilt,
and
it
is
still
attached.
not surprising that such swords are
more commonly found and more widely distributed than those with bronze pommels, notwithstanding that the
latter
hilts or
have been more eagerly sought after by
collectors. It is partly
are
because these types, which are
commoner and more widely
in preference to the 9
Naue
included in the
distributed that I have selected
more ornate forms, but (1903) 43-75.
all
Type
them
also for another reason. '»
Naue
II. of
Naue,"
for special It
(1903) 12-25.
study
has hitherto
;
THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD been usual to for reasons
swords mainly by the shapes of their blades or their sections
classify
which
will
87
become apparent
as I proceed, I
am
proposing a
based upon the shape of the butt of the blade, the portion, that
new classification, to say, which
is
immediately adjoins the handle-shaped tang.
Now if we examine
a large number of swords of these types, we shall find that these
butts vary in form, some being convex and others concave.
them
in a series of seven,
and
it
In Plate VI.
I
below, I beUeve
Type
—CONVEX
AND CONCAVE
to anyone consulting the
think, be apparent
A
have placed
would, perhaps, be possible to sub-divide them more
minutely, and to give several variants of most of the types.
FIG. 13.
I
For reasons, which
will.
more
fully
BUTTS.
and which
Plate,
to be the earliest of the series
;
I
give
Type G, on the other hand,
occurs in the famous cemetery at Hallstatt, in the Salzkammergut, and as iron swords
and implements were found
in
swords as belonging to the very
most last
of the graves there,
we may
consider these bronze
phase of the bronze age in Central Europe.
As the
butts of the blades show a gradual transition from the form usual in the daggers vnth riveted handles satisfied that
A
shown
we have
glance at
once that
it is
in Plate IV.
to the
Hallstatt type,
we may,
think, feel
I
placed our series in strict chronological sequence.
Type A,
especially as seen in full length in Plate VII.,
a transitional form, and that
to those given on Plate V.
The butt
is
it
shows us at
has grown out of an ogival dagger, similar
of the
same shape, being a flattened
semicircle,
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
88
with the horizontal radii considerably longer than the the blade, too,
same form, and the
of the
is
considerably,
differ
form
till its
tang, shaped to
it
from the ancestral form
of rather
is
the blade has been lengthened
:
the hand, and with flanged edges, has been cast in one piece with the
fit
sides
it is
but with the greatest breadth
true,
and the tang flanged and with
relatively near to the butt,
wooden or horn
In
an unnatural shape, while at the other end a
Here we have a leaf-shaped sword,
blade.
of
parallel incised hnes are survivals of the
These show that the prototype was of ogival shape.
grooves already described.
two points only does
The upper part
vertical.
to be
attached to form the
rivet holes to enable the
The
hilt.
section
is
somewhat
rhomboidal.
Now somewhere in
it
in the
Danube
south Danubian
the
basin,
and
region."
it
It
has been suggested that this had taken place
becomes important,
whereabouts in the Celtic cradle these types originated. of this
and
As
are known,
in
and one
Of the
variant.
far as I
have been able to ascertain,
of these is so unlike the others that
five,
therefore,
to
determine
Details of the distribution
of other types will be discussed in the next chapter
to summarise.
had been evolved
types
has long been realised that swords of these
here
;
it
will
be
sufficient
six specimens only of this
we must
look upon
it
type
as a later
one was found in the Friuh, at the head of the Adriatic, one
a tomb in Schleswig-Holstein, while the other three were found somewhere in Hungary.
Of these the exact
sites at
have been dredged out
We
may,
which two were found are unknown, but the third
of the
from
this that it
was
in the
plain of Hungary, where the Nordic steppe-folk were hving in relative
purity,
still
leading,
these swords were developed. in the plain rather than in the
perhaps,
The
a nomadic hfe,
origin
Hungarian
then,
we must
dispersal, and, as far as possible, will
that
mountain zone, though subse quent
found frequently in the
examples
cu
seems to have been
types have been plain,
latter.
It is the
consider as the centre of
fig. 14.
«
a section not unlike THAT OF A SPEAR-HEAD.
0.
A RHOMBOID SECTION WITH concave sides.
Hungarian rather than other
be taken as the true types, of which others
will
be considered as variants. " Peet
said to
Danube near Buda-Pest."
think, conclude
I
is
(1909) 348.
» For
details see
next chapter.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD Now
89
that the tang for the hilt had been cast in one piece with the blade, and
the attachment of the hilt no longer depended solely on the row of rivets at the butt of the
was no
blade, there
Type
find in
and
B
necessity^ for this butt to
The
flange
on the
The blades
we
The numerous
broadening of the blade into the true leaf-shaped form.
Type
A
disappear,
and
strips.
and the section
sides,
and seems to be a
Types C and
Type
D
are at
The curves
in this case
on the tang are
much
sight very
We
alike,
but a close examination of the
have seen how
in passing
still
from Type
;
A
to
Type C the
in
exceeds the horizontal, and an oval butt has developed.
seem to be nearly
The
not exactly those of an eUipse.
if
present, but tend to disappear before reaching the point at
butt passes into the blade. sides,
first
it
more common
this variant is
the horizontal radii diminish until they equal the vertical
vertical has increased until
ridge,
later local development.
part will explain the difference.
B
Occasionally
and the blade sloping to a median ;
result
much thicker
not unhke that of a spear-head.
is
thus forming in section a rhomboid with concave sides
critical
into three almost
in these cases the central third is
;
find these parallel fines entirely absent,
in the north,
parallel grooves
Sometimes these grooves are combined into one, and
in sharp lines dividing the blade into three
we
it
find a slight
Towards the butt these grooves bend outwards to the edge, forming an
almost perfect quadrant.
than the two
some
in
narrow grooves,
in their place appear a few, generally three,
very close together, parallel to both sides of the blade, and dividing equal
we
of this tj^e usually
diminish gradually from below the butt to the point, but occasionally
of
though
sides of the tang remained,
became hghter and not so sharply modelled.
it
result
the butt has become approximately semi-circular, with the horizontal
vertical radii equal.
cases
As a
be of so great a breadth.
The blades
of this t37pe
flanges
which the
sometimes retain their parallel
but more often the breadth expands, usually about halfway between the butt
and the
point.
The
fines of parallel
been reduced as a rule to a single
line
grooving are tending to disappear
on either
side,
;
they have
and although these are sometimes
found in the same position as in Type B, dividing the blade vertically into three equal strips, it is
more often the case that these
which in some cases they approach as t5^e
are
relatively
outside the parallel
flat
fines.
and
thin,
These
fines,
fines
have been moved nearer to the edge,
close as fifty miUimetres.
but in
the fact,
thickness are
The blades
diminishes
only indications
in this
considerably of
the place
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
90
where the
diminished
begins
thickness
other
In
abruptly
the
cases
section
is
spindle-shaped.
Type D,
has
as
been
noted, closely resembles
Type
the oval, which were fairly true in
other respects
it differs
The spindle-shaped In Type
E
httle
C,
Type
C,
but
have been much
the curves
of
flattened.
In
from the more developed examples of Type
more common.
section appears to be
the convexity of the butt has almost disappeared
and the butt blend more thoroughly, which makes the junction a
and the only trace
straight,
of the original convexity is to
FIG. 15.
SPINDLE-
SHAPED
;
the tang
larger hollow
sides of the butt are ahnost if not quite
The
curve than in the previous types.
lower part of the butt, which terminates in a beak or nose. the tang are tending to disappear, and in
many
be found in the
The
flanges of
cases are nothing but an
SECTION.
irregular thickening of the parts nearest to the outside. see, is
widely distributed, and has developed
recognised but not easily described.
many
local variants,
The blade in this type,
displays the characteristic widening two thirds of the
down
C.
This type, as
we
shall
which can readily be
especially in the west, usually
way
the blade, which has given rise to the term leaf-
shaped sword.
The
relatively near to
it,
are usually flatter
lines parallel to the
in
edge are always
most cases very near, and the blades
and narrower, though the spindle-shaped
section stiU occurs.
Type F Hallstatt,
and
is
in
that described
many
by Dechelette
respects resembles
as Proto-
Type G.
sides of the butt are straight or shghtly concave,
and the
head of the tang expands into a T-shaped form. flange has entirely disappeared
and the
The The
rivet-holes in the
centre of the tang are frequently, though not invariably FIG. 16.
replaced
by a long
type and of Type
from Type F,
is
slot.
The conspicuous
feature of this
THE CUTTING EDGE OF THE BLADE G, though it may occasionaUy be absent BEGINS AN INCH OR TWO BELOW THE BUTT. that the cutting edge of the blade does
The
not begin for an inch or two below the butt.
than any words can do, but the point to note
is
iUustrations will explain this better
that this portion, between the butt and
THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORD
91
the true edge of the blade, has a blunt edge, and gives the impression that something
has been tied round like
the
batons
;
It
sword-knots of
by holding
the hand or
Type become
it.
may be that at this spot the modem swords and
the leather loops of policemen's
is less
hkely to be snatched from
lost.
G
concave,
much
to the tang, are
tang
the
terminates in a semi-hexagonal
finial
;
parallel groove
is
thinner and
is
is
The
the butt, as in the case of Type F.
flanges,
and
rather narrower than in most of the
characteristically two-thirds of the
close to the edge,
is
always without
the rivets, which are usually found attached
The blade
smaller.
preceding types, but the widest part
The
In this the lines of the butt have
the well-known HaUstatt type.
is
definitely
the blade.
weapon
this leather loop the
leather bands have been attached,
section
way down
and the edge ceases before reaching is
spindle-shaped,
with a decided
modification at the edge.
Some examples vary in some
Isles,
of
Type
details
change, since
it
found in the west, especially in the British
from the specimens found in HaUstatt.
regard to the shape of the
especially the case with
generally this type
G
must have survived
appears
first
WITH MODIFIED EDGE.
But speaking little
in the oldest graves at HaUstatt, while
it is
for a long time
this
country until
the introduction
of iron swords in the fifth century.
There are certain
SHAPED SECTION
local variants of
aU or most of these types, and
^Q^i(j be an interesting ° task to trace these out in aU their ramifications. (Jo
SO here
would
it
would lead us too
far
away from
To
the main lines of our thesis, nor
Here
I
must content myself with tracing
out the broad Unes of the evolution of the leaf-shaped swords, and leave
work out the
it
be easy to draw correct deductions until drawings of aU such swords
found throughout Europe were available.
to
is
with relatively
beUeved to have remained in use in FIG. 17.
finial.
This
local varieties.
it
to others
Chapter VIII
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS.
WE the
have seen how the leaf-shaped sword was evolved from the ogival dagger in the plain of
type,
Hallstatt
Hungary, and passed through a
series of
forms until
We
which gave way to the iron sword.
it
reached
must now consider
the distribution of each type, which presents certain pecuUarities which are very
and then consider how
instructive,
or other, cases,
Let us
A
the fact that
;
nothing
illustrations are
distribution of is
in the
Museum
known, unfortunately,
in
some
of Archaeology
of its provenance
Another, almost identical,
is
and
beyond
in the National
been figured more than once,' but the published
the original for this work.
It
and the catalogue
it
In this case, too, the exact site
states that
was the property
have been unable so
Much more
in
existence,
unknown.
was sold
in
of the late Dr. S. Egger, of Vienna,
I
have met with which have been found in Hungary,
far to trace the present
ownership of Dr. Egger's specimen.
recently a very similar specimen, but with
was found
is
is
had been dredged from the Danube near Buda-Pest.*
These are the only examples which
decoration,
and reached,
which was summarised in the
third Hungarian specimen, a photograph of which
I
one type
not very accurate, and in Plate VII. I give one taken from a drawing
London on 25th June, 189 1.
and
is
came from Hungary.
it
Buda-Pest, and has
at
made from
Type A, the
very fine example of this type
Ethnology at Cambridge
of Europe,
of
of that continent.
deal with
first
last chapter.
The
was that leaf-shaped swords,
became dispersed throughout the greater part
beyond the confines
Museum
it
in the Friuli.
It
was dug up
some
in 1909
slight differences in the
by Antonio Tommassin,
near Castions di Strada, in the district of Palmanova, in the province of Udine, at a place
'
Hampel
(1886) PI. xx. 4, 6
;
Naue
(1903) PI. ix. 3.
92
?
Catalogue (1891)
8, PI. viii.
45.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS
93
Museum
at Cividale.^
called Selve, at the depth of about one metre.
It
is,
or was, in the
Another, very unlike the others in decoration, and varying somewhat in outline, was
found in the neighbourhood of Treviso, north of Venice, and
now
is
in the Treviso
Museum.* Lastly
who has it
we have one found
recorded
was deposited
in a grave
somewhere
does not state exactly where
it,
at
it
Hungarian specimen, but
more
in reality it
Splieth,
what
collection
was found, nor
He compares
time he was writing. ^
the
in Schleswig-Holstein. in
it
with the second
Museum
closely resembles that in the
at
Cividale.
All these specimens, except that from Treviso, resemble one another so closely
that
we may
region it
;
well beUeve that they were contemporary,
the type must have continued in use for
some
and the products little
of the
same
time in the FriuU, where
developed local variants Uke the Treviso specimen.
Type B
is
rare in Hungary, or at
of that country.
So
much damaged.
It
any rate very few specimens occur
have been able to find record of only one, and
far I
was found
in
is
from an unknown
said to have
that this belongs to
France,
site.
He
been
but
its
provenance seems
mentions a third, in his own collection,
come from
Calabria, but as he does not figure
Type
I
B.^
resemblance to
it,
it
one cannot be certain
can find no instances of the occurrence of this type in
and though three specimens have been found
superficial
this has
In Italy one has been found at Ascoli Piceno,' south of Ancona, and Naue
figures another
which
museums
1884 in a hoard at Orezi, in the county of Somogy.*
A somewhat unusual form of this type is in the Vienna museum, unknown.
in the
in
me
a more careful inspection convinces
local variants of a later type, perhaps
C
or D.
which bear a
Britain
that they
are
This type does not appear to occur in
southern Germany, but the swords of this region have not yet been catalogued with thoroughness.
It
has been found, however, in the Baltic region, and specimens have
A
been recorded from Brandenburg, Pomerania and East Prussia.^
type
closely
resembling this occurs in Schleswig-Holstein and Denmark, but most of the specimens
3
B.P. xxxvi. (1912) 22,
4
Montelius (1895-1904) I.B. PI. 34.
5
Splieth (1900) 12, PI.
'
Hampel
fig. c.p.
i.
9b.
(1886) PI. cxvii. 21.
33.
7
Montelius (1895-1904)
8
Naue
9
Naue
II.
(1903) 17 fn. 3, PI. (1903)
ix.
8
;
x.
4
ii.
B. PI. 131.
viii. i.
;
xi. 2.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
94
show
some
certain local features,
of which, like the
T-shaped
In Schleswig-Holstein Splieth mentions four examples," dates considerably later than his example of
Tj^e
with the oval butt,
C,
is
Hajdu-boszormeny of
Type
D,'-*
which he
common
in
Hungary.
I
have been sites,"
two
Baranza county," one from Sajo-Gomor,'^ one from
in
Hajdu county, which was found with a hoard containing three
Two have
of the
Danube
at St. Margaret's island in
been found in Lower Austria, one at Petronell,'* east of Vienna
which was found
other,
isolated finds,
Three of these are from unknown
and one was dredged up out
Buda-Pest.'=
and the
in
all
suggest a later date.
Type A.
relatively
able to trace at least eight specimens.
from Kis-koszey (Battina)
finials,
One has
bracelets, at Winklarn.'^
found in Camiola, though
barrow with a skeleton, a long pin and two
in a
discovery
its
been figured by Dr. Smid as having been
also
not described in the
is
text.''
In Italy one
specimen has been found near Lake Trasimene,'' a neighbourhood which has produced several examples of
Type D, but
this
and only one very doubtful specimen also to
type does not seem to have been fotmd in France, recorded for the British
is
Isles.
This type seems
be rare or absent from Germany, except in the extreme north, for the only
specimens which
I
can find recorded are from Mecklenburg and Brandenburg.*" One or
two have been recorded from Denmark."
T3^e D,
as
we have
commonest types found
seen, does not differ
Himgary, and
in
Of these two are from unknown » ''
sites,**
much from Type
(1903) xi. 3
viii.
;
6
three from the
" These are in the Vienna Museum, Nos. 3781 1, 39807. '3
Hampel
14
In the Buda-Pest
'5
Hampel
(1886) cxv. 3
Naue
;
Museum
(1886) cxcvii. 6
;
'^
Naue
'7
Vienna Museum No. 9295
'8
Smid
19
Montelius (1895-1904)
(1903)
viii.
5
(1903)
1883/131
viii. 3.
(6).
Buda-Pest Museum 1893/18
Catalogue (1891)
;
;
vii.
Heger (1903)
40
;
(i).
7.
133, Fig. 3.
V
M Naue
(1909) Fig. 18
119.
;
II.
ii.
B. PI. 126
(1903) ix. 6, 7.
" Muller (1908-9) Figs. 48-50. M Naue (1903) viii. 4 viii. 7. ;
»3
Buda-Pest Museum
1
883/131.
;
one of the
Hajdu-boszormeny hoard,*^ two
viii. 8.
;
It is
have been able to trace seventeen examples.
I
Splieth (1900) 60.
Naue
C.
Naue
(1903)
vii. 4,
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS
95
from the hoard at Podhering in the county of Bereg,** two from Sajo-Gomor in the county of Gomor,*'
at
two from Munkacs
Rima-Szombat
in the
Upper Hungary/*
in
one, found with
two
of
Type E,
county of G6m6r/=' one from Endrod in the county of Bekes/*
one, found with four others, from Magyarorszag,*' one
from Gross-Steffelsdorf near
Sajo-G6m6r,3° one, foimd with a sword of Type E, from near Plattensee or Lake
and one from the Danube near Buda-Pest.^*
Balaton,^^
One has been found at Burkanow in Lower
five in
E
Type
including
two at unknown
Austria,
sites,
one in Upper Austria, one near Linz,^*
one at Mannersdorf,^' one with a hoard
in Styria,''
and two from
two fragments from a swallow-hole near St. Kanzian, not In Italy the type
One has been found on and
is
in the Arezzo
was found, one Orvieto,
is
common
of
Fucino,**
by the bridge
D
is
and a
and one
'4
of
Hampel
Trieste.''
of Frassineto near Arezzo
now
form at Alerona, in the commune of
third close
Type
C,
(1886) xc.
Museum at Rome,** and another, which Rome itself.*' Two specimens have been found at
by
at Dintorni del Fucino,*^ one a Uttle to the east at
Thus
have been found in a very
i,
5.
36
all
these specimens, ten of
restricted area, almost all of
In the
Museum
of
Vienna Museum No. 45721.
Hampel
««
Vienna Museum, Nos. 1928, 1929.
38
Smid
27
Hampel
39
Szombathy
'8
Buda-Pest Museum 1888/33.
4"
Montelius (1895-1904),
'9
Buda-Pest Museum,
4«
Naue
s"
Vienna Museum No. 18024.
4>
Montelius (1895-1904)
43
Naue
44
Montelius (1895-1904)
i,
2.
(1886) cxiii.
3'
Vienna Museum No. 50506.
32
Linz
33
Vienna Museum No. 33100.
34
Linz
35
Vienna Museum Nos. 18020, 35617, 37584.
Museum No. Museum No.
A 691. A
605.
37
them
Vienna Neustadt.
'3
(1886) cxv.
Ficulle, near
in the Prehistoric
Sulmona,** and one rather further afield at Apulia.*'
Type
from
Szombathy figures
museum,*" two near Lake Trasimene,*' where a specimen of Type C
also presents unusual features, in
Lake
far
site.^^
from
is
occurrence, but in a definitely restricted area.
the bank of the Chiano
of sUghtly aberrant
and which
which
Carniola, one of
Barthelma, and the other from an uncertain
St.
One
swords at Wollersdorf,^* and one in a wood near Wimpasting.
comes from Griibegg near Aussee
Mihovo near
Galicia,^^
(1909) Figs. 20, 19, p. 119. (1913) Figs. 79, 92. II.
ii.
B. PI. 126.
(1903) vii. 2, 3.
(1903)
II.
ii.
B.
PL
126.
vii. 5.
II.
ii.
45
B.P. XXXV. (1910) PI. xiv.
4*
Naue
47
Naue
(1903)
vii.
i.
(1903)
vii.
6.
I.
B. PI. 142.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
96
lying in a valley or rather a fold of the Apennines between the lakes of Trasimene
Fucino.
This distribution
of great importance for our thesis
is
and
and
be referred to
will
again in a later chapter.
This type has been found, though very rarely in France, and six specimens have
been recorded in Britain, coasts.
I
But
all
from the mouth of the Thames, or from the south and east
can find no records of if
Type D occurs rarely if
in the south-east.
Schliemann'*^
Two
at all in the west
Lastly,
One
Egypt, both from the Delta. '^
in
a grave at Muliana
which has probably been influenced by
comes from Cyprus, where
different,
thirty years ago.''
at Levadia in Boeotia, a few
more have been discovered
half of a sword,
though the butt and tang are
tomb some
Denmark.
and north, we find it not uncommonly
and the other by Tsountas,*' one has occurred
The upper
or
swords of this type have been found at Mycenae, one by
miles south of Orchomenos, while two in Crete. ^°
Germany
occurrence in
its
we have
it
was
this type,
rifled
from a
records of two swords of this type from
of these, found at Zag-a-zig, is certainly of this type,
the other, found at Tell Firaun in the Delta, appears to be so also, but the butt seems to
have been sKghtly damaged.
This sword bears upon
seems to have been engraved upon
D
in or
it
the cartouch of Seti
it
about 1205
which
These occurrences of Type
B.C.
swords in the south-east are specially interesting, and
II.,
will
be referred to again, as
They may
they give us some basis on which to establish a chronological scheme.
also help
us to bring our archaeological evidence into line with historical and legendary matter.
Type recorded. site," three
E
is
also
common
Hungary, from which eleven specimens have been
in
One
These usually attain to very great dimensions.
from Podhering, found with swords of Type
also with swords
of
D,''*
is
from an unknown
two from Rima-Szombat,
Type D," one from Magyarorbzag,'* one from Gyula-fehervar
48
Schliemann (1878) 144, No. 221.
49
Tsountas
'E0.
'Apx. (1891) 25.
5"
Peet (1911-12) 282
51
In the possession of Professor Patrick Geddes.
s^
Petrie (1917) PI. xxxii.
53
Catalogue (1891)
54
Hampel
(1886) xc.
55
Hampel
(1886) cxiii.
;
'E0.
7. vii.
6,
'Apx-
7
41
;
;
(1904)21-50.
Z.f.yE.S.
Naue
1
61.
ff.
(1903) ix.
PI. v.
;
Peet (1911-12) 282.
i.
3. J
56
Buda-Pest Museum 1865/83.
in
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS
97
the county of Fej6r," one from the Schatze near Hajdu-boszormeny/' one from Oreszka in the
county of Zemplen,'» and one, also found with swords of Type D, from near
the Plattensee or Lake Balaton/"
Siebenburgen and Wodnian Styria,^*
and
one
Three come from Bohemia, from Gross-Tschernitz,
one from Salza-Bach, near the Griibegg saw-mills in
;*'
from a hoard, which
Wollersdorf in Lower Austria.*^
was found in
in a lake-dwelling at
Germany, though,
contained swords
One comes from Zuojuica
Auvernier on Lake
in Herzegovina
The type
NeuchS,tel/*
at
and one
also occurs
In Greece two specimens only have
beUeve, not plentifully.
I
Type D, found
of
been discovered, in a hoard outside the city of Tiryns.®'
None have been found
in Italy, but in France they occur abundantly,
are thirty-one specimens of this type in the
occur more abundantly stiU in these islands
many
basin, fifteen in the Fens,
others
come from other
museum
of these in the
counties washed
and Wales only eleven have so
far
found, but there are a considerable
at St. Germain-en-Laye.
fifty-eight
;
They
have been found in the Thames
famous Wilburton hoard, while fourteen
by the North Sea
been noted.
number
and there
;
from the
rest of
England
In Ireland this type has not been
of swords,
found in that island, which are
intermediate between this type and Type F, and wiU be dealt with under that heading. It
seems
but so far
I
likely that
have
some swords
failed to find
of this type
any recorded, while elsewhere
Holstein and in Denmark, they seem to be absent.
mainly in the west, so that
an eastern
site.
it is
in
in the
Germany,
This type, as
we have
in Schleswigseen, is
found
extremely interesting to find a single example from
in South-west Russia.^*
The occurrence
of this
sword so
strange, but taken in conjunction with the distribution of a certain
with which
Rhine Valley,
This was found at the village of Zavadyntse, near Gorodak, in the
government of Podoha is
have been found
I shall deal in
a later chapter,
it
will help to provide
far east
type of pin,
an important Hnk in
the chain of our argument.
'»
Vienna Museum No. 45721.
«3
In the
«4
Vienna Museum Nos. 38951, 6284.
Vienna Museum No. 50505.
^s
Karo
Vienna Museum Nos. 4143, 37579, 34860.
««
C.I.A.P.A.
Museum
57
Buda-Pest
58
Hampel
(1886) xx. 2
59
Hampel
(1886) xx.
«o
61
1901/27. ;
Naue
(1903) ix.
i.
i, 3.
Museum
(1916) 143
of
;
Vienna Neftstadt.
Athens Museum No. 6228.
nth sess. Aug.
1892.
I. ii.
343,
fig. 2.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
98
The most in Celtic lands,
T5^e
striking feature of the distribution of
Up
in very great numbers.
and
E
sudden appearance
is its
to this date swords of these types have
As we must allow
not been met with in the west, except a few instances of Type D.
amount
for a certain
of overlapping of successive types
few examples of swords of Type D, found in
E
when Type
was the prevailing
Type F may be caUed the
Celtic lands, arrived there during the time
This has been found in France,
Proto-Hallstatt type.
eastern departments, there are only
I
have been able to
two specimens
more commonly
It occurs
well beUeve that the
fashion.
though not very commonly, and as far as
museum.
we may
test it
mainly
of this type in the St. Germain's
and
in Switzerland,
it
seems probable
that
seems to have spread in various directions, though
present to trace
its
it is
not possible at
One has been found
distribution with precision.
it
From
originated in that country, or at least in the mountain zone of Central Europe. this centre it
the
in
at
Italy,
in
Poveghano, S.W. of Verona, which seems to have come from the mountains over the
Brenner
pass,^''
and one comes from Donja-Dolina
occasionally in the mountain regions of Austria
no evidence
estuary, four
been found National
uncommon
in the British Isles
come from the
in Ireland, of
Museum
early form, as in
The
seems to occur
and south Germany, though
can find
I
east coast of England,
The
distribution of this type
intervening regions.
closely resemble
somewhat
is
Type G, the
;
Type
Hallstatt type,
is
the famous cemetery at this place.*'
E
seen, to
no
have
be of a very
Type E.
it is
since
rare
it
occurs plentifully
or non-existent
examples, especially those found in
appear to be early examples of the type, we carried
we have
curious,
especially in Ireland, while
Since the British
movement which
and two from Scotland
Irish specimens seem, as
some features they
and
seven have been found in the Thames
;
which forty-two are in EngUsh collections and sixty-eight in the
in Dublin.
in the British Isles
of the
It
of its further extension northwards.
not
It is
in Bosnia.*^
may
in
the
Ireland,
surmise that they belong to late waves
over the west.
so called because a few specimens were found in j^
would be a mistake, however, to consider
*7
Montelius (1895-1904) I.B. 37.
*8
Truhelka (1904).
«9
Ddchelette (1908-1914)
ii.
601-6
;
Sacken (1868).
it
as
;
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS having evolved in that region or dispersed from that centre. that, like the previous type,
99
seems more probable
It
developed in the mountain zone, and the evidence
it
available at present suggests for its centre the upper reaches of the Danube, between
Ulm and
Sigmaringen
but detailed work on the spot
;'°
determined with accuracy.
it
needed before
Dechelette says that this type
throughout Central Europe,^' and this zone, for
is
is
true
does not occur in Hungary.
if
we
this
can be
generally distributed
is
confine that term to the mountain
North Germany, two
It is relatively rare in
occur in Schleswig-Holstein,^* a few in Scandinavia,''^ and one in Finland.^*
In France the greater number occur in Burgundy, in the valley of the Saone and
down
the
Rhone Valley
Dordogne and found
also in the
;
in the departments of Indre
and Cher.
Several examples have been
neighbourhood of Paris," a point to which
in the Seine valley, in the
I shall
have
In the British Isles nineteen have been found in the valley
to refer in a later chapter. of the
department of Lot on the upper waters of the
Thames below and
including Reading, and six elsewhere near the east coast
twenty-four have been recorded from Ireland, of which twenty are in the National
Museum
in
Dubhn.
This type
is,
then, found distributed fairly generally throughout
many
the mountain zone of the Celtic cradle, and over it
only occurs sparsely elsewhere. I
In the Mediterranean region
have dealt at some length with these
of interpreting archaeological evidence
most countries
lists
are
undertaking to
and making
make an
it disclose,
maps
and
7«
Troltsch (1884)
71
Ddchelette (1908-1914)
7»
Splieth (1900)
73
One from Sweden
74
Vorgeschichtliche (1900) PI. xxxii.
75
Dechelette {1908-1914)
K. ix. is
i
ii.
171
in
no better way
broad outline at
least,
;
would not be a very great
In other regions the numbers are greater,
2.
724. p. 76.
figured
ii.
It
equally complete illustrated catalogue for the area included
in the former empire of Austro-Hungary.
7«
distributions, for there is
complete for Italy and Greece.
fairly
entirely absent.'*
though owing to the smallness of their numbers the
in existence,
is
it is
Unfortunately no accurate catalogue of the swords discovered
its historical content.
in
areas in Celtic lands, though
by Lubbock fig.
4
(1865) i6i ;
fig.
15.
Crawford (1921) 136
(b.).
725.
There is a broken hilt of a sword resembling this type in the Montelius (1895-1904) II. ii. B. PI. 131.
museum
at Florence
;
its
provenance
is
unknown.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
100
and
The formation
has been done to catalogue them.
little
catalogue of
in
collections
the British Isles
under
progress,
in
is
committee appointed by the British Association
for the
the
from
it is
this that the
card
private
auspices of a research
advancement most
specimens deposited in EngHsh collections have, for the included in this catalogue, and
illustrated
museums and
the metal objects of the bronze age in the
all
an
of
of Science.
part,
bulk of the
The
been already
statistical
matter
relating to the British Isles has been derived.
As we have seen implements
may
was some form
in
some earher chapters,
be taken as evidence of trade, and we have to consider whether
of
commerce which
Podoha and Egypt, or whether movement. not
distribution of certain types of bronze
carried the leaf-shaped swords to Ireland, Finland,
wide distribution betokens some other form of
this
Before the days of fairly large ships and highly organised industry
uncommon
it
it is
to find implements, whether of flint or obsidian, copper or bronze, carried
from country to country, without apparently any general movement of the population.
On
the other hand,
when pottery and heavier
one centre to another,
it
when the beakers were
carried from
Roman
or
more
easily
We
usually betokens migration.
damaged goods pass from
have seen how
Bohemia towards Jutland and
this
Britain.
was so
Of course
pottery was shipped extensively for trade purposes, as were red figure vases and
The same
other types of Greek ceramic wares.
Mycenean and some Minoan wares,
for the
is
^gean
true,
though to a
traders exported oil
less
extent, of
and wine.
But
such export of pottery betokens a relatively high civihsation and a well-organised
Under more primitive conditions we may,
commerce.
I think,
postulate that where
metal implements or small cult objects alone were carried, these are evidence only of trade, while
when pottery
is
found, as
of the potters, hence a migration
found moving together, especially
it
were, on the move, this indicates a
of people. if
When
pottery and weapons are both
the weapons are of a more advanced type than
those hitherto found in the land into which they are being introduced, if
indeed
we cannot be
sure, that
we
movement
are
we may
suspect,
deahng with a hostUe invasion and the arrival
of conquerors. It will
be necessary for
us, therefore, to
determine whether these swords, which
have penetrated nearly the whole of Europe except the Iberian peninsula, were carried
by
trade,
by some other form
of peaceful
penetration, or
by conquest.
The
great
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS
loi
suddenness with which some of the types spread, apparently within the space of a few
any modification
from the central region to places
of form,
years, for there
is
many hundreds
of miles distant, precludes the second of these alternatives, for peaceful
penetration
the farther
httle
if
by land is a slow
we
process,
pass from the centre.
and we should expect progressive variation on the face of
It seems,
especially a sporting
and warhke people Uke our
which would provide
their neighbours with a
which they had produced
unlikely that a people,
would engage
steppe-folk,
weapon, superior to
dislike of
adventure had not been
so,
even
but
if
Such a
seems at
the other alternative, the hostile invasion, were true,
evidence of the arrival of fresh people in the presence of
is
it
prevent these home-
sufficient to
practice, then,
nor
;
the fear of the
if
loving people from setting out on so adventurous a task, involving, as
the passage across northern seas.
in a trade
others available,
all
for themselves after generations of experiment
hkely that they would permit their Alpine subjects to do
unknown and the
it,
of type
it
sometimes did,
first
sight unhkely,
we should expect
new types
of pottery
to find
and
fresh
burial customs. If
we examine
the British evidence,
leaf-shaped swords arrived with a
new
we
culture
shall find
and a
reason to beheve that the
fresh element in the population.
In a recent paper Mr. O. G. S. Crawford has dealt with this subject, and pointed out that the leaf-shaped bronze swords of the Hallstatt period, our invasion of people
movement he depends
all is
who came from
Type G, arrived with an
Crawford seems to include in this
Central Europe.^''
bronze leaf-shaped swords of whatever type, but the evidence on which only applicable to Type G.
be
It will
to postpone consideration of the arrival of the T5rpe
E
well, therefore, for the
moment
swords.
Crawford has shown that not only did these swords arrive in considerable numbers, but with them came a number of other objects, such as razors,
which have been found at various occupied
Camp, and " Old England " skulls
at Brentford.
sites,
sickles,
and other
tools,
such as Llyn Fawr, South Lodge
Near the last-named
site
were found some
which Sir Arthur Keith'^ has pronounced to be typical Alpines of the Swiss
lake-dwelling type.
Now
at
most
of the sites
where
this lake-dwelling culture
has been
found, there occurs also, as Crawford has shown, a type of pottery, which he calls
77
Crawford (1922).
78
In a letter to Crawford
;
no description has yet been published. 7a
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
102
"finger-tip ware," that
Now such
finger-tip impressions.
country, but
ornamented with raised
to say pottery
is
pottery
is
found,
true, in the neoUthic
it is
clay and
of
ribs
age in this
died out about the time of the arrival of the Beaker-folk,
it
On
cord-ornamented pottery came into fashion.
and
when
the other hand in Central Europe,
where the mountain
especially in the region
zone blends with the plain, such pottery remained in use continuously
from the
neolithic,
through the
bronze, to the early iron age.
That such pottery came to a fresh people
clear
is
this
country with
from the foregoing evidence,
and that they entered armed and by
force
is
equally clear from the presence of the numerous FIG. l8.
—DEVEREL-RIMBURY URNS.
swords of this date which have been found.
That
they came in considerable numbers and came to
shown from the number
stay
is
this
finger-tip
also
ware at such
sites
and from the
of settlements,
as All Cannings
later occurrence of
Cross" in Wiltshire, where this
culture lasted until well after 500 B.C.
Some
of the best examples of this finger-tip pottery are the
urns found in Wessex, which are called the Deverel-Rimbury type,
and which are dated by Lord Abercromby*"
from 950 to 650 his invasion
may
B.C.
Crawford, following Dechelette, brings in
about 800
e.g.,
looks as though
it
Deverel-Rimbury
tj^pe
of the people with the
G
arrival
the finger-tip
may have Type
and, though
or rather later,
find grounds for beUeving that their
been earher
as lasting
we
may have
pottery of the
been here before the coming Swords.
Be
that
as
it
may, FIG. 19.
we
learn from
several
in the south of
—URN
OF TYPE
3.
England
types of pottery preceded the Deverel-Rimbury tj^e, the one immediately
preceding
950
Lord Abercromby that
it
B.C., if
being his Type
not earher.^'
3,
which he beheves to have been in use between 1150 and
Many
79
Cunnington {1922).
8"
Abercromby
(1912)
of these, such as those
from Wiltshire, Nos. 373, 374
' Abercromby {1912) ii.
40-48, 107.
ii.
38-40, 47, 107.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS and 379, exhibit the characteristic ornament of this finger-tip ware. chronology
is
even approximately correct, and
it is
If
in these cases
of excellent synchronisms, the pottery characteristic of Central
103
Lord Abercromby's
by a
series
Europe had been
intro-
vouched
for
duced into the south of England some centuries before the arrival of the people who introduced the Type
G
swords.
This leads us to suspect that the Type
were also brought by an invading people, certain
number
It is
of
Type
D
fairly early
in
the
Type
E
E
period,
swords as
a
swords have also occurred.
unnecessary to pursue this argument through other countries, or to point
out that some of our cinerary urns are in shape exactly like the bronze buckets used in Central
Europe at the dawn of the iron
age.
We
shall
special conditions in other countries in later chapters.
suggest that
all
have occasion to discuss the
Here
wiU be
sufficient to
the British evidence tends to show that the spread of these swords was
accompanied by a movement of pottery and other elements of
by the
it
existence of skulls and elsewhere
acoossponding movement
of people,
presence of this considerable
There seems to be no
number
sufficient
by
inference
and that
cultm-e, that at Brentford
we may conclude Jhat
in the British Isles, at
of leaf-shaped swords
betokens
any
there
was
rate, the
an invasion.
reason for believing that the circumstances were
materially different in the other regions in which these swords have been found.
/
Chapter IX
GREEK LANDS AND THE
WE
have seen in the
CHRONOLOGY
BASIS OF
chapter that different types of leaf-shaped swords
last
and we
have been disseminated throughout various quarters of Europe,
have found reason signified
for
believing
a hostile invasion.
we
of Europe,
If,
that in
may
as
Celtic
lands
at
well be the case, the
are deahng with a series of invasions,
all
same
is
true of other parts
starting
from somewhere
within the Celtic cradle, and affecting almost every part of the continent. in this
work
much
not so
is
to record evidence as to interpret
appearance
their
least
Our purpose
Now
features of early history rather than to describe archaeological remains.
backbone
of history is chronology,
we can
unless
place
it
of swords an endeavour
up a
to set
and we cannot interpret our evidence
in its true chronological setting.
was made to arrange them
relative chronology.
in
main
to restore the
it,
the
satisfactorily
In discussing the seven types
an orderly sequence, and thus
In this chapter a positive system of dating will be
attempted. It is clear that it is to the south-east that
we must
first
look for help, for in
Greek lands documentary evidence reaches back some centuries further than elsewhere in Europe, and clearly belongs
is
preceded by an immense mass of tradition,
more to legend than
intensive study,
and
their contents
to
myth.
much
it
does
which
of
These legends, moreover, have received
have been brought into
line
with archaeological
Further than this we have the two swords found in Egypt, one of them engraved
data.'
with a monarch's name, so that a study of these south-eastern specimens should enable us to obtain one point, at
Now he
calls
'
it
least, in
our system of dates.
has been pointed out by Sir William Ridgeway' that certain people,
" Achaeans," entered Greece from the north,
Dorpfeld (1902)
;
Dussaud (1910 and 1914)
;
bringing with
Leaf (1912 and 1915). 104
'
them
Ridgeway
whom certain
(1901).
GREEK LANDS AND THE
CHRONOLOGY
BASIS OF
elements of culture, which can best be matched in the Danube basin.
105
These, according
to the traditions preserved in the Iliad, were the immediate ancestors of the heroes of the Trojan
War.
who has made a
Recently Dr. Wace,^
study of the
careful
pre-Hellenic remains of the mainland of Greece, especially of the pottery, has pointed
out that there
is
but one break in the ceramic evolution of that region, the introduction This
of geometric ware.
is,
invasion, which took place certainly
made out
strict sense of
he believes, best explained by equating
some generations
a strong case, and
we must
of
Ridgeway' s archaeological evidence
at least, Hallstatt in date,
and may
Wace has
but while he would have us
;
we must,
before dismissing aU the evidence that Sir William
Much
Dr.
accept his view that no invasion, in the
entirety,
its
with the Dorian
after the siege of Troy.
the term, preceded that of the Dorians
scrap the " Achsean " hypothesis in
it
is
I
Ridgeway has accumulated. Hallstatt in type and, apparently
equate better with the Dorian than the
well
" Achsean " movement, but the legends are not to be hghtly swept aside, and
the swords, which are admittedly pre-geometric, and so
antedate also the Trojan War.
There
is
pre-Dorian, and
basin, bringing with
may
We
intrusive elements entering Greek lands from the
them swords
we may
architecture, and, origin,' yet
some
we have well
also the introduction into southern Greece of
type of palace, which seems to have developed in a more northerly clime.* therefore, evidence for
awhile
think, consider
European type, a new type
of Central
well beheve, certain deities
and
beliefs of
a
have,
Danube
of domestic
more northern
the continuity of the ceramic culture shows that there had been no general
displacement of the population.
Before attempting to decide between these conflicting views, consider the term " Achsean."
By
this I
of Sir William Ridgeway's hypothesis,
They may,
Troy.
for all
mean only
those people,
seems
we know, be a people
different
clear, in fact, that
may
who
be wise to
are the subject
and who organised the attack upon Priam's or merely a class,
with the Achseans of the Peloponnese, discussed by Herodotus,* It
it
the term as used
and
their connection
may
be very remote.
by Herodotus connoted something very
from what the term meant to Homer, and what
it
signifies in
the pages of
Ridgeway. 3
Wace
4
Hall (1913) 63
(1916) 29, 30; ;
(1920) 398.
Mackenzie {1908-8).
5
Harrison (1908) 3i2n, 318, 319
«
Herodotus
viii.
73.
;
Hall (1913) 520
fn.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
io6
Now
postulate the presence of intruders from the
number,
pre-Dorian Greece seems to
the presence of these leaf-shaped swords in
all
when we
the more striking
Danube basin
consider the extent of the excavations carried
These swords had
out in Greek lands, seems to indicate that these intruders were few. been, as
we have
by the Nordic
seen, invented
But
for a
into a foreign land needs on their part considerable courage
lacking
among
we have found
who introduced
few strangers to intrude
and the
spirit of
characteristic of the Nordic steppe-folk,
We may,
the Alpines.
and may
steppe-folk in Central Europe,
sometimes have been used by their Alpine subjects.
features which
paucity of their
the
;
therefore, take
it
adventure,
and conspicuously
for granted that these intruders,
the leaf-shaped swords into Greek lands, were of Nordic
and
type
temperament.
The heroes to the
War, as Ridgeway has pointed
In most cases their grandfathers
land.^
grandfather,
of the Trojan
unless
it
to
is
state
that
he
a god.
Sometimes
grandfather was a deity, as in the case of Polypoites, but usually
have reason
earliest ancestor
when
even
this is so
was sometimes Zeus, but usually the pedigree
actually traced to the divine forefather.
the
we
grandson of Poseidon, was an
for believing that the hero, like Nestor, the
The
old man.
newcomers
mentioned, seldom a great-
are
was
out, were
is
not
In a large number of cases, especially of the
minor heroes, they are said to be of the stock of Ares.
Dr. Hall has suggested that
Ares and his mistress Hera were the chief deities of these northern invaders.^
We
hear very
little in
nor has later Greek legend
the lUad of these
much more
first
human
to say about
ancestors of the " Achaeans," of them.
most
We
have, however,
various stories of heroes, arriving alone hke Theseus, Perseus, Herakles, and Peleus, or perhaps accompanied
hero
is
weU
whether or
it
received
by one
by the king
friend
hke Amphitryon, at some Greek
of the city,
and often
relieves
him
of
city.
some
The
difficulty,
be the repulse of a hostile attack, as in the case of Theseus and the Pallantids,
Amphitryon and the Telebceans, the punishment
of robbers, such as Periphates,
Cercyon or Damastes, or the slaying of wild beasts
Sinis, Sciron,
like the
the Marathon bull, the Cadmeian fox, or the various monsters slain
king honours the
7
visitor, the princess, like
Ridgeway
(1901) 339.
by
Cromyon sow
Herakles.
Ariadne, Comoetho or Polsmiela,
8
Hall (1913) 520
fn.
falls in
The love
66-L6Z (zz6i)
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6
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saApsjno pjBuS jsnui aM sjapnijui j^uBaeqoy,,
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siqj 2uI>[B:^ :^suib§b si
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ui jBq:^ ajqissod si :n
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siq;
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sn
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pnsn uaaq SBq
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si
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;i
sb 'puaSaj >[aaj0 jo uapjnq psiaAiun
jaAa A^iddBq paAq Aaqj 'Abs sajBj Aiibj aq; sb 'puB 'ssaouud
aq; saujBUi 'auojq; aq; spuaosB uaq; ojaq aqx
"urep
si Sui^i
aq; puB 'uoi;Ajna puB
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^01
AOOIONOHHO dO SISVa SHI QNV SaMVl HSSHO
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
io8
accompanied perhaps by a
faithful
henchman, should have found
themselves as kings over the trading
But
The to
us glance for a
let
original people of the
cities of
moment
it
possible to establish
Mycenean Greece.
at these trading cities
and
their inhabitants.
Greek mainland, hke the bulk of the present population, seem
have been of that eastern Alpine or Dinaric type, scarcely distinguishable from the These are
bulk of the population of Asia Minor. heads, which are very high
and somewhat
dark people, with small but broad
tall
conical at the top, though sometimes the
excessively flattened occiput gives the impression that the head has been sliced from
the top of the forehead to the back of the neck.
As
far as
one can judge from the
available evidence, these were the only inhabitants of the bulk of the peninsula, until coastal settlements were
made by
the Cretans, some in the second Middle Minoan period,
but most of them at the beginning of the Late Minoan."
The
original inhabitants of Crete
seem to have been typical members
the
of
Mediterranean race, but during Early Minoan times we find a few broad-headed people arriving in the east of the island,
and gradually speading over the eastern
half."
It
has been taken for granted, quite naturally, that this broad-headed infusion came
from Asia Minor, the population of which at that time must have been exclusively broad-headed.
But about the time that these broad-heads appear
in
Crete
we
find
evidence in the island of the development of the copper mines at Gournia," and of the accumulation of gold ornaments, such as also signs of the existence of
the treasure of Mochlos.'^
There are
an oversea commerce and of a trade in olive
oil
with
Egypt."^
This leads us to wonder whether these broad-heads belonged to wanderers from
Anatoha, or whether of the Prospectors,
We
operations. of the Early
knew,
if
it is
not more probable that here
who seem always
must remember
Minoan
Peake (1916)
"
Hawes
evidence of the arrival
to be the organisers of oversea trade
too, that
by 2800
B.C.,
and
of
mining
not long after the beginning
period, the Sumerians were trading in the Mediterranean,
they had not already settled
10
we have
1.
158, 159.
(1909) 23-25.
" Boyd and Hawes
(1912).
in, Crete.''
'3
Seager (1912) 104-106.
m Gardiner 'J
(1909) 32
Vid. supr. p. 22.
;
(1914) 32.
and
GREEK LANDS AND THE These are
Prospectors,
CHRONOLOGY
by believing that the great
When
craftsmen.
on the mainland,
in Middle
activities of the
in
and
as mariners, miners
and Late Minoan times these Cretans made settlements settlements which are
the Argolid, in Boeotia, and at Pylos,
Cadmus and
recorded in the legends of Danaus,
while some of their subjects were of
drawn
the
all
^gean and especially in Crete were organised by and were in the hands of who had come originally, though not necessarily directly, from the Persian
and who were employing the Mediterranean aborigines
Gulf,
109
which we cannot speak with certainty at present, but
details of
isolated data available are best explained
trade in the
BASIS OF
the
Neleus,
we can
well beUeve that,
Mediterranean race, and others, perhaps,
from the Alpine aborigines of the mainland, the
rulers
were in
all
cases
Prospectors.
Professor Ure'* has recently shown us that in Greek lands, as well as in renaissance Italy,
king
we
is
find
two types
a military
of rulers,
who may be
The
tyrant, on the other hand,
or a business man, his outlook bourgeois, and he rules connections, rather than over a wide expanse of land.
is
essentially a
over a city and
He
need not repeat here, but
merchant
its
trading
In Greece, Ure believes, the
introduction of metal currency caused the earlier kings to be replaced or merchant princes.
The
bearing and origin, and one more often interested
chief, of aristocratic
in the territory than in the city.
described as Kings and Tyrants.
by
these tyrants
has supported his thesis by a vast mass of evidence, which in his conclusions I think
we may
we
see the supplanting of the
Nordic lord by the Prospector, as times became more settled and trade, rather than fighting,
became the more important occupation.
Many
of Ure's arguments
would apply equally
had been put down and oversea trade was booming. due, he thinks, to the rise of a coinage, just as the
on the development of paper currency an
easily portable
these trading
;
to the
The
rise of
when piracy
the Greek tyrants was risen to
power
the Minoan tyrant comes to the front as metal, flint
or obsidian.
each governed by a Prospector tyrant, that
" Achaean " adventurers to have arrived from the swords.
'*
age,
modern plutocrat has
and exchangeable commodity, succeeds
cities,
Minoan
Ure
(1922).
I believe
Danube basin with
It
was into
these Nordic
their leaf-shaped
;
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
no Now
there are two classes of men, both of
them wielding
large powers
over
others,
whose characters have been sharply contrasted by many
type
found in noblemen, at any rate of the old school, mediaeval knights, landed
is
and
proprietors
officers of
upper ranks, at relations
army and navy; the same
the
least, of the civil service
good
traditions hold
and among the professional
in
the
The
classes.
between these lords and the people committed to their charge, whether
subjects, tenants or employes, are usually good,
subject class
is
of
an
and
friction rarely arises unless the
These kings or lords have usually been able to retain
alien race.
for generations the respect of their subjects, often to inspire
On
The kingly
writers.
very great love and devotion.
the other hand the leader, whose claim to his position rests only upon wealth
or the power to create wealth,
is
often even extravagantly generous,
ingratiating manners, which are in sharp distinction from the characteristic of the lord
;
contrast has furnished a theme to
James. '5
in support
Such
hauteur which
yet he rarely makes himself loved or even liked
dependent on him, even though
who quotes
and has usually
his actions
many
be kind and his judgments
writers,
more
is
by those This
just.
and has been ably summarised by
Ure,''
pregnant passages from the works of H. G. Wells'* and William
Ure
differences,
thinks, distinguished the king
from the tyrant, and
the same contrast, I would suggest, held good between the " Achaean " heroes and the rulers of the
We
Minoan
cities.
have seen reason
for believing that the population of the
Minoan
cities of
Greece consisted of Mediterraneans and perhaps some few Alpines, under the rule of a Prospector tyrant.
but most of
all for
The
latter's rule
He was engaged Though
fully conscious of the fact.
by
his subjects,
sword swayed over
he made money for his
just,
himself, and, in spite of occasional fits of lavish generosity, he
not have been popular.
distrusted
was possibly
his
who
felt
his
in exploiting the proletariat,
manner was outwardly
that they were but
pawns
and they were
game.
was
Thus the
head as over that of Damocles, held only by a slender thread
revolutions or rumours of revolutions were of constant occurrence, intent on
would
ingratiating, he
in his
city,
money making, had
Uttle leisure or incUnation,
even
if
and the
he had the capacity,
for maintaining order or of inspiring loyalty in the hearts of his subjects. '7
Ure (1922) 306.
«8
Wells (1902) 156, 157
19
;
(1909) 486.
James
tyrant,
(1902) 318, 319.
GREEK LANDS AND THE We
CHRONOLOGY
BASIS OF
iii
can well imagine that the arrival in such a community of one or two northern
barbarians, rough
and rude, but strong and honest, would have been Uke a breath
The tyrant would have welcomed a man who could
fresh air entering a stuffy room.
put down highwaymen or lead his mercenaries to
made him
chief of his
of
battle.
poUce or generahssimo of the town
law and order and kept the populace
quiet,
would, perhaps, have hero restored
forces, and, as the
he would have promised him
much
reward,
All would have gone well until the tyrant, with
including perhaps his daughter's hand.
the instinct of the Prospector to
He
make
a bargain and to get something for nothing,
endeavoured, like Laomedon of Troy, to cheat his Nordic ally or to offer him a base substitute for promises made.
The Nordic, himself,
as incapable of understanding such double-dealing as of thus acting
would quite naturally have been incensed.
We
tyrant of dishonesty and ejecting him from his palace,
speedy victim to the anger of
his subjects.
fair dealing.
predecessor, not so
above imaginary sketch
which took place, in swords
first
We
made
all
who had admired his strength,
as to establish
more completely
what has been written to the contrary, some form
succession seems to have obtained in
The Greek legends
fallen a
Lastly, he would, perhaps, have married the daughter of his
much from romantic motives
to the throne, for, despite
when he would have
The hero would have placed himself upon
the vacant throne with the help and goodwill of the people,
courage and
can picture him accusing the
of matrilinear
Minoan Greece."
referring to the early heroes are full of such details,
may
his right
and the
be taken as a composite picture of the kind of events
probability, in
many a city of pre-Hellenic Greece, as the leaf-shaped
their appearance.
have, hitherto, taken
it
for granted that these "
Achaean " intruders were
Nordic, and our reasons have been mainly the presence of the swords, the northern character of their palaces and the fact that such enterprises are in keeping with the
subsequent behaviour of Nordic adventurers. further proof. this agree
The Nordics
with what we
The whole tenour and endurance,
know
as
But the
we know were
of the "
tall,
identification, perhaps, requires
fair
and long-headed
Achaean " heroes and their forbears
of the legends, attributing to
;
how
?
them deeds requiring strength
certainly suggests that the heroes were considered in later days to
M App.
II.
does
have
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
112
That they were fair-haired has been taken
been above the average in stature.
many
granted by
was
writers.*'
It
has been suggested, however, that the fact that Menelaus
he was in
called fair, signifies that
may
^a.v06s
only
an exception to the
this respect
that the others were as dark as the majority of
been pointed out that
for
modern Greeks.
mean brown, and
and
rule,
Moreover,
it
has
that Menelaus had brown
hair."
The
first
argument certainly
was something exceptional
carries
in Menelaus' fair hair.
century legend, were Pelopids, and this Iliad.
Now
signify that
some weight, and does seem to imply that there
is
But the Atreidae, according to
hinted, though not expressly stated, in the
other legends bring Pelops from Phrygia, though, of course, this
he was a Phrygian, who
left
and
them a type
them
to a curse
most probably Alpines
That one
no means impossible
if
of
upon
looks
upon the House
and perhaps
see in the Pelopids,
southwards.
endogamy, interpreted afterwards as
iEschylus'^
cannibalistic habits.
attributes
it
of
of Tantalus.
some kind, who
meant flaxen
it is
not
I think,
and
however, we
may
its force
ever meant brown
would be equally as great as
were
fair
often the case
We
when
the case of the Thracians, who, as
and some dark, that
fair
we have
is
seen,
were almost
According to Ridgeway**
to say a fair Nordic strain
had entered
and dark
strains
have mixed.
of the head-form of the " Achaean " heroes.
»
(1913) 67
Giles, P., in
;
Ridgeway
(1901) 351.
a recent lecture.
n Aeschylus Agamemnon,
1178-1245, 1468-1474.
{nvppo^, as
*^
have no right to expect from Homer, or any other Greek
" Hall
;
Nordics.
a land peopled with dark Alpines, and the result was a red-haired strain is
type,
the Mediterraneans and eastern Alpines never have light brown hair
;
we may take
of these
crimes,
as
some non-Nordic
If ^av^o's
certainly the stock from which the " Achaeans " were derived.
some
Later legend
be fair-haired would be unusual, though by
he had had a Nordic ancestress.
uncommon among
Lastly
But
had accompanied the " Achaean " heroes
must have meant Hght brown or auburn, and
if it
only
incest, infant sacrifice,
customs
these
in other groups of op peoples,
of these should
may
the Briges before their departure for Asia.
the Pelopidae, in their customs, differed from the other " Achaeans." attributes to
fifth
Nevertheless m Ridgeway y Deniker
we
writer,
an account
find in the Iliad a
(igoi) 400.
(1900) 49, 50.
word
GREEK LANDS AND THE which gives us some indication on
this point.**
mentioned by name are captains of
hosts, or
At one moment the
thinks of revolting. Alpines,
host,
Their leader
members
and we can have
httle
of the nobility
of Alpines
is
What
<^o^bs tvv
better description could
of the eastern Alpine inhabitants of the
is
the
K£4>a.\r,v
we have
it is
way with If
described as
exact meaning of this term has been a matter of dispute, but
sugar-loaf head."
and Mediterraneans,
racial affinities of Thersites.
any, one epithet used of him would satisfy us, for his head
" tapering to a point," and the expression
there to this
is
a mob-orator, fond of arguing as
doubt as to the
the Ihad only
;
One exception only
composed no doubt is
113
It is noticeable that all the people
records the doings of the " Achaean " heroes. rule.
CHRONOLOGY
BASIS OF
we had The
<^o^o's-
usually rendered
means that he " had a
of the ordinary head-form
Balkan peninsula and Anatolia
If this
?
had
been the usual type of head of the " Achaean " heroes, the epithet would not have been used as distinctive of the rebeUious soldier
how
different
he was
in this respect
it
can only have been so used to imply
from the noble " Achaean."
indicate, exceptionally clearly, that the
Thus the heroes
;
are found to be
This seems to
me
to
Homeric heroes were long-headed. tall, fair
and long-headed, and
so possessing the
The resemblances between
three chief physical characteristics of the Nordic race.
their
mental characters and those of the Vikings have often been noted before and need not be repeated.'^ It will
be remembered that
I
have suggested that the Nordic " Achaeans " were
an offshoot of the body, who as Thracians and Phrygians moved eastward into Thrace
and Asia Minor.
I
have
also suggested that they
came
to the south
down
the Vardar
valley.
Usually they have been brought straight from Thrace, which
possible,
but Ridgeway, on the other hand, brings them from Epirus, and points out that
they held in veneration the Zeus of Dodona.*^ in small
bands or by ones and twos, there
by the same route
Danube
basin.
Zeus-bom, and
;
As
aU that matters I
is
is
If their arrival was, as I
is,
of
course,
have suggested,
no reason to postulate that they
all
arrived
that they should have come eventually from the
have already mentioned, some of the Homeric heroes were
may have come
>6
Homer,
>7
Chadwick
Iliad
ii.
via Epirus, while others, the majority, were of the stock
219.
(1912) ch, xv.
*'
Ridgeway
(1901) ch. iv.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
114
Now
of Ares.
Thrace.*'
It
Ares was the god of the Thracians, or of some group of people inhabiting
would seem then that some, probably most, of the " Achaeans " came
from the Thraco-Phrygian stock, though whether they started on their way from Thrace, or left the
main body before
importance.
When
it
had reached that country,
is
a matter of relatively small
the archaeology of Macedonia and Thrace
better understood,
is
be able to clear up this point.
shall doubtless
swords with precision from their
It is unfortunately not possible to date these
associations, as there are difficulties in ascertaining the exact position in
which they were
They
found, or in identifying the potsherds and other objects found with them. believed to date from the third Late Minoan period, that
140D or 1350
We 1220
B.C.,
It is here that
B.C.
in
that^°
the
year
fifth
who had been Uving allies,
pirates
and
of
in the country behind Alexandria.
traders,
who came
the Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh and the Ekwesh.
If
in search of loot.
the three
first
disputed, but
it is
;
whether these identifications
has
correct
significant that all three represent areas or peoples
On
already identified with Prospector activities. general agreement, and I believe
" Achaean."
are
If this
be
so,
all
He had
also
These Were
who we know been much
which we have
the fourth the Ekwesh, there
authorities unite in seeing in this
our Nordic intruders,
Merneptah,
have been rightly
they were the people of Sardinia and Sicily and the Tyrsenians,
later as the Etruscans
after
who brought with him
the Delta was attacked by Meryey, king of the Libyans,
numerous oversea
sometime
to say,
is
are
our Egyptian evidence helps us.
the Egyptian records
learn from
a host of Tehenu,
identified,
we
name
is
more
the word
who had made themselves
lords of
the trading cities in Greece, had taken to the sea, Hke their fellows in the Baltic, and were,
with Prospector
attacking and plundering the rich lands of the Delta.
allies,
It is to this expedition that
I attribute
indeed was suggested some years ago
by
the two swords
seems, as far as can be judged from latter is
its
damaged
engraved with the name of Seti
»9
Ridgeway
3»
Breasted (1912) 467
3'
Peet (1911-12) 282.
One
Professor Peet.^^
Type D, the type which has been most commonly found
II.,
hilt,
who
in
is
described, as
unquestionably of
Greek lands, while the other
to be also of the
same type.
reigned from 1209 to 1205 B.C.,
(1901) 339, 380. ;
already
Hall (1913) 70, 377, he gives the date as 1230 B.C.
The
and
GREEK LANDS AND THE so cannot be later than the latter date.
BASIS OF CHRONOLOGY.
It is
name some
raid of 1220 B.C., upon which Seti placed his
Thus Type
D was
in use in
1220
B.C.,
probable that
more before many
of
was a souvenir of the
ten to fifteen years later.
and must have developed
allow some years to have elapsed since the " Achseans " lands, a few
it
115
left
the
earlier, for
Danube basin
them had estabUshed themselves
we must
for
Greek
and a
as kings,
further interval before they can have organised a piratical expedition on a sufficiently Fifteen years would be the shortest
extensive scale to threaten the safety of Egypt.
possible time for such a succession of events, thirty years
consider that
some
of these intruders left the
must have been about
more hkely.
Danube basin about 1250
this time, or rather earUer, that the Briges,
So we B.C.
may
Now
it
from the north of
Macedonia, crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor, where they became known as This movement appears to have been one of a succession of similar raids,
Phrygians.
which carried the Thraco-Phrygian people from the Danube basin eastwards.
It
seems
probable that our " Achaean " intruders were part of this body, who, instead of moving
on to the
east,
Type G, some
had passed southwards
as
we have
of the older graves.
seen, has
in search of adventure.
been found at the famous cemetery at HaUstatt, in
This cemetery
is
believed to date, at the earhest, from 900 B.C.,
but iron was found in most of the graves, and the bronze swords were few in number, and
from graves
in
We may
which no iron was found.
safely conclude that these swords
belong to the very beginning of this period, and had been in use for some time previously. It is
always a
weapon remained
difficult
in use.
matter to determine how long a given type of implement or
Besides this
we must allow
for overlapping, that is to say for the
period during which a tj^pe stiU survived in use after in
many ways
superior,
its
twenty-five years
is sufficient
an obsolete weapon If
and the
we allow a first
this period
Central
had been designed.
use of
may have
am
I
which was doubtless
inclined to beheve that about
to allow for this overlap, though possibly on rare occasions
been preserved longer, especially as a trophy or memento.
period of one hundred years between the introduction of one type its
successor,
we
shall
be able to
seems on the whole reasonable.
Europe,
its successor,
though Type
longer in the Baltic region. in each of these cases.
I
B
seems,
Types in
a
fit
the two ascertained dates, and
A
and
modified
B
are,
form,
however, scarce in to have
persisted
propose, therefore, to reduce the hundred years to fifty
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
ii6
Such a chronological scheme
is,
of necessity, provisional,
worked
of modification as further s5nichronisms are
am
available, I
inclined to think that
amendments which may have either way.
Greece.
This scheme
is
to be
it
made
for Central
is
out, but
and the Scandinavian
Type
A
countries.
on the evidence at present
not far from the truth, and that any
in the future will scarcely exceed fifty years
Europe only, and
Various modifications may, however, have to be
distant regions, especially in the north
and must be susceptible
may
be true also for Italy and
made
to
more
and west, such as Brittany, the British
Isles
in applying
it
Chapter
X
THE IRON SWORD
WE
have seen that every type
the
hand.
found
other
Hungarian
in the
plain,
F and G
Types
of sword,
A
from Tj^pe
B
though Type
are -entirely
not
is
absent.
Type E, has been
to
common
It
is
On
there.
unreasonable
to
suppose that, while the people of the mountain zone were developing more useful types of swords, the of
T5^e E.
men
Even were
of the plain were continuing for this the case
we should expect
some centuries to use swords
to find that the swords of this
type were vastly more numerous than those previously in
we have
that only ten have been recorded for Hungary, whereas
There remain only two
possibilities
But we have seen
use.
nineteen of
Type D.
either the people left the plain uninhabited, or
:
they had found some weapon more useful than the bronze sword.
we have
It is true, as
drought, and there
about this time,
is
seen, that steppe-lands
some reason
for it
was
in
for believing that
1350 or 1300
may
be deserted in times of excessive
such a dry period occurred somewhere
B.C. that
we must
place
the
Aramean
invasion from the Arabian steppe, which was such a serious menace to Shalmaneser
But of
this drought,
even could we be sure that
Hungary, occurred somewhat too early
for
it
affected a small upland steppe like that
There
our purpose.
is
also the alternative
theory that too heavy a rainfall in the mountain regions might have unpleasant.*
But
than on the plain.
would have
this
left
was
left
of a
new weapon, and
but
it is
1.
fact,
we
shall
find
unlikely that the rich Hungarian plain
hope to give reasons for believing that
and that the new weapon was the Peake (1916)
life
There remains the alternative explanation, the discovery
long uninhabited. I
so,
made
a more marked effect upon the mountain zone
There may, indeed, have been an exodus, in
reason for beheving that this was
I.'
170
;
this is the true solution,
iron sword.
Myres
(1911) 117.
117
'
Myres (1913) 534, 535.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
ii8
Some Koban,
years ago M. Chantre investigated a large series of tombs in the basin of the
just north of the Caucasus mountains.
resembhng earlier
many
in
details the
remains found in the cemetery at
weapons were of bronze, but
that metal, had blades of iron or
in
culture,
steel. ^
much
closely
The
Hallstatt.
most cases the swords, while retaining
hilts of
disputed which of these
It
has been
is
the earher, but I hope to
two cemeteries, HaUstatt and the Koban,
Koban
Here he found a
show that the
graves must antedate those in Austria.
M. Chantre extended
his investigations to the other side of the mountains,
and
on the southern slope of the Caucasus found evidence of the culture of a humble,
mountain
folk,
with rude pots, but, what
and small objects
these graves spear-heads
Now important
Professor districts
Gowland has
important for our purpose, he found in
is
of iron.*
told us
that
" In Western Asia there are two
where iron ores are of very extensive occurrence, and
remains of early iron manufacture are found."
He
adds, " from
in
which
a metallurgical
point of view, deduced from the extent and character of the ancient remains, there are
strong reasons for believing that the first-mentioned region was the
first in
which the
This first-mentioned region he describes as " on the
metal was regularly produced."
and Pontus) extending from the
south-east of the Euxine (ancient Paphlagonia
modem
Yeshil Irmak to Batum, and comprising a series of mountain ranges, not far from the coast, along the lower slopes
The graves with the
and
foot hills of which the iron deposits are scattered."'
iron spear-heads described
end of this region, while
in the south-western
by Chantre
are just at the north-eastern
hved later the Chalybes, who were renowned
workers in iron in the sixth century.*
Chantre has shown that the two cultures which he described were existing at the
same
time, for the graves of one people sometimes contained objects belonging to the
culture of the other
had come
;^
into contact.
not only, then, did the cultures s3aichronise, but the peoples
There
is
no reason
beheving that the
for
though they were, had conquered their humble neighbours. taken place
is
The evidence
unthinkable.
3
Chantre (1886)
ii.
4
Chantre (1886)
ii.
5
Gowland
101-8.
(1912) 281.
Koban
That the reverse had
suggests that the contact
6
^schylus. Pr. vine. 734.
7
Chantre (1886)
ii.
107.
folk, militarist
had been
peaceful,
THE IRON SWORD that
119
trade relations had been established, and perhaps the
to have been new-comers in this region, All this points to the fact that
it
was
may have
in the
Koban
Koban
who appear
folk,
taken wives from their neighbours.
region that the steppe-folk
the use of iron, and that they carried the knowledge of
it
thence to the
first
learned
Danube
basin,
rather than that the reverse process took place.
But,
may be asked, how can be we sure that our Koban people
it
who have been
the heroes of the last few chapters
that of HaUstatt, which
Europe, and even their that Rostovtzeff It
may
is
is
?
are the steppe-folk,
Their culture closely resembles
but a development of the later bronze age culture of Central
earlier graves clearly
belong to the same
This
series.
is
so obvious
content merely to state that they had come from the west.^
be weU, however, to submit more precise proofs of this
During
origin.
the later bronze age a certain type of pin had been used in Hungary, possibly, as some think, as a hair-pin, but used
more probably,
as Lissauer has suggested, to fasten the
chlamys, toga or plaid, which these steppe-folk appear to have worn.
known
to the
Germans
as Rudernadln^
Lissauer recognises five types, which
and
we
to
the
These pins are
French as epmgles a
will distinguish
by the
letter
A
raquette.^°
to
E.
A
developes into B, and this again into alternative forms,
C and E.
A also developes by stages, which are at present missing, into D.
Now been
Types
found
in
and
B
North
have Italy,
Wurtemberg
Switzerland,
on the Rhine. been
A
foimd
in
and
They have
also
Hungary,
at
Tokes, Gata, Versecz and Butta.
Two have Moravia.
c
D
FIVE TYPES OF RACQUET PINS.
been found in Bohemia, at Noutonic and Krendorf and one at Gaya in ,
Thus these two types
Type
Celtic cradle.
D
are fairly well distributed over both halves of the
has been found at Andrasfalva in Hungary, and at Alt-Bydzow
8
Rostovtzeff (1920) III.
9
Lissauer (1904) 573-580.
Chantre (1886)
ii.
PI. xix. i, 2,
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
120
one at Dexheim
in
Bohemia.
in
Rhenish Hesse, one at Greisheim in Hesse-Darmstadt and one at Fritzen in East
Prussia. larger
Besides these several have been found further
Lastly
have been found
several
and more developed than the
in
the
Koban
afield,
graves," and these are
others.
This evidence seems to show us that this type of pin
was
at first well distributed throughout the Celtic cradle,
that the dimensions of the head increased in
About the time that
Bohemia.
some kind That one
is
clear
in
the
from the occurrence of
this
most developed form,
in the
can well believe that these emigrants
by the Moravian
gate,
left
graveyards.
the Celtic cradle less
open
the Carpathians, to which
reference has already been made, •'
FIG. 21.
Koban
and passed along the more or
spaces at the northern foot of
RACQUET PINS FROM KOBAN.
form was in use
these expeditions passed to the east,
of
direction of south Russia,
We
Hungary and
exodus took place to various distant places.
of
type, in its
this later
and
and so into the
Russla aud finally to the foot of the Caucasus.
plain of '^
The journey
would have been made on horseback, and need not have occupied many weeks so there is
no need to expect much evidence from objects
crossed Podolia on their
who is
left at
way
to the
Koban,
it
lost en route
;
but, as they
seems probable that
it
must have
was these emigrants
Zavadyntse the sword which was mentioned in a previous chapter, as
this
the only example of a Central European sword recorded from the eastern plain.
The Podolian sword was
of
Type E, and
this gives us
a clue to the date, and will enable
us to put together in their proper order these various items of evidence.
The evidence which beheving that about 1150
I
have cited in the foregoing pages can best be explained by
B.C.
some
of the steppe-folk
from the Hungarian plain departed,
probably through the Moravian gate, to seek fresh pastures.
While some
may have
gone northwards, the majority passed along the open sandy heaths of Gahcia, across Podolia, where a sword
the banks of the
Koban
was river.
lost at
Zavadyntse, and so on to the grassy plains by
Here they
Lissauer (1904) 578-580
;
settled for a time,
Chantre (1886)
ii
and during
PI. xix.
i, 2.
their wanderings
THE IRON SWORD some came
Whether
some commodity
them
humble iron-using people on the southern
into contact with the
the Caucasus.
approached
they
some intercourse took
we know not
place.
It
seems
to
work that metal.
was
first
learned
by the
some
or
to acquire
aU we can be sure was from
of the existence
is
that
their
of
iron
Thus,
I
use of
the
believe,
peoples of Europe.
made by iioo
This discovery must have been
probably
trade
to
was not small knives they needed,
It
but better blades for their trusty swords. iron
;
clear, too, that it
humble neighbours that the Koban-folk learned
how
people
these
slopes of
which they themselves were lacking, or whether they sought
in
to obtain their daughters for wives,
or steel, and
121
The Koban-folk
years earlier.
B.C.
at the latest
realised that steel blades
were far superior to those of bronze, and doubtless were anxious to show
new
off their
They may,
acquisition before the old folks at home.
have remembered that the stone from which
their neighbours extracted
the metal was plentiful in some parts of the old country. cause,
I
too,
Whatever the
beheve that some of them returned to Hungary with their new
discovery, before bronze swords of
had come
Type
F
had been evolved or
at
any rate
into general use.
Iron
ore,
which could
easily
worked by primitive methods,
be
occurs in Transylvania, at Gyalar," and
it
seems
likely that
it
was
in FIG. 22.
this
neighbourhood that they
this
time some of them occupied Thrace, for in early days Thracian swords
had a great its
reputation.'^
By
first settled.
It is also possible that
degrees they pushed
up the Danube,
about
at
sword from
any rate as
far as
Before looo B.C. a large number of them advanced up the
junction with the Save.
Morava and down the Vardar and soon afterwards entered Thessaly, whence they started on that series of conquests
known
as the return of the Heraclids, or the Dorian
invasion of Greece.'*
Many
of these Koban-folk settled on the southern
Save, and in the
hill
country behind
»»
Gowland
'3
Homer,
14
Casson (1921)
(1899) 319
//. xiii.
576
1, 2.
;
bank
of the
Danube and the
various cemeteries of this time
;
cf. J. I.S.I.
;
xxiii. 808.
(1897)
lii.
205.
have been
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
122
discovered in this region, the most famous of which
that at Glasinatz in Bosnia.''
is
Others pushed up the Save, which runs through mountains of an easily worked iron ore
evidence of early workings have been found on the banks of the
;
and on the upper Drave
A
Uttle later,
leaf-shaped sword, but settled at
some
B.C.,
of these people passed over into
crossed the Adriatic, as did in
all
probabiHty the
in 1885,'''
men
of the
tempting to think that they crossed the Predil pass and
it is
Here a cemetery
Santa Lucia Tolmino, near the head waters of the Isonzo.
was found
in Styria
in Carinthia.'®
between looo and 900
They may have
Italy.
Mur
much
grave furniture from which
of the
the Trieste Museum, while the remainder
and the cemetery must have been
is
or was in 1914 in
is,
More than 1000 graves were found
in Vienna.
in existence for several centuries
;
but
it is
usually
Others of the same
believed that the earUest graves date only from the eighth century.
party crossed the mountains into the rich Friuli plain and settled at Dernazacco, near Cividale,'^
We the
Po
and gradually spread thence over the Veneto.
come
across further evidence of their advance at Este,''
some
had existed there
valley they destroyed the terremare, which
bronze age and dispersed their inhabitants." of
the terramara-io\\i
There
Etruria,*'
arrived in
and as they crossed
is
since early in the
evidence that about this time
others
are
found settling
in
the
neighbourhood of Taranto," while Dr. Hooton has shown that there are strong reasons
on the Palatine Hill at
for believing that the earliest settlement
these people.*^
The invaders seem
the Apeninnes, the
area
known
all
D^chelette (1908-14)
''
Gowland
'7
D^chelette (1908-14)
591, 592,
ii.
where
all
Etruria Circumpadana,*' but
authorities are cited.
(1899) 49, 50. ii.
ser. V. (1910)
'9
D6chelette (1908-14)
2°
Modestov (1907) 217.
592,
154
ii.
;
where
all
authorities are cited.
N.S. (1909) 75, 76.
536, 539, 540.
" Modestov (1907) 224.
" Peet '3
(1909) 421
Hooton
(1913)
M Herodotus >5
Livy
V.
33
i.
;
;
see also
;
43
N.S. (1900) 411
;
;
Modestov (1907) 219.
Modestov 1907) 226.
iv. 49.
quoted by Dennis (1883)
i.
xxix.
to
the plain of Italy north-east of
later as Ombrice'* or
'3
8 B.P. 4th
have occupied
to
Rome was due
THE IRON SWORD
FIG. 23.
—MAP
123
SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF TYPE G SWORDS IN FRANCE.
the most important spots at which their remains have been found are in and around
Bologna.
From one
that of Villanova.*®
of the
best-known
sites in that city their culture
has been called
That at one time they conquered Etruria has been suggested '6
D&helette {1908-14)
ii.
536-539.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
124
FIG. 24.
in chapter
iv.,
—MAP
and doubtless
Alps to the south of Naples to confuse
SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF IRON SWORDS IN FRANCE.
them with the
;
it
was they who extended the Etruscan
but, as has already been explained,
real Etruscans.
it
rule
from the
would be a mistake
THE IRON SWORD We
have seen that
in the
125
mountain zone the pile-dwelling
throughout the bronze age.
This type of culture, introduced
from Asia Minor, was adopted
in Central
Europe by the Nordic
themselves lords over the Alpine peasants. exclusiveness side all
by
is
clear
That they were
by
the early Alpines
who had made
intruders, still
from the fact that long and broad-headed
retaining their race
skulls are
we have no evidence
In the plain, however, where
side.*'
continued
civilisation
still
found
of Alpine settlement,
signs of pile-dwellings are absent. It is
a striking fact that with the arrival of iron swords into the mountain zone
this pile-dweUing culture,
which had existed from early neohthic days
bronze age, came suddenly to an end.
same thing occurred later it
was
all
the close of the
This cannot be merely an accident,
over Central Europe.*^
Some important
revived.*^
till
It is also significant that
all
revolution must have taken place to end so
parts of the mountain zone.
supposing that the
men
of the plain,
the
some centuries
abruptly a custom which had lasted for thousands of years, and to end
suddenness in
for
I
can only account for
who had never occupied
had swept over the mountain zone, carrying
fire
this
it
it
in
with equal
one way, by
type of dwelling,
and the iron sword throughout the
villages of their neighbours.
This
I
am
inclined to think
must have been the
and such an invasion would
case,
account for the widespread exodus of people with the Type
found scattered over
many
areas in France, over
stretching even to Scandinavia
much shown
swords, which
we have
North Germany,
of
and Finland, and which reached the British
Isles,
and with
other culture belonging to the Swiss lake-dwellings, as Crawford has recently
These people with the Type
us.^°
invasion of the iron sword people. in France,
The
parts
G
G
swords must have been refugees from the
Dechelette Jias given us a
and on the same map he
indicates the progress of the iron
latter followed the refugees in almost every direction,
valley that the exiles escaped pursuit.
map showing
This
is
and
it
a point to which
their progress
sword men.^'
was only
I shall
in the Seine
have to
a later chapter. '7
D&helette (1908-14)
ii.
114.
30
Crawford (1922)
»8
Dechelette (1908-14)
ii.
114.
3'
Dechelette (1908-14)
»9
D6chelette (1908-14)
ii.
935-941-
33, 34.
map ii., in ii.
pt. 2.
refer in
Chapter XI
A RECAPITULATION
WE
now
are
a position to interpret the meaning of the evolution and
in
distribution of these leaf-shaped swords,
though there are many
details,
which we would gladly know, but of which we must remain in ignorance, perhaps for
ever.
We
can,
form some general idea of the events which were
however,
taking place in Europe during the centuries under review, and for lucidity
it
wiU, perhaps,
make
they are here recapitulated as a continuous story.
if
Since 4000 B.C. some Alpine people, coming originally from Asia
occupied the mountain zone, where they had erected their cultivated their strips of cornlands.
Minor,
pile-dwellings
had
and had
Meanwhile on the Russian steppes, east of the
Dnieper, Nordic steppe-folk mounted on horses, were driving cattle from one pasture to another, sometimes dwelling in the in the park-lands
Tripolje-folk,
and woods
to the north.
About 3000
^gean
or
steppe-folk to emigrate.
It
the
perhaps rather
was perhaps
fishers,
ancestors of the red Finns.'
the Baltic, and passing along of
these
and
on
later
importing
earlier,
at this time,
a drought caused some of the
though probably valley,
later,
where,
that some
mixing with
they developed the Fationovo culture and became
Others in small numbers certainly advanced towards its
moved
Switzerland from the north, and
'
soil,
woodland to the middle Volga
communities of Mongoloid
The majority
the
traders.
B.C.,
through
their beasts
Between these two peoples were the
Uving in pit-dweUings, cultivating
copper axes from
passed
open steppe, at others pasturing
southern shore, appeared later at Furfooz, in Belgium.' slowly up the
Rhine
made themselves
Peake (1919) 200-202.
valley,
lords of the lake-dweUing villages.
'
126
whence some entered
See ch.
vi.
A RECAPITULATION
127
Other steppe-folk seem also to have entered Hungary, probably through the Moravian gate,
and
settled
on the plain and the eastern
mountain zone.
foothills of the
Meanwhile the knowledge of copper had been introduced by
up the
sailed
and
Adriatic,
travelled inland
from Fiume.
the Swiss lake-dwelhngs, and eventually passed followed
by a bronze
culture,
down
the
who had
traders,
This copper culture reached
Rhone
as far as Lyons.
from
Italy
which was imported
It
was
and the western
Mediterranean.
About 2250
B.C.
Some went
scale.
another drought caused a dispersal of the steppe-folk on a greater remotest fastnesses of Turkestan, some perhaps as
east, into the
head waters of the Yenesei and the region around Minutsinsk, while others
far as the
passed on to the Iranian plateau.
and a few centuries
Kassites,
This last group
later
we hear
of
about
2100
B.C.
as
they conquered Mesopotamia.
Those who went westward seem to have destroyed the Tripolje culture and driven
off its people, unless,
The bands
indeed, they
of steppe-folk divided,
going south skirting the
by the
had already been driven away by the drought.
some passing north
shores of the Euxine.
Balkan mountains arrived
of the Carpathians
and some
This last group crossed the Danube, and
at the east
end of Thrace.
Here they divided,
one band passing to the west by the shores of the ^Egean and then southwards to Thessaly, where they frightened the inhabitants,
who termed them
other band crossed the Hellespont, destroyed Hissarlik
II,
Centaurs.
The
and passed on into the
Anatolian plain, where in due course they organised the native Alpine population into the Hittite empire. It is
not so easy to follow the group which passed north of the Carpathians, but
they seem to have followed the
line of
sandy heaths across Galicia into
Silesia,
then
some, probably, entered Hungary through the Moravian gate, while others pushed into
These
Bohemia.
last
found there people who were either refugees from the Tripolje
area or folk closely allied to them. of cord vase,
from Spain. beaker.
had found
in
Bohemia
From a combination
When
These people, who had been accustomed to a type bell-beakers,
which had arrived there via Italy
of both types of
ware they had evolved the northern
the Nordic steppe-folk arrived from Silesia these Beaker-folk
left,
and
passed northwards between the Rhine and the Weser, some going to Jutland and some to
HoUand.
A
few of the
latter
found a refuge in Great Britain.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
128
In Central Europe, in the district cultures grovdng up, one consisting
prevailed in the mountain zone
;
we have
called the Celtic cradle,
the other, more truly Nordic, and stiU pastoral
It is
and
was resumed with
After a
their ItaUan neighbours
B.C.
by way
interval
of
of Fiume.
sword was evolved about
During the following years a few adventurers passed into the Friuli and the
Venetian lands, perhaps to trade, or perhaps to to have visited the
amber coast
mountain zone.
especially to
Denmark.
and there continued
was
It
its
of the Baltic,
About 1450
buried in Schleswig-Holstein. the
short
and
about this time that the Nordic steppe-folk of Hungary demanded larger
larger daggers, until at length the earliest leaf-shaped
1500
two
find
Alpine peasants under Nordic lords, which
of
perhaps nomadic, was hmited to the Hungarian plain. interruption, trading
we
by
carried
Since this type
own
local
is
settle.
Others, few in number, seem
and one, at
B.C.
and was
died there
least,
Type B was evolved and spread over
traders
or
invaders
towards the Baltic,
found in considerable numbers in the north,
development for
many years, we must admit
that these
swords were not taken there by mere adventurers, but by invaders, few in number, perhaps,
who had gone north
perhaps as a governing
From 1400 httle
movement.
room
to those
more or
The
less
class,
to
Denmark, and perhaps further
among
to 1300 B.C., while
The exodus
who were
left
still,
and
settled,
the people they found there.
Type C was dominant,
of fifty years earlier
But soon
behind.
there appears to have been
had perhaps given ample elbow
after 1300 B.C.
we
find
two movements,
simultaneous, but going in opposite directions.
first of
these
movements seems
perhaps over the Predil pass into the
to have started from the valley of the Save,
Friuli,
but more probably, as Peet^ has suggested,
through Bosnia and Herzegovina, and across the Adriatic into Italy.
If the latter coiurse
were taken, the invaders landed not far from Ascoh Piceno, and most of them passed up the valley of the Trento, the valley of the Velino. lakes Trasimene
the pass through which the Via Salaria afterwards ran, to
Here they
settled in that fold of the
and Fucino, through which run,
and the upper waters
smaU
by
of the Tiber.
Apennines between
in opposite directions, the Velino
This band of invaders must have been a relatively
one, as the area they occupied
3
is
not extensive and was very sharply defined.
Peet (1909) 431.
A RECAPITULATION The other movement went Europe to Asia
to the east,
129
and was probably that great emigration from
which dim recollections survived among the Greeks, and which took
of
the Briges into Asia Minor, where they became Phrygians.*
some, at any rate, of this
its
red-haired people.'
group who passed southwards,
punishing evil doers, and
These were known
Greece.
stragglers It
who
like
It
It also carried to
Thrace
was probably some
stragglers
from
destroying
monsters
and
knight-errants
eventually became kings over the towns of Mycenean
and may possibly have included
later as Achseans,
from the group which had passed over to
was between 1200 and 1175
B.C. that the
Some
mainly to the west and north.
also
Italy.
next movement began, and this was
of these invaders left the
Danube
basin, crossed
the Rhine, and passing through the Belfort gap, entered France, and over-ran the greater
Until the swords of this type have been catalogued and mapped,
part of that country.
be impossible to trace their
it will
Some
of these
seem
to
line of
how
advance, or to determine
far
they went.
have passed either down the Rhine or up the east of France,
for
they crossed over to Britain, landing for the most part in the Thames and by the Wash, or else at
some intermediate
and subsequently
points.
They seem
in Wessex, but later
to
have settled in the east of England,
waves of them evidently
crossing
Wales by the upper Severn valley and the Bala
of these
seem
It
gate,
to
have settled
was about
this
A
cleft.
time that others set out from Hungary through the Moravian
and entered
into trade relations with a
southern slopes of the Caucasus, from
Armed with swords with and perhaps worked the
valley.
By
whom
of the
humble
they learned
iron blades, they returned to the
the
of the
Galicia, across the
Koban.
Here they
tribe, living
knowledge
on the
of
Danube basin about iioo
iron mines at Gyalar, in Transylvania.
Hungarian plain and in the north of these people
number
considerable
and while some went northwards, the majority passed along
settled for a time,
out for Ireland,
in Ireland.
Bukovina and Podoha, and arrived at length by the banks
body
set
Balkan peninsula.
Then they
iron. B.C.,
settled in the
About 1050
B.C.
a large
from the Koban passed southwards and descended the Vardar
Then they began that slow but
degrees they passed thence to Thessaly.
steady conquest of the Greek states, which
is
known
4
Herodotus
5
Xenophanes, quoted by Clement of Alexandria
vii.
as the Dorian invasion.
73. :
Stromateis
vii.
711b.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
130
A
later,
little
about looo
the
B.C.,
Koban
folk,
pushing up the Danube, the Drave and the Save.
whole mountains of
iron,
with their iron swords, began
In the valley of the last they found
which they began to work, and by 900
B.C., if
not
earlier,
they had reached Styria and the Salzkammergut, and were working the salt mines at Hallstatt.
was, perhaps, earlier than this that they moved up the
It
as
Ulm and
who
their inhabitants,
of
to
numbers escaped
fled
must have been before
from them to the north and west.
who went northwards were few
refugees
them seem
It
newcomers destroyed the lake-dwellings and expelled
B.C. that the
The
as far
Sigmaringen, and soon after their arrival there quarrels arose
between them and the lords of the mountain zone. 900
Danube vaUey
have
fled a long
to France,
number, though some
way, perhaps even to Finland.
and spread over most
Brittany and the extreme west. of the iron sword,
in
Large
of that land except
But here they were followed by the men
who pmrsued them
in every direction,
down
except
the valley of the Seine.
A at the
great
mouth
number of the
of these refugees reached Britain, landing mostly
Thames, and saiUng up
it
as far as Reading.
An
important settlement was made at " Old England," at the mouth of the Brent, and doubtless elsewhere
by the Thames.
the south of England, where, as
we have
seen,
They advanced
some
across
of their predecessors
were hving, and settled at All Cannings and doubtless other places in Wiltshire.
open
FIG. 25.
TYPE G SWORD
hills
They pushed on above
Cardiff.
into South Wales,
Some
making settlements on the
of these, too, reached Ireland.
Meanwhile the men of the iron sword, pursuing these refugees,
FROM
followed of the Seine.
them
in every direction across France, except
They went northwards down the
valleys
entered Belgium,* and perhaps even entered Denmark.
of the
down
the valley
Meuse and
Moselle,
There seems no evidence, '
'
however, that they crossed to Britain.
One
further raid
extensive scale.
was made by the men
Some time
after 900 B.C. a
'
of the iron sword,
number
Ddchelette (1908-14)
ii.
796.
of them,
and
this
was on an
coming from the Save
A RECAPITULATION valley, crossed the Predil pass.
Some
131
of these stayed for a time at Santa Lucia Tolmino,
in the Isonzo valley, while the majority proceeded to Cividale in the Friuh plain.
passed on rapidly to the
who Uved these
Po
and destroyed the
valley,
villages of the Terramara-folk
seems to have been the invariable custom of
there, expelling the inhabitants as
men of blood and iron.^ The Terramara-folk fled, some to Etruria,
and others again
Rome, where they
to
iron sword people passed on
and
built a
others to Taranto
dry terramara on the Palatine
Hill.^
The
settled at the foot of the Apennines, with their centre
at Bologna, introducing into all the region north-east of
known
They
the mountains the culture
to archaeologists as that of Villa-nova.'
As we have seen
Chapter IV., the Etruscans had been for some httle time
where they had estabhshed
settled in Tuscany,
magistrates.
in
their trading cities
governed by rehgious
Before long these Etruscan Prospectors found themselves face to face
with this newly-arrived war-hke people.
I
have already given
my
reasons for thinking
that the ViUa-nova folk conquered the Etruscans, and that together they extended their empire, which
is
said to have reached to Pompeii.
They perhaps succeeded
back the leaf-shaped sword people from the neighbourhood did not apparently succeed at
Thus we
first in
dislodging
see that the leaf-shaped
sword
zone, have at one time or another invaded
aU Europe except the Iberian
in
Lake Trasimene, but
valley of the Velino.
mainly the people
The
of iron in the
iron
of the
mountain
some way or another conquered nearly
peninsula, while at the close of the
arrived as refugees in Celtic lands.
had learned the use
them from the
folk,
and
of
in pressing
sword
bronze
age
the people of the plain,
folk,
they
who
Koban, followed them, making a complete conquest
of Greece, of Italy north of the Apennines, of France
vaUey, Belgium and perhaps other regions further north.
all
but the west and the Seine
These people did not conquer
Scandinavia, nor did they reach Britain, at any rate until several more centuries had elapsed.
7
Modestov
8
Hooton
9
D^chelette (1908-14)
(1907) 217
;
D6chelette (1908-14)
ii.
529-540.
(1913). ii.
529-540
;
Modestov
(1907) ch.
viii.
Chapter XII
THE ARYAN CRADLE
DURING
the middle
half
of
the
nineteenth
century
minds
the
many
of
European savants were focussed upon what was termed the Aryan hypothesis, which
was
the
more enthusiasm
England and France, and with
philologists in
then
with
investigated
general
conclusions
of
than
still
by comparative
discretion
greater vigour in Germany.
Since
mid-nineteenth century speculations have
these
been current among pohticians and journahsts, who talk glibly about Teutons and Celts
and
and that medley
Slavs,
of races
and peoples, who
modified form the speech imposed upon them by their therefore called the Latin race.
still
continue to use in a
Roman
conquerors, and are
Such terms, meaningless though they are as applied
to nations,
have become popular during the
since they
have been used to emphasise certain divisions which were growing up
among European
peoples,
and which
last half century,
in their turn did
much
to give rise to the
war, and are stiU retarding the Peace for which everyone
The idea was
put forward in
first
when
1786,
with disastrous
is
Sir
was made fifty
until in^i833-5
Bopp* published
his
years the hypothesis grew at a great pace.
classification
of
its
peoples,
especially
of
European
longing.
William Jones,' in a
communication to the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, pointed out the between the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, German and
results,
Celtic languages,
similarities
but Httle progress
comparative grammar.
For the next
The world was anxious
the peoples of Europe.
for a scientific
Men were
also
enquiring what had happened in this continent before early Greek legend and literature
began to
lift
the
in their infancy,
'
veil.
The
sciences of anthropology
and
prehistoric archaeology were
and unable to provide answers to these questions, and the comparative
Jones (1788).
1
132
Bopp
(1833), (1845-50), (1866-74).
THE ARYAN CRADLE philologists,
from the evidence
133
and most
of language alone, were prepared to give full
detailed explanations.
Thus arose the Aryan hypothesis, forced upon an eagerly inquiring public wdth great enthusiasm and complete, or almost complete, agreement. eighties
and to disagree with the conclusions
AU
Hngered on in Germany.
By
of philology.
and
philological enthusiasm died out, at least in this country it
during
the
appeared to disturb this harmony, anthropology and archaeology began
rifts
to claim a hearing,
a time
But
in France,
those acquainted with the subject
1890 the
though for that the
felt
question needed reconsideration, partly in the light of more accurate philological study,
and
newer evidence being produced in such quantities
especially having regard to the
by the
and
sciences of anthropology
The general pubhc,
prehistoric archaeology.
however, continued to talk and to write, with more confidence than before, of Teutons, Celts, Slavs
A
and the Latin
word
races.
most of the European languages, group.
When
as to the term Aryan.
was
it
felt
it
was found that Sanskrit was alUed
that a term was needed to describe the
Bopp, thinking that the German or Teutonic group was the most westerly,
as the Indian dialects were the most easterly, used the term Indo-Germanic, which
previously been suggested
term
by Klaproth
in 1823.'
But when
it
was
German
Indo-European.
was
much
too
receiving
Neither of these terms
is
prominence,
quite accurate
who
suggested
misleading, for the Aryas were the noble caste
early Persians.
The name, however,
especially in this country.
who spoke
these tongues the
name
used in the following pages for the
all
convenient, and
that
name
the
to
This, too,
the Vedic Indians and the
is still
used by
many
people,
Recently Dr. Giles* has suggested for the original people
occur in most of these languages.
When
is
among
felt
and both are clumsy, so
avoid the latter defect Professor Max-Miiller suggested the term Aryan. is
had
fully reahsed that the
were also included in the group, French and Itahan scholars,
Celtic tongues
the
to
of Wiros, as
words similar to
this,
The term has much to recommend first
it,
meaning men,
and
it will
be
users of this speech.
the connection between these languages was
first realised, it
was
felt
that
the tongues had been derived from a primitive mother speech, and that this primitive
3
Klaproth (1823).
4
Giles (1910-11)
;
1922,66. 9a
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
134
speech must have been spoken originally by a small group of people, the primitive
Aryans,
or, as
who speak
we
shall call
they were racially identical.
of
any
EngUsh
protest,
it
to loose thinking all the people
who have spoken them
these languages to-day, as well as those
were considered Aryans, and
raised
But owing
them, the Wiros.
was assumed that because
As long
as this
in the past,
were related
their languages
apphed only to European peoples no one
but when Max-Miiller asserted that the same blood runs in the veins
soldiers as in the veins of the darkest Bengalese,' the
we have
country, which, as
Nordic
spirit in this
seen, is prone to race exclusiveness, rose in its wrath,
and
the whole generalisation was questioned.
was then shown that languages could be imposed by conquerors upon
It
and that there were instances on record
subjects,
as in the case of the Prankish invaders of
their
of the reverse process taking place,
Gaul and the Viking
Normandy.
settlers in
People then, with equal lack of lucid thinking, ran to the opposite extreme and said, " there
is
credit of
now no Aryan
race,
making the matter
with Aryan speech.
and there never has been one."
He
clear.
He showed
To Penka*
pointed out that Aryan blood
that those
who
is
is
due the
not co-extensive
use the latter are of several distinct
anthropological types, but he argued that the primitive Aryans or Wiros must have
been of one type. Penka's
seems
contention
eminently
reasonable
and,
one
would
think,
incontrovertible, for a group of languages, so closely resembling one another,
have grown up in a somewhat restricted
area,
among
a people
who
had, during the
formative period of the language, httle intercourse with the outside world. conditions which would produce a speciaUsed type of language, would, sure,
have produced an equally speciahsed type of men, that
is
must
The very
we may
feel
to say, a race in the
anthropological meaning of the term.
The
failure of
Penka's views to carry widespread conviction was,
to think, due to the fact
Wiros with the Nordic be seen
later,
became
There
the evidence which I
is
really
am
no vaMd objection to
inchned
this view, and, as will
adducing points to a similar conclusion.
became associated with
certain poUtical opinions,
distasteful to those with a different outlook. 5
am
that his theory involved the identification of the primitive
race.
unfortunately, this theory
I
Max-MiiUer (1855) 29.
«
Penka
(1883, 1886).
But,
and so
THE ARYAN CRADLE The
original supporters of the
and with the people who
Aryan hypothesis
I35 so in love with the languages
fell
originally developed them, that they
grew to believe that these
Wiros were superior creatures, with a superior tongue, which they had imposed upon
an to
AU
inferior world.
them, and they
good things found
became the super-men.
linguistic evidence available
was capable
flexibility,
they had,
Europe were attributed
in the civilisation of
it is
As
true, evolved
of great things, but
it is
we can
far as
ascertain from the
a language which, owing to
by no means
the
clear that
its
higher
developments, which some of the tongues have reached, would have been attained had
The
not the Wiros mixed with people possessing other ideas and other idioms.
evidence of linguistic palaeontology shows that in material culture they were very
backward, and, as we shall see later on, aU the archaeological evidence tends to show that in these respects they were far behind the peoples
whom they imposed their tongue. This
theirs.
Probably
conceit.
may have it
was due
they conquered, and on
Their one important characteristic seems to have been
and so
their incapacity for learning other languages,
adopt
whom
been due to lack of
The
to both.
insisting that other folk should
linguistic ability, or to
original Wiros, then, as
an overbearing
judged by linguistic
evidence, were far from being super-men.
Another fallacy has been the behef that the Nordic " white
man "
par
The Nordic
excellence.
manly
some thousands
of years to impress
The Nordic has
qualities.
administration, but he respects falls behind
and
of
later
limitations,
is
also other
far
what
is
his neighbours that
Madison Grant^ have far as I
and
he has taken care for these
are
admirable
good points, such as honesty and a genius
of the other
the Alpine or Mediterranean races, of
also
;
from possessing a monopoly of the
members
and no one, so
upon
the superior person, the
robust and courageous,
strong,
which are much admired
possesses certain
qualities
is
is
European
enumerated
races.
The works
virtues
his
virtues,
without
and of
in
for
many
Gobineau'
defining
his
know, has yet written to extol the excellencies of
who have
contributed and
still
contribute
much
good in the make-up of modern Europe.
During the
latter part of the nineteenth century the
making and consolidating
7
their empire,
Gobineau (1853-55).
and to do
this
*
Germans were engaged
in
they wished to encourage their
Grant
(1916), (1921).
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
136
nationals to believe that Germans, qua Germans, were the inheritors of of
most admirable quaUties.
in
most
As a matter
countries, as can be seen
history books, in use at that time, as
their wont, the
is
many,
of fact such " patriotic " ideas
by an examination
in fact
were current
of the school text-books, especially
and sometimes, too, at the present day.
Only
Germans were very thorough, and they pressed every
in this,
and
science
every hypothesis into their service.
What was
read into the hypothesis of Penka, though
it
does not follow that he
wished it, was that these Wiros or Aryan super-men were the same as the Nordic super-men,
and that
their
Tacitus.
It
home was
in
Germany, as could
easily be
was impUed that from Germany had come
all
proved from the pages that was
Aryan
of
or Nordic or
reaUy valuable in the population of other countries, and that, therefore, the Aryan Nordic
Germans were the
salt of
the earth.
This view, which grew up insensibly from the
hypothesis of Penka and others, was caught hold
transform the peaceful Alpine
was given
to the world
Now,
we have
as
is
by
though they had their good points,
seen, the original Wiros,
and were enabled to spread
of the virtues,
and unwillingness to learn the speech
a picturesque and romantic figure, with
many
of
is
is
seldom
Lastly, an examination of the
outside the former
There are probably as
rare."
The Nordic
admirable qualities, but
with his hands or patient in research.
Hanover, the Nordic type
their tongues
of others.
physical types, as they exist to-day in Germany, shows us that
kingdom
to
by a renegade Englishman, Herr Houston Chamberlain.'
their incapacity
clever, skilful
by those who were wishing
German into an aggressive militarist, and in its full absurdity
had by no means a monopoly largely
of
many
pure
Nordics in France, distributed over the northern departments from Dunkirk almost to the west of Brittany, as will be found in the
German
only between the populations of the two countries.
empire.
There
In Germany the
is this
difference
fair colouring of
the Nordic element seems to be a dominant character over the relatively dark pigmentation of the Alpine fair
so
;
we meet with a majority
Nordic colouration.
of people
having broad Alpine heads but
In France, on the other hand, there
is
a large Mediterranean
element, surviving from neolithic days, and the brunette colouring of this race
dominant than the blondness France, fair hair 9
is less
of the Nordic.
frequently found
Chamberlain (1911).
As
among '°
all
three
is
more
types have mingled in
those with broad heads. Ripley (1900) 217, 218
;
Parsons (1919).
THE ARYAN CRADLE The use made
of the
inclined, French and, to
137
Aryan Nordic equation by German
some
political propagandists
This objection
extent, English writers, to reject this view.
has been in a large measure due to misunderstandings, and in any case
has
it is
unscientific to
allow national and poUtical prejudices to influence our opinions on such questions. If,
or, as
we
then,
agree with Penka that there must have been an original Aryan race,
we shall call them,
Wiros,
important to ascertain what part of the world
it is
from which these languages spread to Ireland and Bengal.
This
is
it
was,
the problem of
the Aryan cradle.
In the early days of the hypothesis students noted that Sanskrit was the most archaic of the languages,
1500
B.C.,
and
forgetting that the Vedic
hymns were composed 1000
or
while the earliest Greek literature dated from 800 or 900 B.C., there was a
tendency to derive the whole group from North India,"
Subsequently,
when the
close
connection between Sanskrit and Zend, the ancient Persian tongue, was recognised,
and
it
was
hjrnins
realised that the Vedic folk
were recent arrivals in the Punjab when the Vedic
were being composed, the Aryan cradle was removed to the region watered by
the Oxus and the Jaxartes, and the slopes of the Hindu Kush."
Here the cradle remained oriente lux,
drew a wonderful picture
eastern home. details.
And
Others so
we
filled in,
largely
and morality which was
his
aphorism ex
from their own imaginations, the remaining
Aryan super-men,
get the mid-nineteenth century view of these
which were the products either of setting forth
by
westward advance of the Wiros from their
of the
with a language containing potentialities of organisation
Pott, hypnotised
a long time.
for
all
that
is
fine in literature,
with a social
to reform benighted Europe, worshipping deities
solar or chthonic
myths or
of diseases of language,
from the western slopes of the Himalayan massif, urged on
" by
an
irresistible impulse " towards the setting sun, migrating westward and ever westward,
canying
their wives
and famihes
distinguished anthropologist. '^
and which
figures
still
in too
« Pott (1840)
19.
"
^-
famous Aryan cart provided
for
Such was the view imanimously held by
many
wilderness, or at least in the steppe,
" Adelung {1806-17)
in the
text-books.
One man only was
and he was an EngUshman.
'^
'4
left
(1874) quoted
all
Europe,
crying in the
As Hehn'* wrote in
Tylor (1881) 79-82.
Hehn
them by a
by Taylor
(1889) 23.
1874,
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
138 " so
it
came
to pass that in England, the native land of fads, there chanced to enter into
the head of an eccentric individual the notion of placing the cradle of the Aryan race in Europe."
Those of us who hve " in that land of fads"
may
well be
proud of Dr. Latham, who
advanced these views in 1851, and subsequently enlarged upon them.'' nearly
all
In due course
other philologists followed suit, and Max-Miiller alone was unrepentent, and
as late as 1887 wrote " I should
and no more."'*
say, as I said forty years ago,
still
But by then the
Asiatic cradle
had gone
'
Somewhere
Hmbo
to the
in Asia,'
of exploded
hypotheses.
In 1868 Benfey, in a preface to Pick's work,'' acknowledged the value of Latham's
from the type of evidence known as
protests, and, arguing for the first time
palaeontology, advocated a
suggested, as
European as distinguished from an Asiatic
Latham had done
followed in 1871
by
Geiger,'*
super-man had always Hved Pietrement'^ retorted
in the plain of
by suggesting that
to the neighbourhood of
national
pride
wished
clan,
He
He was
prove that
North Germany, to which, some years
Geiger's arguments
the
later,
would apply equally well
Lake Balkash and the Ala-tau mountains.
In the same year in which Geiger's work appeared Cuno to the h37pothesis.*°
to
and
cradle,
earHer, the region north of the Black Sea.
who with
linguistic
made a notable
contribution
contended that the original undivided Wiros were not a small
but must have been a numerous, nomad pastoral people, inhabiting an extensive steppe
region.
For the evolution
of the parent tongue with its elaborate
period, several thousands of years,
grammar a long
must have been needed, and during
this
time the
Wiros must have moved freely over the area of the cradle, having frequent intercourse with one another, but Httle or none with outsiders. could only be obtained on a vast plain,
impassable forests
;
this cradle
These conditions, he thought,
undivided by lofty
must have been
in a
mountain
temperate
barriers
cMmate,
or
tolerably
uniform in character, where there would have been ample room for the growth of a
numerous people.
Such an area can only be found
in the great plain
Europe, stretching from the north of France to the Ural mountains. '5
Latham
"«
'7
'8
Geiger (1871) 113-150.
Max-Miiller {1888) 127.
'9
Pidtrement {1879).
Fick(i868).
" Cuno
(1851)
cxlii.,
(1854) 197, 198, (1859)
ii.
503.
(1871).
of
Northern
THE ARYAN CRADLE Further investigation has shown that forests
much
139 filled
with dense
in Russia,
and extends
was
of this plain
and impassable morasses, but that the open steppe begins
uninterruptedly to the slopes of the Hindu Kush, with certain westward prolongations, especially the
sandy heaths to the north of the Carpathians, stretching from the Russian
steppe, across Gahcia, to the neighbourhood of Breslau.
parkland, opening on to the steppe, where
when the
would meet the needs
Aryan
cradle
nomad herdsmen
became burnt up.
grass of the steppe
Here,
of the hnguistic palaeontologist,
was placed by Dr. Schrader
North of
in 1883,*'
it
this, too, is
a belt of
could drive their cattle
would seem, was an area which
and
it
was
and here
in this
region that the
has remained without
it
opposition until quite recently.
During the
few months there has appeared the
last
volume
first
of the
Cambridge
History of India, to which Dr. Peter Giles had contributed a chapter on the Aryans." In
this, in
which he has repeated
his suggestion that these people should in future
called Wiros, he has put forward views
hitherto held.
His suggestion
which
material respects from those
differ in
in fact, that the
is,
Aryan
be
cradle
to be sought for in the
is
plain of Hungary.
In contradistinction to views previously advanced, he believes that the original
Wiros were settled agriculturists and not nomad herdsmen.'^ apparently, on the fact that they this subject collected
by
knew
A
of corn.
He
bases this conclusion,
careful study of
Schrader** convinces me, however, that
aU the evidence on
it is
far
from certain
that the undivided Wiros were acquainted with cultivated grain, for the terms used, few if
any
of
which run through
grow wild on the Russian beast.
Moreover
grain.
Such crops
it is
all
the languages,
may
and may well have been used as food
steppe,*^
not an unknown thing for
of barley I
deserts behind Alexandria.
well apply to wild grain,
nomad
for
steppe-folk, too,
in the clay
hke most nomads, were probably
the habit of making occasional raids on the settled lands on their margin, and actual evidence that this occurred.
We know
also that settled cultivators
both at Tripolje and at Anau on the edge of the steppe. " Schrader (1890)
438.
"
Giles (1922).
»3
Giles (1922) 67, 68.
man and
people to grow scratch crops of
have myself seen grown by nomad Bedawin
The
and oats
'*
Schrader (1890) ch. v.
'5
Obermaier (1912)
i.
439-464
The
;
Hoops
original
(1904)
;
in
we have
were living
Wiro word
(1911-19)11.354.
for
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
140
grain might well be the
name they used
when times were hard they acquired
possibility that
neighbours, as Abraham, a
argument from the words cited
for this kind of booty, nor
by Schrader seems
need we exclude the
by trade from
grain
their settled
The
nomad steppe-man, purchased com from Egypt.
for grain
seems indecisive, and the balance of the evidence
in favour of a
nomad
existence.
Dr. Giles feels that " the close similarity between the various languages spoken
them would lead us to circumscribed area,
common."*^ conclusion.
we have
seen,
would see
Giles
ring of mountains, while difference
that they must have hved for long in a
so that their peculiarities developed
This, as
But Dr.
infer
was Cuno's
idea,
for
and
it
an
is
in this circumscribed area
Cuno thought that
many
by
severely
generations
in
sound
eminently
one surrounded with a
demanded an extensive
steppe.
The
between the two views seems to depend upon whether the Wiros were nomad
or settled, and I have already given reasons for believing
Dr. Giles objects to the steppe-cradle.
He
them
have been nomads.
gives as his reason that this region
has not on the whole the characteristics required by the Unguistic palaeontology;*'
to
drawn from
conclusions
on the other hand Schrader, who has studied
this side of
philology more exhaustively than most inquirers, believes that the conditions are fulfilled.*'
Neither argument
must
is
perhaps conclusive, and both deserve serious attention
rest
upon evidence drawn from those other
We
have found reason
of the Dnieper cattle,
the goat, which
is
in nearly all the
steppe-folk,
As they Hved on a
a mountain beast, and
Wiro
which deal with the
for believing that in neoUthic
was inhabited by a nomad
and perhaps sheep.
sciences
languages.''
it is
;
who had domesticated
plain they
horses and
had probably not met with
to be noted that the
name
for goat varies
These nomad steppe-folk, who buried their dead in
Nordic or proto-Nordic in type, and some, at type,^"
far past.
days the Russian steppe east
a contracted position covered with red ochre under kurgans or barrows, were,
Briinn-Brux-Combe-Capelle
the decision
who
least, of their skeletons
hunted horses in
late
Solutrean times.
''
Giles (1922) 66.
»9
Giles (1922) 67.
«7
Giles (1922) 69.
30
Fleure (1922) 13.
»8
Schrader (1890) 438.
we
believe,
remind us of the Aurignacian
and
THE ARYAN CRADLE The
state of civilisation
and the area
141
of distribution of those
nomad
exactly corresponds with the requirements of the early Wiros as postulated
though
it differs
in Magdalenian
some
in
respects from those
and Azilian
demanded by
and perhaps during the
times,
may
age, the ancestors of these people
have seen how some of them survived
Giles,
earlier
by Schrader,
the other hand,
phases of the neolithic
Hungarian
well have lived in the
in Switzerland, at
On
steppe-folk
plain,
and we
Chamblandes, well into neolithic
times.3'
It
is
that
then,
possible,
agricultural condition,
circumscribed
the
demanded by Dr,
of the upper palaeolithic age.
may have
though not
been true in the
This, however, he will not agree to, for he
by the earher
that the hiatus, assumed
Giles,
area,
palaeolithic age, as well as the lower,
archaeologists, still exists,
the
settled
later
phases
is
persuaded
and that the upper
preceded the last ice age and belongs to a very remote
past.
Some
archaeologists, it is true, still hold to these views,
has not yet been abandoned by dating^* has
all.
During the
become more generally accepted, and
last
and
this inflated
chronology
few years, however, the shorter
this brings the
whole of the neanthropic
period into relatively recent times, and gives us a continuous history from the Aurignacian period to the present day.
If Dr. Giles could
views on palaeolithic chronology,
many
of
be persuaded to accept these more modern
his difficulties
would be removed, and he
might agree to place the Hungarian cradle of the Wiros in the
latter part of the
upper
palaeolithic age.
Dr. Giles raises objections also to the continuity of the Russio-Turkestan steppe,
and maintains that a connection between South Russia and the Sea, would have been impossible."
and India by way
The great
He is,
east,
north of the Black
therefore, disposed to take the
Wiros to Persia
of Asia Minor.
objection which he cites to the northern passage
barren Ust Urt desert.
in area.
These two points,
It is true, doubtless, that at
3'
Schenk (1912)
3»
App.
I.
the existence of the
Also the fact that the Caspian has steadily been becoming
more shallow and contracting contradict one another.
is
176.
33
if
true, to
some extent
one time the Caspian had covered
Giles (1922) 69, 70.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
142
a greatly extended area, but
We
progress.
have already
it is
seen,
not so clear that
contraction has been a steady
its
from the evidence cited by Ellsworth Huntington,^*
that this contraction and expansion has probably been intermittent.
the contraction has been due to hght rainfall, and
produced the desert condition of the Ust Urt.
when such
of increased precipitation,
it is
In any case,
hght rainfaU which has
this
When the Caspian expanded, it was because
parts of the Ust Urt as were not inundated would
have been a grassy steppe. Dr. Giles suggests that at one time the Caspian and Aral seas were one great
inland sea, and that such was at one time the case writings of Herodotus.^' of relatively
heavy
But though
this
is
implied
by
from the
extracts
was almost certainly the case during periods
the level would have to have risen well above the 200 metre
rainfall,
contour to have obstructed the passage between the Russian and Turkestan steppes.
Such a
rise is quite
unthinkable during the last 6000 years, for had the surface been
raised 220 feet above the present sea level the
another, plain
it
would have been quite easy to pass from one steppe area to
by crossing the southern
slopes of the Urals,
and would form no obstacle
to
nomad
which are raised very
Wiros kept to the north they would have found ;
difficulty in crossing the
eastwards
earlier,
way about 2200
B.C.
we have aheady
seen,
apparently by a different route, for otherwise
for the presence of the Kassites
had the
Armenian
wovdd have come into contact with the peoples
further south they
this
above the
to the east, for
Mesopotamia, and we should have found evidence of their presence.
them passed
little
tribes.
The Anatolian passage was by no means an easy route
mountains
would have been
Even had the impossible occurred and the 200 metre
connected with the Euxine.^* contour been reached
Sea
Caspio-Aral
That some
of of
but others had passed it is difficult
to account
on the Iranian plateau in the time of Hammurabi.
The
complete absence of any evidence of a movement eastward from the Himgarian plain in neolithic days,
and the
cross the area occupied
fact that
by the
any such movement would have been compelled
settled Tripolje-folk,
seem to be
fatal
to
the
acceptance of this hypothesis.
34
Huntington
(1907), (1911).
3J
Herodotus
203, 204
i.
;
iv.
40
3'
;
Casson (1918-19) 175-183.
Casson (1918-19) 178.
to
hteral
THE ARYAN CRADLE Taking
all factors,
into consideration,
and
143
anthropological and archaeological, geographical and linguistic, in spite of the difference in
whose authority to pronounce on the venturing to identify the
nomad
linguistic
opinion expressed
data
all
by Dr.
must acknowledge,
Giles, I
am
steppe-folk with the primitive Wiros, while admitting
the possibihty that the beginnings of their language
may
date back to Magdalenian
and Azihan times, when they may have been Uving surroimded by the Carpathian ring.
Chapter XIII
FS AND
WE
Q'S
have seen that with one notable exception, httle attempt has been made
to explain the early history of the
Aryan hypothesis has remained
Wiros since 1889, and the position
stationary.'
It
true
is
that
fresh
of the
evidences of
such languages have been discovered in the uplands of Asia, and a new group, known Certain affinities to the group have also been noted
as Tocharian,* have been identified.
which has been claimed by some writers to be a true Wiro
in the Hittite language,
But
tongue,'
been made of
But Society
this
view has not received general acceptance.
this fresh evidence
communication was made to the Philological
John Rhys.*
Professor, afterwards Sir,
criticism, especially in
As, however,
circles.
towards solving the problem of the Aryan cradle.
early in 1891 an important
by
Germany,' and
some
Little use, however, has
its
This paper raised a storm of hostile
conclusions have not found favour in philological
of Sir John's conclusions coincide in certain particulars with
the reconstruction offered in the previous pages, based on other evidence, the thesis
demands
reconsideration.
To summarise
briefly,
Rhys pointed out that the
to the north-western fringe of Europe,
One
naturally into two
fell
of these, the Gaelic, or as he preferred to call it the Goidehc,
North-West Scotland and the
Rhys
Isle of
Man.
The
differences
'
»
confined
well-defined
groups.
was spoken
in
Ireland,
other, formerly called Cymric, but
styled Brythonic, was spoken in Wales, Cornwall
marked
now
Celtic languages,
and Brittany.
by
There are several
between these two groups of languages, the most important being
The best summaries up
to this date are Taylor (1889)
Sieg and Siegling (1921)
3
Hrozny
4
Rhys
3
Zimmer
{1917).
(1894).
(1912)
;
Meyer
(1895-6) 55-86.
144
and Reinach
(1892).
FS AND that the
C
in the Goidelic,
by a P or perhaps a B.
may
Q'S
145
which represents an earher
Thus the
Q
or Qu,
Celtic languages fall into
replaced in Brythonic
two well-defined groups which
be called the
Q
Rhys pointed
out, too, that in the ItaUan peninsula the
and P
is
dialects.
In Latin, and the dialects most closely allied to
it,
same phenomenon appeared.
Q or Qu was found, while in the Urabrian
forms of speech, used over the greater part of the peninsula this sound was replaced by
Q and P
Thus thore were
P.
dialects in Italy also.
He further pointed out that the Greek language, with certain exceptions, was a true P dialect, for the Latin equus corresponded to the Greek iinrhi. He suggested, however, that the Ionic dialect used
by Herodotus and Hippocrates, which frequently had a
where the standard Greek had a the
Qu had
degenerated into
k,
was a descendant
w,^
as
had
it
Further, he pointed out that the
Q dialects,
so to speak an outer ring, while Brythonic,
He
C
into
form of
of a
Q
speech, but that
in Goidelic.
GoideUc, Latin and Ionic Greek, formed
Umbrian and standard Greek
lay within them.
argued from this that these tongues had spread in two waves from a
which he fixed
in the
k
common
mountain zone of Central Europe, and thence the
Q
centre,
tongues had
spread by invasion, to be followed some few centuries later by a second invasion of
P
people,
He group of
who had
Q people further from the original home. change of Q into P had been effected
driven the
suggested that the aliens,
who had adopted
the Wiro tongue from their subjects, but retained some
details of the phonological laws of their original language,
He
labialisation.
further
by a conquering
suggested
these
that
ahen
which accounted
invaders
were
the
for
this
Alpine
inhabitants of the Swiss lake-dwellings.^
This paper was received with hostile criticism and derision, especially by some
German students British
and
of Celtic tongues.*
It
Irish Celtic scholars, with a
The theory has never received the
had
little
better reception in France,
and the
few exceptions, treated the idea with contempt.
consideration and fair criticism which a paper from
so eminent an authority on Celtic languages deserved.
The main
facts as to the Celtic
no question that
in
and Itahc
both of those areas both
'
Rhys
(1894) 119.
7
Rhys
(1894) 122, 130.
dialects are not in dispute.
and P groups are or were
Q '
Zimmer
(1912);
Meyer
There can be in existence,
(1895-6) 55-86.
10
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
146
and that the
Q
are in the outer
however, the case
different,
is
Herodotus and Hippocrates
and the P
in the inner ring.
and
generally considered that the dialect of
it
is
With regard
Greek
to
purely local and not necessarily primitive, and
is
been pointed out that had the original Ionic dialect been a
have been apparent in Homer.
It is also
Q
it
has
tongue, signs of this would
becoming more common to consider Greek
as having closer af&nities with Persian than with Itahc or Celtic, though one wonders
whether
this connection is not being exaggerated as the
pendulum swings from the
over-estimated resemblance formerly recognised between the two languages
of the
Classical world.
We
must, however, agree that the Greek part of Rhys' hypothesis will not stand,
at least without considerable emendation, nor
investigations
any reasons
have we found from our archaeological
beUeving that the Alpine inhabitants of the Swiss
for
lake-dweUings over-ran as conquerors the surrounding regions.
The
points in an opposite direction. hypothesis,
and we may
still
deletion of these
consider that there
is,
The
two points
evidence, in fact,
is
not fatal to the
on philological evidence, a pnma-facie
reason for believing that from somewhere in Central Europe, from the area which
termed the
Celtic cradle,
two waves
Q
out in various directions, that the
of invaders, of
was the
Wiro speech
if
and the P the
earlier
we have
not of Wiro race, set
and that both
later,
entered Italy and the Celtic lands.
We may
further admit the possibility or even
the probabiUty,
that
an ahen
element, not necessarily non-Wiro, had entered the Celtic cradle before the departure of the second wave,
due.
and that
we may admit
Lastly,
non-proven, there
is
P
was to
that,
element that the labiaUsation was
this alien
though evidence of the
no doubt of the
spoke a tongue showing greater for
it
affinities
arrival of
the
P
Q wave
into Greece
people, but these
P
is
people
with Iranian speech, especially in their names
weapons and other warUke paraphernalia,' than
is
to be recognised in the other
tongues.
Now we
have seen from the study of archaeological evidence that the men of the
leaf-shaped sword passed at one time into Italy, where they settled near
and a
Httle later
some entered the
reached Greek lands.
Celtic lands of the west, while earlier
Lake Fucino,
a few adventurers
Later some refugees from the mountain zone reached 9
Schrader (1890) 225-228.
many
parts
FS AND of
France and the British
and to have been
we have
of the
seen that the
All these
Isles.
same
Koban
racial folk,
of the Caucasus, returned to the
t3^e
147
seem to have come from the same
or, to
who had
Danube
Q'S
speak more accurately, types.
possible,
brought
if
all
Later
still,
learned the use of iron in the neighbourhood
valley, after
which some of them entered Greece
as Dorians, while others entered Italy with the Villa-nova culture
pursued their predecessors over
Celtic cradle
and a third group
parts of France except the Seine valley.
not probable, that these two waves of invasions
may have
seems
It
been those which
Q and P speech respectively into these different parts of Europe.
If this
equation
But
be accepted, the main features of Sir John Rhys' hypothesis have been proved. it will
waves
not be wise to jump too hastily to a conclusion, for the fact that there were two of invaders
and two
Wiro
of
attempt to apply a confirmatory In Greece
we have
dialects
may
We
be only a coincidence.
must
test.
why we
seen that Casson has shown good cause
should beheve
men with the iron sword should be equated with the Dorian invasion. The Dorians spoke a P dialect and may well have been the first to introduce We have seen how Rhys' view that Q dialects survive such a tongue into Greece. that the advance of the
in the writings of
that
Wace had
Herodotus and Hippocrates
is
equally questioned the " Achaean " invasion proposed
have already put forward an amended scheme of only a few Nordic adventurers.
owing to the paucity of therefore,
If,
we
the
band
I
Had
their numbers,
these been Wiros of
Q
Q
noted
also
by Ridgeway.
and suggested the
for the latter,
I
arrival
speech, they could not,
have imposed their tongue upon their subjects.
accept the equation for Greek lands,
evidence of the survival of
But
open to question, but we have
speech in Greece in the
we need not expect
to
find
fifth century.
have suggested that these " Achaean " adventurers were stragglers from
who were
of Nordics
we
the equation, which
responsible for the Phrygian invasion of Asia Minor.
are endeavouring to prove, were true,
the Phrygian language was of the
Q
form.
Unfortunately
Phrygian tongue even in the palmy days of Athens,
still less
we should expect
we know
of its
httle
If
that
of
the
form in the thirteenth
century. All philologists
are
agreed that with the language of Thrace
Thraco-Phrygian group, from which, according to some is
derived.
Dacian
is
also
philologists,
it
formed the
modern Albanian
beUeved to have belonged to the same group.
Some
years
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
148
ago Dr. Tomaschek collected together, from Greek and Latin sources,
which might be considered as belonging to or
names
is
but most of these are place-names
not very satisfactory material for our purpose, for place-names
may
Further than this most of the words have been preserved by
loan words.
and there
is
no
Q
in the
Greek language.
Still I
have thought
through the hsts compiled by Tomaschek, and though the result presence
the
convincing,
Coila or Cuila,
tongues
the words
been inherited from the previous inhabitants, while names of plants
may have writers,
This
of plants.
this group,
all
KepKivn,
may have
of
such words as
may
been
Q
east, while
even be said to give
in Celtic lands, for our
any
rate,
or
KovifieSa^a,
dialects."
any rate something more conclusive
Caesar, or, at
well to search
perhaps, not very
Quimedava
Ktvdos,
Greek
and several others certainly hints that the Thraco-Phrygian
The arguments from the equation, and
Kavapos,
is,
it
be
is
it
they do not
any way contradict our
in
some support, are not quite
desirable.
decisive
It is useless to look for this in
documentary evidence scarcely antedates the time
such earlier evidence as we possess
is
at
;
the west, of
Juhus
both meagre and uncertain.
all
the evidence has been the subject of dispute, on almost every item differences
of opinion
have been expressed, and we have no sure or unquestioned data on which to
Finally
The controversy has
depend.
also,
unhappily, become associated with other differences
of opinion. It will
be
well, then, to leave for
a time the consideration of the Celtic evidence,
and to endeavour to test our equation without reference to the
linguistic
data of the west.
There remains, then, only one other area in which to search for our confirmatory
test,
the Italian peninsula. Professor
Conway" has given
which were
P
doubtless,
we may judge from
if
us to understand that the Osco-Umbrian dialects,
languages, were spoken throughout Italy from
Umbria southwards, and
the statement of Herodotus already quoted, as far north
as the foot-hiUs of the Alps, before the Gauls
had invaded the valley
of the Po.
The
only exceptions to this spread of these dialects were Etruria, or the greater portion of
and a part dialects,
of Latium, in
Conway
tells us,
" Tomaschek
which Latin
dialects of the
Q
type were spoken.
it,
These Latin
were spoken by the Latini, the Marsi, the ^Equi, the Hernici,
(1894).
" Conway
{1897).
P'S
who
the Falisci,
AND
Q'S
149
dwelt within the borders of Etruria, and to some extent by the
Sabini."
The
hnguistic position of the Sabines seems uncertain.
Conway enumerates them among
the tribes
mentioning some of those who had
P
should be included If this is
were
known
so,
among
the same imcertainty
directly of their dialect, but
but later on, when
dialects,
speech, he adds in a footnote that perhaps Sabine
The
these.
who spoke Q
In the passage quoted
position of the Sabine tongue
may
is
apply to the Fahscans, for
Conway
states that
it is
then uncertain.
little if
anything
" certain that they were
akin to the Sabines across the Tiber, and that their city was subdued and governed
by the
Etruscans.'"^
This leaves us with four Marsi,
map
I
who undoubtedly spoke Q
The area occupied by them
^qui, and Hernici.
Conway, but
tribes,
only roughly indicated by
by
gather that he agrees with the boundaries delineated
given in Fig. 26 gives these bounds, and
it
will
region they occupy agrees with the area in which
have been found.
Out
is
languages, the Latini,
There
are,
all
many
The
respects the
the Italian leaf-shaped swords
however, certain marked differences.
Type D,
of nine swords of
be seen that in
Kiepert.'*
Q
four are found within the area of
speech,
One
one at Sulmona, only just outside and within the area of Sabine speech.
is
and
a stray,
found somewhere in Apuha, and three, together with one of Type C, have been found not far
from Lake Trasimene.
The soHtary sword
to indicate that the line of approach
Thus
seems that there
it
is
a
of
was from the fair
Type B, found
at Ascoli, seems only
east.
equation between the swords and
Q
speech, but
the latter must have been driven from the Trasimene region, and pushed westward in the Sabine area.
Of the former presence and subsequent disappearances
speech from the Trasimene region we have no evidence, but
we have
seen
of the
that
Q the
Etruscans arrived later than the leaf-shaped sword people and with a superior culture.
We have
also
found reason for suspecting that the Villa-nova
folk,
who
arrived
still later,
had made themselves a military aristocracy over the Etruscans, and the conquest or expulsion
Sabine
may have
affinities,
been due to them.
have seen that the Fahsci, a
were absorbed by the Etruscans.
" Ganway
(1897)
Conway
(1897)
'3
We
i.
i.
287. 370.
'*
There
is
tribe with
nothing inherently
Kiepert (1882) Tab.
viii.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
150
impossible in the same fate having overtaken the leaf-shaped sword people settled in the region
around Lake Trasimene.
But with regard
to the
that they were driven from
FIG. 26.
—MAP
westward move of the
what was
Q
peoples,
are
not
dependent
SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF SWORDS AND DIALECTS IN ITALY. tells
occupied the region around Rome, after the barbarian
Siculi,
this
and to the suggestion
we
later Sabine territory,
wholly upon conjecture, for Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Whether
who had
term conveyed to Dionysius the same meaning as '5
Dion. Halic.
ix. xiv.
us that the tribes
it
who
were the Aborigines." does to us, or whether
FS AND it
was a corruption
is
sufficient for
name
of a tribal
151
some have thought/* does not concern us here.
as
It
our purpose that he mentions that their original home lay to the east, in
the valley of the Velino and
mentions by name sites of
Q'S
many
tributary the Salto, which drains
its
of their cities,
and describes the position
of
ascertained of their position,
we gather
The
most of them.
the majority have been identified, though some yet remain unknown.
by what can be
He
Lake Fucino.
Judging
that the Aborigines occupied
the Salto vaUey from Marruvium, on the shores of Lake Fucino, as far as Reatse, where it
and thence to the junction
joins the Velino,
of the latter with the Nera.
One
of
their cities, Batia, lay considerably to the north, across the Apennines, in the direction
of
Ascoli,
where the Type B, sword was found.
Aborigines stretched towards Lake Trasimene
is
How
Q
the
the territory of
uncertain, as the sites of
towns remain unidentified, but several of them lay in that area of
far
some
of their
direction, outside the later
speech, but in Sabine territory.
Dionysius
tells
us that one night the Sabines issued from
Liste, the capital of the Aborigines,
to recapture
They appear
it.''
who
retired to Reatae,
Amitemum and
seized
whence they endeavoured
to have been successful eventually in recovering the
land around Lake Fucino, but would seem to have lost the territory to the north-west
About the same time many
around Reatae.
lands around Rome.'^
seems
likely that it
The
As one
of
them migrated south-westwards
was they who gave
its
name
by the Aborigines
we
My
of the Tiber.
suggestion
is
speech, though
Latin tongues,
is
come from that
is
and the area
of
Q
a progressive abandonment
and a movement towards the south-west near the mouth that the Aborigines were the descendants of the leaf-
shaped sword people and the ancestors of the
Umbrian
it
find the leaf-shaped swords,
before the Sabine expedition,
speech, suggests that these three are one especially as there of the north-western portion
called Palatium
to the Palatine Hill.
general agreement between the area in which
the area occupied
had been
of their original cities
to the
it
Q
speaking Latin peoples of later days.
extended towards the south-east and surrounded the
found mainly on the north-east of the Apennines, and seems to have
direction
to the foot of the Alps.
;
before the advent of the Gauls
This
16
Niebuhr (1827)
'7
Dion. Halic. xiv.
i.
is
80.
the region in which
it
we '*
reached, as
we have
seen,
find the chief remains
Dion. Halic. xvi.
of
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
152
the Villa-nova culture, which
not unlike that of the Dorians, so that
is
P
to equate this culture with the Osco-Umbrian or
The
Sabines, as
we have
seen, are said to
it
seems reasonable
dialects.
have come from Amiternimi; which
is
on
the north-eastern slope of the Apennines, or rather in a valley which opens out on that
We
side.
should, therefore, expect
them
Dionysius, they over-ran a region peopled
were a
for thinking
good number are
Q
to have been a
by the
P
Aborigines,
But, according to
people.
who we have found
people, and, though doubtless they expelled the fighting men, a
likely to
have remained behind.
It is
not surprising, therefore, that there
P
should be some uncertainty as to whether the original Sabines spoke a
AU the sword were
we come
Itahan evidence
Q
is
consistent with the view that the
speaking, while the
finally to a decision,
it
men with
men
P
the iron sword spoke
might be well to make a further
or a
pursued them down the two former valleys, they
Rhys and and have
his supporters
have suggested that
is
G
the Seine, and Sequani, the tribe coincidence that the best attested
by
I
in this
would submit,
and
The value
Q
and
Sir
John
of this evidence
this is Sequana, the ancient
banks.
It
names have been noted
just
and
seems to
its
name
for
cannot be merely a
where Type
this case, bearing out as it
me
G
swords
does the general
to be conclusive.
therefore, that the archaeological evidence,
which
I
have given
in previous chapters, proves, as conclusively as the circumstances of the case
are hkely to admit, that the thesis of Sir
Central Europe for Italy and the west, the is
the iron swords
speech was at one time spoken in Gaul,
who hved by
iron swords,
tenoiir of the Itahan evidence,
swords, fled
one name, in two forms, which so obviously belongs to
speech, that its value cannot well be denied,
are found not followed
We
test elsewhere.
the Seine valley alone.
cited certain place-names in support of their case.''
has been disputed, but there
Q
Q
left
dialect.
tongues, but before
men with
the Rhone, the Loire, and the Seine, and that, while the
Q
of the leaf-shaped
have seen that the refugees from the mountain zone, armed with Type
down
reason
John Rhys that two waves
first
speaking a
absolutely correct, though modifications need to be
theory to Greek lands.
lake-dweUings
we have
His view that the
P
Rhys
made
the second a
P
tongue,
in the apphcation of this
Folk were the people of the Swiss
seen good reason to reject.
'9
Q and
of people left
(1894) 112.
Chapter XIV
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS
HAVE
I
now
cited almost all the evidence
which
I
have collected to solve the
question of the Aryan cradle and the dispersal of the Wiros from Central Europe,
Except for a few
especially of their raids into the Celtic lands of the west.
have found myself
I
This
that authority. at
in
agreement with other writers, sometimes with is
random, and without
had not
hit the
not surprising, for so
many
sufficient evidence, that it
this, at others
with
shots have been made, often
would be strange
if
some
of
them
mark.
Thus with Penka
I
have argued
for
an Aryan
race,
which was Nordic in type, with
Cuno that the primitive Wiro language developed on an open
Latham and
details
Schrader, I have placed on the Russian steppe.
I
plain, which,
with
have found myself in
Q and P the Q Wiros
agreement with Sir John Rhys on the main features of his thesis that the
Wiros
left
Central Europe in two successive waves, and I have argued that
were armed with bronze leaf-shaped swords.
This last suggestion has already been
hazarded in this country by Crawford,' though backed up with inadequate evidence,
and
in
France by M. Hubert,' with whose evidence
I
am
unacquainted, as his work
dealing with the subject has not appeared as I write.
But
in all these cases I
have endeavoured to support
with philological data, as has been the case with most of evidence drawn from anthropology and archaeology.
I
»
Crawford (1922)
my argument, not merely my predecessors, but with
The evidence from the
Italian
34, 35.
A. XXX. (1920) 575, 576 where there is an abstract of a paper read 19th May, 1920, before the Institutfrangais d'Anthropologie, entitled L'etablissement des Celtes dans las Isles Britanniques et de ses indices arch6ologiques k propos de la diffusion des ^p6es de bronze 4 soie-plate rivet6e. M. Hubert informs me that his work on the Celts wUl be pubhshed shortly. ;
153
lOA
154
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
swords, backed
up
as
by the absence
it is
seems so decisive that
valley,
of the bronze swords
But
I feel
beyond
is
of the
;
at
least, it
must be shown that
any rate that
propose in this chapter to summarise
Wiros over Europe and Asia, from their
We
have found reason
before that date, the Wiros
it is
briefly, as I first
living, perhaps, partly
their
3000
by hunting, but mainly by herding
it
Its
name
it
for long
east of the Dnieper,
They were a nomad
people,
on the grassy steppes,
cattle
They had tamed the
horse,
constantly occurs as part of
Uke cow-boys "punching"
judge from the habits of their descendants,
aU the
For that
it.
and probably
B.C.,
had been occupying the Russian steppes
own names,^ they rode
to
departure from south-east Europe.
for believing that before
animal in great veneration.
in with
it will fit
is
conceive them, the wanderings
and the parklands which fringed them on the north. this
Wiro movements
not incompatible with
and had perhaps wandered across the Volga into Turkestan.
and held
peoples with the spread
Q
this general reconstruction of the early history of the
if
linguistic evidence available I
that the equation of the
swords from the Seine
dispute.
be considered correct, in outhne at
reason
of Hallstatt iron
their cattle,
and
if
we may
was what may be described as a
cult
animal.
We
have seen that they seem to have been of the Nordic type, but
this statement
We are accustomed to speak of Nordics, Alpines and Mediterraneans, their physical characters in considerable detail. We are well aware that
needs qualification.
and to describe
the population of every country in Europe at least
two
of these types
and another
in this feature
characters.
But from
isolated these types,
this
and a
larger
in that
mass
;
is
mixed, and contains
number
of individuals
there are also
we
display intermediate believe that
we have
which we consider pure, and we treat the bulk of the population
as a mixture of these, var3dng in its components
and
their proportions in each region.
This postulates that there was a time, the race-making period of some writers,*
each of these races was
That
living,
this position
physical anthropology
3
King
of
who resemble one type
many who
of heterogeneous material
many examples
is
when
pure and unmixed, in some area of isolation.
has led to clear thinking and has advanced the science of
undoubted, but we have to consider whether
(1915) 215 fn.
i
McDougall (1920)
ch. xv.
it
represents
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS a condition which has actually occurred.
would evolve is
if
That such a pure and homogeneous type
a community were isolated from
probable, but
we have no
i55
all
others for a sufficient length of time
clear evidence that such a state
of
isolation
has been
preserved for a sufficient period in any part of Europe, or for that matter in the world.
The Andamanese have
for long kept themselves in fairly complete isolation in a small
The same
group of islands, yet their type seems to show evidence of admixture.
more true
of the Australian aborigines, although
succeeded in keeping out other placental animals.
the
island
past, especially into early neolithic times, the skuUs in
homogeneous than
is
the case at later periods.
has
almost
we go back
into the
continent
It is true that as
is
any given region appear more
After the forests
had appeared
in
Magdalenian times, and until the metal trade arose, communities seem to have been more isolated than either before or after.
postulated
by McDougall.
regions of isolation were to of
length
sufficient
approximation to
We
it
to
But the communities who some extent insure
of
settled at that
mixed ancestry, and
time in these
their isolation
though we find
homogeneity,
absolute
was not a
closer
then than has occurred since.
have seen at the
close of
to consider the Mediterranean race t3^es, all
This was, apparently, the race-making period
Chapter is
II.
that what
we have been accustomed
in reaUty a mixture of several late palaeolithic
somewhat resembling one another
most conspicuous
in their
features,
and
the same seems to have been true of the Nordic Wiros, during their race-making period
on the Russian steppe.
and
in the case of
date.
Unfortunately we have no very long series of skuUs to study,
some we are uncertain whether they belong
But Sergi has described a
range of variation. to seventy-six,
series of ninety-one,^
which
to this or to a slightly later
will give us
some idea of
their
Thirty-six of these skulls have indices var5dng from seventy-three
thirty-one
more between seventy-one and seventy-eight, while
remaining twenty-four range outside these from sixty-five to eighty-one.
Many
the of
these skulls are very high, and so conform to the type of Briinn-Brux-Combe Capelle,
and
this has led Fleure to suspect that this late palseoUthic type, the essentially intrusive
element into the west of Solutrean times, these steppe-folk,*
5
is
present in considerable numbers
among
According to Sergi fifty-one out of the ninety-one show this feature
Sergi (1908) 309-16).
^
Fleure (1922) 12, 13.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
156
and these are distributed pretty generally among
from
indices
all
sixty-five
to
seventy-nine.
Again, Bogdanov has given us reason for believing that two races were inhabiting the government of
Moscow during the kurgan
robust, with alarge
and long head, an elongated
with hair more or
The
less fair.
other, smaller
period.
"
One
of
face, and, according to
and more poverty
was
races
these
some examples,
stricken, belongs to a
brachycephalic people, having a shorter face, a wider and shorter head, and chestnut
He
hair."'
and of
shows, too, that in the centre of the area the long-headed type was purest,
twenty-three skulls from the kurgans of Souja, in the government of Kursk,
cites
which nineteen were true dolichocephals, while three women and one child were
subdohchocephalic.
We eighty,
may,
the two skulls described
I think, consider
and the one with an index
on the border
Sergi with an index of
of eighty-one, as belonging to a foreign element living
of the steppes, perhaps as belonging to the Tripolje folk.
consider our primitive Nordics as having fairly long
The cephahc index seems
to seventy-eight, while the
the group varied from seventy-three to seventy-six. agree fairly well with observations
made on
the
we may
and narrow heads, though
to have ranged from sixty-five
more usually from seventy-one
If so
was the case with the Mediterraneans
respect not so uniformly narrow as
of
by
tall fair
to
of the west.
seventy-nine,
more
typical
These figures
will
in this
though
members
of
be found to
people of the present population
North Europe.
We
can then imagine our Wiros as a somewhat variable race, with heads which
conform to the narrow rather than to the broad neither so tall nor so robust as
them
believing
though
it
We may
is
fair,
of the
and robust, though probably
modern Nordics.
There
is
reason
with transparent skins, light hair and grey
for
eyes,
hkely enough that in colouration, too, there was considerable variation.
well believe that the extremely fair colouring of the
specialisation, well, I
to have been
many
tjrpe, tall
modem
Swedes
is
due to a few thousand years of Ufe in a northern home, but we
would suggest, to think
though not necessarily or in
all
of the original
a later shall
Wiros as blonds rather than brunets,
cases possessing an extreme degree of blondness.
7
Bogdanov
do
(1892)
i.
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS Such then
would have you picture the Wiros on the steppe, and
I
many
remind you that
I57
of
would
I
also
to have been descendants of the late Aurignacian
them seem
and Solutrean horse-hunters, and that they may have developed the rudiments
some post-Solutrean time within the Carpathian
their language in
We
have seen reason
for beheving that a period of
some
centuries before 3000 B.C., drove I
I
am more
inclined,
we have to
culture.
by one
paralleled
wandered as
however, to see in them the original speakers of
however, that the
It is possible,
to the north-east, into the
Obi
it is
great
dispersal
B.C.
That the movements passed
abandonment
may have
dealt at
occasion
drought
the
beHeved that the steppe east
and west
is
certain,
some length
;
that to the east
attention.
have seen that shortly
after 2200 B.C.
nomad horsemen
plateau and that their appearance attracted the attention of
arrived on the Iranian
Hammurabi and
That these nomads, who were known as Kassites, were Wiros
counsellors.
for philologists seem agreed that their language
was
of this type.*
is
clear
from the adoption
unUkely that the Kassites were the be that
it is
to this date that
we
of this beast
a
as
divine
sole representatives of this
his
certain,
They were the first
introduce the horse into this area, and that this animal was held in reverence
them seems
but
both in the Tripolje area and
of settled villages
With the westerly movement we have
must now demand our
We
was about 2200
awhile uninhabited.
find evidence of the
at Anau.
Siberia,
and the Wiros
basin,
seems to have been more excessive or more prolonged, for
we
to the
movement was
north-westerly
this
for
move
also at this time a
On
left for
use
far north as Tobolsk, or even to the Arctic Circle.
But the was
who
data at present to determine their age or indeed whether they belong
insufficient
Wiro
though
It is possible,
Baltic.
some
occurring
drought,
Kurgans are said to stretch to the north-east well into
imcertain.
is
ring.
been the ancestors of the group
Whether there was
Lithuanian and the Baltic tongues. east
them towards the
may have
think improbable, that these
Teutonic speech.
of
of
symbol.'
eastward move.
It
to
among seems It
may
are to attribute the kurgans found in the Obi basin, or
perhaps they found adequate pasture for their herds on the lower slopes of the Hindu
Kush and
the region around Balkh.
8
Giles (1922) 76,
King
We
(1915) 214.
are as yet uncertain whether the group of
9
King(i9i5) 215 fn.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
158 Wiros,
who may more
linguistic evidence,
and who spoke Indo-Iranian
of Aryas,
time or on the earher occasion but deductions drawn
dialects, left the steppe at this
from
name
properly claim the
from Vedic and Avestan sources, and from
would lead us to expect that about 2000 eastern parts of Russian Turkestan.
a language which had Iranian
A
affinities,
B.C. the
undivided Aryas were occupying the
Uttle later, perhaps,
made themselves
a group of these, speaking
lords of eastern Armenia.
These are generally known as the Mitanni or Mitani barons suggested to
Phrygian
me
origin,
that the
name Mitan
but the Iranian
is
later Persian legend
;
Professor Sayce has
the same as Midas, which would hint at a
affinities of their
language and the early date at which
they appear in the Armenian mountains suggest that they arrived before the Phrygian invasion of Asia Minor, while the fact that they were located on the eastern rather than
the western side of the Armenian massif leads one to beheve that their line of approach
was from Turkestan or the Iranian plateau on the
than from Thracian
east, rather
on the west.
territory
With the westward move
of the
Wiros
I
have aheady dealt
in
a former chapter.
Having destroyed the Tripolje culture some passed along the sandy heaths entering
Bohemia and Hungary through the Moravian gap, and
who passed northwards
to Jutland, Holland
and the British
of GaUcia,
displacing the Beaker-folk
Isles.
Others passed round
the south-west shores of the Euxine to the GaUipoU peninsula where they divided, one
party skirting the north
^gean
coast to
the grassy plain of Thessaly, where they
introduced Dhimini ware, and where their sudden appearance on horseback gave to
the legends of the Centaurs.
Hissarhk
II.
rise
The other party crossed the Hellespont, sacked
and passed on to the grass lands
in the centre of
AnatoUa
Here they
organised the eastern Alpine tribes into a great empire, and though, apparently, they
adopted the language of their subjects, they introduced some of their own words and idioms, including the nvunerals, into that tongue, in the Hittite
empire the worship of the Wiro
Such seems later,
and
to
and most important
of all established
deities.
have been the distribution of the Wiros about 2000
for the next 500 years
we
find Httle evidence of
B.C., or
little
movement, except that the
Kassites, about 1760 B.C. established themselves as rulers in Mesopotamia. split
a
The
great
between the Indian and Iranian Aryas must have taken place about this time,
causing the former to cross Afghanistan and enter the Punjab, while the latter continued
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS to
roam the steppes
where they occupied the plain as
We may now
and eventually to
of Turkestan,
cross the Volga into
South Russia,
far west as the foot of the Carpathians/"
for a time leave the Asiatic sections
and concentrate our attention
upon those Wiros who entered what we have termed the into the
159
Some passed
Celtic cradle.
mountain zone, where others had arrived before them, and made themselves
lords of the settled agricultural Alpine lake-villages
these
;
were
the
proto-Celts.
Others seem to have remained in the plain of Hungary, continuing perhaps their
former nomadic
These,
life.
who had spread
into the basin of the Morava,
Between these two,
Thraco-Phrygian group.
in the lower valleys of the
the Save, in Croatia and perhaps in Bosnia, were a third group, proto-Itahc.
It
must not be taken
for granted that
three groups were quite sharply separated. of the people of the plain
that
by degrees some
of the
life.
who may be termed
have seen, however, that the division
probable that
It is
Drave and
from the time of their arrival these
and the mountain zones arose quite
between their modes of
difference
We
became the
early, largely
many
dialects arose,
mountain Wiros extended to the south-east, even as
Herzegovina, and these gradually became separated from the main body fellows.
both,
it
The main group developed
Celtic dialects,
must be remembered, spoke
Soon
after
1500
from the
Q
when the
B.C.,
and south-eastern group
far as
of
Itahc,
and
their
though
tongues. first
leaf-shaped sword,
Type A, had been
evolved, some Wiros seem to have passed over the mountains into the FriuU.
It
may
have been merely a raid or a trading venture, but the Treviso specimen suggests that these swords
had remained
possible that
we may
in use
and had developed
into a local type, so that
see in this, evidence of a small migration of
Friuli to settle in the Veneto.
The evidence
is
it is
Wiros through the
admittedly sUght, but
it
seems to point
to the introduction at this time into the regions lying at the head of the Adriatic of the
Venetian dialects, which appear to be more archaic in form than the other Itahc tongues.
During the Type
B
period,
between 1450 and 1400
B.C.,
we have evidence
northward movement to Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland, and the fact that
Type
B
party
who
of a
these
swords continue in the north an independent development suggests that the carried
them
thither were not engaged in a temporary raid.
™ Minns
(1913) 36-39, 102, 115.
I
am
inchned
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
i6o to see in this
movement
the arrival in the north of that
into the Baltic region Teutonic speech
band
of Wiros,
and the legends and the
who
introduced
As we
cult of Odin."
have seen Wiros had arrived there more than a thousand years before, but these earUer invaders, I have suggested, if
my
we
had spoken languages more akin to the Baltic group, and were,
interpretation of the facts
is
get the three groups of people, forming the three classes of serfs, farmers,
which are mentioned
in
who had
mastered and enslaved the Mongoloid people responsible for the Arctic
was soon
and
nobles,
Scandinavian legend,'^ by the super-position of the sword-bearing
Teutonic Wiros upon the early group of Baltic-speaking Wiros,
It
Thus
Thor."
correct, the red-haired worshippers of
group from the
after 1300 B.C. that a small
Italic
in their turn culture.'*
zone,
coming
probably from Bosnia, passed south and then crossed the Adriatic, landing a south of Ancona at the mouth of the Truentus.
some
settled at Batia near its
Passing up the valley of that river
head waters, while others crossed the Apennines to the
and thence
valley of the Velinus
little
to Reatae,
which stood at
its
junction with the Himella.
Thence some passed south eastward to Lacus Fucinus and others north-westward to Lacus Trasimenus. introduced into
These,
as
I
have endeavoured to prove, were the Wiros who
the peninsula the
Latin tongue and formed the essential
Roman
patrician gentes.
About the same time there were
irruptions from the plain
probably gradual and
may have begun somewhat
phase
lacking.
is
at
present
earlier,
but direct evidence of
These people of the plain
of
much
of
what was afterwards known as Macedonia.
the Briges, crossed the Hellespont and introduced in the east of It
which
it still
;
they dominated the
and made themselves masters
Some
of these tribes, notably
Phrygian speech into Asia Minor,
survives as Armenian.
was some straggling adventurers from
entered Thessaly, where, as
this
advanced into Thrace,
introducing there the Thracian tongue and the worship of Ares aborigines, including the thrifty lake-dweUing Paeonians,
the movements were
;
we have
seen,
this
movement who about 1250
some Wiros had long been
have come from Thracian lands, some down the Vardar from the Latin group, perhaps, down the Spercheus " Chadwick (1899). " Nilsson (1868) 234-43.
'3
valley,
Vigfussen
M Peake
&
valley,
settled.
and some
B.C.
Some may stragglers
having tarried awhile around
Powell (1883)
(1919) 186-192.
i.
234-242
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS Dodona.
i6i
These were the " Achaean " heroes, who seem to have made themselves
masters of the Mycenean city states, groaning under the rule of Minoan generation later these joined others in attacking Egypt, and
was
it
A
t5n-ants.
who,
their grandsons
under the leadership of the king of men, sacked the city of Priam.
The next movement came from and 1175
the Celtic mountain zone.
It
was between 1200
that the Celtic lords, accompanied by the bravest of their henchmen,
B.C.
left
the Celtic cradle, crossed the Rhine, and passed through the BeUort gap into Gaul.
By
degrees they conquered the whole of the country, though they
less in
Aquitaine and Brittany.
Others, passing in
all
probability
made
mark
their
down the Rhine,
landed on the east coast of Great Britain, and settled in the eastern counties and in Wessex. It is too soon, as yet, to define the area
which they occupied, but the available evidence,
derived from the swords and the finger-tip ware, suggests the region south-east of the
chalk scarp.
Later on a few of these passed across the densely-wooded Midland plain,
by the upper Severn
across Wales of Ireland.
was some
It
land which
still
P
is
and reached the gold
Uttle time, however, before they settled in
all
that
we can
as yet restore of the
a sequel to be added later
We
speaking people.
mountain zone
cleft,
any numbers
fields
in the
preserves their language.
This seems to be
though there
and the Bala
valley
bands of Wiros from the
and PodoUa, reached the
Caucasus mountains.
we must turn now
;
of the
Q
Wiros,
to the problem of the
have seen that about the time that the Celts were leaving the
for the west,
gate, across GaUcia
movements
plain, passing through the
rich valley of the
Koban
Here they learned the use of iron from
their
Moravian
to the north of the
humble neighbours
on the other side of the mountains, who were perhaps the Chalybes, and made themselves steel blades for their swords.
It
have mixed with other Wiros who were
who were almost Herodotus, and
may,
too,
was during
still
still
survives
among
their sojourn here that they must
roaming the steppes of
certainly of Iranian speech, which
was spoken
their arrival
For some reason, which
must have been
I
the Ossetes'' in the Caucasus moimtains.
and
folk,
They
who were perhaps
do not pretend to explain, their speech, which on
allied to Thracian,
they acquired the habit of labialising the »5
this region,
in this area in the time of
have come into contact and intermarried with other
not Wiros.
for
Qu
changed
its
phonological laws, and
of their original tongue.
Miiller {1864) 524-539. 11
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
i62
Rostovtzeff has suggested that these since, as
we have
P
seen, these
again are found approaching, it
Koban Wiros were
the Cimmerians/* and
speaking people appear a few years later in Gaul, and
they do not actually reach, the peninsula of Jutland,
if
seems reasonable to believe that the statement of Posidonius,'' which has received
Ridgeway's approval,'* as well as the people
is
who gave
speaking people, and that in spite of
correct,
their
we must
name
is
must leave to
conquer the greater part of Europe.
philologists to determine, set
invaders of Italy retained for a time the
Thus
am
I
assuming that the words
aU one P
originally
but
out from the
if
Rhys'
Koban
to
be so the statement quoted by Phny from
Lycophron that the Cimmerii were a people hving around Lake Avernus*' poetic fable, as has been supposed, but
of the west,''
Whether the name was
were those who
If this
and
number the Brythonic Cymry of Britain,
contrary.*"
correct, these compatriots
of Russia
to the Cimbric Chersonese are
include in their
what Rhys has written to the
com-brox, compatriots, or not, I
etymology
and that the Cimmerians
may
not be a
may show us that some of the Villa-nova common name which survives in Wales to-day.
Kinixkpioi,
Kififiepoi,
Cimbri Cymry are
all
one,
and
suggest the use of the term Kimri" for the whole group.
Herodotus
tells
us that the Russian Cimmerians built castles or
a custom
found among the early iron age or Hallstatt inhabitants of the mountain
which
is
zone,*'*
and reached
this
country somewhat later in the form of HUl-top camps.
distribution has not yet been later,
forts,*^
weU worked
and the available evidence from
out,
but their date
is
Their
Hallstatt or sometimes
their distribution in time
and space suggests
that they were the work of different branches of the Kimri.
A
large
number
of the Kimri,
region until the seventh century,
perhaps the greater part, remained in the Koban
when they were
i^
Rostovtzeff (1920) III.
17
Diodorus Siculus
18
Ridgeway
19
Horn. Od.
v.
32
;
displaced
Niebuhr (1838)
ii.
by incoming Scythian
523.
(1901) 369, 370. ii.
14.
»"
Rhys
21
Pliny, Hist. Nat. III. ix.
(1884) 279.
" Holmes
(1907) 438, says the
»3
Herodotus
M
D6chelette (1908-14)
iv.
term was used by Broca (1871)
12. ii.
593.
i.
395.
hordes,
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS who appear Minor as
had developed
Danube
B.C.
of these
their iron swords
and
Thrace
;
later
they moved up
It
was not long
them moved southwards, probably down the Vardar
and a P tongue, which, owing
neighbours in the steppe, retained marked
The remainder
valley,
and about
These introduced into that country
to their having mingled with Iranian
affinities
with that group
languages,
of
weapons and other warhke materials.
especially in connection with
up the Danube vaUey towards
divided, the larger group pushing
Sigmaringen where they adopted the Celtic speech of their subjects, but
labiaUsing the Qs.
and
then they overran Asia
;
the steppe almost immediately
left
settled in
began the Dorian invasion of Greece.
iron swords
Ulm and
Kimri
origin
valley as far, at least, as its junction with the Save.
before the bulk of
1000
mixed Iranian and Mongol
But many
far as Sardis/^
after they
the
to have been of
163
Croatia,
and
The smaller group made themselves masters
like their fellows
of
North Serbia, Bosnia,
adopted the language of the country, which was
allied
to Latin, but with the usual changes. It
to
was the
latter
the north-west
group which was the
first
to move, either across the Adriatic or
and then over the Predil pass into the FriuU.
introduced their culture
among
they pushed on across
the
Though they
the Veneti they did not supplant their language, but
Po vaUey, destrojdng the Terramara settlements and
dispersing their inhabitants to Etruria,
They
Latium and the region around Tarentum.
settled in the plain to the north of the Apennines, with their headquarters at Felsina
or Bononia,
and gradually conquered aU the peninsula except
and the lands occupied by the Latin
tribes.
It is
Etruria, the Greek colonies
doubtful whether these Kimri
who
invaded Italy were ever known to themselves by one name, but to others they were
summed up
as
Ombri
or Umbri.
Later, as
by night from Amiternum,
issuing
we have
seen,
some
displaced
one of their
of
the
tribes, the Sabines,
Latin
tribes
from the
whence the dispossessed Latins departed towards the mouth
region around
Reatse,
of the Tiber.
Here some
of
them
coalesced
with Terramara refugees,
who had
erected a dry terramara on a hiH-top beside the river, and to this hiU they gave the
name Later,
of
one of their abandoned
when
it
had been
cities,
Palatium, so that
Rome. Herodotus
became mons
and surrounded by a
freshly laid out
»3
it
i.
6,
15, 16.
wall, it
palatinus.
was
called
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
i64
The hill
who had overrun much
Sabines,
of the Latin territory, even as far as the
overlooking the Palatine, seem to have adopted the Latin language, while retaining
Soon afterwards some Kimri from
a few features of their original Umbrian dialect. Felsina seem to have
made themselves war
and
lords over Etruria,
to
have
for
a time
extended the Etruscan empire from the Alps to Pompeii, but being a small military aristocracy in a land with an ancient
Wiro language upon the
But the
larger
culture, they failed to
impose their
inhabitants.
group of Kimri had settled by the upper waters of the Danube and
had adopted with modifications the between them and the
no time was
and advanced
Q
About 900
Celtic speech.
B.C.
disagreements arose
speaking Gaelic lords of the villages in the mountain zone, and
lost in attacking these
communities in Switzerland and Savoy, in burning
the pile-dwellings and expelling the inhabitants.
We must now take up
again the tale of the bronze-using Q-speaking Celts, the story
movements, but
of fresh Gaelic
was not a question only
this
time a story of
than of invasion.
of Gaelic lords, for the Alpine peasants,
a Celtic dialect and called themselves
by
flight rather
divers routes to the north
Celts,
and the west.
doubtless spoke
were also involved in this ruin.
By the
swords of Type
wanderings over Gaul, down the Rhone, the Loire and the Seine. fled
who
This
They
fled
G we can trace their Others seem to have
northwards to Schleswig, Jutland, Sweden and even Finland, to escape their
pursuers, while a large party landed in England, mainly between the
Wash, and found refuge with
their relations
who had
settled
Thames and
the
on the open downs some
centuries before.
The former retainers
;
had been Nordic
arrivals
the refugees were
pursuits on the high downs,
by the margins
of lakes
and
lords,
largely Alpine
and more anxious
rivers.
with perhaps a few half-breed
peasants, for
unaccustomed to
water-meadows and arable patches
Settlements were
made by
the banks of the
between London and Richmond, and doubtless higher up the cleared in
Wessex
settlements were
in the Vale of
made by
lakes
pastoral
river.
Thames
Lowlands were
Pewsey, such as the village at All Cannings, and other
and marshes
in
South Wales.
In most parts of Gaul the Kimri followed the refugees, and drove them from the valleys of the
Sequani were
left
Rhone and the Loire
into the
undisturbed and gave their
hills.
name
In the Seine vaUey, however, the to the river.
Though no
positive
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS evidence has appeared, so far as
I
know, there
is
reason for beheving that
Gaelic wanderers found refuge in south Brittany and lake-dwelling culture.
aware, yet
I
No
suspect their existence
Morbihan were a
the north, for is
its
of
Moselle,
first
moved towards
and we can pick up
archaeological evidence
persisted in their
islets in
the
but
;
the north-east,
their traces again
of Kimri, they
name for
we
Belgium.'®
in
But
to the Midi.
down the valleys
are to consider the
must have reached the peninsula
of the Cimbric Chersonese.
an old name
in considering the
Bay
of
there
of the
Meuse
far
direct
So
further north fails us, at least in HaUstatt times, though
still
as I have suggested,
if,
am
neither to the extreme west nor to
perhaps the Kimri did not cross the mouth of the Rhine until they had adopted culture
of these
folk.
main advance was down the Rhone valley
evidence that small bands
and
Gaul reached at
poor
many
in these parts, so far as I
but perhaps the numerous
;
sufficiently safe refuge for these
The Kimric invasion
La Vendue, and
have been found
pile-dwellings
165
for that sea,
of Jutland, to
That they came within
Morimarusam,^^
name Cimbri
is Celtic.
La Tene
as a variant
which they gave the
sight of the Baltic sea is clear, If,
however, Rhys
is
correct
word Goidelic,'^ it must have been given to the sea by the GaeUc refugees.
In Jutland the Kimri came into contact with the Teutones, descendants of the Wiros
who had is
carried northwards the
uncertain, but
Type
B
swords.
Whether they fought them
at first
by the second century they had made an unholy aUiance with them
ravage the lands to the south, and they would again
have carried
throughout Europe had not their operations been cut short in 102
fire
B.C. at
to
and sword
Aquae Sextiae
by the Roman army under Marius. It
of these
was apparently
in the fourth century, or a
few years
earlier,
that certain tribes
whether a southern branch of the Cimbri or tribes living to the
Kimri,
south-west of the chersonese in Frisia,
southwards and westwards.
HoUand
or Belgium,
is
uncertain, began to
These were the Galati, Galli and Belgae.
move
They began
in
various waves to disturb southern Europe, and to harry the settled communities as far as Asia Minor, where they survived for several centuries as Galatians.
»6
D6chelette (1908-14)
»7
Pliny
'8
Rhys and Brynmor-Jones
iv.
95
;
ii.
615, 616.
Solinus xix. 2
;
quoted by Rhys and Brynmor-Jones (1900) 80.
(1900) 80.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
i66
not necessary for our purpose to trace in detail these movements, except in
It is
so far as they affect our problem.
one of these
tribes,
In the second century, or thereabouts, the Veneti,
who had taken
to the sea, sailed
down
the channel and settled at
Vannes, at the head of the Morbihan bay. Their arrival seems to have disturbed the Gaelic lake-dwellers of this
about this time we find people, whose culture show Breton
for
may
evidence of the arrival of these refugees, and similar evidence its first
settUng on
In the lake-villages of Glastonbury*' and Meare
either side of the Irish channel.
which received
affinities,
region,
we have
be found in Ireland,
knowledge of iron and La Tene culture about
this time.'°
In
Ireland these timid folk built their usual lake-dweUings, and crannogs, in the lakes,
though Macalister has recently seen
among whom they were very unpopular. ''
subjects,
evidence
habitations
GaeHc conquerors, who thus defended themselves from the treachery
arrival of
war
in these fortified
lords,
of
the
of their
But, as we have seen, the Gaelic
with their bronze swords, had reached Ireland nearly
a
thousand years
before. It
to
was during one
cross the
of these late
channel into
Great Britain.
It
La Tene
introduction of the use of iron and is
Kimric movements that the Belgian tribes began is
culture,
many
B.C.,
trading posts along the
hke the one excavated at Hengistbury Head,^* which were in touch with the
continent and could have imported these wares.
be
whether the
which took place about 450
to be attributed to them, for there were probably
coast,
at present,
doubtful,
earlier
than the La Tene period
was certainly the case
Some
of these settlements
may
this is suspected in the case of Hengistbury,
;
at Eastbourne,"
if
even
and
the pottery found there recently really
betokens a trading post, and not the arrival of a small group of GaeUc refugees from the further bank of the upper Rhine.
But these Belgic invaders were almost
certainly responsible
camps, which in the south of England seem to be earher than 200
& Grey
»9
BuUeid
3"
Macalister (1921)
2.
24, 50.
31
Macalister (1921)
2.
256.
3»
Bushe-Fox
33
Budgen, Rev. W., Hallstatt Pottery from Eastbourne.
(1911,
for
B.C.,
(1915). II.
hill-top
though probably
1917).
A.J.
the
354-360.
THE WANDERINGS OF THE WIROS much
and west.
later in the north
To them we must
167
also attribute the introduction of
pedestal vases and other types of pottery which come, undoubtedly, from the Belgic
area on the continent.
Such Belgic movements continued
until the first century,
and had
only ceased shortly before the arrival of Julius Caesar in northern Gaul.
Thus the Kimri, until about 300 B.C.,
lands.
By
or as
and
we may now
for a time
call
them the Cymry, did not
seem to have hmited
degrees they spread to the oohte ridge, but
progressed farther
when
and they seem to have made no attempt
their settlements to the chalk
it is
doubtful whether they had
The dense Midland
Caesar landed here.
enter England
forest kept
them back,
to reach Ireland, or, until after Caesar's time,
to dispossess the Gaels of the Parret marshes.
But
early in the Christian era civU wars
occurred between the tribes on either side of the Thames, which led eventually to interference,
and
it
was during the campaign
of
Roman
Aulus Plautius and his successors that
dispossessed Cymric leaders, like Caractacus, fled with their followers to the west, and
introduced into Wales a Cjnnric or Brythonic speech, the
first
Wiro
dialect to
be spoken
regularly in the principahty, except along trade routes and in the small Gaelic settlements
above
Cardiff.
Chapter XV.
CONCLUSION
WE
have now traced
in outline the history of Celtic peoples
Roman
from the Wurmian glaciation to the
the conclusions drawn from
as evidence
cited
array of of the
data
linguistic
archaeological
positive information theories that
My scholars,
we
possess,
have been
built
views will not, especially
I
science
it
and an extensive
Though most
character. before,
sufficient evidence, the
have outlined
their wanderings, as I
Celtic lands
conquest of Britain, and have
main conclusions arrived at have been suggested
be subsequently discarded as lacking
and
and
an anthropological
of
and
many
main story
of
them
Wiros
of the
above, seems to be compatible with
to
all
the
well aware, with
many
meet with ready acquiescence from some
Celtic
though
it is
in conflict, as I
am
upon them.
feel sure,
from those who follow Zimmer and Kuno Meyer.
has for thirty years been engaged in proving that there
is
no
This
school
philological evidence for
the existence of GoideHc speech in England or Wales, except such as was introduced
from Ireland
in the third or fourth century, a.d.
evidence, nor do I feel competent to do so.
I
I
do not wish to dispute the philological
am
ready to admit, at any rate for the
sake of argument, that no such philological evidence exists.
overrun by Kimri,
Romans and Saxons,
the absence of such evidence I is
is
But England has been
since the Gaels are believed to
have come, and
not surprising.
would, however, point out that the absence of philological evidence of their presence
not conclusive evidence of their absence.
the finger-tip pottery with
Q
speaking people
If is
my
equation of the bronze swords and
correct,
and the evidence from Italy and
the Seine valley seems incontrovertible, the Gaels not only settled there in considerable numbers,
Glamorgan
hills.
No
came
to
England,
and even inhabited the southern slopes
absence of GoideHc elements in British place-names 1 68
is
but
of the
proof against
CONCLUSION
A
such positive evidence. of the Loire, in fact
it
may have
few of the Gaels
Europe a great empire.
I
an idea prevalent
is
reached Ireland from the mouth
seems probable that some such movement took place, though
positive archaeological evidence from the French side
Lastly there
169
Celtic empire.
Some
in
is
for the present lacking.
some quarters that
writers speak of this as though
have been unable as yet to trace
was
at one time there it
in
had been a Gaelic
this superstition to its source.
I
suspect
that the chapters on Brennius in Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Britons' are the real foundation for this strange behef
,
though naturally no-one to-day would base a serious
hypothesis upon so shifty a foundation.
on a passage from Livy^
in
M. d'Arbois de Jubainville' seems to rely mainly
which the writer states that Bellovesus and Sigovesus, nephews
of Ambigatus, king of the Bituriges, were sent simultaneously
on two expeditions.
Livy
says nothing of an empire, and the movements which he dates at 600 B.C. seem to have
occurred 300 years
later.
Dechelette"*
had
dealt with this absurd notion according to
its deserts.
The empire a Gaelic power. it is
of Ambigatus,
But empires,
if
if
such a thing existed, must have been a Kimric not
we
are to understand the
word
in the sense in
which
ordinarily used, need settled conditions, such as did not prevail in north or north-
west Europe until the arrival in the latter region of the pax Romana. possible that
among
It is
conceivably
the Kimri the tribal chiefs paid some form of loose allegiance to
a super-chief, just as the Dorians, and to some extent the Hellenic world, recognised,
very occasionally the hegemony of Sparta classical sources does Celts. tribes,
;
but the evidence which we possess from
not even imply the existence of any such over-lordship
In any case such vague hegemony could only have existed
who
for a
thousand years harried the people of
cradle, Gaelic lords or
non-Wiro subjects ahke.
Celtic
among
among the the Kimric
and the
lands
Celtic
Before their arrival the Gaelic chiefs
ruled only in the mountain zone, and the estabhshment of an empire in a mountainous
country, draining into four rivers and four seas, would have been
more impossible
than in the open steppe. Monmouth,
I
Geoflrey of
'
Jubainville (1904) 80.
ifwi. Byfi.
iii.
8-10.
3
Liv. v. 34.
!
D6chelette (1908-14)
ii.
572, 573.
Appendix
I
CHRONOLOGY
BEFORE
the days of written history positive chronology
is
to
some extent a
matter of speculation, and until the beginning of this century
more than guesswork. the
remains
archaeological
have
arisen, all of
age, however,
But the
which approximate more or
still
remained
attempts have been
made
and to count years
workmanship,
men
may
is
responsible for the
then
since
nearly to the truth.
to estimate its length.
trend of the evidence produced of late possible that the
less
in the region of guesswork,
writers to use inflated dates
little
discoveries of Cnossos provided synchronisms between
Egypt and Europe, and
of
was
it
It is
in
The
palseoHthic
and wild and very discrepant fashion
the
still
for
some
hundreds of thousands, but the
to encourage moderation,
Fox Hall
systems
rival
flints, if
and
it
seems to
indeed they are of
me
human
not have been separated from their discoverer by a period of time
exceeding 150,000 years.
When a
matters are so problematical, cautious writers are prone to be content with
comparative
chronology,
or
to
speak
in
terms
of
miUenia.
This
method has
advantages, for such writers run Uttle risk of having to confess that they have miscalculations.
and
On
the other hand, the use of actual dates leads to clear thinking,
to gaining a vivid impression of the story,
estimating such dates, (and
my
I shall
estimates to be incorrect),
where
special
made
I
and since we have now good grounds
not be ashamed to
own up
if
later discoveries
for
prove
have adopted positive dates throughout, indicating
uncertainty exists and the direction in which modification
may
be
expected.
While the early is
not in
much
palaeolithic
age
is still
a hazy past, and the middle palaeolithic
better case, the later palaeolithic or reindeer age can 170
now be shown
to
CHRONOLOGY
171
be relatively modern, while the hiatus between that period and the neolithic age has disappeared.
Thanks to the work
of
Baron de Geer" we have some fotmdation
chronology of this period, and the results of this work have long been
Enghsh readers by Professor
B.C.,
Penck.*
may
made known
a to
There seems to be httle doubt but that the pause
Sollas.'
in the retreat of the Scandinavian ice
5000
for
by Lake Ragunda, which de Geer has dated
at
be equated, as has been shown by Brooks,^ with the Daun stadium of
The Fenno-Scandian moraines, on the other hand, can only be equated with
the Biihl advance which took place towards the close of Magdalenian times, and this
The
gives us a date of 7000 to 7500 B.C. for Magdalenian.
Goti-glacial moraines
seem to indicate the second Wiirm maximum, and SoUas' estimate seems eminently reasonable and has been adopted here
Wiirm seems represented by the The
later dates depend,
The
difference
the
first
interval
maximum
of the
Dani-glacial line.
by a
the Egyptian monuments, and
;
for the
series of
synchronisms, on those ascertained from
unfortunate that on this point authorities
differ.
between the various schools of thought has been well and
fairly
summarised by Dr. Hall
it is
the two great protagonists are Professor Fhnders Petrie*
;'
Dr. Edouard Meyer,' whose system has been adopted with slight
For
Professor Breasted.'
this reason there are alternative
modifications
and
by
systems in vogue for the
period preceding 1580 B.C. Since so
many
great authorities, well acquainted with the facts
interpret them, differ as to the result, one,
who
between them only by testing the application
of
Having appUed
this test to
or shorter chronology, for
both schemes,
by the former
I
is
for
Egyptologist, can
both systems in his own
have no hesitation
I find
I
Egypt by Professor Breasted.
J
Hall (1913) 15-30-
Sollas (191 1) 395-397.
'
Petrie (1906) ch.
3
Brooks
^
Meyer
4
Penck & Bruckner
8
Breasted (1912).
(1904).
this
This, of course,
Geer (1896), (1912).
(1909).
more
have therefore, throughout
»
(1921).
study.
in accepting the latter
does not apply to Mesopotamian dates.
'
field of
decide
that the earUer periods would be
prolonged than the evolution of the culture warrants.
work used dates based on those given
not an
and well able to
xii.
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
172
Dr. Hall would like to add another century or two to this shorter chronology,'
and there here,
but
is
much
if
such an amendment should prove generally acceptable,
to be said for such a step.
necessary to add the required figure to
all
my
I
have not, however, ventured to do so
dates, other than
to 1580 B.C., as far back as the beginning of the neoHthic age.
9
Hall (1913) 25-
it
would only be
Mesopotamian, prior
Appendix
II
MATRILINEAR SUCCESSION IN GREECE
BACHOFEN' in Greece,
claimed support
was the
first
to
draw attention to the existence
and he was followed from evidence which
judicious statement of the case
will
was issued
last
Both these authors
by M'Lennan.*
in 1886
not
now stand
of mother-right
investigation
year by Dr. Hartland.'
a more
;
In 1911 Professor
Rose* set out to prove the case, but found that his evidence led him to a contrary
and he argued that such customs were imknown
conclusion,
Hellenic he
means "Achaean" and Dorian, that
is
in Hellenic Greece.
Wiro Greece,
to say
agreement with him, but he includes also Minoan Crete, "because
it is
I
am
If
by
in full
just possible that
the population was in some sense Hellenic."'
Rose argues that the existence
of the worship of a
mother goddess must not be
taken as evidence of matrihnear succession, and were this the only detail on which
we could
rely, I
would readily admit that the evidence was too
some support from because " I
many
do not
gathered
it
Much
and a
is
in fact
it is
large part of
we must
was
in
in their day.
even
the
so,
'
Bachofen
M'Lennan
3
(1897).
(1886) 195-246.
Hartland (1921) 122-124. 173
so
who
minds of the
some
inventions,
but such interpolations
can usually be detected, and by no means vitiate the pedigrees for our purpose.
2
late,
That there was much
StUl doubtless there were
obvious from internal evidence that this was
if
tragedians,
for long after kept alive in the
from the pages of Pausanias.
clear
doubtless pure invention."*
is
them occurs
from the legendary matter current it
them
dismiss these genealogies,
of the detail contained in
more such legendary matter, and that people,
But we have
Rose dismisses the evidence from traditional genealogies,
of these are late,
confident that
feel
summarily.
pedigrees.
slight.
4
Rose (ign)-
5
Rose {igii) 279.
'
Rose (1911)
283.
Often
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
174 the interpolation
when
daughter, or
invented to
fill
but the substitution of a
is
is
name
for
the grandson of A, a
an unnamed son or
name B has been
in the missing intermediate ancestor.
some
propose, therefore, to examine
I
C
tradition states that
fictitious
undoubted Minoan
and
of these pedigrees,
Ridgeway'' has suggested that the Minoans traced their
origin.
descent from Poseidon, as the " Achaeans " did from Zeus or Ares.
well-known famihes that do
so,
the Cadmeians of Bceotia
in the
;
two former cases there
is
ample evidence that those
or early in the second Late
first
period.
The Neleid pedigree Cadmeians are
The
There are three
the Neleids of Pylos, the Danaans of the Argolid and
places received a population from Crete either in the
Minoan
choose those of
will
first
fuller,
and
is
meagre and does not help
it is
us,
but those of the Danaans and
claimed by later writers that the families were connected.
part of the genealogy
unquestionably
is
connection between the two families, but
it is
fictitious,
worth looking
and designed to show a
at.
Poseidon =Liby a.
Behxs= Anchinoe.
Danaus=
49 daus.
.
.
iEgyptus=
Hypermnestra
Here we find the
.
Csidmus=Harmonia Phoenix
.
—Lynceus 49 sons.
Cilix
Europa=ZEUS.
Rhadamanthus.
Minos.
Sarpedon.
late genealogist inventing a pedigree to connect the traditional
families of the Argolid,
CiHcia
AgenoT=Telephassa.
Thebes and Cnossos with the epon3mious heroes of Phcenicia,
and Egypt, and tracing them
popular tradition believed
all
all
from Poseidon.
these famihes
This seems to indicate that
and peoples to have been connected, and
that they were worshippers of the sea-god.
Let us
now
turn to the
Danaan
pedigree.
were mythical admits of no doubt, and the same possible
that
tradition
is
correct
in 7
That the is
(1901).
daughters of Danaus
true of their fifty cousins, but
claiming that
Ridgeway
fifty
one of
them,
it is
Hypermnestra,
MATRILINEAR married her cousin and succeeded her father. followed
by
Acrisius,
mixed.
It
They
is
said to have left
seems more hkely to
my
many
by Abas, who
are succeeded
and then again we get a daughter Danae, who
This hero
son Perseus.
175
sons,
is
succeeded by her
is
but here the pedigree gets
mind that Perseus was succeeded by Electryon,
whose daughter Alcmene married her cousin Amphitryon, though later writers, accustomed to a
more
strictly patrilinear succession,
But the times were
as king of Mycenae.
Peloponnese and the succession is
said to have
made Amphitryon succeed
failed.
troubled, the Pelopids were conquering the
It is well to
remember, though, that Perseus
had a daughter Gorgophane, whose name may
that her son or grandson Tyndareus was father of Clytemnestra.
both
Agamemnon and
his father Alcaeus
^Egistheus claimed to reign not only
by
well be fictitious It
and
would seem that
right of conquest but jure
uxoris.
Hartland has well cited from the Eumenides that " when Orestes, pursued by the Erinyes for his mother's death, pleads that he
is
not of kin to her and wins by the
casting vote of Athena, the Erinyes are startled and shocked on finding that even the
gods decide against them, declaring that these, the younger gods, have over-ridden the old laws
and unexpectedly plucked Orestes out
Cadmus
name
for
latter
who
is
said to
of their hands."'
have married Harmonia, daughter
a Thracian maiden.
He had
of Ares, again a fictitious
four daughters and one son, but
succeeds him, but the son of his fourth daughter Agaue.
it
is
not the
The Bacchse
of
Euripides seems to show a struggle between the claims of the priestly or divine son of Semele, the eldest daughter, and the more
The claim
youngest.
mundane and
regal son of Agaue, the
of Polydorus, the only son, does not arise until Dionysus has
been banished and Pentheus
slain.
While these genealogies, much garbled by writers accustomed only to patrilinear succession,
show the frequent
be xurged that there
is
avunculi potestas of Sir
can be made that Greece.
But
are
succession of a daughter or a daughter's son,
no evidence of the importance
James
Frazer.
is
may weU
of the maternal uncle, or of the
undoubtedly
true,
and no reasonable claim
form of matrilinear succession obtained in Minoan
this particular
we
This
it
sure that there
8
is
only one type of matriUnear succession
Hartland (1921) 123.
?
The
THE BRONZE AGE AND THE CELTIC WORLD
176
forms of patrilinear succession are not
The laws on
all alike.
the Ripuarian and the Sahc Franks, the British crown passes
this subject varied
by a
that governing the descent of a peerage, and peerages granted
from those dependent upon a writ of summons. the late Dr. Rivers, succession
who
told
had probably
me
that
it
was
I
rule
by
which
differs
from
letters patent differ
submitted the point recently to
his opinion that several types of matrilinear
and that he had found evidence of two
exiisted
between
in Melanesian
society. I
do not suggest that the evidence which
succession as
it is
commonly understood,
did not count,"^ but
it
I
or that
have cited shows the typical matrilinear
among
pre-Hellenic peoples " the father
seems to hint that the succession was in the process of passing
Perhaps
from some form of matrilinear to some form of patrilinear descent.
it
may
only indicate that the eldest child succeeded regardless of sex, but in any case there
appears to be sufficient evidence for assuming that in Minoan for
more
remember
politically
than she
all
in
" Achaean " households.
in this connection that these
and that among another group
on
did
cities
an heiress counted
It
Murray
of Prospectors, the Etruscans, " it
(1907) 74.
well,
too,
to
Minoan tyrants were probably Prospectors is,
hands that such a system did exist.""
9
is
">
Rose (1920)
94.
of course, agreed
—
.
BIBLIOGRAPHY The following abbreviations have been used A.
..
L'AnthropoIogie.
A.A.
.
Archaologischen Anzeiger.
A.A.A.
&
A.A.
:
Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology. E.
Liverpool.
Archivo per I'Antropologia e la Etnologia.
A.d.P.
Annales de Paleontologie.
A.f.A.
Archives
A.J.
The Antiquaries' Journal.
A.J.P.A.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology,
A.M.
Atlantic Monthly.
A.R.
Asiatick Researches.
A.
&R.
Arch. Arch.
fiir
Anthropologic.
Washington, D.C.
Atene e Roma. Archaeologia.
Camb
Archaeologia Cambrensis.
B.P.
Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana.
B.S.A.
British School at Athens.
B.S.A.L.
Bulletin de la Societe d' Anthropologic de Lyon.
B.S.A.P.
Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris.
B.S.R.
British School at
C.G.I.
Congr^s G^ologique International.
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Abhandlung
iii.
INDEX Anau, 39, 73, 74, 139. 157Anchinoe, 174. Ancona, 93, 160.
Abas, 173.
Abercromby, Lord,
77, 79, 102, 103.
Aberdeenshire, 79. Aborigines, 150-152.
Andalusia, 55, 77, 78.
Abraham,
140. Achseans, 104-107, 109-115, 129, 147, 161, 173-176. Acrisius, 107, 175. Adriatic sea, 55, 83, 88, 122, 127, 128, 159, 160, 163. ^gean region, 34, 83-85.
Andamanese,
iEgean sea, 40, 109, 127, 158. MgesLU traders, 80, 82, 100, 126.
Apulia, 28, 95, 149.
.^geus, 107. .^gisthus, 175.
Aquitaine, 161.
^gyptus,
174. .^qui, 148, 149. ^schylus, 112.
Aral sea, 142. Aralo-Caspian basin, 72.
Afghanistan, 158.
Arctic Circle, 157. Arctic culture, 31, 160. Arctic ocean, 72.
Annecy, 62. antimony, 40. Apennines, 96, 122, 128, 131, 151, 152, 160, 163. Aquae
Sextiee, 165.
Arabian desert, 72, 73, 117.
Arameans, 117.
Africa, 21-23, 27-29, 33. Agamemnon, 175. Agaue, 175. Agenor, 174.
Agram, Akkad,
155.
Andrasfalva, 119.
Ardudwy,
55.
Ares, 106, 114, 160, 174, 175.
Arezzo, 95. Argolid, 109, 174. Ariadne, 106.
15.
41.
Ala-tau mountains, 138. Albanian language, 147.
Armenia, 39, 42, 75, 158.
AlcEeus, 175. Alcmene, 175.
Armenian highlands, 29, Armenian language, 160.
30, 61, 142, 158.
Armenians, 75.
Alerona, 95. Alexandria, 55, 114, 139.
Armenoid t3^e, 75. Aryan cart, 137. Aryan cradle, 137-139. I44. I53Aryan hypothesis, 132, 133, 135, 144. Aryan languages, 29, 79, 133, 134
Algeria, 21, 22, 25, 29, 78. All Cannings Cross, 102, 130, 164. Alpine race, 30, 33, 56, 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 75, 79, 81, 82, loi, 106, 108-110, 112, 113, 125-128, 135, 136, 145, 146, 154, 158, 159, 164. Alpine zone, 15, 17, 18, 61, 62. Alps, 15, 18, 124, 148, 151, 164.
;
see
Wiro
languages.
Aryan
race, 134, 137, 138, 153. see Wiros. ;
Aryans, 134, 136, 139 Aryas, 133, 158.
Alt-Bydzow, 119. amber, 45, 49, 50, 53, 60, 76, 83, 128. Ambigatus, 169. America, 56.
Ascoli Piceno, 93, 128, 149, 151.
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 46.
151, 152, 163. Amphitryon, 106, 173. Anatolia, 75, 108, 113, 158, see Asia Minor. Anatolian plateau, 30, 127.
Asia, 22, 39, 42, 54, 64, 67, 71, 112, 118, 129, 138, 144. 154Asia Minor, 39, 57, 59, 62, 64, 73, 75, 108, 113, 115, 125, 126, 129, 141, 147, 158, 160, 163, see Anatolia. 165
Anatolian
Assur, 41.
Amitemum,
;
ts^ie, 75.
191
INDEX
192
Bengalese, 134.
Asturias, 55. Athena, 175.
Athens, 55, 82, 147.
Berber languages, 29. Bereg county, 95.
Atlantic coast, 59.
Berosus, 60.
Atreidae, 112. Audi flints, 20-22.
Bevere Island, 45.
Aulus Plautius, 167. Aurignac culture, 21, 23, 23, 27. Aurignac people, 157. Aurignac period, 24, 28, 69, 140, 141.
Bituriges, 169. Black Sea, 138, 141 ; see Bceotia, 96, 109, 174. Bogdanov, 68, 69, 156.
Aussee, 95. Australians, 155. Austria, 98, 118, Austria, lower, 94, 97. Austria, upper, 95.
Boghaz Keui,
Beyrut, 38.
Austro-Hungary, 99. Auvemier, 97.
Euxine Sea
58, 59.
Bohemia, 77-79, 97, 100, 119, 120, 127, 158. Bologna, 57, 123, 131.
Bondo,
85.
Bononia, 163.
Bopp,
F., 132, 133.
Avesta, 158.
Bosnia, 68, 98, 122, 128, 159, 160, 163. Bourget, 62.
Avon,
Brandenburg, 93, 94.
45.
Azilian culture, 28, 31, 32. Azilian period, 27, 29, 33, 141, 143.
Babylon, 58. Babylonian Empire, 42. Babylonians,' 42, 59, 60. Bacchse, 175.
Bachofen, 173.
Bak
tribes, 74.
Bala cleft, 129, 161. Bala lake, 46. Balkan mountains, 127. Balkan peninsula, 113, 129. Balkh, 75, 157. Baltic languages, 157, 160. Baltic region, 17, 32, 33, 46, 50, 51, 54, 60, 78, 93, 115, 160. Baltic sea, 45, 47, 76, 77, 83, 114, 126, 128, 157, 165.
Baranza county, Bardon Hill, 46.
94.
Bari, 55.
Brennius, 169. Brent, 130. Breslau, 64, 75, 139. Briges, 112, 115, 129, 160. Britain, 17, 26, 28-30, 32, 33, 44, 45, 49, 50, 52, 60, 66, 79, 80, 91, 93, 94, 96, 98-100, 103, 116, 125, 127, 129-131, 147, 138, 161. 162, 166, 168. British Empire, 107. Britons, 82, 169. Brittany, 15, 41, 43, 44. 46, 52, 34, 60, 78, 116, 130, 136, 144, 161, 165.
Broadway, 43. Broken Hill, 21. Brooks, C. E. P., 72, 171. Briinn, 24, 25, 69, 140, 135. Briix, 24, 140, 135. Brythonic language, 144, 143, 167.
Brythons, 16, 162 see Cymri. Buda-Pest, 88, 92, 94, 93. Buddhists, 37. Buhl advance, 27, 171. Bukovina, 129. ;
Barma Grande,
24, 25.
Basque language,
17.
Batia, 151, 160. Battina, 94. Batum, 118. Bavaria, 30. beads, 37, 38, 45, 52. beakers, 100, 127. Beaker-folk, 66, 68, 77-80, 102, 127, 158.
Bekes county,
Breasted, Prof. J. H., 38, 171.
Brenner Pass, 77, 98.
95.
Belfort gap, 129, 161. Belgae, 165, 166.
Burgundy, 99. Biirkanow, 95. Burton-on-Trent, 46. Butta, 119.
Cadmeian
fox, 106.
Cadmeians, 174.
Cadmus, 109, 174, 173.
Belgium, 30, 76, 126, 130, 131, 165.
Caesar, Julius, 13, 17, 148, 167.
Bellovesus, 169. Belus, 174. Benfey, 138. Bengal, 132, 137.
Caicus, 73. Calabria, 93.
Cambridge, 92.
Campignian
culture, 33.
INDEX
193
Capsian culture, 22, 29. Capsian people, 27.
Cividale, 93, 122, 131. Clark, Col. E. Kitson, 46.
Caractacus, 167. Carcassone gap, 52.
Clyde, Firth of, 46. Clytemnestra, 175. Cnossos, 65, 170, 174.
Cardiff, 130, 167.
Cardiganshire, 55. Caria, 73. Carinthia, 122.
Camiola, 62, 94, 95. Carolingian monarch, 107. Carpathian Mountains, 18, 40, 64, 76, 120, 127, 139, 143, 157, 159. Caspian Sea, 71, 74, 75, 141, 142. Caspio-Aral sea, 142.
Casson,
S., 147. Castellucio, 53, 54. caste system, 82. Castions di Strada, 92.
Caucasus, 59, 118, 120, 121, 129, 147, 161. Celts, 17, 132, 133, 161, 164, 169. Celtic cradle, 18, 29, 61, 81, 88, 99, 104, 119,
120, 128, 146, 147, 159, 161, 169. Celtic Empire, 169. Celtic lands, 17, 19, 20, 22, 25-31, 33, 47, 60, 61, 98, 99, 104, 131, 146, 148, 153, 168, 169. Celtic languages, 15-17, 29, 60, 61, 132, 133, 144146, 159, 163, 164. Celtic people, 18, 168. Celtic place-names, 17. Celtic race, 17. Celtic scholars, 145, 168.
Centaurs, 75, 158, Central Europe, see Europe, central. Cercyon, 106. Chalybes, 118, 161.
Chamberlain, Houston, 136. Chamblandes, 141. Chancelade skull, 23, 27, 28. Chantre, R., 118. ChapeUe-aux-Saints, 21. CheUes implements, 19. Cher, 99. Chernigov, 64. Chester, 46.
Chiano, 95. Chichester, 45.
China, 74. Chinese script, 74. Christianity, 49. Christians, S7-
Chvojka, M., 66. Cilicia, 40, 174.
Cilix, 174.
Cimbri, 162, 165.
Cimbric Chersonese, 162, 165. Cimmerians, 162. Cirencester, 45.
Combe Capelle, 24-28, 30, 33, 61, 63, 67, 69,
140, 155.
Comcetho, 106. Constantine, 21.
Conway,
Prof. R. Cook, O. F., 72.
S., 148, 149.
copper, 36, 38-44, 47, 49, 50, 60, 65, 80, 82, 83, 85, 100, 108, 126, 127. Cordier, H., 74. Cornwall, 15, 55, 144.
Corwen, 46. Cotswold HiUs, 45, Cracow, 15, 64.
51.
crannogs, 166. Crawford, O. G. S., 32, 45, 46, loi, 102, 125, 153. Cretans, 108, 109. Crete, 40-42, 65, 85, 96, 108, 109, 174.
Crimea, 59. Croatia, 159, 163.
Cromagnon race, 23-29. Cromyon sow, 106. Cuno,
Cwm
J. G., 138, 140, 153.
Bychan, 46.
Cyclades, 42.
Cymri, 16, 162, 167
;
see
Cymric language, 144,
Brythons.
167.
Cyprus, 42, 43, 85, 96.
Dacian language, 147. Damascus, 38. Damastes, 106. Damocles, no. Danaans, 174. Danae, 175. Danaus, 109, 174. Dani-glacial line, 171.
Danube,
30, 40, 75, 76, 82, 83, 88, 92, 94, 95, 99,
105-107, 113, 115, 119, 121, 127, 129, 130, 147, 163, 164. Daun stadium, 171. Dead Sea, 71. Dechelette, J., 90, 99, 102, 125, 169.
Dee, 45. Delta, the, 38, 40, 96, 114. Denise, 24.
Denmark, 44-46, Demazacco, 122.
51, 78, 93, 94, 96, 97, 128, 130,
Deverel-Rimbury, 102. Devon, 55.
Dexheim, 120. Dhimini ware,
75, 158.
Diarbekir, 42.
Dinaric race, 108. 13
INDEX
194 Dintorni del Fucino, 95. Dionysius of Halicamassus, 150-152. Dionysus, 175. Dnieper, 64, 67, 68, 74, 126, 140, 154. Dniester, 64. Dodona, 113, 161. dolmens, 48-51, 53-55, 58, 59.
Donja-Dolina, 98. Dordogne, 21, 25, 27, 28, 69.
Dorian invasion, 105, 121, 129, 147, 163. Dorians, 147, 152, 169, 173. Douglas, Sir Robert, 74.
Europa, 174. Eurytion, 107.
Euxine Sea,
65, 75, 83,
118, 127, 142, 158
see
Evans, Sir Arthur, 77.
Evesham,
45.
ex orienie lux, 137. Falisci, 149. Fationovo culture, 126.
Fejer, 97. Felsina, 163, 164,
Fenno-Scandian moraines, 171.
Dover, Straits of, 79. Dowris, 116. Drave, 122, 130, 159. Drenthe, 79. Dublin, 44-46, 98, 99. Dunkirk, 136.
Fens, 46, 97. Fergusson, James, 50. Fick, A., 138. Ficulle, 95. Fiesole, 58. finger-tip ware, 102, 103.
Finistere, 51.
Eastbourne, 166.
East Scandinavian culture, East Spanish art, 27.
32.
Ebnal, 45. Egger, Dr. S., 92. Egypt, 22, 29, 36, 39, 48, 49, 54, 65, 73, 85, 96, 100, 108, 115, 140, 161, 170, 171, 174.
Egyptians, 29, 40. Elamite culture, 73. Elamites, 74. El Argar, 43. Elbe, 68, 79, 83. Electryon, 175. EUiott, Smith Prof. G., 36, 37, 54.
Endrod, 95. England, 17,
26, 46, 49, 79, 97, 98, 102, 103, 129, 132, 138, 164, 166-168.
English language, 29. eoliths, 19.
epingles k raquette, 119. Epirus, 113. Erinyes, 175. Erse language, 17.
Finland, 99, 100, 125, 130, 164. Finns, 126. First Cataract, 22. Firune, 83, 127, 128. Fleure, Prof. H. J., 28, 55-57, 155. Flinders Petrie, Prof. W. M., 40, 171. Florence, 56.
Forth, Firth
FoxhaU,
of,
46.
19, 170.
France, 26, 27, 30, 33, 35, 46, 50, 51, 62, 93, 94, 96, 97. 99. 125, 129-132, 136, 138, 145, 147, 153 see Gaul. Franks, 134, 176.
;
Frassineto, 95. Frazer, Sir James, 175. French, 119, 133. Frisia, 165. Fritzen, 120. Friuli, 88, 92, 93, 122, 128, 131, 159, 163. Fucino, 116 ; see Lake Fucino.
Furfooz, 30, 126.
Erzgebirge, 83.
Gaelic Empire, 169. Gaelic language, 68, 144 see Goidelic. Gaels, 16, 164-169 see Goidels.
Eskimos,
Galati, 165.
Erzeroum, 42.
;
;
27.
Este, 122.
Ethiopic race, 28. Etruria, 58, 59, 122, 123, 131, 148, 149, 163, 164. Etruria Circumpadana, 122. Etruscan language, 60.
Etruscans, 57, 58, 114, 124, 131, 149, 176.
Etruscan tombs, 56, 59. Eumenides, 175. Euripides, 175.
Europe, central,
;
Black Sea.
15, 23, 25, 28-30, 37, 40, 45, 61,
83, 84, 87, 98, 99, 101-103, 106, 115, 116, 119, 125, 128, 145, 146, 152, 153.
Galatians, 165. Galicia, 65, 66, 77, 79, 95, 120, 127, 129, 139, 158, 161.
Galley-hiU skeleton, 19. GaUi, 165 see Gauls. GaUipoli peninsula, 75, 158. GalLoway, Mull of, 46. Gata, 119. Gaul, 17, 134, 161, 162, 164, 165, 167 Gaul, Cis-Alpine, 17. Gaulish language, 29. Gauls, 148 see Galli. ;
;
;
see
France.
INDEX Gaya, 119. Geer, Baron de, 171. Geiger, L., 138. Gelderland, 79.
195
Hal-Tarxien, 52-54. Halys, 58.
Hammurabi,
74, 142, 157.
Hanover, 136.
Geneva, 62.
Harlech, 46.
Geoffrey of Monmouth, 169. German language, 132, 133.
Harmonia, 174.
Germany,
Hawes, Mrs., 73. Hehn, V., 137.
Germans, 119, 136.
Heidelberg, 19. Hellespont, 73, 115, 127, 158, 160.
25, 44, 78, 93, 94, 96-99, 125, 132, 133, 136, 138, 144.
Gibraltar woman, 21. Giles, Dr. Peter, 133, 139-143. Giza, 54. Gladstone, Dr., 40.
Glamorgan, 55, 168. Glasinatz, 122. Glastonbury, 166. Goidelic language, 80, 144, 145, 165, 168 ; see Gaelic. Goidels, 16 see Gaels, gold, 36-40, 43, 44, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 60, 84, 108, 161. ;
Gomor
county, 95.
Hartland, Dr.
S.,
173, 175.
Hengistbury Head, 166. hepatoscopy, 58. Hera, 106. Heracles, 106. Heraclids, 121.
Hemici, 148, 149. Herodotus, 105, 142, 145-148, 161, 162. Herzegovina, 97, 128, 159. Hesse, Rhenish, 120. Hesse-Darmstadt, 120.
Himalayan
massif, 29, 137.
Himella, 160.
Gorgophane, 175. Gorodak, 97.
Hindu Kush,
Goti-glaciai moraines, 171. Goumia, 108. Gowland, Prof. W., 118.
Hissarlik, 42, 73. Hissarlik II., 43, 54, 56, 68, 73, 75, 78, 82, 83, 127, 158. Hissarlik III., 75. Hissarlik VI., 66. Hittite language, 144.
Gozo, 48. Graig Llwyd, 35, 39. Grand-Pressigny, La, 35, 39. Grant, Madison, 135.
29, 137, 139, 157.
Hippocrates, 145-147.
Hittites, 58, 76, 127, 158. Holdemess, 32.
Greece, 65, 85, 97, 99, 104-107, 109, no, 114, 116, 121, 129, 131, 146, 147, 163, 173, 175.
Holland, 50, 127, 158, 165.
Greek colonies, 163. Greek lands, 85, 104-106, 109, 115, 146, 147, 152. Greek language, 132, 145, 146, 148. Greek literature, 137. Greek merchants, 52, 56.
Homer, 105, 146. Homeric heroes, 113.
Greeks, 112, 129. Grenelle, 24, 30.
Grimaldi race, 23-25, 28, 29, 33, 37. Grisons, 85. Gross-Steffelsdorf, 95.
Gross-Tschemitz, 97. Grotte des enfants, 23, 24, 37.
Holmes, T. Rice, 80.
Hooton, Dr. E. A., 122. Hubert, M., 153.
Hungarian
plain, 62-64, 76, 81, 88, 117, 120, 128, 139, 141, 142, 159. Hungary, 63, 64, 76, 81, 83-86, 88, 92-96, 99, 117, 119-121, 127-129, 141, 158. Huns, 72.
Huntington, Ellsworth, 71, 72, 142. Hypermnestra, 174.
Griibegg, 95, 97.
lapygian race, 28.
Guernsey, 78. Gyalar, 121, 129. G3^a-feh6rvar, 96.
Iberian peninsula, 52, 53, 100, 131. ice age, 141. Iliad, 105, 106, 112, 113,
Haghia-Triada, 65. Hajdu county, 94.
Hajdu-boszormeny, 94, 97. Hall, Dr. H. R., 39, 106, 171, 172. Hallstatt, 81, 87, 91, 92, 98, 101, 105, 115, 116, 118, 119, 130, 154, 162, 165.
India, 59, 82, 137, 141. Indian dialects, 133.
Indo-European language, 79, 133. Indo-Germanic language, 133. Indo-Iranian languages, 158. Indre, 99. Indre-et-Loire, 35. ISA
INDEX
196 lona, 49. Ionic dialect, 145, 146. Ipswich skeleton, 19. Iranian languages, 146, 158, 161. Iranian plateau, 74, 127, 142, 157, 158.
Kurgan-people, 67. Kursk, 68, 156.
Iranians, 163. Ireland, 15, 17, 28, 30, 32. 44, 47, 49, 51, 54, 55, 60, 79, 98-100, 129, 130, 137, 144, 161, 166-169. Irish gold fields, 44-46. Irish language, 29.
Irishmen, 21. Iron Gates, 18. iron swords, 117, 125, 129, 130, 132, 154, 163. iron sword people, 131, 147, 152. Islam, 72. Isle of Arran, 78. Isle of Man, 15, 144. Isonzo, 122, 131.
Lacouperie, Terrien de, 74. Lafaye Bruniquel, 25. Laibach, 62, 76. Lake-dwellings, 37, 62, 81, 97, 125, 126, 130, 159, 160, 164-166.
Lake Lake Lake Lake Lake Lake Lake Lake Lake
La
Avemus,
162.
Balaton, 95, 97 see Plattensee. Balkash, 138. Beshika, 62. Fucino, 95, 96, 128, 146, 151, 160. Neuchatel, 97. ;
Ragunda, 171. Superior, 38. Trasimene, 94-96, 128, 131, 149-131, 160.
Madeleine, 26, 27.
Israelites, 53. Italians, 133.
Lane-Fox, Col. A., 50.
Italic languages, 146, 159. Italy, 15, 17, 35, 37, 44, 57, 58, ^^, 78, 83-85, 94,
La T6ne,
Laomedon, in.
97-99. 109, 119, 122, 145-148, 152, 162, 163, 168.
95.
127-129,
131,
James, William, no. Jastrow, Morris, 58. Jaxartes, 137. Jones, Sir John Morris, 29. Jones, Sir William, 132. Joshua, 53. JubainviUe, H. Arbois de, 169.
Jura mountains,
18.
Jutland, 79, 80, 100, 127, 158, 159, 162, 164, 165.
Kabyles, 29. Kaptara, 41, 42. Kassites, 74, 75, 127, 142, 157, 158.
Keith, Sir Arthur, 66, 77, loi.
Kennet, 45. Khalepje, 72. Khasaldiemui, King, 40. Khatti, 76 see Hittites. Khorazan, 42. ;
Kief, 64, 76. Kiepert, 149. Kimri, 162-165, 167-169.
Kis-k6szey, 94. Klaproth, J. von, 133.
Knutsford, 46.
Koban Koban
river, 67, 118-120, 129-131, 161, 162. people, 119, 121, 147, 162. Dagh, 29,
165, 166. G., 138, 153. Latini, 148, 149. Latin language, 15, 132, 145, 148, 151, 160, 163, 164. Latin peoples, 151, 160, 163. Latin races, 132, 133. Latium, 148, 163. Laufen retreat, 20. Laugerie Basse, 24.
Latham, Dr. R.
Lautsch, 24.
La Vendue, 165. leaf-shaped swords, 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 100, loi, 103, 104, 106, 109, III, 126, 128, 149, 151, 153, 159ditto Type A, 87, 89, 92. 94, 115-117, 159. ditto Type B, 89, 93, 115-117, 128, 149, 159, 165. ditto Type C, ditto Type D, ditto Type E, 117, 120. ditto Type F, ditto Type G,
89, 90, 93-95, 116, 128, 149. 89, 90, 93-98, 103, 114, 117, 149. 90, 95, 96, 98, loi, 103, 116,
90, 91, 97, 98, 116, 117, 121. 87, 90, 91, 98, 101-103, 115-117, 126, 152, 164. leaf-shaped sword people, 122, 146, 149-152.
Leeds, E. Thurlow, 53, 77. Leicestershire, 46.
Lemberg, 64. Le Moustier industry, 20, 21. Les Eyzies, 21, 23.
Koszylowsce, 65. Krensdorf, 119.
Levadia, 96. Levantine trade, 43. Libya, 174. Libyans, 114.
Ku-Ki, 41, 42. Kxmo-Meyer, Prof., 168.
linguistic palaeontology, 135, 138-140. Linz, 83, 93.
Kopet
INDEX Lipari islands, 34. Lissauer, 119.
197
Meryey, 114. Mesopotamia, 38, 59, 60, 73, 74, 85, 127, 142, 158,
Liste, 151.
171, 172.
Lithuanian language, 157.
metal, discovery
Liverpool, 46, 55. Livy, 169. Llanarmon-dyffryn-Ceiriog, 45. Llyn Fawr, loi. Loire, 152, 164, 169.
Meuse, 130, 165. Meyer, Dr. E., 171. Midas, 158.
of, 36.
Midi, 165.
Lot, 99.
Midland plain, Mihovo, 95. Milpa culture,
Loth,
Minns, E., 72, 76.
London,
51, 92, 164.
J., 80.
Lucumons,
Minoan Minoan Minoan Minoan Minoan
58.
Luxor, 22. Lycophron, 162. Lydia, 73. Lynceus, 174. Lyons, 127. Macalister, R. A. S., 166. Macclesfield, 46. Macedonia, 114, 115, 160. Magdalenian culture, 31. Magdalenian period, 25, 27, 29, 34, 141, 143, 155, 171.
47, 161, 167. 72.
age, 109, iii. culture, 100, 161. period, early, 65, 108.
period, middle, 73, 108, 109. period, late, 108, 109, 114, 174.
Minos, 174. Minutsinsk, 127. Mitanni, 75, 158. Mochlos, 108.
Moguer, 55. Monaco, Prince Mongoloid race, Mongols, 163.
of, 23.
32, 33, 68,
Maglemose, 31, 32. Magyarorozag, 95, 96. Maikop, 67.
Monteracello, 44. Morava, 121, 159.
Malta, 35, 44, 48, 52, 54, 60, 78. Mannersdorf, 95.
Moravian
126, 160.
Moravia, 119.
Marius, 165,
gate, 64, 120, 127, 129, 158, 161. Frith, 79. Morbihan, bay of, 43, 51, 165, 166. Morgan, J. de, 58.
Marruvium, 151.
Morimarusam,
Marsi, 148, 149. Marx, Karl, 62.
Morocco, 25.
Marathon
bull,
106.
Moray
165.
Moscow, 156.
mastaba, 48, 54, 59.
Moselle, 130, 165.
Mauer sand-pit, Mawddach, 46.
Moslems, 37. Mosso, A., 65.
19.
Max-Muller, Prof. F., 133, 134, 138. McDougall, W., 155. Meare, 166. Mecklenburg, 94. Mediterranean coast, 22, 51. Mediterranean race, 28, 29, 33, 56, 69, 84, 108-110, 112, 113, 135. 136, 154-156. Mediterranean regions, 35, 42, 59, 85, 99, 107. Mediterranean sea, 25, 35, 41, 42, 45, 60, 83, 108, 127. megalithic monuments, 48-52, 54, 56, 59, 60, T], 78. Melanesia!! society, 176. Melos, 34, 40. Menelaus, 112.
Mentone, 23, 25.
Motril, 55.
mountain zone,
63, 64, 66, 77, 81, 82, 88, 98, 102, 117, 125-128, 130, 131, 145, 146, 152, 159, 161, 162, 164, 169. Mugem, 24, 25, 30.
Muliana, 96. Mullerup, 31, 32.
Munkacs, Mur, 122.
95.
Mycenae, 96, 116.
Mycenean
culture, 100, 129, 161.
Myres, Prof. J. L., 68.
Nagy-sap, 63. Naples, 58, 124.
Memeptah, 114. Memere, 39.
Narbonne, 51, 55. Naue, Dr. J., 86. 93. Neanderthal man, 20-22.
Mersey, 46.
Neleids, 174.
INDEX
igS Neleus, 109. Neo-Celtic tongues, 29.
Pallantids, 106.
neolithic age, 33-35, 52, 63, 102, 125, 136, 140-142, 155, 171, 172. Nera, 151. Nestor, 106.
Paphlagonia, 118.
Palmanova,
Paris, 30, 99. Parret, 167. Patesi, 58.
Pausanias, 173.
Neuchatel, 62. Newberry, Percy, 54.
Newbury, Newquay,
pax Romana, Peak district,
45, 65.
140, 147, 153-156, 16432. of,
169. 46.
Peet, Prof. E., 114, 128. Peisker, T., 72. Peleus, 106. Pelopids, 112, 175. Peloponnese, 105, 175. Pelops, 112.
55. Nile valley, 22, 40, 48. Nordic race, 57, 63, 64, 66, 70, 76-78, 81, 82, 85, 88, 106, 107, 109, 111-114, 125-128, 134-137,
Nordman, C. A., Normandy, 134. Normandy, Duke Normans, 107.
92.
107, ~
Pembrokeshire, 55. Pencaer, 55. Penck, A., 171.
Norsemen, 107. North sea, 97.
Penka, K., 131, 136, 137, 153.
Noutonic, 119. Nubia, 39.
Pentheus, 175.
Cannes, 60. Oban, 32. Obercassel skulls, 25. Obermaier, H., 20. Obi, 72, 157. obsidian, 34, 35, 40, 41.
Odessa, 64. Odin, 160. Ofnet, 24, 30, 61, 67. Old England, loi, 130.
Old World, 85. Ombri, 163. Ombrice, 122. Orchomenos, 96. Orestes, 175.
Oreszka, 97. Orezi, 93.
Oronsay, 32. Orsi, P., 54.
Orviedo, 55.
Pen-maen-mawr,
35.
Periphates, 106. Perry, 45. Perry, W., 49, 50, 52. Perseus, 106, 175. Persia, 39, 141. Persian gulf, 42, 59, 60, 109. Persians, 133. Petrie, Prof. W. M. F., see Flinders Petrie. Petronell, 94.
Pewsey, vale of, 164. Phoenicia, 174. Phoenicians, 52. Phoenix, 174. Phrygia, 73, 112.
Phrygian language, 147, 160. Phrygians, 113, 115, 129, 147, 158. Pictish language, 17. Pietrement, C. A., 138. Pillars of Hercules, 43.
Piltdown skull, 17, 20. Plynlimmon, 28.
Osco-Umbrian language, 148, 152.
Plattensee, 95, 97 ; see Pliny, 162. Po, 122, 131, 148, 163.
Osiris, 38.
Podhering, 95, 96,
Orvieto, 95.
Lake Balaton.
Ossetes, 161.
Podolia, 97, 100, 120, 129, 161.
Oxus, 137.
Poland, 31, 64. Poltava, 64. Polydorus, 175.
P-peoples, 16. Pseonia, 62, 160. palaeolithic period, lower, 19, 170. ditto middle, 20, 170. ditto upper, 25, 28, 33, 69, 141, 170. Palatine hill, 122, 151, 163, 164.
Polynesia, 49. Polymela, 106. Polypoites, 106.
Palatium, 151, 163.
Pomerania, 93. Pompeii, 58, 131, 164. Pontus, 118.
Palestine, 59, 71.
Portugal, 25. 33, 53.
INDEX Poseidon, 106, 174. Posidonius, 162. Pott, F. A., 137. Povegliano, 98. Predil Pass, 122, 128, 131, 163.
199
Sabine language, 149. Sabine region, 149-151.
Priam, 105. Pripet marshes, 64. prognathism, 23. prognathism, alveolar, 24, 25, 28. Prospector language, 60. Prospectors, 56-60, 79, 108-111, 114, 131, 176. Proto-Solutrean stations, 26. Prussia, 93, 120.
Pumpelly, Raphael, 39, 71-73. Punjab, 137, 158.
Sabines, 163, 164. Sabini, 149, 151, 152. Saint Barthelma, 95. Saint Brieuc, 55. Saint Germain-en-Laye, 97, 98. Saint Kanzian, 95. Saint Margaret's Isle, 94.
Sajo-Gomor, 94, 95. Salerno, 55. Salic Franks, 176. Salisbury plain, 51. Salonika, 62. Salto, 151.
Pylos, 109, 174. Pyrenees, 15, 17, 25, 27, 28, 69, 78.
Salza-Bach, 97. Sangarius, 73. Sanskrit language, 132, 133, 137.
Q-peoples, 16.
Santa Lucia Tolmino, 122, 131.
race-making period, 155. Rastall, R. H., 37. Reading, 99, 130.
Saone, 99.
Santorin, 34, 35.
Sarawak, Raja
63. Rollo, 107. Rome, 82, 95, 122, 131, 150, 151, 163. Roman culture, 15.
of, 107. Sardinia, 28, 52, 114. Sardis, 163. Sargon of Akkad, 41, 42. Sarpedon, 174. Save, 121, 122, 128, 130, 159, 163. Savoy, 62, 164. Saxons, 37, 168. Sayce, Prof. A. H., 41, 42, 158. Scandinavia, 52, 99, 116, 125, 131. Scandinavian ice, 171. Scandinavian legend 160. Schatze, 97. Schleswig-Holstein, 88, 93, 94, 97, 99, 128, 159, 164. Schliemann, H., 43, 96. Schrader, Dr. O., 139-141, 153. Sciron, 106. Scotland, 15, 17, 28, 30, 32, 46, 79, 98, 144. Scurgola, 44. Scythians, 162. Seine, 99, 125, 130, 131, 147, 152, 154, 164, 168. Seistan, 59.
Roman
Seligman, Dr. C. G., 22.
Reatae, 151, 160, 163. Reche, Dr. O., 78. red ochre, 23, 67, 69, 74, 140.
Regulini-Galassi tomb, 57.
Rhadamanthus,
174.
Rhine, 15, 17, 63, 64, 76, 79, 97, 119, 126, 127, 129, 161, 165, 166.
Rhodesia, 21, 22.
Rhone, 83, 99, 127, 152, 164, 165. Rhys, Sir John, 144-147, 152, 153, 162, 165. Richmond, 164. Ridgeway, Sir W., 104-106, 112, 113, 147, 162, 174. Rima-Szombat, 95, 96. Ripley,
W.
Z., 55, 62.
Ripuarian Franks, 176. Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., 176. Riviera, the, 24.
Robenhausen,
Empire, 107.
Romans,
40, 168. Rose, Prof. H. J., 173.
Rostovtzeff, M. M., 67, 119, 162. Rostro-carinate implements, 19.
Roumania,
Romnanian
Sequani, 152, 164. Serbia, 64, 163.
64. plain, 64.
Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Selve, 93. Semele, 175. Sequana, 152.
132.
Ruggeri, Prof, V. Giuffrida, 28.
rudemadln, 119.
Sergi, Dr. G., 68, 155, 156. Seti II., 96, 114, 115. Severn, 45, 129, 161.
Shalmaneser, Shawiya, 29.
I,
Russia, 26, 31, 62, 64, 69, 72, 76, 81, 97, 107, 120, 126, 139, 140, 142, 153-155. 158. 159. 164.
Shekelesh, 114.
Russo-Turkestan steppe, 141.
Sherden, 114.
117.
INDEX
200 Shrewsbury, 45.
Tantalus, 112, Taranto, 52, 55, 78, 122, 131.
Shropshire, 45. Siberia, 27, 33, 157.
Tarentum,
Sicily, 33, 44, 60, 78, 107, 114. Siculi, 150.
Tardenoisian culture, 28.
Siebenburgen, 97. Sigmaringen, 99, 130, 163.
Taurus Mountains, Tehenu, 114.
Sigovesus, 169. Silesia, 78, 79,
Telebceans, 106. Telephassa, 174.
Siret, 43.
Tell-el-'Obeid, 39. Tell Firaun, 96. Teresh, 114.
52, 163.
Tatars, 72.
127. Sinaitic peninsula, 22, 36. Sinis, 106.
40.
Tern, 45. Terramara-folk, 122, 131, 163. terramare, 122, 131, 163. Teutonic languages, 132, 157, 160.
Slavs, 122, 123.
Smid, Dr. W., 94.
W. J., 171. Solutre, 24. Solutr^ culture, 27. Solutr^ people, 26, 69, 157. Solutr6 period, 25, 26, 140, 155. SoUas, Prof.
Teutonic tribes, 15. Teutons, 132, 133, 165.
Thames, 45, 96-99, 129, Thatcham, 32.
Somogy,
93. Souja, 68, 156.
130, 164, 167.
Thebes, 174.
Southampton, 45. South Lodge Camp, 141.
Thersites, 113. Theseus, 106.
Spain, 15, 17, 25, 27, 29, 41-44, 54, 60, 62, 77-79.
Thessaly. 64, 73, 75, 121, 127, 129, 158, 160. Thor, 160. Thrace, 64, 68, 73, 113, 114, 121, 127, 129, 147, 158,
82, 127.
Sparta, 169. Spercheus, 160.
W., 93, 94. Acheul implements,
160, 163.
Splieth, St.
19,
Stein, Sir Aurel, 71. steppes, 64, 67-69, 71-74, 76, 81, 82, 117, 126, 138142, 153-157. 159. 161, 169. steppe conditions, 26, 69.
Steppe-folk,
Thracians, 112, 113, 161, 175. Thraco-Phrygian language, 147, 148, 159. Thraco-Phrygians, 114, 115. Tiber, 128, 149, 151, 163. Tigris, 42, 74.
Tiryns, 97.
67, 69, 71-77, 79, 82, 83, 88, loi, 106, 119, 120, 126-128, 139-141, 143, 155Sterjna, Dr. Knut, 51.
tin, 41, 42, 44, 47, 49, 50, 59, 60. tin-land, 41, 42 see Ku-Ki. Tobolsk, 68, 75, 157.
Strabo, 15.
Tocharian language, 144.
T6k&,
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, 22. Styria, 95, 97, 122, 130.
Transylvania, 40, 65, 82, 121, 129. Trebizonde, 42. Trento, 128.
Sumerians, 58, 59, 108. Susa, 58, 73. Svserdborg, 31, 32. 26, 51, 54, 164.
Swedes, 156. Swiss lake-dwellings, 30, 76, loi, 125, 127, 145, 146, 152.
Switzerland, 30, 62, 64, 83, 164.
119.
Tomaschek, Dr. W., 147. Tommassin, 92.
Sulmona, 95, 149. Sumer, 58, 59. Sumerian language, 60.
Sweden,
;
98,
119,
126,
141,
Treviso, Trieste, Tripolje Tripolje Tripolje
93, 159. 95, 122. culture, 64-66, 72-74, 77, 127, 158. people, 73, 77, 78, 80, 82, 126, 142, 156. region, 73, 75, 79, 127, 139, 157.
Trojan war, 105, 106. Troy, III. Truentus, 160.
Syracuse, 52-54.
Tsoiontas, 96.
Syria, 38, 42, 49, 55, 59.
Tuaregs, 29.
Szombathy,
Tubino, 62. Turkestan, 26, 39, 67, 69, 71-73, 127, 142, 134, 158,
J., 95.
Tacitus, 136.
Tagus, 30, 53.
159-
Tuscany, 58, 131
;
see Etruria.
INDEX Tyndareus, 175. Tyrsenians, 114
201
Wales, 15, 17, 28, 30, 32, 33, 47, 51, 35. 79. 97. ;
129, 130, 144, 161, 162, 164, 167, 168.
see Etruscans.
Warrington, 46, 51.
Wash, the, 164. WeUs, H. G., no. Welsh language, 29.
Udine, 92. Ukraine, 74, 77, 80.
Ulm, 99, 130, 163. Umbria, 148. Umbrian dialects, 131, Umbrians, 163. Upper sea, 41.
164.
Ur, 39. Ural Mountains, 138, 142. Ure, Prof. P. N., 109, no. Ur, Nina, 39.
Ust Urt
desert, 141, 142.
Weser, 79, 127. Wessex, 102, 129, 161, 164. West Highlands, 17.
Wicklow
Hills, 44, 35.
Wilburton, 97, 116. Wiltshire, 31, 102, 130.
Wimpasting,
93.
Winchester, 45.
Winklam,
94.
Winwick, 46.
Utrecht, 79.
Wiro, Wiros, 133-137- I39-I44. 146. 147- I53-I59.
Vannes, 156.
161, 163, 168.
Vardar, 121, 129, 160, 163. Vedic hymns, 137, 158.
Wiro language, 143-147. Wodnian, 97.
Vedic Indians, 133, 137.
WoUersdorf, 95, 97. Worcester, 43.
Velino, 128, 131, 151, 160. Veneti, 163, 166. Veneto, 122, 128, 159. Venetian language, 159. Venice, 56, 93.
Verona, 98. Versecz, 119.
Via
Wiimi
glaciation, 20, 22, 168, 171.
Wurtemberg,
119.
Yenesei River, 73, 127. Yeshil Irmak, 118. Yortan, 73.
Salaria, 128.
Vienna, 92-94, 122.
Zaborowski, M., 76.
Vikings, 33, 113, 134.
Zag-a-zig, 96.
ViUa-nova culture, 57, 123, 131, 147, 152. ViUa-nova people, 57, 58, 131, 149, 162. Volga, 68, 126, 154, 159.
Zavadyntse, 97, 120. Zealand, 31. Zemplen, 97. Zend, 137.
Wace, Dr. A.
Zimmer, H.,
Visigoths, 82.
Zeus, 113, 174.
Wadi
J. B.,
Foakhir, 39.
105, 107, 147.
I33. 164, 167.
Zuojuica, 97.
168.
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;
From
Isle'worth, Middlesex.
the
Thames
Glastonbury Museum.
Braxton Collection 359,
Public Library, Brentford. Private Collection. Municipal Musevma, Plymouth.
Hereford Musemn.
Museum
of the Leeds Literary Society. Guildhall Museum, London.
and Philosophical
at Sion
reach.
16
England
;
Bottisham lode,
Cambridgeshire 17
England
;
Hammersmith, From the Thames.
Middlesex.
Museum
of Archaeology
bridge.
The London Museum.
and Ethnology, Cam-
OS 1
I
I'l
Scale. 3
2
1
I
j
I
I'
S
4l
I
!
/, 10
I
'l
6
in.
I
,[!
15
cm.
PLATE
III.
AN ETRUSCAN PROSPECTOR. From
the lid of a coffin in the British
By
Museum,
kind permission of the Trustees.
li^ilfCvfci,,
«--.~T ^..rr"'"^"^"^ ICURE; Photo:
W. A. Mansdl
&
Co.
PLATE
VI.
THE SEVEN TYPES OF LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS. A
Hungary,
site
unknown, Hampel
(1886) XX. 4.
B
auf
1875, 1880), (1903) X. I. C.
D
(1903)'
ix. 3.
Denmark, Norderhaide in the Isle of Sylt. Handelmann, Ausgrabungen
Naue
Museum, Buda-Pest.
National
Museum
of National Antiquities, Kiel.
Sylt (1873,
fig.
4.
Hungary,
Buda-Pest. Margaret's Isle. from the Danube.
Naue St.
Dredged
Hungary,
Hajdu-boszomieny, Co. Found May, 1858, with sword of Type C. Hungary, Magyarorszaz.
National Museum, Buda-Pest.
Hampel
(1886),.
cxcvii. 6.
National Museum, Buda-Pest.
1883/131.
Hajdu
E F
G
Switzerland, Morges. Dechelette (1908-14) ii. Fig. 64 (2). Austria, Hallstatt. Grave 299.
Sacken (1868) xix.
10.
National Museum, Buda-Pest.
Lausanne
Museum.
Album Musee
Lausanne,.
xiv. 9.
Natural History Museum, Vienna.
24,609.
PLATE
SWORDS OF TYPE 1
Hungary,
Hampel
unknown.
site
A,
VII.
FROM HUNGARY.
National Museum, Buda-pest.
Naue
(1903) ix. 3.
(1886) XX. 4.
2
Hungary, Hungary.
site
unknown. Dredged
Danube
from the Buda-Pest.
near
Catalogue (1891),
Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,. Cambridge. Foster bequest. Ownership unknown.
University
viii.
45.
Schleswig-Holstein, site rmknown. From a tomb. Italy, Castions di Strada, near Udine. B.P. xxxvii. (1912),
Ownership unknown. Splieth (1900) i.gb. Archaeological Museum, Cividale.
33Italy,
near Treviso. (1895-1904)
LB.
Montelius 39.
Treviso Museum.
r^ IC)
Scale.
PLATE
SWORDS OF TYPE Site
unknown.
Catalogue (1891)
VITI.
C,
FROM HUNGARY.
Ownership unknown.
Naue
(1903) xi. 3.
vii. 42.
Site
Hampel
unknown.
(1886)
XX. 7.
National viii.
Hampel
Sajo-Gomor.
(1886)
XV. 3.
Museum,
Naue
Buda-Pest.
(1903)
8.
National Museum,
Naue
Buda-Pest.
(1903)
viii. 3.
Site unlcnown.
Naue
Catalogue (1891)
Ownership unknown.
Margaret's
National Museum, Buda-Pest.
(1903) VIII. 6.
vii. 43.
Buda-Pest,
St.
Isle.
Dredged from the Danube.
Hampel
(1886)
Hajdii-boszormeny,
found in May,
cxcvii.
6.
Hajdu
Co.
1858,
with
three others of Type D. Kis-Koszey (Battina) Baranza Co.
National Museum, Buda-Pest.
1883/131
Natural History Museum, Vienna.
37811.
(6).
PLATE
SWORDS OF TYPE Site
unknown.
3
4 5
6
7
D,
FROM HUNGARY.
Ownership unknown.
Catalogue (1891)
Naue (1903) viii. 7. Rima-Szombat, Gomor Co., found with 2 swords Type E. Hampel (1886) cxiii. viii.
IX.
Hampel
(1886) xx, 8.
44.
Endrod, Bekes Co. Magyarorszaz, with four others. Hajdu-boszormeny, Hajdu Co, found \ in May, 1858, with a sword of >
Type
C.
)
National Museum, Buda-Pest.
1867/3.
National Museum, Buda-Pest. National Museum, Buda-Pest.
1888/33.
National Museum, Buda-Pest, 1883/131,
PLATE
SWORDS OF TYPE (1886) xc.
National Museum, Buda-Pest.
Magyarorszaz. Site
unknown. vii. 4.
FROM HUNGARY.
National Museum, Buda-Pest. Arch. Ertesito XIV. xxvi. 229-230.
Podhering, Bereg Co.
Hampel
E.
X.
Catalogue (1891)
Naue
(1903) ix. 2.
Hajdii-boszormeny,
Hajdu
Co.
Ownership unknown. Ownership imknown.
Naue
from the Schatze.
Formerly in Pfeffer
collection.
(1903) ix.
i.
Hampel
(1886) xx. 2. Oreszka, Zemplen Co. {1886) XX. I and 3.
Hampel
Collection of
Coimt Antoine Sztaray.
PLATE XL
SWORDS OF TYPE 1
Austria, Hallstatt.
Sacken 2
G.
Grave 126.
Natural History Museum, Vienna.
24091.
Grave 299.
Natural History Museum, Vienna.
24609,
(1868).
Austria, Hallstatt.
Sacken
(1868).
3
Schleswig-Holsteii), Siems near Liibeck. Splieth (1900) ix.
4
France, Var, Flayosc.
5
Ireland,
6
Sweden, Nilsson,
Liibeck Museum.
729.
171. site
unknown.
Wild,
Antiquarian Museum, Marseilles. National Museum, Dublin.
Cat. Antiq., 319, No. 2.
Ur-inv. (1865)
7
fig.
i.
Skand Nord. Lubbock
7.
15.
Nyland, Haapa Kyla Heath. Crawford (1921) 136.
Finland,
Vorgeschichtliche xxxii. 4.
(1900)
Helsingfors
Museum.
PLATE
XII.
SWORDS FROM GREEK LANDS. 1
Greece
Athens Museum.
No. 1017.
;
Athens Museum.
No. 2539.
:
Athens Museum.
No. 8017.
Mycenae.
:
Schliemann
(1878) No. 221, p. 144.
5
Greece Tsountas, Mycense. E. A. (1891) 25. Greece Levadeia. Crete Muliana. Grave B. Crete Muliana. Grave B.
6
Egypt
2 3
4
:
:
Zagazig.
:
xxxii.
Petrie (1917) L.Taf.
PI- II- P- 44(1904) 'ApxPI- II- P- 44'E4>. 'Apx(1904) Peet (1911. 2) 283. Berlin Museum. No. 20447. 'E.
Z.f../E.S.
6.
V. p. 61.
7
Egypt
site
:
unknown
Petrie
Berlin
Petrie
Berlin
Museum.
Z.f.^.S.
L.Taf. v. p. 61.
(1917) xxxii. 5.
8
Egypt
TeU Firaun.
:
(1917) xxxii. 7.
9 10 11
Greece Greece
Cyprus
:
:
:
Tiryns. Tiryns. site
unknown.
Museum.
No.
20305.
p. 61.
Athens Museum. Athens Museum. Coll.
No. 6228. No. 6228. Professor P. Geddes.
Z.f.^E.S.
L.Taf.
v.
PLATE
XIII.
SWORDS FROM ITALY. Montelius (1895B. 131. Naue (1903) Lake Trasimene. vii. Montelius 4. (18951904) II. ii. B. 126. At the bridge of Fras.sineto, on the banks of the Chiana. Montelius (1895-1904) II. ii. B. 126. Naue (1903) Lake Tiasimene. vii. 3. Montelius (1895-1904) II. ii. B. 126. Naue (1903) Lake Trasimene.
Ascoli Piceno.
1904)
vii.
10
II.
Prehistoric
Museum, Rome.
ii.
Collection SBaron Franz Schloss Matzen.
Museum
of Arezzo.
B.P.
von
Lippenheide,
XXVI.
at
viii. i.
Formerly in the collection of M. Amilcare Ancona at Milan.
Ownership unknown.
2.
Museum, Rome.
B.P.
XXVI.
Alerona, com. da FicuUe, ProMontelius vince of Orvieto. (1895-1904) II. ii. B. 126.
Prehistoiic
Rome. Naue (1903) Near Lake Fucino.
Collection of M. Amilcare Ancona, at Milan. Prehistoric Museum, Rome. B.P. xii. 261 ; xxix. 84-86. Prehistoric Museum, Rome. B.P. xii. 261 ; xxix. 84-86. Prehistoric Museum, Rome. B.P. xii. 261 xxix. 84-86. Collection Baron Franz von Lippenheide, at Schloss Matzen.
vii. 5.
Montelius (1895-1904) II. ii. B. 142. Near Lake Fucino. Montelius (1895-1904) II. ii. B. 142. Near Lake Fucino. Montelius (1895-1904) II. ii. B. 142.
Naue
II
Sulmona.
12
Apulia, site unknown. (1903) vii. 6.
(1903) vii. i.
Naue
viii. 4.
;
Ownership unknown.
.
PLATE XIV.
SWORDS FROM ENGLAND. Brentford, Middlesex. From the bed of the Thames, above the G.W.R. dock. Wetheringsett, Suffolk. Arch. Ass. Joum. iii. (1848) 254, XV. (1859) pi. xxiii. 4. Evans Anc. Br. Impl. fig. 345. p. 282. Wilburton, Cambridgeshire. Arch. Found in the peat.
Public Library, Brentford.
Layton Collection^
Norwich Castle Museiun. 76, 94.
Museum
Fitch collection, 785, Catalogue of Antiquities, 315.
and Ethnology, Cambridge, Cambridge, 17 May, 1919.
of Archceology
New
xlviii. 106.
Amerside Law Farm, Chatton, Northumberland
Alnwick Castle Museum, No. 228.
Brentford, Middlesex. From the bed of the Thames, above the G.W.R. dock. Richmond, Surrey. From the bed of the Thames, at the lock and weir.
Public Library, Brentford.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. the Tyne.
From
Public Library, Richmond.
Layton
Collection.
Lloyd Collection.
No. 816.
Black Gate Museum, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
No..
•\
Scale. 3
2 /
5
I
I
'i
5
4 1
r'
10
I
I
'i
sin.' I
i'
IScm.
/o
v.,"
_.>«i>ji»
II
I
iiimniiiiiiiia—liii
