Osprey - Campaign - 206 - Spartacus and the Slave War 73-71 BC - A gladiator rebels agains

SPARTACUS AND THE

SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC

A gladiator rebels against Rome

ABOUT THE AUTHOR AND ILLUSTRATOR started his career as a biochemist before joining the Royal Marines. Having left the military, he went back to university and completed a BA and PhD in Ancient History at the University of Newcastle. He was Assistant Director at the British School at Athens, Greece, and then a lecturer in Ancient History at the University of Edinburgh. Nic is now a freelance author and researcher based in south-west France.

D R N I C FIELDS

was born in Kent, UK, and attended art college in Cornwall. He has had a life-long passion for illustration, and since 1985 has worked as a professional artist. Steve has provided award-winning illustrations for renowned publishers Dorling Kindersley, where his interest in historical illustration began. STEVE N O O N

CAMPAIGN • 206

SPARTACUS AND THE SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC A gladiator rebels against Rome

First published in 2009 by Osprey Publishing Midland House, West Way, Botley, Oxford 0X2 OPH, UK 443 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, USA E-mail: [email protected] © 2009 Osprey Publishing Limited All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers.

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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

The origins of the revolt . The First Slave War (135-132 BC) . The Second Slave War (104-100 BC)

5

CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS 146-60 B C

11

ROMAN SOCIAL ORDER

14

The slave system . Piracy and the slave trade - Gladiators - men of the sword . Oscan speakers

OPPOSING COMMANDERS

27

OPPOSING ARMIES

34

OPPOSING PLANS

47

THE CAMPAIGN

52

Spartacus the Thracian . Marcus Licinius Crassus

The slave army . The Roman army

The Spartacan plan . The Roman plan

Defeat of the praetorian armies, 73 BC - Defeat of the consular armies, 72 BC The war with Crassus, 71 BC - The trap closes: River Silarus, 71 BC

AFTERMATH

79

THE LEGACY OF SPARTACUS

83

A GUIDE TO PRIMARY SOURCES

88

Crucifixion . The return to order

Appian (b. AD 95) . Plutarch (c. AD 46-120) . Sallust (86-c. 35 BC) BIBLIOGRAPHY

93

GLOSSARY A N D ABBREVIATIONS

94

INDEX

95

INTRODUCTION T h e year 7 3 BC, the 6 7 9 t h f r o m the f o u n d i n g o f R o m e , w i t n e s s e d the o u t b r e a k of a serious u p h e a v a l in Italy itself, a slave-society's w o r s t n i g h t m a r e c o m e true.

Rocca di Cerere (left) and Castello di Lombardia (right), looking south-east outside the Eurospin supermarket, Enna. Cicero describes Enna as a town 'built on a lofty eminence, the top of which is a table-land, watered by perennial springs, and bound in every direction by precipitous cliffs' {Verrines 2.4.107). Besieged by Roman forces, Enna remained impregnable and only fell through betrayal from within. (Fields-Carre Collection)

T h i s w a s the g r e a t s l a v e u p r i s i n g led b y a c h a r i s m a t i c g l a d i a t o r n a m e d S p a r t a c u s . F o r the m o d e r n r e a d e r his n a m e is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h justified rebellion, the u n d e r d o g d a r i n g t o fight b a c k . N o t o n l y w a s he the p o s s e s s o r in T o m Wolfe's p h r a s e of 'the right s t u f f for a H o l l y w o o d e p i c , S p a r t a c u s a l s o b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t l e i t m o t i f t o typify the m o d e r n w a g e - s l a v e w h o r e b e l s a g a i n s t e c o n o m i c e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d s o c i a l inequality. M o s t n o t e w o r t h y in this respect is the r a d i c a l g r o u p o f G e r m a n Socialists f o u n d e d in M a r c h 1 9 1 6 by R o s a L u x e m b u r g a n d K a r l L i e b k n e c h t , the Spartakusbund (Spartacus League), w h o l i n k e d the S p a r t a c u s l e g e n d t o p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t the G r e a t W a r a n d the c u r r e n t e c o n o m i c order. Similarly, in m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s , the b a l a c l a v a - c l a d Subcomandante M a r c o s , w h o d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f a s the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s p o k e s p e r s o n for the i n d i g e n o u s rebel m o v e m e n t in C h i a p a s , s o u t h e r n M e x i c o , has used Spartacus, alongside Ernesto ' C h e ' G u e v a r a , as a revolutionary icon for the p o p u l a r s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t p o l i t i c a l , j u d i c i a l , s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c i n e q u a l i t i e s , the f o u r h o r s e m e n o f a n e n t r e n c h e d s t a t u s q u o , w h a t e v e r t h a t status q u o m a y be.

Enna, a general view westsouth-west from Rocca di Cerere. At the time of the First Slave War, the town was the agricultural centre of one of the richest grain-producing plains of Sicily and also an important cult centre of Demeter (Ceres), the goddess of the earth, agriculture and grain. Like the Syrian Atargatis, Demeter was a manifestation of the Great Mother. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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E x a m p l e s c o u l d b e m u l t i p l i e d o f S p a r t a c u s a s s u m i n g a different s h a p e a c c o r d i n g t o the v i e w p o i n t o f the o b s e r v e r : a s i n d i v i d u a l h e r o , a s leader of a s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r e b e l l i o n , a s p o t e n t i a l d e s t r o y e r o f R o m e a n d , of c o u r s e , a s i n s p i r a t i o n for future c l a s s s t r u g g l e . A s it h a p p e n s , w e all h a v e o u r o w n p a r t i c u l a r v i s i o n o f S p a r t a c u s , b e it f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t o r a n t i q u a r i a n interest. A c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , himself a G r e e k a n d one of our three m a i n sources, S p a r t a c u s w a s 'much m o r e than one w o u l d e x p e c t f r o m his c o n d i t i o n , m o s t intelligent a n d c u l t u r e d , b e i n g m o r e like a G r e e k t h a n a T h r a c i a n ' (Crassus 8.2). T h e c o m m e n t implies that to a G r e e k intellect l i v i n g u n d e r t h e s u p e r p o w e r o f R o m e , S p a r t a c u s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e o v e r c o m e the n a t u r a l inferiority p r o d u c e d by the t w i n h a n d i c a p s o f f o r e i g n n e s s a n d servile s t a t u s b y sheer f o r c e o f p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e historical S p a r t a c u s w a s r o u g h a n d heroic, a big, brave and greath e a r t e d m a n , a n d his r e p o r t e d a c t i o n s b e a r o u t his ability t o l e a d others a n d his ingenuity in battle. B u t like s u c h a h e r o , v i e w s o n his s h o r t career a s a slave g e n e r a l o s c i l l a t e b e t w e e n the i m p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f fiction t o the p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f f a c t . ' S p a r t a c u s ' , a s M a r x f a m o u s l y w r o t e in a letter t o E n g e l s d a t e d 2 7 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 1 , ' a p p e a r s t o b e the m o s t c a p i t a l fellow t h a t all of ancient h i s t o r y c a n s h o w for i t s e l f ( Correspondence 1846-95, 1 9 3 4 , p. 126). For m a n y , this will p e r h a p s s e e m like a n e x t r e m e view. T h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y rebel Guerrillero' C h e G u e v a r a w a s a l s o a s t r o n g a d m i r e r of S p a r t a c u s . T h e ' H e r o i c r e m a i n s a w e l l - k n o w n f i g u r e , w h e t h e r a d o r e d or reviled, t o millions a r o u n d the m o d e r n w o r l d . A s a real m a n , n o t a u n i v e r s a l i c o n , he killed for a c a u s e , o r d e r e d p e o p l e t o kill for t h a t c a u s e , a d v o c a t e d w a r t o the d e a t h a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d m a d e the u l t i m a t e sacrifice for his beliefs. D e a d m e n m a y tell n o t a l e s , b u t they c a n m a k e a l e g e n d . In the ancient w o r l d S p a r t a c u s w a s a real s l a v e w h o r e b e l l e d , b u t w h o u l t i m a t e l y did n o t w i n . Yet for all this, his c o n t i n u e d a p p e a r a n c e o n the battlefield s o a l a r m e d R o m e t h a t it m o b i l i z e d a

punitive force e q u a l t o t h a t w i t h w h i c h C a e s a r w a s later t o c o n q u e r G a u l t o hunt h i m d o w n a n d kill h i m .

THE ORIGINS OF THE REVOLT T h e r e b e l l i o n o f s l a v e s in I t a l y u n d e r S p a r t a c u s m a y h a v e b e e n the b e s t o r g a n i z e d , b u t it w a s n o t the first o f its k i n d . T h e r e h a d b e e n o t h e r r e b e l l i o n s of s l a v e s t h a t afflicted R o m e , a n d w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a s w i s e e n o u g h t o p r o f i t by their m i s t a k e s . All the s a m e , t h o u g h his r e b e l l i o n is easily the m o s t f a m o u s , it is i m p o r t a n t for u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t s t e a l i n g , p e t t y s a b o t a g e , or s i m p l y r u n n i n g a w a y , w e r e the m o r e u s u a l m o d e s o f r e s i s t a n c e e m p l o y e d by s l a v e s . F u l l - b l o w n w a r s w e r e highly u n u s u a l .

Temple of Demeter (Tempio di Cerere), looking north-east from Torre Pisana, Castello di Lombardia. It was here that Eunus and his followers from the eastern Mediterranean worshipped the Great Mother in her local form as Demeter. Also it was from here, according to Cicero (Verrines 2.4.112), that Verres, the infamous Roman governor of Sicily, dared to take away her cult statue. (Fields-Carre Collection)

N e i g h b o u r i n g Sicily, a l a n d o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s , b u t chiefly G r e e k s , h a d b e c o m e R o m e ' s first o v e r s e a s p r o v i n c e in the w a k e o f the first l o n g s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t C a r t h a g e (First P u n i c War, 2 6 4 - 2 4 1 BC). B u t the s u b s e q u e n t r e v i v a l of C a r t h a g e t h a t led t o the s e c o n d s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t R o m e ( S e c o n d P u n i c War, 2 1 8 - 2 0 1 BC) b r o u g h t a l o g i c a l C a r t h a g i n i a n a m b i t i o n t o r e c o v e r its f o r m e r interests in Sicily a n d R o m e in effect w a s f o r c e d t o c o n q u e r the i s l a n d a n e w . It w a s Sicily's e n o r m o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o s p e r i t y , e a r n i n g it by C i c e r o ' s d a y the n i c k n a m e ' R o m e ' s g r a n a r y ' (Verrines 2 . 2 . 5 ) , t h a t w a s t o p r o v e the p r o v i n c e ' s greatest material asset to plundering R o m e . Slavery of c o u r s e w a s n o t n e w to Sicily, b u t after the R o m a n r e c o n q u e s t the scale of slave o w n i n g o n the i s l a n d h a d i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , a p h e n o m e n o n D i o d o r o s , a Sicilian himself, m a k e s clear in his r e m a r k s ( 3 5 . 2 . 1 - 2 , 2 7 , 3 4 ) o n the c o n d i t i o n of the p r o v i n c e just p r i o r t o the first g r e a t s l a v e rebellion - the First Slave War.

7

LEFT Bronze statue of Eunus, Castello di Lombardia Scuola Regionale d'Arte Enna (1960). Eunus, the principal figure of the First Slave War, was a domestic slave who belonged to a certain Antigenes of Enna. The rebel slaves of Enna declared Eunus their king, who then took a diadem and regal dress, called his female companion queen, and conferred on himself the Seleucid dynastic name of Antiochos. (Fields-Carre Collection) RIGHT Via Roma 528, the site of Cicero's residence in Enna. This commemorative plaque makes mention of his prosecution of Verres, the former governor of Sicily. It is significant that early in his life Cicero had discovered the profound difference between justice and morality. Justice was the tool of the strong, morality the illusion of the weak. Thus, for him, slavery was just. (Fields-Carre Collection)

MARCO TULLIO CICERONE D I F E N S O R E DI ENNA E D E L I . A SICILIA C 0 N T R 0 IL DEPREDATORE DI T E M P I ! CA10 I J C I N I O V E R R E C 0 V E R N A T O R E ROMANO D E L L ' I S O L A

OUESTO R1C0RD0

THE FIRST SLAVE WAR (135-132 B C ) D i o d o r o s w r i t e s ( 3 5 . 2 . 4 , 1 0 ) t h a t t h e s l a v e s , w h o h a d their o r i g i n s in the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , m o t i v a t e d b y their m i s e r a b l e living c o n d i t i o n s a n d the b r u t a l i t y w i t h w h i c h there w e r e t r e a t e d , h a d d i s c u s s e d rebellion before the v i o l e n c e a c t u a l l y e r u p t e d . C o n v e n i e n t l y w e c a n d i v i d e it i n t o t w o t h e a t r e s of o p e r a t i o n , w e s t e r n a n d e a s t e r n , w h i c h reflect the b a s i c g e o g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o n o f the i s l a n d . O n e R o m a n q u a e s t o r w a s in c h a r g e of the w e s t e r n p a r t of the island, stationed at L i l y b a e u m , a n d another w a s stationed at Syracuse, on the e a s t c o a s t . S l a v e h e r d s m e n d o m i n a t e d the w e s t e r n r e g i o n a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l s l a v e s d o m i n a t e d the g r a i n - p r o d u c i n g p l a i n s o f the e a s t . T h e s l a v e s in the t w o h a l v e s of the i s l a n d a p p e a r t o h a v e risen u p separately - t h o s e in the e a s t u n d e r a s l a v e n a m e d E u n u s , by birth a S y r i a n f r o m A p a m e a , a n d t h o s e in the w e s t u n d e r a h e r d e r of h o r s e s n a m e d K l e o n , a Cilician f r o m the T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s . E u n u s ' w a s a m a g i c i a n a n d w o n d e r w o r k e r ' with a deep d e v o t i o n t o the S y r i a n m o t h e r g o d d e s s A t a r g a t i s ( A s t a r t e ) , while K l e o n ' h a d b e e n a c c u s t o m e d t o a life o f b a n d i t r y f r o m the t i m e he w a s a s m a l l c h i l d ' ( D i o d o r o s 3 5 . 2 . 5 , 3 . 2 ) . It w a s h o p e d by the a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t the t w o g r o u p s of rebels w o u l d c o m e into conflict a n d tear e a c h other t o p i e c e s . C o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , however, the rebellion g a t h e r e d m o m e n t u m w h e n K l e o n a c k n o w l e d g e d the s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y o f E u n u s , a c t i n g a s g e n e r a l t o his k i n g , a n d their f o l l o w e r s c o m b i n e d t o f o r m a single c o h e r e n t f o r c e . T h e r a p i d e s c a l a t i o n o f their s t r e n g t h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a b e t t e d by the s l a v e o w n e r s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o h a d e n c o u r a g e d violent b e h a v i o u r by a l l o w i n g their s l a v e h e r d s m e n t o feed a n d c l o t h e t h e m s e l v e s by s t e a l i n g w h a t they n e e d e d f r o m o t h e r p e o p l e o n the i s l a n d . In a d d i t i o n , the r e s p o n s e of the l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s w a s l e t h a r g i c , a p p a r e n t l y b e c a u s e they g r e a t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d the s l a v e s ' ability t o o r g a n i z e a large-scale military c a m p a i g n . M o r e o v e r , with m o r e

8

d e m a n d i n g o v e r s e a s c o m m i t m e n t s elsewhere, a garrison army w a s not permanently stationed o n the island. In t e r m s o f m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t officials w e r e t w o c o n s u l s of R o m e , a n d , b e n e a t h t h e m , the s i x p r a e t o r s . T h e s e chief m a g i s t r a t e s w e r e u s u a l l y p u t in c h a r g e o f R o m a n armies that battled formidable foreign enemies. Repressing rebellious slaves w a s certainly c o n s i d e r e d b e n e a t h the d i g n i t y o f these m e n a n d n o t w o r t h y o f the talents o f the l e g i o n a r i e s they c o m m a n d e d . S u c h a s o r d i d t a s k w a s n o r m a l l y left to the slave o w n e r s or t o local m i l i t i a s , w h i c h w e r e often v e n a l , w e a k , a n d p r o v i s i o n a l . A s the p e r m a n e n t g o v e r n i n g b o d y of R o m e , the S e n a t e did h a v e a l o n g - t e r m perspective o n events, b u t it h a d t o be m o v e d by the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a m a n i f e s t t h r e a t o f m a j o r p r o p o r t i o n s for it t o direct the c o n s u l s or the p r a e t o r s t o u s e R o m a n l e g i o n s t o d e a l w i t h a slave rebellion. R o m a n provincial governors, such as those w h o a d m i n i s t e r e d Sicily, w e r e n o r m a l l y f o r m e r p r a e t o r s w h o u s u a l l y h e l d their p r o v i n c i a l c o m m a n d s for o n e - y e a r t e r m s . B e c a u s e they w e r e t e m p o r a r y a n d they w e r e severely u n d e r s t a f f e d by m o d e r n s t a n d a r d s , these g o v e r n o r s w e r e d e p e n d e n t o n the g r e a t a n d the g o o d t h a t r a n l o c a l t o w n s a n d cities t o help a d m i n i s t e r their p r o v i n c e s . T h e s e local l a n d o w n i n g elites often g a v e their o w n interests p r i o r i t y o v e r the rule o f l a w a n d o r d e r t h a t w a s s u p p o s e d t o b e e n f o r c e d by the g o v e r n o r s . ' T h e R o m a n g o v e r n o r s o f Sicily', a s D i o d o r o s e x p l a i n s , 'tried t o p r e v e n t the g r o w t h of these g a n g s , b u t they d i d n o t d a r e t o p u n i s h t h e m b e c a u s e o f the p o w e r a n d influence o f the l a n d o w n e r s w h o w e r e the b r i g a n d s ' slave m a s t e r s ' ( 3 5 . 2 . 2 ) . G i v e n the f a i l u r e o f the l o c a l f o r c e s t o d e a l w i t h t h e s l a v e r e b e l l i o n in Sicily, the S e n a t e finally d e c i d e d t o d i s p a t c h R o m a n a r m y u n i t s t o the i s l a n d , first u n d e r the p r a e t o r L u c i u s H y p s a e u s a n d t h e n u n d e r t w o s u c c e s s i v e c o n s u l s , L u c i u s C a l p u r n i u s P i s o ( cos. 1 3 3 BC) a n d P u b l i u s R u p i l i u s P e r p e r n a ( c o s . 1 3 2 B C ) . A s a result, the w a r w a s finally b r o u g h t t o a n e n d .

During the First Slave War, Kleon, having risen in rebellion on the western, more pastoral, side of Sicily, immediately overran Agrigentum (Agrigento), whose walls had probably fallen into disrepair, and the neighbouring region with a force said by Diodoros (35.2.17) to have numbered 5,000. Most of his followers were slave herdsmen, pastores. View of the south circuit of the city, looking west from the temple of Hera. (Fields-Carre Collection)

THE SECOND SLAVE WAR (104-100 B C ) T o a c o n s i d e r a b l e extent, the s e c o n d g r e a t s l a v e rebellion, w h i c h a g a i n e r u p t e d o n Sicily, w a s a l m o s t a c a r b o n c o p y of the first. O u t l a w r y o u t s i d e the cities a n d t o w n s c o n t i n u e d l a r g e l y u n a l t e r e d , n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e o f the t r a d i t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n of b r i g a n d a g e w i t h p a s t o r a l i s m . R e s i s t a n c e in the e a s t e r n p a r t o f the i s l a n d w a s led by S a l v i u s , w h o h a d the gift o f p r o p h e c y , a n d in the w e s t w a s o r g a n i z e d by A t h e n i o n , a C i l i c i a n f a m o u s for his bravery. A t h e n i o n w a s n o t only the overseer of a l a r g e f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n b u t , like S a l v i u s , he w a s a l s o r e p u t e d t o p o s s e s s s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r s , i n c l u d i n g the a b i l i t y t o utter p r o p h e c i e s b a s e d o n his a s t r o l o g i c a l skills ( D i o d o r o s 3 6 . 5 . 1 ) . H e w a s certainly n o t the ideal bailiff, c a l l e d the vilicus, e n v i s i o n e d b y C a t o the Elder, w h o

9

Lilybaeum (Marsala) started life as a Punic city, but at its zenith it was a Roman naval base and the seat of the quaestor in charge of the western part of Sicily. Cicero would call it civitas splendidissima. During the Second Slave War, the rebels under Athenion felt strong enough to lay siege to Lilybaeum. This is a view of Marsala looking southwest from Isola di Mozia. (Fields-Carre Collection)

r e c o m m e n d e d a m o n g his d u t i e s t h a t 'he s h o u l d h a v e n o d e s i r e t o c o n s u l t d i v i n e r s , a u g u r s , fortune-tellers or a s t r o l o g e r s ' (On Agriculture 5 . 4 ) , a ruling C o l u m e l l a later r e p e a t s in his a g r i c u l t u r a l t r e a t i s e , a d d i n g t h a t 'these types of silly s u p e r s t i t i o n c a u s e u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d p e o p l e t o s p e n d m o n e y a n d result in w r o n g d o i n g ' (On Agriculture 1 . 8 . 6 ) . O f c o u r s e b o t h he a n d Salvius h a d the capacity, in v i e w of their ability t o c a s t spells over their f o l l o w e r s , t o e n c o u r a g e the k i n d o f r e s i s t a n c e t o a u t h o r i t y all s l a v e o w n e r s f e a r e d . B u t there w a s m o r e t o l e a d i n g a r e b e l l i o n t h a n the a l l u r e of m y s t i c i s m . S a l v i u s , like E u n u s b e f o r e h i m , w a s d e c l a r e d k i n g by his f o l l o w e r s , a n d he a s s u m e d the r o y a l n a m e o f T r y p h o n . Intriguingly, the o r i g i n a l T r y p h o n h a d b e e n a b a r b a r o u s , f r e e - b o o t i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r of violence f r o m Cilicia, a p l a c e w h i c h b e c a m e f a m o u s for its p i r a t e s , w h o u s u r p e d the S e l e u c i d t h r o n e (r. 1 4 2 - 1 3 9 / 8 BC). M e a n w h i l e in the w e s t a n o t h e r slave k i n g w a s p r o c l a i m e d , A t h e n i o n a d o p t i n g all the e x t e r n a l t r a p p i n g s of m o n a r c h y , a p u r p l e r o b e , silver s c e p t r e , a n d a r o y a l d i a d e m , a n d p r o c l a i m i n g t o his f o l l o w e r s t h a t the g o d s i n t e n d e d h i m t o rule all Sicily ( D i o d o r o s 3 6 . 4 . 4 , 7 . 1 , F l o r u s Epitome 3 . 1 9 . 1 0 ) . S o the slave k i n g s c o n s c i o u s l y i m i t a t e d the c o n v e n t i o n s of Hellenistic k i n g s h i p , the i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d the p o l i t i c a l m e n t a l i t y o f the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d since the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the A n t i g o n i d , Seleucid, a n d P t o l e m a i c d y n a s t i e s . N o n e of this s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d u n u s u a l w h e n w e recall the fact t h a t m a n y o f the rebels w e r e first-generation s l a v e s w h o s e p l a c e s of birth w e r e in the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . D e s p i t e t h e l e s s o n s o f t h e first w a r , the r e s p o n s e by the S e n a t e w a s s i m i l a r l y s l o w . Its i n a d e q u a t e r e a c t i o n , d u e in p a r t t o the n e e d for R o m a n f o r c e s t o f a c e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s t h r e a t e n i n g n o r t h e r n Italy, a l l o w e d the slaves t o a c q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e m o m e n t u m in the c r u c i a l early s t a g e s o f the rebellion a n d then t o c o a l e s c e in n u m b e r s t h a t o v e r w h e l m e d the l o c a l f o r c e s trying to s u b d u e t h e m . O n c e a g a i n , the t w o rebel l e a d e r s c a m e t o a n a g r e e m e n t a n d j o i n e d f o r c e s , w i t h A t h e n i o n d e f e r r i n g t o S a l v i u s , a n d o n c e a g a i n , only the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f the larger, b e t t e r - t r a i n e d a n d d i s c i p l i n e d c o n s u l a r f o r c e s of the R o m a n a r m y finally b r o u g h t the w a r t o a n e n d .

10

CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS 146-60 BC 146 BC

Romans destroy Carthage and Corinth.

138 B C

Birth of Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

135 BC

First Slave War begins - Lucius (?) Cornelius Lentulus, governor in Sicily, defeated.

121 B C

Caius Gracchus attempts to secure further term - outlawed and suicide.

119 B C

Marius tribune of the people.

116 B C

Marius praetor.

C.

134 BC

133 B C

Caius Fulvius Flaccus, as consul, sent against slaves. Uprising of 4,000 slaves crushed at Sinuessa, Campania. Slave uprisings repressed in Attic silver mines and on the island of Delos. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus tribune of the people - land reform and assassination. Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi, as consul, sent against slaves. Caius Marius serves under Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus at Numantia.

132 BC

Publius Rupilius Perperna, as consul, winds up First Slave War.

129 B C

Marius military tribune.

125 BC

Abortive bill to enfranchise Latins and Italians of Fulvius Flaccus.

123 B C

Caius Sempronius Gracchus tribune of the people - socio-political reforms. Marius quaestor.

115 B C

114 B C

Marius, as propraetor, governor in Hispania Ulterior - suppresses local bandits.

113 B C

Cnaeus Papirius Carbo, consul, routed by Cimbri at Noreia.

111 B C

Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, as consul, sent against Iugurtha of Numidia.

109 B C

Marius legate under his patron, consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus, in Numidia.

107 B C

Marius consul - enlists capite censi and returns to Numidia.

106 B C

122 BC

Caius Gracchus re-elected as tribune bill to enfranchise Latins and Italians.

Birth of Marcus Licinius Crassus.

Sulla serves Marius as quaestor in Numidia - battle of the Muluccha. Births of Cnaeus Pompeius (Pompey) and Marcus Tullius Cicero.

105 B C

Iugurtha captured. Consular armies routed and destroyed at Arausio.

104 B C

Marius' second consulship - army 'reforms'. Insurrection of Titus Vettius Minucius, a Roman eques - leads an army of 3,500 slaves. Second Slave War begins.

11

103 B C

Marius' third consulship. Lucius

85 B C

Cinna's third consulship. Sulla completes settlement of Asia. Sertorius praetor.

Licinius Lucullus, as propraetor, sent against slaves.

84 B C 102 B C

101 B C

Marius' fourth consulship - Teutones and Ambrones defeated at Aquae Sextiae. Salvius (Tryphon) killed Athenion assumes leadership of slave army.

Cinna's fourth consulship - lynched during mutiny. Peace of Dardanus.

83 B C

Sulla lands in Italy. Pompey and Crassus join Sulla.

82 B C

Battle of Porta Collina. Sulla dictator - proscription lists.

81 BC

Sulla's second dictatorship. Pompey sent against Marians in Sicily and Africa. Sertorius expelled as (pro-Marian) governor f Hispania Ulterior.

80 B C

Sulla's second consulship. Pompey's first triumph. Sertorius re-enters Iberia - establishes a Marian 'government in exile'.

79 B C

Sulla retires.

78 B C

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus consul. Publius Servilius Vatia, as proconsul, begins war against Mediterranean pirates. Death of Sulla.

77 BC

Insurrection and death of Lepidus. Pompey, with propraetorian command, sent against Sertorius.

Enfranchisement of Italy south of the Po.

76 BC

Successes for Sertorius in Iberia.

Destruction of Asculum Picenum.

75 BC

Marius' fifth consulship - Cimbri defeated at Vercellae. Manius Aquilius, as consul, sent against slaves.

100 B C

Marius' sixth consulship. Birth of Caius Iulius Caesar. Aquilius, as proconsul, ends Second Slave War - kills Athenion in duel.

99 B C

Marius in Asia.

98 B C

Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invades Cappadocia.

97 BC

Quintus Sertorius military tribune in Iberia.

96 B C

Sulla propraetor of Cilicia - installs Ariobarzanes as king of Cappadocia.

91 BC

Social War begins. Mithridates invades Cappadocia for second time.

90 B C

89 B C

Rome provokes Mithridates to war.

Sertorius-Mithridates pact. Caesar captured by pirates.

88 B C

Sulla consul. Mithridates overruns province of Asia. Social War ends. Sulla marches on Rome - Marius flees to Africa.

74 B C

Lucius Licinius Lucullus, as consul, sent against Mithridates. Marcus Antonius, a praetor, given wideranging powers to fight pirates.

87 B C

Lucius Cornelius Cinna consul. Marius returns - Marians take Rome.

73 B C

Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus and Caius Cassius Longinus consuls.

86 B C

Cinna's second consulship. Marius' seventh consulship - dies soon after. Sulla's victories at Chaironeia and Orchomenos. Birth of Caius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust).

12

Spring: gladiators escape from Capua. Occupation of Mount Vesuvius. Summer: Caius Claudius Glaber, as praetor, sent against slaves.

Other events: Antonius' humiliating peace - Senate later rejects.

Autumn: defeat of Glaber. Publius Varinius, as praetor, sent against slave army. Defeats of Varinius and his subordinates.

70 BC

Crassus and Pompey consuls. Cicero prosecutes Verres.

Winter: slave army moves to Lucania.

72 BC

Crixus splits from Spartacus.

69 BC

Other events: Sertorius assassinated; Caius Verres governor in Sicily; Crassus praetor.

Lucullus invades Armenia - battle and sack of Tigranocerta. Caesar quaestor in Hispania Ulterior.

68 BC

Lucullus' soldiers mutiny.

Lucius Gellius Publicola and Cnaeus

6 7 BC

Pompey, as proconsul, sent against pirates. Mithridates defeats Romans at Zela.

66 BC

Pompey, as proconsul, replaces

Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus consuls. Spring: Spartacus treks northward. Defeat and death of Crixus in Apulia.

Lucullus in east. Summer: Spartacus defeats consular armies. Spartacus defeats army of Cassius. Spartacus treks southward.

65 B C

Crassus censor. Caesar curule aedile.

64 B C

Pompey establishes Syria as province.

63 BC

Cicero consul. Conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline). Caesar elected pontifex maximus - speaks against execution of Catilinarian conspirators. Death of Mithridates. Birth of Octavianus (Augustus).

62 BC

Defeat and death of Catiline at Pistoia. Pompey returns to Rome from east. Caesar praetor.

61 BC

Pompey's third triumph. Caesar, as propraetor, governor in Hispania Ulterior - victory against Lusitani. Caius Octavius' mopping-up operation in southern Italy.

60 BC

The 'first triumvirate'.

Autumn: Crassus, as propraetor, sent against Spartacus. Spartacus withdraws to Bruttium. Winter: Crassus traps Spartacus in toe of Italy. Spartacus escapes trap. Other events: Pompey ends Sertorian War; Antonius defeated by pirates on Crete; Caesar military tribune. 71 BC

Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura and Cnaeus Aufidius Orestes consuls. Spring: Pompey returns to Italy from Iberia. Defeat and death of Spartacus in Lucania. Summer: Crassus' 'triumph' along Via Appia. Winter: Pompey's second triumph. Crassus' ovation.

13

ROMAN SOCIAL ORDER Order and status, as o p p o s e d to w h a t today we understand as class, were the vital p i g e o n h o l e s for the w o r l d of R o m e . C i c e r o , w h e n he claims that the Senate w a s o p e n to all citizens, t a l k s of 'the highest o r d e r ' (Pro Sestio 6 5 . 1 3 7 ) . T h u s the R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s t a l k e d in the l a n g u a g e of s t a t u s g r o u p s , which entitled t h e m t o certain privileges, a n d if a n outsider a s k e d o n e of them to w h a t class (classis) he or she b e l o n g e d , he or she w o u l d p r o b a b l y refer to one of the five p r o p e r t y c l a s s e s in the o l d e s t of the three citizen a s s e m b l i e s , the comitia centuriata. T h e R o m a n s defined themselves in terms of a n order (ordo) legally defined by the state t h r o u g h s t a t u t o r y or c u s t o m a r y rules a n d in s t a n d i n g in a hierarchical relation t o other o r d e r s (Finley 1 9 9 9 : 4 5 - 5 1 ) . F o r instance Tacitus, albeit w r i t i n g u n d e r the e m p e r o r s , s a y s : ' S e n a t o r s a n d equites h a v e special p r o p e r t y qualifications, n o t b e c a u s e they differ in nature f r o m other m e n , but just a s they enjoy p r e c e d e n c e in p l a c e , r a n k a n d dignity, s o they s h o u l d enjoy it a l s o in these things that m a k e for mental p e a c e a n d well-being' (Annates 2 . 3 3 . 2 ) . E v e n under the e m p e r o r s , w h e n R o m e w a s n o longer a n oligarchic republic, the s e n a t o r i a l a n d e q u e s t r i a n o r d e r s r e m a i n e d p r e s t i g i o u s , a tight-knit g r o u p of families perceived t o be w o r t h y by the traditional s t a n d a r d s of birth, wealth a n d m o r a l excellence. W h e n C i c e r o c l a i m s t h a t the highest order, t o w h i c h s e n a t o r s b e l o n g , is a n o p e n o n e , the last thing he h a d in m i n d w a s o p e n i n g the d o o r s of the Senate t o t h o s e at the other e n d of the social scale. In Cicero's R o m e ' m o n e y t a l k s ' a n d all m e n h a v e a price. Indeed O v i d , o n e of the A u g u s t a n p o e t s , laments the fact t h a t the ' S e n a t e is b a r r e d t o the p o o r ' (Amores 3 . 8 . 5 5 ) . In a similar vein H o r a c e (Epistulae 1 . 1 . 5 8 ) , a c o n t e m p o r a r y of O v i d , w r o t e u n h a p p i l y that 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 sestertii, the a p p r o p r i a t e a m o u n t o f p r o p e r t y to be registered a s a n eques at the c e n s u s , o p e n s the w a y t o the h o n o u r s of R o m e . In the m e a n t i m e the l o w e r o r d e r s in R o m e w e r e a v a s t a m o e b i c body, v a g u e a n d m u r m u r i n g . T o m o s t o f u s w h a t is m o r e i n v i d i o u s a r e the v i e w s held by t h a t d a r l i n g o f classicists t h r o u g h the a g e s , C i c e r o . H e w r o t e in a p u n g e n t style a n d never failed t o flay the city-dwelling c o m m o n e r s , the R o m a n proletarii w h o h u d d l e d together in tottering tenements built n o t for p e o p l e but for m o l e s , often referring t o t h e m , a m o n g s t other t h i n g s , a s 'the city s c u m ' (e.g. Epistulae ad Atticum 1 . 1 9 . 4 ) . H e a c k n o w l e d g e s the g r i n d i n g p o v e r t y a n d s o c i a l misery they h a v e t o e n d u r e , b u t , t o a d d insult t o injury, a s it w e r e , he sees it a s their o w n fault, blithely u s i n g the w o r d egens, d e s t i t u t e , for the p o o r a n d even g o e s s o far a s t o m e n t i o n 'the destitute a n d f e l o n i o u s ' (egens et improbus, De domo sua 8 9 ) in the s a m e b r e a t h . Little d i d C i c e r o a p p r e c i a t e t h a t for the p r o l e t a r i a t o f R o m e , b u r i e d in a m o n o c h r o m e life w i t h o u t p r o s p e c t s , the furthest h o r i z o n h a d a l w a y s b e e n t o m o r r o w . B u t w h a t o f t h o s e b e n e a t h the s o c i a l pile, that is, t h o s e of servile s t a t u s ? 14

THE SLAVE SYSTEM Slavery is a n a s p e c t o f a n t i q u i t y t h a t is highly c o n t r o v e r s i a l . It r e m a i n s a n emotive subject even in the 2 1 s t century, especially a s slavery w a s a facet of western civilization that h a s raised a m a s s i v e a m o u n t of d e b a t e b u t nevertheless h a s p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t , albeit g r i e v o u s , p a r t in o u r o w n e c o n o m i c a l a n d social history. In the literature o f R o m e s l a v e s a r e ever p r e s e n t , a n d , for i n s t a n c e , the agricultural writers M a r c u s Porcius C a t o ( 2 3 7 - 1 4 9 BC), k n o w n also as the Elder t o d i s t i n g u i s h h i m f r o m his g r e a t - g r a n d s o n , a n d M a r c u s T e r e n t i u s V a r r o ( 1 1 6 - 2 7 BC) b o t h p r e s u m e t h a t the m a i n l a b o u r e l e m e n t w a s the alien s l a v e . We a l s o find s l a v e s in w o r k s h o p s a n d c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s , b u t it w o u l d be w r o n g o f u s t o a s s u m e t h a t the l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s e r v i l e l a b o u r w a s i n v o l v e d in p r o d u c t i v e w o r k , e s p e c i a l l y o n l a n d e d e s t a t e s . A s a m a t t e r of fact, the b i g g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l a v e s w a s in h o u s e h o l d s , w h e r e they p e r f o r m e d n o n - p r o d u c t i v e duties a s d o m e s t i c s . R o m a n l a w m a d e a clear distinction b e t w e e n mancipia rustica a n d mancipia urbana ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e in the villa rustica or f a r m h o u s e ) , the latter s l a v e s b e i n g t h o s e w i t h w h i c h the h e a d of the h o u s e h o l d s u r r o u n d s h i m s e l f for the s o l e p u r p o s e o f his lifestyle, sua cultus causa. A l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y the q u e s t i o n a r i s e s : w a s R o m a n s o c i e t y a s l a v e society? Statistically, s l a v e r y w a s n o t t h a t p r e v a l e n t in the R o m a n w o r l d a n d l a r g e t r a c t s of the e m p i r e w e r e left u n t o u c h e d by servile l a b o u r . H o w e v e r , w e c a n n o t a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n by statistics a l o n e . R o m a n s o c i e t y w a s a s l a v e s o c i e t y s i m p l y b e c a u s e s l a v e r y a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n d o m i n a t e d the R o m a n mentality. After all, libertas, f r e e d o m , w a s d e f i n e d a s n o t b e i n g e n s l a v e d . T h o s e w h o w o r k e d in the f i e l d s , m i l l s a n d m i n e s w e r e s u b j e c t t o a n e x i s t e n c e of h a r d , b a c k b r e a k i n g l a b o u r . In his n o v e l , The Golden A s s , the African A p u l e i u s offers a n u n c o m p r o m i s i n g g l i m p s e o f the c r u s h i n g c o n d i t i o n of slaves w o r k i n g in a flour mill: Their skins were seamed all over with the marks of old floggings, as you could see through the holes in their ragged shirts that shaded rather than covered their scarred backs; but some wore only loin-cloths. They had letters marked on their foreheads, and half-shaved heads and irons on their leg. (The Golden Ass, 9.12) T h e s e h a p l e s s s o u l s h a d t o t r u d g e r o u n d a n d r o u n d the m i l l s t o n e in u n e n d i n g circles, their feet w e i g h e d d o w n in i r o n s . T o m a k e t h e m w a l k their circles quicker, their b a c k s w o u l d be s t u n g w i t h a l a s h . G r a d u a l l y their eyes w o u l d g r o w sightless w i t h all the d u s t a n d d a r k . T h e o w n e r o f s l a v e s e n j o y e d c o m p l e t e p o w e r o v e r t h e m , even t h a t o f life a n d d e a t h . A horrifying i n s c r i p t i o n (AE 1 9 7 1 . 8 8 ) f r o m the s e a p o r t o f P u t e o l i a p p e a r s a t first t o be n o t h i n g m o r e i n i q u i t o u s t h a n a l a b o u r c o n t r a c t (manceps) for the p u b l i c u n d e r t a k e r o f t h a t s a i d t o w n , l a y i n g d o w n his h o u r s of w o r k a n d r a t e s o f p a y . H o w e v e r , o n c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n the r e a d e r will see that o n e of the u n d e r t a k e r ' s d u t i e s is t h a t o f 'friendly n e i g h b o u r h o o d s l a v e t o r t u r e r ' ; a list o f p r i c e s is g i v e n for v a r i o u s n a s t y d e e d s r a n g i n g f r o m s c o u r g i n g t o c r u c i f i x i o n ( c o l u m n II, lines 8 - 1 4 ) . T h e r e w e r e g o o d a n d b a d s l a v e o w n e r s , b u t this w a s a m a t t e r o f p u r e c h a n c e . R o m a n society h a d a n i n g r a i n e d m e n t a l a t t i t u d e t o s l a v e s , a society w h e r e m a n c o m m a n d e d , w o m a n b o r e , a n d the s l a v e l a b o u r e d , for s u c h w a s

Agora of the Italians, Delos. It is possible that this was a slave market, built as a result of the First Slave War. A generation before the Romans had made Apollo's sacred island into a free port exempt from taxes and soon Delos acquired the grim reputation of being the slave market par excellence, boasting that it could handle 10,000 slaves a day. (Ancient Art & Architecture)

the R o m a n o r d e r o f t h i n g s . I n d e e d , in the eyes o f R o m a n l a w a s l a v e w a s n o t a p e r s o n b u t res, a thing s u b j e c t t o the d o m i n i o n of his or her master. We m u s t b e c a r e f u l h e r e , h o w e v e r , a s t h e r e w a s n o s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s c o n s i d e r e d a s l a v e m o r e a s a thing t h a n a p e r s o n , a n d the condition t h a t p u t s o n e i n d i v i d u a l a t the m e r c y o f a n o t h e r h a d t o b e r e g u l a t e d , the c e n s o r s , for i n s t a n c e , b e i n g e m p o w e r e d t o c h e c k u n w a r r a n t e d acts of violence u p o n s l a v e s . T h e t e r m res i m p l i e s t h a t a s l a v e h a d n o r i g h t s , pronullo, but d u t i e s , a n d this l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n s e p a r a t e d h i m o r her f r o m o t h e r f o r m s of s u b o r d i n a t i o n . In his h a n d b o o k o n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s V a r r o , S p a r t a c u s ' R o m a n c o n t e m p o r a r y , e m p h a s i z e s t h a t the bailiff, the vilicus, s h o u l d n o t e m p l o y w h i p s w h e n w o r d s will suffice (On Agriculture 1.17.5). Athenaios p e r h a p s e x p r e s s e s it b e s t w h e n he e x p l a i n s the principle of servile divide a n d r u l e , e x p l o r i n g the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n a n o w n e r ' s r i g h t s o v e r a s l a v e a n d the u n e a s i n e s s o v e r a n o w n e r w h o w a s e x c e s s i v e l y cruel: There are two safeguards that one may take: first, those who are going to be slaves must not come from the same country of origin, and in so far as it can be arranged they must not speak the same language; and secondly, they must be properly looked after - and not just for their sakes; anyone who wishes to pay proper regard to his own interests should never behave arrogantly towards his slaves. (Athenaios 6.265a)

16

Slaves w e r e certainly h u m a n b e i n g s , yet t o c o w t h e m into the n e c e s s a r y docility of a b r u t e b e a s t n e c e s s i t a t e d a r e g i m e o f calculated brutality and terrorism, especially so on f a r m s , w h e r e vilici e x p l o i t e d the s t r e n g t h o f s l a v e s . M o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d years after the S p a r t a c a n rebellion h a d been c r u s h e d , the s e n a t o r a n d p h i l o s o p h e r S e n e c a f o r m u l a t e d the m o s t liberal set of d o c t r i n e s o n slavery t h a t h a d been a r t i c u l a t e d a t R o m e . A d v o c a t i n g t h a t m a s t e r s s h o u l d treat their s l a v e s w i t h lenience, Seneca b r o k e d o w n the artificial distinction b e t w e e n s l a v e a n d free a n d i n s i s t e d t h a t all m e n s h a r e d a c o m m o n origin a n d a c o m m o n m o r a l i t y , a s p i r i t u a l b r o t h e r h o o d o f m a n k i n d if y o u will. In De beneficiis ( 3 . 1 8 - 2 8 ) he p o s e s the q u e s t i o n whether or not it w a s p o s s i b l e for a slave t o benefit his master. B e f o r e a n s w e r i n g , Seneca m a k e s a n interesting distinction a b o u t terms: a) beneficum, a g o o d deed or favour p e r f o r m e d a s a free a n d v o l u n t a r y g e s t u r e by a n individual u n d e r n o o b l i g a t i o n t o the recipient; b) officium, a d u t y p e r f o r m e d by a s o n , daughter, wife, etcetera, t o w a r d s a father, h u s b a n d , h e a d o f household, p a t r o n , etcetera, n a m e l y a n o b l i g a t i o n of duty; a n d c) ministerium, a n action expected f r o m a slave a s he or she h a s n o other choice but to p e r f o r m this action. Seneca then cuts to the c h a s e by saying that it is not the social standing, which w a s simply a n accident of birth, but the intention of that individual b e s t o w i n g the favour, d u t y or whatever. N e v e r t h e l e s s , a c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t runs a s follows: a slave c a n n o t be a c c o u n t a b l e to the m a s t e r if he or she gives m o n e y or tends h i m w h e n ill, but Seneca immediately ripostes by saying he w a s thinking of the slave w h o fights for the m a s t e r or refuses t o reveal his secrets even under torture. It is a m i s t a k e , e x p l a i n s Seneca, t o believe that a slave's m i n d is not free even if his or her b o d y is o w n e d . A n o t h e r fascinating p a s s a g e is t o be f o u n d in o n e of Seneca's Moral Letters (Epistulae Morales 4 7 ) , written after his r e t i r e m e n t f r o m p u b l i c life. H e r e the p h i l o s o p h e r a s k s a friend if he is o n g o o d t e r m s w i t h his s l a v e s , a n d n a t u r a l l y the friend replies in the a f f i r m a t i v e . S e n e c a then p o i n t s o u t t h a t they a r e still s l a v e s , to w h i c h the friend replies y e s , b u t h u m a n b e i n g s all the s a m e . A g a i n Seneca p o i n t s o u t they are still s l a v e s , a n d s o o n a n d s o forth. A n d then S e n e c a m a k e s a lunge w i t h the R o m a n p r o v e r b ' s o m a n y s l a v e s , s o m a n y e n e m i e s ' (quot servi, tot hostes, 4 7 . 5 ) , t h a t is t o say, y o u r e n e m i e s a r e the p e o p l e w o r k i n g for y o u . T h e rule of fear m a y h a v e b e e n the b a s i s o f the m a s t e r - s l a v e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t o n e m i g h t r i p o s t e , a s S e n e c a d o e s h e r e , t h a t s u c h fear b r e d a s a v a g e cruelty in the m a s t e r s a n d t h u s ' w e t u r n t h e m into e n e m i e s ' . O f c o u r s e all this m o r a l p o s t u r i n g c a m e o u t o f a S t o i c , a n d n o w h e r e in his v a s t c o r p u s o f w r i t i n g s d o e s S e n e c a a c t u a l l y call for a n a b o l i t i o n o f slavery. O n the c o n t r a r y , S t o i c i s m , the d o m i n a n t s c h o o l o f p h i l o s o p h y since the late R e p u b l i c , p r o m o t e d the belief t h a t w h a t d i d n o t affect the inner m a n w a s a n irrelevance. S o w a r , w h i c h w a s a d i s t u r b a n c e o f c o s m i c h a r m o n y , c a u s e d b y m a n ' s w i c k e d n e s s or w r o n g j u d g e m e n t , a n d its h o r r o r s , s u c h a s d e a t h a n d e n s l a v e m e n t , w e r e irrelevant t o a g o o d m a n . T h u s w a s the S t o i c a free m a n , h a v i n g c h o s e n t o be free. It w a s a r g u e d t h a t it w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o e n s l a v e a m a n a g a i n s t his will - he h a d t o c o n s e n t t o be a s l a v e , o t h e r w i s e he m i g h t c h o o s e t o die a free m a n . T h e g o a l w a s p r o g r e s s , n o t p e r f e c t i o n . In C a i u s ' Institutiones, an introduction to R o m a n jurisprudence written a r o u n d AD 1 6 1 , w e find a l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n o f s l a v e r y : ' t h e s t a t e t h a t is

Relief (Mainz, Mittelrheinisches Landesmuseum) decorating a column base from the principia of Mainz-Mogontiacum showing two naked captives chained together at the neck. It is conceivable that they are Gauls, since their horse's mane hairstyle indicates the Celtic practice of washing it in chalky water and then combing it back from the forehead to the nape. This was probably done to enhance fearsomeness on the battlefield. (Ancient Art & Architecture)

17

r e c o g n i z e d b y ius gentium in w h i c h s o m e o n e is s u b j e c t t o the d o m i n i o n of a n o t h e r p e r s o n c o n t r a r y t o n a t u r e ' ( 1 . 3 . 2 ) . T h e ius gentium w a s a l a w o n the c u s t o m s a n d p r a c t i c e s f o u n d in all k n o w n p e o p l e s a n d n o t a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l legal c o d e a s s u c h . B u t w h y c o n t r a r y t o n a t u r e ? B e c a u s e , a s C a i u s r e a s o n s , the s t a t e o f f r e e d o m is w h a t is n a t u r a l even if p e o p l e a r e b o r n s l a v e s . In other w o r d s , s l a v e r y is a h u m a n i n v e n t i o n a n d n o t f o u n d in n a t u r e . I n d e e d , it w a s t h a t o t h e r h u m a n i n v e n t i o n , w a r , w h i c h p r o v i d e d the b u l k o f s l a v e s , b u t they w e r e a l s o the b o u n t y o f p i r a c y (e.g. S t r a b o 1 4 . 5 ) or the p r o d u c t of b r e e d i n g (e.g. C o l u m e l l a On Agriculture 1.8.19). It h a s a l w a y s b e e n a s s u m e d t h a t the s t u r d y p e a s a n t - f a r m e r w o r k e d the l a n d for h i m s e l f a n d his family. T h e G r e e k p o e t H e s i o d , a s m a l l - s c a l e f a r m e r himself, tells u s t h a t the three vital t h i n g s n e e d e d by a f a r m e r ' a r e a h o u s e , a w i f e a n d a p l o u g h i n g - o x ' (Works and Days 4 0 5 ) . N a t u r a l l y , in the h o m e l y p a r s i m o n y o f H e s i o d , the w i f e s e r v e s a s a n o t h e r s o u r c e of l a b o u r p o w e r , b u t at w h a t point d o w e witness landowners resorting to slave labour? U n d e n i a b l y , there w a s a h u g e i n f l u x o f s l a v e s into the Italian p e n i n s u l a f o l l o w i n g R o m e ' s s u c c e s s f u l e x p a n s i o n i s t w a r s . E q u a l l y , s o m e o f the figures in the t a b l e b e l o w o f t h o s e c a r r i e d off t o the R o m a n s l a v e m a r k e t , given by the a n c i e n t a u t h o r s for the s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, a r e i m p r e s s i v e a n d d a u n t i n g : Date

Ethnicity

Source

177

BC

5,632 Istrians

Livy 41.11.8

167

BC

150,000 Epeirotes

Livy 45.34.5

146

BC

55,000 Carthaginians

Orosius 4.23.3

142

BC

9,500 Iberians

Appian Iberica 68

101

BC

60,000 Cimbri

Plutarch Marius 27.5

O f c o u r s e , c l i o m e t r i c s h a v e l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n for antiquity, a s ancient a u t h o r s cited n u m b e r s s y m b o l i c a l l y n o t statistically. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it h a s been e s t i m a t e d t h a t a t the e n d o f first c e n t u r y BC the b o d y o f s l a v e s in Italy a m o u n t e d t o b e t w e e n t w o a n d three m i l l i o n p e o p l e o u t o f a t o t a l of six to s e v e n - a n d - a - h a l f m i l l i o n (including G a l l i a C i s a l p i n a ) , or r o u g h l y one-third of the p o p u l a t i o n (Brunt 1 9 7 1 : 1 2 4 , H o p k i n s 1 9 7 8 : 1 0 2 ) . B u t did this m a s s i v e i m p o r t of s l a v e s h a v e s e r i o u s r e p e r c u s s i o n s o n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of agricultural l a b o u r in the p e n i n s u l a ? S t r a n g e a s it m a y a p p e a r , it c a n be a r g u e d t h a t slavery is n o t the o b v i o u s m e t h o d w i t h w h i c h t o e x p l o i t the l a n d . A g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k is s e a s o n a l w o r k , b u t s l a v e l a b o u r h a s t o b e k e p t a n d fed all y e a r r o u n d . It h a s n o w been r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a lot m o r e free l a b o u r w a s w o r k i n g the l a n d in Italy ( G a r n s e y Saller 1 9 8 7 : 75-77). A r i s t o c r a t i c l a n d o w n e r s c o u l d , a n d d i d , divide their l a n d into p l o t s a n d rent t h e m o u t t o t e n a n t p e a s a n t - f a r m e r s , w h o in turn m a n a g e d the t e n a n c y w i t h the h e l p o f their o w n f a m i l i e s or even t h a t of s e a s o n a l hired l a b o u r . In fact, the t e n a n t p e a s a n t - f a r m e r h a d a l w a y s been p a r t of the a g r i c u l t u r a l s c e n e a n d he w a s a v i a b l e alternative t o s l a v e l a b o u r even in the s e c o n d a n d first centuries BC. A s a l r e a d y n o t e d , b o t h C a t o a n d V a r r o a s s u m e in their a g r i c u l t u r a l treatises t h a t s l a v e s will f o r m the c o r e o f the p e r m a n e n t , b r u t e l a b o u r f o r c e o n the f a r m (e.g. C a t o On Agriculture 2.2-7, 5.1-5). H o w e v e r , they w e r e w r i t i n g for a p a r t i c u l a r m i l i e u , the s e n a t o r i a l l a n d o w n e r w i t h a l a n d e d e s t a t e t h a t w a s p l u g g e d i n t o a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t of s u r p l u s e s , a m a n like C i c e r o (De officiis 1 . 1 5 1 ) , w h o p r a i s e s a g r i c u l t u r e b o t h a s a s o u r c e o f w e a l t h a n d o n m o r a l g r o u n d s . F o r these big m e n of v a s t m e a n s w a s there ' a n y l a n d ' , in the r h e t o r i c a l w o r d s o f V a r r o , ' m o r e fully cultivated t h a n I t a l y ? ' (On Agriculture 1.2.3).

S o investment f a r m i n g , a s o p p o s e d t o the p r e v a i l i n g p r a c t i c e of s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e , w a s only really a p p l i c a b l e t o the n a r r o w c o a s t a l l a n d s o f central a n d s o u t h e r n Italy a n d the i s l a n d o f Sicily. H e r e a f e w w e a l t h y l a n d o w n e r s held l a n d in the f o r m of h u g e t r a c t s o f a r a b l e - c u m - p a s t u r e - l a n d , the latifundia or ' w i d e fields' of R o m a n literature, w h e r e l a r g e s l a v e p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e f o u n d in three a r e a s : a) viticulture a n d olive g r o w i n g ; b) l i v e s t o c k r a i s i n g ; a n d c) cereal p r o d u c t i o n . This leads us on to a discussion of R o m e as a 'slave e c o n o m y ' . There are a n u m b e r o f w a y s o f l o o k i n g a t this i s s u e . W e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t a s l a v e e c o n o m y o n l y e x i s t e d w h e n the m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e i n v o l v e d in t h a t society's e c o n o m y w e r e s l a v e s , b u t in t h a t c a s e there h a s never b e e n s u c h a n e c o n o m y . E v e n the D e e p S o u t h o f the p r e - C i v i l W a r U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t m e e t this criterion. M u c h m o r e p r o d u c t i v e is the n o t i o n t h a t a s l a v e e c o n o m y is o n e in w h i c h the d o m i n a n t m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n sets the p a c e for the r e s t , t h a t is, slave p r o d u c t i o n or n o t . T h u s s l a v e s w e r e a m a j o r e n g i n e o f the e c o n o m y o f the D e e p S o u t h , a s they w e r e o f t h o s e o f c l a s s i c a l G r e e c e , the H e l l e n i s t i c e a s t a n d R o m e . In other w o r d s , n o t e v e r y b o d y o w n e d s l a v e s b u t if the m o n e y w a s a v a i l a b l e e v e r y b o d y w o u l d b u y s l a v e s , w i t h the s l a v e - r u n e s t a t e b e i n g seen a s the ideal. O f c o u r s e a n e c o n o m y c o u l d e x i s t w i t h o u t the institution o f slavery. If w e l o o k f o r w a r d into the late R o m a n w o r l d w e w i t n e s s a n o t h e r f o r m o f s u b o r d i n a t e l a b o u r a r i s i n g in w h i c h free m e n w e r e tied t o the l a n d , t h a t is t o say, the institution of f e u d a l i s m , w h i c h s e r v e d t o p r o d u c e a s u r p l u s s o a s t o a l l o w a n elite g r o u p t o e x i s t . We s h o u l d a l s o c o n s i d e r the a c t u a l c o s t o f a s l a v e . A c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , drachmae, the elder C a t o 'never o n c e b o u g h t a s l a v e for m o r e t h a n 1 , 5 0 0 since he d i d n o t w a n t l u x u r i o u s o r b e a u t i f u l o n e s , b u t h a r d w o r k e r s , like h e r d s m e n ' (Cato major 4 . 4 , cf. 2 1 . 1 ) . T h e drachma w a s the G r e e k e q u i v a l e n t of the R o m a n denarius, w h i c h m u s t h a v e b e e n the t e r m C a t o h i m s e l f u s e d . Since at this t i m e (it w a s t o be retariffed at 1 6 t o the denarius a t the t i m e o f G r a c c h i ) there w e r e 1 0 asses t o the denarius, the s u m o f 1 , 5 0 0 drachmae was e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 5 , 0 0 0 asses. C o m p a r e this w i t h t h e l e g i o n a r y stipendium, a l l o w a n c e , w h i c h in C a t o ' s d a y w a s five asses p e r d a y (to c o v e r r a t i o n s , c l o t h i n g , a n d r e p a i r s t o a r m s a n d e q u i p m e n t ) . S o the c o s t o f a n a g r i c u l t u r a l slave m i g h t e q u a l 3 , 0 0 0 d a y s ' w o r t h o f stipendium. So slaves were not cheap, even at the height o f the w a r s o f c o n q u e s t . 1 0 . 1 , 11.1) A c c o r d i n g t o his o w n t e s t i m o n y C a t o (On Agriculture reckoned a n olive g r o v e of 2 4 0 iugera (c. 6 0 h a ) s h o u l d be w o r k e d by 13 s l a v e s , a n d a v i n e y a r d o f 1 0 0 iugera (c. 2 5 h a ) w o r k e d by 1 6 s l a v e s , a n d V a r r o (On Agriculture 1 . 1 8 ) , after d i s c u s s i n g the l i m i t a t i o n s o f C a t o ' s m a t h e m a t i c s , basically agrees with h i m . O n e slave a l o n e m u s t h a v e been a c o n s i d e r a b l e prize for a l e g i o n a r y in war. T h u s the fact t h a t s l a v e n u m b e r s w e r e h u g e d o e s n o t a l l o w valid d e d u c t i o n s t o be m a d e a b o u t the g r e a t e r o r lesser a v a i l a b i l i t y o f slaves in the p o p u l a t i o n a s a result o f w a r f a r e , a b o u t the p r o p o r t i o n o f s l a v e s in the p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o l e , or a b o u t the p r o p o r t i o n o f citizens w h o o w n e d slaves - they are rather a sign of the i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h in a small n u m b e r o f p a r t i c u l a r h o u s e h o l d s . In The Banqueting Sophists (Deipnosophistae), an enormous compendium of the conversations of p h i l o s o p h e r s at a b a n q u e t s u p p o s e d l y held in A l e x a n d r i a a r o u n d the year AD 2 0 0 , A t h e n a i o s u p h o l d s the m y t h t h a t the v i r t u o u s R o m a n s of o l d , n o b l e s s u c h a s S c i p i o a n d C a e s a r , o w n e d a m e r e h a n d f u l o f s l a v e s ( 6 . 2 7 3 a - b ) . H o w e v e r , he d o e s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t s o m e R o m a n s l a v e - h o l d i n g s w e r e e x t r a v a g a n t l y l a r g e . Yet clearly A t h e n a i o s t h o u g h t t h a t the p u r p o s e

Relief (Rome, MNR Palazzo Massimo Alle Terme, inv. 126119) depicting 'Samnites' in the arena, dated c. 30-10 BC Each is armed with a gladius and carries a scutum, and appears to wear one greave on the left or leading leg. A triangular loincloth is tied about the waist, pulled up between the legs and tucked under the knot at the front and secured by a broad belt. (Fields-Carre Collection)

o f o w n i n g s u c h v a s t n u m b e r s of s l a v e s w a s p r i m a r i l y t o d e m o n s t r a t e one's w e a l t h , a n d since w e a l t h w a s linked to s t a t u s , it c o u l d be advertised t h r o u g h c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n ( 6 . 2 7 2 e , 2 7 3 c ) . T h i s w a s not only true of R o m a n s . A n t i o c h o s IV, for i n s t a n c e , s o u g h t t o i m p r e s s his s u b j e c t s by o r g a n i z i n g a p r o c e s s i o n involving h u n d r e d s if n o t t h o u s a n d s of slaves (Polybios 3 0 . 2 5 . 1 7 ) , a n d it w a s a m a r k of e x t r e m e indignity for the exiled Ptolemy V I to arrive at R o m e a c c o m p a n i e d by just four slaves ( D i o d o r o s 3 1 . 1 8 . 1 - 3 ) . B u t then a g a i n , these m e n w e r e k i n g s . C a i u s C a e c i l i u s I s i d o r u s , a R o m a n l a n d o w n e r w h o flourished in the g e n e r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the S p a r t a c a n rebellion a n d w h o himself w a s a f o r m e r s l a v e , h a d c o m e t o o w n 3 , 6 0 0 p a i r s of o x e n , 2 5 7 , 0 0 0 other l i v e s t o c k a n d 4 , 1 1 6 s l a v e s a t the t i m e o f his d e a t h in 8 BC (Pliny Historia Naturalis 33.135).

PIRACY AND THE SLAVE TRADE W h e n s t r o n g k i n g d o m s w i t h p o w e r f u l n a v i e s e x i s t e d , s u c h a s t h o s e of the Hellenistic kings, piracy w a s usually reduced to a m i n i m u m . Yet the last hundred years of the R o m a n R e p u b l i c s a w o n e of the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t s of p i r a c y t h a t the M e d i t e r r a n e a n h a s k n o w n , w h e n f r o m m e r e f r e e b o o t e r s the p i r a t e s o r g a n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s into a p i r a t e - s t a t e w i t h h e a d q u a r t e r s in Cilicia a n d C r e t e . It w a s the m o r e r e m a r k a b l e that the sea w a s controlled by a single p o w e r , w h i c h , w h e n it p u t f o r t h its s t r e n g t h u n d e r a c a p a b l e leader, h a d n o difficulty in p u t t i n g a n end t o a m a l i g n a n c y in such a short s p a c e of time. T h e e a s e with w h i c h P o m p e y finally achieved its s u p p r e s s i o n h a s naturally led to a severe c o n d e m n a t i o n of R o m e ' s negligence a n d a p a t h y in permitting piracy to f l o u r i s h for s o l o n g a p e r i o d . T h i s is especially s o w h e n the alliance f o r m e d b e t w e e n M i t h r i d a t e s a n d the p i r a t e s o f Cilicia h a d given the Pontic king c o m m a n d of the A e g e a n , w h i c h h a d been nearly fatal to Sulla (First Mithridatic War, 8 9 - 8 5 BC). T h i s w a s p a r t l y d u e t o the t u r m o i l o f the t i m e s , w h i c h h i n d e r e d policing of the s e a s , a n d p a r t l y d u e t o the influence of R o m a n slave d e a l e r s w h o tolerated the p i r a t e s a s w h o l e s a l e p u r v e y o r s o f s l a v e s . T h e m o r e t h a t the e c o n o m y w a s g l u t t e d w i t h s l a v e s , the m o r e d e p e n d e n t it b e c a m e o n t h e m . W h e t h e r c o n v e y i n g v i c t i m s o f w a r or t h o s e o f k i d n a p p i n g , there c a n be n o d o u b t a b o u t the i m p o r t a n t r o l e p l a y e d b y p i r a t e s in m a i n t a i n i n g the level of the R o m a n s l a v e supply, directing their h u m a n c a r g o e s t o d e s t i n a t i o n s such a s Sicily where t h e y w e r e n e e d e d . T h e p i r a t e s w e r e the m o s t c o n s i s t e n t s u p p l i e r s . A p p i a n w r i t e s t h a t the p i r a t e s o p e r a t e d 'in s q u a d r o n s u n d e r p i r a t e chiefs, w h o w e r e like g e n e r a l s o f a n a r m y ' (Mithridatica 9 2 ) . A t this level of o r g a n i z a t i o n they w e r e c a p a b l e o f r a i d i n g r o a d s a n d b e s i e g i n g t o w n s a l o n g the c o a s t s of Italy. T h e y even s t a g e d p r e d a t o r y r a i d s into the w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , w h e r e they w e r e r e p u t e d t o b e in c o n t a c t w i t h v a r i o u s i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s , including S e r t o r i u s in Iberia a n d , a s w e shall see later, S p a r t a c u s in Italy.

GLADIATORS - MEN OF THE SWORD W h e n P e r u s i a ( P e r u g i a ) c a p i t u l a t e d t o O c t a v i a n u s a n d the s u r v i v o r s w e r e r o u n d e d u p , he allegedly t o o k 3 0 0 rebel s e n a t o r s a n d equites a n d , in the w o r d s o f S u e t o n i u s , 'offered t h e m o n the Ides o f M a r c h a t the altar of D i v u s Iulius, a s h u m a n s a c r i f i c e s ' ( Divus Augustus 15.1). N o t long afterwards, Octavianus

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h a v i n g m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o A u g u s t u s , V i r g i l h a s the e m p e r o r ' s l e g e n d a r y a n c e s t o r , the p i o u s A e n e a s , p e r f o r m h u m a n s a c r i f i c e a t the f u n e r a l o f the y o u n g prince P a l l a s : Then came the captives, whose hands he had bound behind their backs to send them as offerings to the shades of the dead and sprinkle the funeral pyre with the blood of their sacrifice. (Virgil, Aeneid 1 1 . 8 1 - 8 4 West) H i s t o r i c a l l y it w a s the E t r u s c a n s , a p e o p l e r e g u l a t e d b y a h i g h l y r i t u a l i z e d religion, w h o m a d e it their c u s t o m t o sacrifice p r i s o n e r s o f w a r t o the s h a d e s of their o w n fallen w a r r i o r s . L i v y s a y s t h a t in 3 5 8 bc a t o t a l o f 3 0 7 R o m a n soldiers w e r e t a k e n p r i s o n e r a n d s l a u g h t e r e d a s h u m a n sacrifice in the f o r u m of the E t r u s c a n city of T a r q u i n i i ( T a r q u i n i a ) ; in r e v e n g e 3 5 8 c a p t i v e s , c h o s e n f r o m the n o b l e s t families o f T a r q u i n i i , w e r e d i s p a t c h e d t o R o m e three y e a r s later a n d publicly f l o g g e d in the F o r u m a n d then b e h e a d e d ( 7 . 1 5 . 1 0 , 1 9 . 2 - 3 ) . T h e T a r q u i n i e n s e s m a y h a v e b e e n e n a c t i n g a f o r m o f h u m a n sacrifice, b u t the R o m a n r e s p o n s e - if historical - w a s a n a c t of v e n g e a n c e , n o t cultic o b l i g a t i o n . S o g l a d i a t o r s p e r h a p s o r i g i n a t e d f r o m s u c h E t r u s c a n h o l o c a u s t s in h o n o u r of the d e a d : they w e r e s o m e t i m e s k n o w n a s bustuarii, funeral m e n , a n d the c o n t e s t w a s c a l l e d a munus f r o m b e i n g a d u t y p a i d t o the d e c e a s e d b y his descendants. T h e African Christian Tertullian, writing a r o u n d AD 2 0 0 , describes these c o m b a t s of the a m p h i t h e a t r e a s the m o s t f a m o u s , the m o s t p o p u l a r spectacle of all:

Funerary painting from Paestum (Gaudo Tomb 7 North Slab, c. 340 BC) depicting a duel. Such paintings were not mere decorative elements, as they reflect the values and ideals of the Lucanians who now controlled Paestum. This scene represents the final moments of a competition, with a judge standing behind the winner about to place a wreath on his head. These duels were not to the death. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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Crucial to the development of the spectacle of gladiatorial combat were the lanistae. They were indispensable operators who functioned as slave traders, managers, trainers, and impresarios all in one. However, they were seen by their fellow citizens as utterly contemptible, some think like an unpleasant cross between a butcher and a pimp. Sculptural relief (Selcuk, Arkeoloji Muzesi) showing a lanista armed with baton and shield. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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The ancients thought that by this sort of spectacle they rendered a service to the dead, after they had tempered it with a more cultured form of cruelty. For of old, in the belief that the souls of the dead are propitiated with human blood, they used at funerals to sacrifice captives or slaves of poor quality. Afterwards, it seemed good to obscure their impiety by making it a pleasure. So after the persons procured had been trained in such arms as they then had and as best they might - their training was to learn to be killed! - they then did them to death on the appointed day at the tombs. So they found comfort for death in murder. (Tertullian De spectaculis 12) S o R o m e t u r n e d munus, in the fiery a n t i - p a g a n e l o q u e n c e of T e r t u l l i a n , into a ' p l e a s u r e ' a n d a ' m o r e c u l t u r e d f o r m o f cruelty'. A s well a s p u n i s h m e n t a n d s a c r i f i c e s , munera b e c a m e p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t . Alternatively, 4th-century t o m b paintings a n d v a s e paintings f r o m C a m p a n i a s e e m m o r e o b v i o u s l y t o d e p i c t a r m e d single c o m b a t s , a n d literary s o u r c e s d o refer t o C a m p a n i a n c o m b a t s a t b a n q u e t s (e.g. S t r a b o 5 . 4 . 1 3 , A t h e n a i o s 4 . 1 5 3 f - 1 5 4 a ) . In these C a m p a n i a n c o m b a t s elite volunteers c o m p e t e d for prizes, fighting only to the p o i n t of first b l o o d s h e d . T h e R o m a n s b e c a m e familiar with C a m p a n i a n g l a d i a t o r i a l c o m b a t s at the tail end of the s a m e century. Livy s p e a k s of a battle in 3 0 8 BC of R o m a n s a n d C a m p a n i a n s a g a i n s t the S a m n i t e s , w h o f o u g h t w i t h inlaid shields, p l u m e d helmets, a n d g r e a v e s o n the left leg. A s they a d v a n c e d into battle, the S a m n i t e s 'dedicated themselves in the Samnite m a n n e r ' while the R o m a n c o m m a n d e r , w h o w a s p o s t e d o n the left w i n g , m e t them heado n 'declaring that he offered these m e n a s a sacrifice to O r c u s ' (Livy 9 . 4 0 . 1 2 ) . C e l e b r a t i n g the victory, the R o m a n s a d o r n e d the F o r u m with c a p t u r e d a r m s : ' T h u s the R o m a n s m a d e use of the splendid a r m s of their enemies to d o h o n o u r t o the g o d s ; while the C a m p a n i a n s in their p r i d e , o u t of h a t r e d to the Samnites, e q u i p p e d the g l a d i a t o r s w h o p r o v i d e d e n t e r t a i n m e n t at their b a n q u e t s with similar a r m o u r a n d g a v e t h e m the n a m e of S a m n i t e s ' (ibid. 9 . 4 0 . 1 7 ) .

W h a t e v e r its true o r i g i n s , the first g l a d i a t o r i a l fight t o o k p l a c e in R o m e in 2 6 4 BC, the year w h e n the first w a r w i t h C a r t h a g e b e g a n . A t the funeral o f D e c i m u s I u n i u s B r u t u s S c a e v a his t w o s o n s , M a r c u s a n d D e c i m u s B r u t u s , for the first t i m e e x h i b i t e d , in the m a r k e t c a l l e d F o r u m B o a r i u m , t h r e e s i m u l t a n e o u s g l a d i a t o r i a l fights. It m a y h a v e b e e n a m o d e s t affair by later s t a n d a r d s , b u t half of R o m e a p p a r e n t l y t u r n e d o u t t o w a t c h the fight. T h e f o l l o w i n g statistics s h o w h o w fast the i d e a c a u g h t o n Date

Numbers

264 BC

3 pairs of gladiators

Valerius Maximus 2.4.7

Source

216 BC

22 pairs of gladiators

Livy 23.30.15

200

BC

25 pairs of gladiators

Livy 31.50.4

183

BC

60 pairs of gladiators

Livy 39.46.2

174 BC

74 pairs of gladiators

Livy 41.28.11

Initially, gladiator duels took place in whatever public spaces a town might possess. Under the emperors, however, the characteristic scene for such displays was the amphitheatre. The first known permanent amphitheatre is not in Rome but Pompeii (c. 70 BC), an enormous structure for a provincial town with its seating capacity of 20,000 places. A view of the amphitheatre looking north-west with Vesuvius in the distance. (Fields-Carre Collection)

Beginning a s a grandiosity o c c a s i o n a l l y a d d e d t o a n aristocratic funeral, the g l a d i a t o r s themselves being t a k e n f r o m a m o n g s t the p e r s o n a l s l a v e s o f the d e c e a s e d a n d e q u i p p e d in m a k e s h i f t f a s h i o n , over t i m e the c o m b a t s w e r e extended to public celebrations. A n d s o it w a s by Cicero's d a y the m a s s e s , a s he says (Pro Sestio 1 0 6 , 1 2 4 ) , c o u l d e x p r e s s themselves at a s s e m b l i e s , elections, g a m e s (ludi) a n d gladiatorial contests (munera).

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In 1 0 5 BC, for the first t i m e , the t w o c o n s u l s of t h e y e a r g a v e a g l a d i a t o r i a l s p e c t a c l e officially. Indeed, one of them, Publius Rutilius Rufus, began the practice of e m p l o y i n g gladiatorial trainers to instruct n e w a r m y recruits (Valerius M a x i m u s 2 . 3 . 2 ) . It s o o n b e c a m e c u s t o m a r y for g l a d i a t o r i a l d i s p l a y s t o be p u t o n n o t only by v i c t o r i o u s g e n e r a l s , a s a f e a t u r e o f their t r i u m p h s , b u t a l s o by officials of every r a n k . S u c h s p e c t a c l e s , o b v i o u s l y b u t n o t solely, w e r e p o l i t i c a l d e v i c e s u s e d by R o m a n a r i s t o c r a t s to gain support. T h e functionaries k n o w n as aediles, for e x a m p l e , s o u g h t t o a t t r a c t p o p u l a r i t y by giving ludi honorarii, supplementary g a m e s attached to theatre a n d circus performances.

In 1874 Raffaello Giovagnoli (1838-1915), who had fought with Garibaldi, published his epic novel Spartaco. The comparison between ancient and modern is made explicit by the author, and Garibaldi himself wrote the preface. The illustrations were executed by Nicola Sanesi, and here we see Spartacus, brave yet compassionate, sparing the life of his friend Crixus in the arena. (Reproduced from R. Giovagnoli, Spartaco, Rome, 1874)

It w a s a s o n e o f the a e d i l e s of 6 5 BC t h a t C a e s a r , in m e m o r y o f his l o n g - d e a d father, g a v e a m a g n i f i c e n t g l a d i a t o r i a l spectacle. H o w e v e r , at a time w h e n the m e m o r y o f the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n m u s t h a v e b e e n still f r e s h in p e o p l e ' s m i n d , he ' h a d c o l l e c t e d s o i m m e n s e a t r o o p o f c o m b a t a n t s that his terrified political o p p o n e n t s r u s h e d a bill t h r o u g h the S e n a t e , limiting the n u m b e r t h a t a n y o n e m i g h t k e e p in R o m e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y far fewer p a i r s f o u g h t t h a n h a d b e e n a d v e r t i s e d ' ( S u e t o n i u s Divus lulius 1 0 . 2 ) . C a e s a r w a s u n d a u n t e d . H e m a d e certain everyone in R o m e k n e w t h a t it w a s the S e n a t e t h a t h a d r o b b e d t h e m o f the m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r g a m e s of all t i m e . All the s a m e his d i m i n i s h e d t r o u p e o f g l a d i a t o r s still a m o u n t e d to 3 2 0 pairs, and each m a n w a s equipped w i t h a r m o u r specially m a d e f r o m s o l i d silver. It w a s f r o m s u c c e s s i v e w a v e s o f p r i s o n e r s o f w a r c o n s c r i p t e d a s g l a d i a t o r s t h a t the p r o f e s s i o n w a s t o inherit its b i z a r r e , e x o t i c u n i f o r m s , w h i c h w a s o n e o f the s o u r c e s o f p u b l i c e n j o y m e n t . F r o m R o m e ' s b r u t a l w a r s of e x p a n s i o n d u r i n g the s e c o n d a n d first c e n t u r i e s BC, w h i c h e l i m i n a t e d m o s t o f its s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t o r s for power, there w a s a ready supply of foreigners w h o had s u f f e r e d the f a t e o f s l a v e r y t h r o u g h c a p t u r e in w a r f a r e . T h e s e w e r e t r i b a l w a r r i o r s o r t r a i n e d s o l d i e r s w h o c o u l d b e p u s h e d i n t o the a r e n a w i t h little n e e d for p r e p a r a t i o n , b e i n g m a d e t o fight w i t h their n a t i v e w e a p o n s a n d in their e t h n i c s t y l e s . M a n y o f t h e s e m e n , it is t r u e , w e r e s i m p l y w r e t c h e d c a p t i v e s h e r d e d b e f o r e the b a y i n g , b l o o d - m a d d e n e d s p e c t a t o r s , b u t v a r i o u s c l a s s e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l g l a d i a t o r l i k e w i s e c a m e f r o m this c a t e g o r y , especially t h e w a r h a r d e n e d . T h e s e e a r l i e s t t r a i n e d killers a p p e a r e d in the a r e n a a s p r i s o n e r s t a k e n d u r i n g the w a r w i t h the I t a l i a n allies, the S o c i a l War, a s it is g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d , o f 9 1 - 8 8 B C , a n d w e r e chiefly f r o m the S a m n i t e s o f central e a s t e r n Italy, d r e s s e d in the heavy, r e s p l e n d e n t a r m o u r of the S a m n i t e warrior. S o o n after the S a m n i t e s , G a u l s s t a r t e d t o a p p e a r in the a r e n a . A g a i n these w e r e o r i g i n a l l y p r i s o n e r s o f w a r t a k e n f r o m the tribes o f G a u l . By a b o u t the early seventies BC these t w o h a d b e e n j o i n e d by a third type of g l a d i a t o r b a s e d o n a n o t h e r f o r e i g n f o e , the T h r a c i a n . C i c e r o ' s m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e o f g l a d i a t o r i a l r e t i r e m e n t in the Second Philippic ( 2 9 ) is the first k n o w n reference t o a w a r d i n g the rudis or w o o d e n s w o r d o f f r e e d o m , the c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n b e i n g t h a t by his d a y g l a d i a t o r s w e r e

24

an investment, skilled artisans to be r e w a r d e d a n d n o t w a s t e d . F o r w h a t it is w o r t h , F l o r u s r e c k o n s the e x c e s s i v e size o f g l a d i a t o r i a l t r o u p e s led t o the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n : H o w else could those armies of gladiators have risen against their masters, save that a profuse expenditure, which aimed at winning the common people by indulging their love of shows, had turned what was originally a method of punishing enemies into a competition of skill? (Florus

Epitome

3.12.10).

Yet it w a s not until the early years of the Principate that there w o u l d be the m a n y c a t e g o r i e s o f gladiators that we are m o r e familiar with, namely g l a d i a t o r s w h o w e r e distinguished by the kind of a r m o u r they w o r e , the w e a p o n s they u s e d , a n d their style of fighting. A n d s o w h e n S p a r t a c u s w a s a gladiator, munera w e r e still in the p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g a prolific f o r m o f p o p u l a r e n t e r t a i n m e n t , a n d the e l a b o r a t e p r o t o c o l s o f c o m b a t a n d spectacle k n o w n to history h a d yet t o be developed.

OSCAN SPEAKERS In the central s e c t i o n o f the A p e n n i n e c h a i n , w h i c h f o r m s the s p i n e o f the I t a l i a n p e n i n s u l a , m o s t of the Italic p e o p l e s s p o k e a l a n g u a g e called O s c a n . This w a s a tongue closely related to L a t i n , b u t h a d s o m e distinctive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The O s c a n speakers were divided into various g r o u p i n g s ; the m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f w h i c h w e r e the w a r l i k e S a m n i t e s w h o inhabited the m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n d u e e a s t o f R o m e d o w n t o the a r e a b e h i n d C a m p a n i a . A t the time of their l o n g , h a r d w a r s w i t h the R o m a n s in the f o u r t h a n d third centuries BC the S a m n i t e s c o n s i s t e d o f four m a i n g r o u p s , e a c h w i t h its o w n territory: the C a r r i c i n i , C a u d i n i , H i r p i n i , a n d Pentri, t o w h o m w e s h o u l d p r o b a b l y a d d the F r e n t a n i . B u t these O s c a n g r o u p s often f o r m e d n e w tribal c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . In the late 5 t h century BC a n e w O s c a n - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e , the L u c a n i a n s ( L u c a n i ) , e m e r g e d ( p e r h a p s a s o u t h e r n o f f s h o o t f r o m the S a m n i t e s ) , a n d in the m i d d l e o f the f o l l o w i n g century a n o t h e r O s c a n - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e , the B r u t t i a n s (Bruttii), split off f r o m the L u c a n i a n s in the t o e o f Italy. T h e instability of these O s c a n - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s w a s p r o b a b l y the p r o d u c t of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e . G o o d a r a b l e l a n d w a s in p a r t i c u l a r l y s h o r t s u p p l y in the u p l a n d v a l l e y s o f the A p e n n i n e s , a n d in t h e c o u r s e o f the 5 t h a n d 4 t h centuries BC the h i g h l a n d e r w a r r i o r s m a d e f r e q u e n t i n c u r s i o n s a g a i n s t c o a s t a l s e t t l e m e n t s , m a n y o f t h e m f o u n d e d b y G r e e k s . S o the S a m n i t e s c o n q u e r e d G r e e k C u m a e a n d E t r u s c a n C a p u a , m e r g i n g w i t h the e x i s t i n g i n h a b i t a n t s o f C a m p a n i a a n d b e c o m i n g k n o w n a s the C a m p a n i a n s ( C a m p a n i ) . M e a n w h i l e the L u c a n i a n s o v e r r a n P o s e i d o n i a , r e n a m i n g it P a e s t u m b u t m a i n t a i n i n g the

Triple-disc cuirass and Attic-style helmet with impressive iron threebranched crest-cum-featherholder, Paestum (Gaudo Tomb174, c. 390/80 BC). This elaborate style of armour was peculiar to Oscan-speaking warriors, and a broad bronze belt, the symbol of manhood, would normally accompany it. Thus for a time the Romans regarded, in the sporting language of their arena, 'gladiator' and 'Samnite' as synonymous terms. (Fields-Carre Collection)

25

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l institutions set u p b y the G r e e k c o l o n i s t s , a n d a t t a c k e d other G r e e k cities o n the s o u t h - e a s t c o a s t . N a t u r a l l y their w a r r i o r ethic e n c o u r a g e d w a r s o f c o n q u e s t , b u t o n c e they h a d settled in the c o a s t a l p l a i n s , they tended t o m e r g e w i t h the l o c a l s a n d a d a p t themselves to the relative e a s e of u r b a n life. L a t e r the f o r m e r c o n q u e r o r s , w h o f o r m e d the l o c a l a r i s t o c r a c y , readily b e c a m e a s p o i l t o their m o u n t a i n k i n s m e n . E v e n t u a l l y , this s t a t e o f affairs w o u l d a l l o w the R o m a n s t o e x p l o i t the w o r s e n i n g s i t u a t i o n a n d s u p p o r t the C a m p a n i a n s a g a i n s t t h e S a m n i t e s , a n a c t i o n t h a t w a s t o set in t r a i n the S a m n i t e w a r s ( 3 4 3 - 3 4 1 BC, 3 2 7 - 3 0 4 BC, 2 9 8 - 2 9 0 BC). E v e n by themselves the S a m n i t e s w e r e sufficiently w a r l i k e a n d n u m e r o u s t o c a u s e c o n c e r n , a n d their m u t u a l hostility w i t h R o m e w a s d e e p r o o t e d . In 8 2 BC the S a m n i t e s , just six y e a r s after t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e S o c i a l War, in w h i c h t h e y h a d p l a y e d a l e a d i n g r o l e , for t h e l a s t t i m e in h i s t o r y s t r a p p e d o n their a r m o u r a n d m a r c h e d d o w n f r o m their A p e n n i n e f a s t n e s s . R e a l i z i n g t h a t R o m e lay at their m e r c y , they d a s h e d t o w a r d s the c a p i t a l ' t o pull d o w n a n d d e s t r o y the t y r a n t Romanae 2.72.2). city' (Velleius P a t e r c u l u s Historiae

OPPOSING COMMANDERS

SPARTACUS THE THRACIAN T h e r e is n o d o u b t a t all o v e r S p a r t a c u s ' skill a s a m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d e r , a n d t o his n a t u r a l flair he s o o n a d d e d v a l u a b l e e x p e r i e n c e . B u t o f the m a n himself, his p e r s o n a l i t y , f a u l t s a n d f o i b l e s , w e k n o w n o t h i n g , for a s w e p e e r a c r o s s the d i v i d i n g c e n t u r i e s w e o n l y see the stylized, s h a d o w y s p e c t r e o f a rebel a n d a h e r o . Plenty is k n o w n a b o u t his a c h i e v e m e n t s , h o w e v e r , m a i n l y b e c a u s e in Plutarch illumined S p a r t a c u s ' nobility of character - a his Life of Crassus q u a l i t y P l u t a r c h felt t h a t C r a s s u s , w h o m he c l e a r l y d i s l i k e d , s i g n a l l y l a c k e d . S o S p a r t a c u s is d e s c r i b e d a t s o m e l e n g t h in o r d e r t o s h o w w h a t a w r e t c h e d fellow C r a s s u s w a s . R o m a n sources p r o v i d e n o n a m e s for h u n d r e d y e a r s o f munera. T h e n , in the l a s t satirist L u c i l i u s , the g r e a t u n c l e o f P o m p e y N u m a n t i a , mentions a f a m o u s victor a n d a

g l a d i a t o r s f o r a t l e a s t t h e first t h i r d o f the 2 n d c e n t u r y BC, the w h o h a d f o u g h t a t the s i e g e o f despised loser by n a m e :

In the public show given by the Flacci was a certain Aeserninus, a Samnite, a nasty fellow, worthy of that life and station. He was matched with Pacideianus, who was by far the best of all the gladiators since the creation of man. (Lucilius fr. 150 Marx) By the w a y , the d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t a g e n a m e s , m a n y o f t h e m e r o t i c o r h e r o i c , c a m e m u c h later w h e n g l a d i a t o r s were b e c o m i n g stars by fighting a n d s u r v i v i n g s e v e r a l fights. E v e n s o , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f S p a r t a c u s , n o n e really e a r n e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p l a c e in r e c o r d e d history. H i s n a m e m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a s a d e s c e n d a n t of the d y n a s t y o f the S p a r t o k i d s , f o u n d e d by S p a r t o k o s (or S p a r t a k o s ) I, the T h r a c i a n ruler of the C i m m e r i a n B o s p o r u s in the late 5 t h c e n t u r y BC ( D i o d o r o s 1 2 . 3 1 . 1 , 3 6 . 1 , 1 6 . 9 3 . 1 ) , while a T h r a c i a n ' S p a r a d o k o s ' , father o f S e u t h e s o f the O d r y s a e , is a l s o k n o w n ( T h u c y d i d e s 2 . 1 0 1 . 5 ) . B u t w h o w a s the g l a d i a t o r n a m e d S p a r t a c u s ? Little is k n o w n a b o u t this r e m a r k a b l e c h a r a c t e r b e y o n d the e v e n t s o f the r e b e l l i o n , a n d the s u r v i v i n g a n c i e n t a c c o u n t s a r e o f t e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y . According to one, Spartacus h a d spent s o m e years serving as a paid auxiliary for the R o m a n s a n d t h e n , h a v i n g t u r n e d a g a i n s t t h e m , b e c a m e a 'deserter, then a b a n d i t , a n d finally, t h a n k s t o his b o d i l y s t r e n g t h , a g l a d i a t o r ' ( F l o r u s Epitome 3 . 2 0 . 8 ) . T h e R o m a n s , as w e w o u l d naturally expect, were fond of d e c l a r i n g t h a t their m o s t d a n g e r o u s o p p o n e n t s w e r e a l w a y s t h o s e they h a d t r a i n e d t h e m s e l v e s , a n d e v e n n o lesser a n a u t h o r i t y t h a n C a e s a r h i m s e l f s a y s

27

The only (possible) contemporary likeness of Spartacus is a grafitto from an entranceway to a house in Pompei. It depicts a gladiator on horseback, and above him is his name, written in Oscan and read right to left 'SPARTAKS'. The contents of the find and the use of the Oscan tongue for the caption both suggest a date of 100-70 BC. (Author's drawing, after Shaw 2001: fig. 1)

t h a t the S p a r t a c a n a r m y w a s c r e a t e d ' t o s o m e e x t e n t by the m i l i t a r y training a n d d i s c i p l i n e t h a t t h e y h a d a c q u i r e d f r o m their R o m a n m a s t e r s ' (Bellum Gallicum 1 . 4 0 . 6 ) . W h a t e v e r the t r u t h o f the m a t t e r , he h a d certainly g a i n e d s o m e e x p e r i e n c e o f m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d b e f o r e b e i n g c a p t u r e d a n d sent t o the school of gladiators at C a p u a . V a r r o , a l e a r n e d a n t i q u a r i a n s c h o l a r w h o served a s a legate with P o m p e y b o t h in the S e r t o r i a n W a r ( 8 2 - 7 2 BC) a n d in the e a s t , o n sea a n d l a n d , w r o t e o n just a b o u t everything i m a g i n a b l e , including of c o u r s e o n rural science. In one lost w o r k by h i m , there w a s a n intriguing reference t o S p a r t a c u s : ' A l t h o u g h he w a s an innocent m a n , Spartacus w a s condemned to a gladiatorial school' ( q u o t e d in F l a v i u s S o s i p a t e r C h a r i s i u s Ars Grammatica 1.133 K e i l ) . S p a r t a c u s w a s certainly a f r e e b o r n T h r a c i a n , a s c o r r o b o r a t e d by Plutarch (Crassus 8.2) a n d A p p i a n (Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 6 ) , w h e r e a s A t h e n a i o s ' s t a t e m e n t that he w a s 'a s l a v e , a T h r a c i a n by o r i g i n ' ( 6 . 2 7 2 f ) refers only t o his s t a t u s at the time of his e s c a p e . H e r e it is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t the n e a t c h a n g e f r o m 'nomadikou' t o 'maidikou' in P l u t a r c h Crassus 8 . 2 is d u e t o K o n r a d Z i e g l e r ( 1 9 5 5 : 2 4 8 5 0 ) ; the t r a n s m i t t e d t e x t is c o r r u p t e d a n d i n s t e a d of 'a T h r a c i a n of n o m a d i c s t o c k ' , the n a m e o f the T h r a c i a n tribe of the M a e d i is very likely here. Ziegler a r g u e s t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a s a p r i s o n e r o f w a r f r o m the M a e d i of the central S t r y m o n Valley ( s o u t h - w e s t e r n B u l g a r i a ) , a c q u i r e d in R o m e ' s c a m p a i g n s o f either 8 5 BC o r 7 6 BC (e.g. D i o d o r o s 3 9 . 8 . 1 , A p p i a n Mithridatica 55). F r e e T h r a c i a n tribes p r o b a b l y s u p p l i e d a u x i l i a r i e s for the R o m a n forces in M a c e d o n i a , w h o s e governors m o u n t e d a n u m b e r of punitive c a m p a i g n s a g a i n s t l o c a l t r i b e s in the seventies BC. T h e n , t o c o u n t e r the g r o w i n g threat of the P o n t i c k i n g , M i t h r i d a t e s V I , t o B i t h y n i a o n the e a s t e r n b o r d e r of T h r a c e ,

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RIGHT The modern frontier between Greece and Bulgaria north of Sidhirokastro, Strymon Valley, the Thracian homeland of Spartacus. At the time of his birth Thrace was still an independent land though it was already the victim of Roman punitive expeditions, intrusions that eventually added Thracian territory to the Roman province of Macedonia. Thracian auxiliaries were often employed by the Romans as raiders and skirmishers. (Fields-Carre Collection) BELOW Later a Thracian, threx, was a type of gladiator who fought with the sica. In Spartacus' time, however, thrax was the term for the people of the tribes who lived between the Danube, the Aegean and the Black Sea, and the curved knife was by no means common to them all. Grave marker (Paris, Musée du Louvre, MA 4992) of Antaios set up by his wife. (Fields-Carre Collection)

the R o m a n s b e g a n t o p u s h i n t o T h r a c e . T h a t c o u l d h a v e driven S p a r t a c u s to d e s e r t the R o m a n s a n d fight a g a i n s t t h e m in a n a t t e m p t t o s t o p the e x p a n s i o n o f R o m e ' s p o w e r into his tribal h o m e l a n d . It is q u i t e p o s s i b l e . O f c o u r s e it is n o t c e r t a i n t h a t the rebel s l a v e s w e r e a h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p u n d e r the s o l e l e a d e r s h i p o f S p a r t a c u s , a n d it is difficult to believe this w a s i n d e e d the c a s e . W h i l e this is the u n s p o k e n a s s u m p t i o n o f the ancient s o u r c e s , w e d o hear of other leaders - C r i x u s , O e n o m a u s , C a s t u s and Gannicus. Plutarch d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e S p a r t a c u s until the o c c u p a t i o n of M o u n t Vesuvius, w h e r e the g l a d i a t o r s c h o s e three l e a d e r s , S p a r t a c u s b e i n g o n e of t h e m , a n d i n d e e d being c o n s i d e r e d the first a m o n g s t e q u a l s (protos in Plutarch's G r e e k , cf. Sallust Historiae 3 . 9 0 , princeps gladiatorum); the other t w o b e i n g C r i x u s a n d O e n o m a u s , w h o w e r e G a u l s a c c o r d i n g t o O r o s i u s ( 5 . 2 4 . 1 ) . F l o r u s (Epitome 3.20.3) h a s t h e m e s c a p i n g w i t h S p a r t a c u s f r o m the g l a d i a t o r i a l t r a i n i n g s c h o o l , w h e r e a s A p p i a n (Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 6 ) , w h i l e a g r e e i n g t h a t they w e r e g l a d i a t o r s , s h o w s t h e m emerging as Spartacus' subordinates once raiding a n d p i l l a g i n g f r o m V e s u v i u s w a s in p r o g r e s s . O n 95) suggests Crixus the o t h e r h a n d , L i v y (Periochae a n d S p a r t a c u s w e r e c o - l e a d e r s ( O e n o m a u s n o t being mentioned here), while Orosius (5.24.1) suggests t h a t all t h r e e w e r e m o r e or less e q u a l l e a d e r s w h e n Vesuvius w a s occupied. Yet it s e e m s t h a t it w a s S p a r t a c u s w h o s u p p l i e d the s p a r k , the b r a i n s , a n d w e s h o u l d m a r v e l at the l e a d e r s h i p skills e x h i b i t e d b y h i m . H e w a s a m e r e g l a d i a t o r , w i t h n o o r g a n i z e d g o v e r n m e n t behind h i m , n o t r a i n e d s o l d i e r s a t his b e c k a n d c a l l , n o a r s e n a l o f w e a p o n s a n d e q u i p m e n t u p o n w h i c h he c o u l d draw. Beginning with nothing, Spartacus organized, e q u i p p e d , t r a i n e d a n d fed a n a r m y , a difficult a n d brilliant stroke of policy. T h e rebellion certainly g a v e h i m the perfect o p p o r t u n i t y t o a s s e r t a n a t u r a l c a p a c i t y for l e a d e r s h i p . W e s h o u l d n o t e a c o m p a r i s o n

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w i t h a R o m a n c o m m a n d e r , w h o held his p o s i t i o n b y r e a s o n of his r a n k r a t h e r t h a n his fighting q u a l i t i e s , a n d i n v a r i a b l y d e p e n d e d o n the fighting q u a l i t i e s o f the R o m a n l e g i o n i n s t e a d of k n o w l e d g e of s t r a t e g y a n d t a c t i c s . A p p i a n , w h o generally paints a rather m o r e d a m n i n g picture of S p a r t a c u s than Plutarch, d o e s h o w e v e r give us t w o very interesting pieces of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h i m . First, S p a r t a c u s divided e q u a l l y the s p o i l s w o n f r o m v i c t o r i e s o r r a i d s , a n d this g e n e r a l rule o f e q u a l t r e a t m e n t f o r e v e r y b o d y a t t r a c t e d m o r e f o l l o w e r s t o his c a m p . S e c o n d , S p a r t a c u s b a n n e d m e r c h a n t s f r o m b r i n g i n g in g o l d or silver a n d d i d n o t a l l o w a n y o n e in his c a m p t o p o s s e s s any. S o t h e r e w a s n o t r a d e in t h e s e p r e c i o u s m e t a l s . T h e n a g a i n he d i d e n c o u r a g e the t r a d e in i r o n a n d c o p p e r , a n d a s a result o f this c o m m o n - s e n s e p o l i c y the s l a v e s ' h a d plenty of r a w m a t e r i a l a n d w e r e well e q u i p p e d a n d m a d e frequent r a i d i n g e x p e d i t i o n s ' ( A p p i a n Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 7 ) .

MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS W h e n he w a s a s s i g n e d the t a s k o f p u t t i n g d o w n the S p a r t a c a n rebellion, M a r c u s L i c i n i u s C r a s s u s w a s n o s t r a n g e r t o m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d . L i k e P o m p e y , the y o u n g C r a s s u s h a d j o i n e d L u c i u s C o r n e l i u s S u l l a d u r i n g his s e c o n d m a r c h o n R o m e . U n l i k e P o m p e y , however, C r a s s u s h a d a p e r s o n a l f e u d w i t h the M a r i a n faction. H i s father h a d led the o p p o s i t i o n t o M a r i u s d u r i n g his b l o o d s t a i n e d seventh c o n s u l s h i p , a n d h a d a n t i c i p a t e d his fate b y s t a b b i n g himself t o d e a t h ( C i c e r o De oratore 3 . 1 0 ) . In the r e s u l t i n g p u r g e C r a s s u s ' elder b r o t h e r w a s l i q u i d a t e d a n d the family's e s t a t e s s e i z e d . Yet at the time of the rebellion C r a s s u s , w h o w a s n o w in his early forties, w a s o n e of the w e a l t h i e s t m e n in R o m e a n d allegedly the city's g r e a t e s t l a n d l o r d . C r a s s u s h a d laid the f o u n d a t i o n s o f his m o n s t r o u s w e a l t h in the t i m e o f terror under Sulla, b u y i n g u p c o n f i s c a t e d p r o p e r t y of the p r o s c r i b e d at r o c k b o t t o m p r i c e s . H e h a d m u l t i p l i e d it b y a c q u i r i n g d e p r e c i a t e d o r b u r n t - o u t houses for next to nothing a n d rebuilding t h e m w i t h his w o r k f o r c e o f h u n d r e d s of specially trained slaves (Plutarch Crassus 2 . 3 - 4 ) . Yet for C r a s s u s m o n e y w a s not the m e a n s t o profit a n d p l e a s u r e , however, b u t the m e a n s t o p o w e r . A n d t h o u g h , like any s h r e w d b u s i n e s s m a n , he did his u t m o s t to increase his p e r s o n a l fortune by all k i n d s of investments a n d s h a d y d e a l s , his p r i m a r y c o n c e r n w a s to e x t e n d his political influence. A genial h o s t , a g e n e r o u s d i s p e n s e r o f l o a n s a n d a shrewd p a t r o n of the potentially useful, he e n s u r e d his m o n e y b o u g h t h i m i m m e n s e influence. H a l f the S e n a t e w a s in his d e b t , a n d a d e b t t a k e n o u t w i t h C r a s s u s a l w a y s c a m e w i t h h e a v y political interest.

Grave marker (Aphrodisias, inv. 1067) of a gladiator, a Thracian or threx. It was not until the Principate that the trademark equipment of a threx would consist of a wide-brimmed crested helmet with visor (galea), quilted fabric leg and arm defences (fasciae et manicae), high greaves (ocrea) on both legs, a small, round or square shield (parma), and a short, slightly-curved sword (sica). (Fields-Carre Collection)

N o o n e , C r a s s u s is r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b o a s t e d , c o u l d call h i m s e l f rich until he w a s a b l e t o s u p p o r t a legion o n his y e a r l y i n c o m e (Pliny Historia Naturalis 3 3 . 1 3 4 ) . T h e c o s t of this is easily d e t e r m i n a b l e . In 5 2 BC C r a s s u s ' rival o f o l d , P o m p e y , w o u l d r e c e i v e f r o m the s t a t e 1 , 0 0 0 t a l e n t s o u t o f w h i c h h e w a s e x p e c t e d t o feed a n d m a i n t a i n his s o l d i e r s ( P l u t a r c h Pompey 5 5 . 7 ) . A t the t i m e P o m p e y ' s p r o v i n c e s w e r e I b e r i a a n d A f r i c a , in w h i c h t h e r e w e r e s t a t i o n e d six l e g i o n s (ibid. 5 2 . 3 w i t h A p p i a n Bellum civilia 2 . 2 4 ) . O n e t a l e n t w a s w o r t h 6 , 0 0 0 G r e e k drachmae, which w a s equivalent to 6 , 0 0 0 R o m a n denarii or 2 4 , 0 0 0 sestertii. T h u s s i x l e g i o n s c o s t s i x m i l l i o n denarii to 31

m a i n t a i n , the c o s t for o n e w o u l d be f o u r million sestertii per a n n u m . B u t here w e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t this is C r a s s u s ' m i n i m u m q u a l i f i c a t i o n for the e p i t h e t rich; Pliny, in the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p a s s a g e , says C r a s s u s ' fortune w a s w o r t h 2 0 0 million sestertii. O b v i o u s l y C r a s s u s w a s o n e w h o c o u l d s u p p o r t not only a legion but a whole army. Fleeing the b o u n t y h u n t e r s , the y o u n g C r a s s u s h a d left M a r i a n R o m e a n d m a d e it to Iberia where his father's spell a s p r o c o n s u l h a d been immensely p r o f i t a b l e . D e s p i t e b e i n g a fugitive, he h a d t a k e n the u n h e a r d - o f step o f recruiting his o w n p r i v a t e army, a force of s o m e 2 , 5 0 0 clients a n d d e p e n d a n t s . C r a s s u s h a d then led it a r o u n d the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , s a m p l i n g alliances with other a n t i - M a r i a n factions, b e f o r e finally sailing for G r e e c e a n d t h r o w i n g his lot in w i t h Sulla. A t the battle of P o r t a C o l l i n a (2 N o v e m b e r 8 2 BC) he w o u l d shatter the S a m n i t e left w i n g a n d thereby s a v e Sulla. Sadly, his besetting sin of a v a r i c e lost h i m the f a v o u r of the dictator s o o n a f t e r w a r d s w h e n he a d d e d to the p r o s c r i p t i o n lists the n a m e of a m a n w h o s e property he w a n t e d . Sulla d i s c o v e r e d this, a n d never t r u s t e d C r a s s u s a g a i n (Plutarch Crassus 6 . 6 - 7 ) .

Grave marker (Aphrodisias, inv. 1070) of the gladiator Phortis, a retiarius. Another speciality of the Principate, a 'net-man' was equipped with a quilted fabric arm protector (manica), which was often topped with a bronze shoulder-piece (galerus), fish net (refe), threepronged fish fork (fascina), and a small dagger (pugio). The retiarius was the only type of gladiator whose head and face was uncovered. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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F a b u l o u s l y w e a l t h y he w a s , b u t his d r i v i n g a m b i t i o n w a s m i l i t a r y glory. H e t o o k o n the c o m m a n d a g a i n s t S p a r t a c u s w h e n m a n y other s e n a t o r s w e r e r e l u c t a n t t o d o s o . B e c a u s e o f the total humiliation that w o u l d have followed from it, a n a n n i h i l a t i n g d e f e a t a t the h a n d s of a s l a v e a r m y w o u l d h a v e s u n k a n y political career. Besides, a s well a s the u n s p e a k a b l e s h a m e in s u c h a defeat, t h e r e w a s little v i r t u e in p u t t i n g d o w n s l a v e s . B e h i n d the a c c e p t a n c e o f c o u r s e lay C r a s s u s ' political rivalry w i t h the s u p r e m e egotist, P o m p e y . C r a s s u s ' first a c t i o n o n t a k i n g c o m m a n d w a s t o revive a n a n c i e n t a n d terrible f o r m o f p u n i s h m e n t t o strike m o r t a l t e r r o r in his s o l d i e r s ' h e a r t s . H e inflicted the fate o f d e c i m a t i o n o n the r e l u c t a n t m e m b e r s o f t w o legions w h o h a d s u r v i v e d a recent h a m m e r i n g b y S p a r t a c u s . H e selected 5 0 0 soldiers w h o h a d r u n f r o m the b a t t l e , then d i v i d e d t h e m in t o 5 0 g r o u p s of ten. E a c h g r o u p of ten h a d t o select a victim by lot f r o m a m o n g t h e m . T h e n the r e m a i n i n g nine w e r e o r d e r e d t o c l u b the t e n t h m a n t o d e a t h , the c o u r a g e o u s a l o n g w i t h the c o w a r d l y , w h i l e the r e s t o f the a r m y l o o k e d o n ( P l u t a r c h Crassus 10.2-3, A p p i a n Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 8 ) . M i l i t a r y discipline w a s r e - i m p o s e d . A t the s a m e t i m e , a w a r n i n g w a s sent t o the o p p o s i t i o n t h a t they c o u l d e x p e c t n o m e r c y f r o m a c o m m a n d e r p r e p a r e d t o i m p o s e s u c h s a n c t i o n s u p o n his o w n m e n . O n fleeing the b a t t l e f i e l d , m a n y o f the l e g i o n a r i e s h a d left their w e a p o n s t o i n c r e a s e the r e b e l s ' a l r e a d y g r o w i n g s t o r e . A p p a r e n t l y C r a s s u s i s s u e d n e w a r m s o n p a y m e n t o f a d e p o s i t . In later life C r a s s u s w o u l d be indicted w i t h s e d u c i n g a V e s t a l V i r g i n , b u t p r o c e d u r e s h a d b r o u g h t t o light t h a t the n o c t u r n a l visits t o the s m a l l t e m p l e o f V e s t a h a d b e e n n o t h i n g b u t b u s i n e s s a f f a i r s a n d n o t o f the h e a r t . A p p a r e n t l y the l a d y in q u e s t i o n , Licinia w a s her

n a m e , o w n e d a d e s i r a b l e r e s i d e n c e in the s u b u r b s a n d C r a s s u s w a n t e d to b u y it at a very f a v o u r a b l e p r i c e , h e n c e the a m o r o u s a t t e n t i o n a n d the s u b s e q u e n t s c a n d a l . 'It w a s his a v a r i c e t h a t c l e a r e d h i m o f h a v i n g c o r r u p t e d the l a d y ' , P l u t a r c h e x p l a i n s , ' b u t he d i d n o t d i d n o t let Licinia a l o n e until he h a d a c q u i r e d the p r o p e r t y ' (Crassus 1.2). S u c h a f a r c e a s this m u s t h a v e r o c k e d all R o m e . C r a s s u s ' a v a r i c e is, i n d e e d , e m p h a s i z e d f r o m the very s t a r t o f Plutarch's biography. Even a m o n g his m a t u r e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s C r a s s u s ' wealth w a s proverbial, as w a s his willingness to acquire it by a n y m e a n s whatsoever. Wealth w a s to be o b t a i n e d by inheritance a n d e x p a n d e d by agriculture a n d by the s p o i l s o f war. T h e r e w e r e o t h e r f o r m s o f m a k i n g m o n e y such a s m i n i n g , usury, t a x f a r m i n g , a n d t r a d e , b u t these h a d to be left to the equites, p r o s p e r o u s R o m a n s b e l o w the senatorial order w h o did n o t c o m p e t e for public office or h o l d provincial c o m m a n d s . S e n a t o r s were held to a higher s t a n d a r d . N o t s o C r a s s u s : he a c c u m u l a t e d w e a l t h by a g g r e s s i v e l y p r o f i t i n g from the misfortune of others. 'Certainly the R o m a n s s a y ' , a s Plutarch puts it, 'that in the c a s e of C r a s s u s m a n y virtues w e r e o b s c u r e d by o n e vice, n a m e l y a v a r i c e ' (Crassus 2.1). Indeed a similar p o i n t is m a d e by the R o m a n h i s t o r i a n Velleius P a t e r c u l u s : ' A l t h o u g h C r a s s u s w a s , in his g e n e r a l character, entirely upright a n d free f r o m b a s e desires, in his lust for m o n e y a n d his a m b i t i o n for g l o r y he k n e w n o limits, a n d a c c e p t e d n o b o u n d s ' (Historiae Romanae 2.46.2). C e r t a i n l y his grisly a n d p o i n t l e s s e n d , w h i c h P l u t a r c h e l a b o r a t e s w i t h a d r a m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n of the delivery o f C r a s s u s ' freshly s e v e r e d h e a d t o the P a r t h i a n k i n g , w a s the result o f a n e x c e s s o f a m b i t i o n . It w a s t o s s e d f r o m h a n d to h a n d like a ball d u r i n g the c o u r s e o f a p e r f o r m a n c e o f E u r i p i d e s ' Bacchae, w h i c h the k i n g , w h o ' k n e w G r e e k a n d w a s well v e r s e d in G r e e k literature' (Crassus 3 3 . 2 ) , h a d p r e s e n t e d o n the a f t e r n o o n o f the v i c t o r y o v e r R o m e . T h e S p a r t a c a n rebellion a n d the P a r t h i a n c a m p a i g n w e r e the t w o m o s t i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y u n d e r t a k i n g s o f C r a s s u s ' career, a n d P l u t a r c h ' s v i e w o f the d a n g e r s o f n a k e d a m b i t i o n is m a d e the m o r e tellingly w h e n the r e a d e r u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t the s u c c e s s o f the first led directly t o the c a t a s t r o p h e o f the s e c o n d in C r a s s u s ' d e s p e r a t e struggle t o k e e p p a c e w i t h P o m p e y ( a n d C a e s a r ) , a s his lust for g l o r y led h i m t o w a r d s C a r r h a e ( H a r r a n , T u r k e y ) , a c a r a v a n t o w n s h i m m e r i n g in the a r i d w a s t e s o f n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a .

Marble bust (Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, inv. 749) found in the Tomb of the Licinii, Rome. It is possible that this represents the future triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus. Unlike his predecessors, Crassus did not make the mistake of underestimating Spartacus. He saw the war as a way of furthering his political ambitions and satisfying his hunger for military glory. (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek)

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OPPOSING ARMIES A c c o r d i n g to o u r sources, over a period of s o m e t w o years the slave army w o n a t l e a s t nine e n c o u n t e r s a n d s a c k e d a t l e a s t f o u r m a j o r t o w n s . I n d e e d , m a n y o f t h e f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n s l a v e s , like S p a r t a c u s , m a y h a v e p r e v i o u s l y seen m i l i t a r y service in t h e a r m i e s o f R o m e o r o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g s , o r f o u g h t a s t r i b a l w a r r i o r s in m i s c e l l a n e o u s t r i b a l w a r s . A s f o r t h e R o m a n s , they a t t a c h e d a g r e a t d e a l o f i m p o r t a n c e t o t r a i n i n g , a n d it is this t h a t l a r g e l y e x p l a i n s t h e f o r m i d a b l e s u c c e s s o f their a r m y . ' A n d w h a t c a n I s a y a b o u t t h e t r a i n i n g o f l e g i o n s ? ' is t h e r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n aired b y C i c e r o . ' P u t a n e q u a l l y b r a v e , b u t u n t r a i n e d s o l d i e r in t h e front line a n d he will l o o k like a w o m a n ' (Tusculanae disputationes 2 . 1 6 . 3 7 ) . T h e basic aim o f this t r a i n i n g w a s t o g i v e t h e l e g i o n s s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e ' b a r b a r i a n ' in b a t t l e . T h e r e f o r e R o m a n s t r e n g t h l a y in t h e set-piece b a t t l e , the decisive c l a s h o f o p p o s i n g a r m i e s t h a t settled t h e i s s u e o n e w a y o r another. In this role the l e g i o n u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d v e r y w e l l . Still, S p a r t a c u s w a s n o ' b a r b a r i a n ' g e n e r a l , n o r w a s his a r m y a ' b a r b a r i a n ' h o r d e .

THE SLAVE ARMY T h e e v i d e n c e in t h e s o u r c e s c o n s t a n t l y r e m i n d s u s t h a t t h e v a r i e d ethnic a n d c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s o f S p a r t a c u s ' h o s t m a k e its spirit inherently u n s t a b l e . Y e t this h e t e r o g e n e o u s b o d y o f m e n j u s t r e l e a s e d f r o m s l a v e r y b e c a m e a s u r p r i s i n g l y effective f i g h t i n g f o r c e t h a t r e p e a t e d l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t its m e m b e r s c o u l d s t a n d u p t o t h e d i s c i p l i n e d l e g i o n s o f R o m e . S p a r t a c u s never h a d c a v a l r y , s u c h a s H a n n i b a l d i d , b u t h e d i d p u t s u c h a unit together, a c c o r d i n g t o F l o r u s , ' b y b r e a k i n g in w i l d h o r s e s t h a t t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d ' (Epitome 3 . 2 0 . 7 ) . E v e n s o , b e i n g a n i n f a n t r y - b a s e d f o r c e , the a g e - o l d military virtues o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n , e n d u r a n c e , ingenuity, b o l d n e s s , a n d c o u r a g e e n a b l e d S p a r t a c u s t o k e e p h i s s l a v e a r m y f r o m b e i n g d e s t r o y e d a n d t o p r e v e n t his infant rebellion from being crushed. N a t u r a l l y it c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t in s u c h a v a s t m u l t i r a c i a l g a t h e r i n g , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a m o n g its m e m b e r s w o u l d h a v e b e e n difficult t o s a y t h e l e a s t . H o w e v e r , it w o u l d b e n a i v e t o a s s u m e s u c h a n a r g u m e n t a s it g l o s s e s o v e r the n e c e s s a r y p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t if foreign slaves a n d their R o m a n m a s t e r s h a d t o e s t a b l i s h b a s i c f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n in o r d e r f o r w o r k t o b e a c c o m p l i s h e d , t h e n s u c h a s y s t e m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o u l d b e e x p l o i t e d by s l a v e s f o r their o w n p u r p o s e s . Moreover, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p i d g i n a n d Creole l a n g u a g e s in m o d e r n s l a v e s o c i e t i e s s h o w s t h a t l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s 34

between slaves were p r o b l e m s that c o u l d be s u r m o u n t e d , a n d the s a m e c a n b e i m a g i n e d for the a r m y o f S p a r t a c u s w h e r e the lingua franca was probably a d e b a s e d form of Latin. S p a r t a c u s ' followers, it is r e p o r t e d , w e r e m a i n l y G a u l s , G e r m a n s , or other T h r a c i a n s (Sallust Historiae 3 . 9 6 , P l u t a r c h Crassus 8 . 1 , 9 . 5 , 6, L i v y Periochae 9 7 ) . It h a s been s u g g e s t e d that the G a u l s a n d the G e r m a n s , a l o n g with the T h r a c i a n s , w e r e all f r o m the B a l k a n s , recently b r o u g h t t o Italy a s the h u m a n spoils of war. H o w e v e r , w e m u s t n o t forget the trade in p r o v i d i n g slaves to Italy f r o m G a u l itself. This human commerce w a s brought along major slave-trading n e t w o r k s - f r o m northern E u r o p e , f r o m lands north a n d east of the R h i n e , a n d f r o m the l a n d s of the u p p e r reaches of the D a n u b e - t o the w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n d o w n the R h o n e t o A r e l a t e (Aries), M a s s i l i a ( M a r s e i l l e ) a n d other s e a p o r t s in G a l l i a T r a n s a l p i n a . O b v i o u s l y these s l a v e s w e r e m a i n l y G a u l s a n d G e r m a n s , but other slaves c a m e f r o m the region north of the lower D a n u b e a n d the B l a c k S e a . T h e m a i n s l a v e - t r a d i n g r o u t e here r a n t h r o u g h T h r a c e to s e a p o r t s o n the n o r t h e r n s h o r e s o f the A e g e a n . T h e fact that T h r a c e w a s a c r o s s r o a d s in this traffic in h u m a n s , a n d itself fed significant n u m b e r s of its p o p u l a t i o n into the M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n a s slaves, is p a r t i c u l a r l y significant in u n d e r s t a n d i n g the n u m b e r of T h r a c i a n s f o u n d a m o n g the f o l l o w e r s of S p a r t a c u s . L i k e the t w o earlier slave w a r s m o s t o f the slaves w h o j o i n e d the S p a r t a c a n rebellion, w h a t e v e r their p r o v e n a n c e , w e r e s i m p l e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r e r s a n d herdsmen. Agricultural slaves, namely those w h o cultivated cereals, vines, olives a n d other a r b o r e a l c r o p s , w o r k e d u n d e r c l o s e s u p e r v i s i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o the h a n d b o o k s o n a g r i c u l t u r e , a s a l r e a d y n o t e d , the i d e a l w a s t o h a v e the slaves d e p l o y e d in w o r k g a n g s of 13 to 1 6 p e o p l e . F o r p u r p o s e s o f surveillance a n d security, d u r i n g the night or at t i m e s they w e r e n o t l a b o u r i n g in the fields, the slaves w e r e s h a c k l e d a n d p e n n e d in q u a r t e r s k n o w n a s ergastula, or 'work b a r r a c k s ' . W o r k e d like a n i m a l s , the s l a v e s w e r e h o u s e d like a n i m a l s . T h e o p e n e x p a n s e s of s o u t h e r n Italy a n d Sicily w e r e m o r e a r i d a n d c o u l d n o t easily s u s t a i n a v i a b l e m a r k e t - o r i e n t a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e b a s e d o n c a s h c r o p s . In t h e s e r e g i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , s l a v e o w n e r s d e v e l o p e d a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f agriculture t h a t m i x e d the c u l t i v a t i o n o f cereals w i t h the r a i s i n g o f l a r g e h e r d s o f cattle a n d s h e e p , s o m e t i m e s p i g s a n d g o a t s . M e n like the R o m a n eques P u b l i u s A u f i d i u s P o n t i a n u s , a w e a l t h y l a n d o w n e r o f A m i t e r n u m in the h e a r t of the S a b i n e h i g h l a n d s , w h o b r o u g h t , a s S p a r t a c u s ' R o m a n c o n t e m p o r a r y V a r r o tells u s , h e r d s 'in furthest U m b r i a ' t o h a v e t h e m d r i v e n ' t o the p a s t u r e s of M e t a p o n t u m a n d to m a r k e t at H e r a c l e a ' (On Agriculture 2.9.6), a distance of s o m e 4 5 0 k m . U n d e r the c a r e of s l a v e h e r d s m e n , pastores, s u c h h e r d s s p e n t the s u m m e r in the m o u n t a i n s a n d the w i n t e r o n the p l a i n s . O b v i o u s l y t h e s e slaves c o u l d n o t be c o n s t r a i n e d by c h a i n s o r h o u s e d in ergastula each night. T h e y h a d t o be free t o f o l l o w the h e r d s . In a d d i t i o n , they h a d t o be a r m e d t o p r o t e c t the a n i m a l s f r o m p r e d a t o r s , f o u r - l e g g e d a n d t w o - l e g g e d v a r i e t y a l i k e .

'Ludovisi Gaul' (Rome, MNR Palazzo Altemps, inv. 8608), Roman copy of a bronze originally dedicated to Athena Bringer of Victory by Attalos I of Pergamon (r. 241 -197 BC). This statue group is usually interpreted as a Gallic chieftain and his wife, bravely pre-empting capture by suicide. It rightly reminds us that women were an integral and important part of the slave army. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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Spartacus' & Crixus' movements, spring 72 B C

36

In Sicily, in the d e c a d e s p r e c e d i n g the First Slave War, R o m a n a n d Italian l a n d o w n e r s c o n s c i o u s l y e s t a b l i s h e d their slave h e r d s m e n in the practice of b a n d i t r y a s a f o r m of e c o n o m i c self-help. F r e e l a n c e r a i d i n g a n d p i l l a g i n g , e n c o u r a g e d by the l a n d o w n e r , a l l o w e d h i m t o e s c a p e the o n e r o u s b u r d e n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h the s u r v e i l l a n c e a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f d i s t a n t l y r o a m i n g b a n d s o f his s l a v e h e r d s m e n at the e x p e n s e of u n p r o t e c t e d village a n d f a r m dwellers w h o b e c a m e the t a r g e t o f w i d e s p r e a d a c t s o f banditry. C o n s e q u e n t l y Sicily w a s r e d u c e d t o a n i s l a n d infested with b a n d s of s l a v e h e r d s m e n w h o r o a m e d a t will t h r o u g h o u t the l a n d 'like d e t a c h m e n t s o f s o l d i e r s ' (Diodoros 35.2.1). Despite formal complaints, R o m a n g o v e r n o r s h e s i t a t e d t o e n f o r c e the rule o f l a w a n d t o repress b r i g a n d a g e b e c a u s e of the p r e s s u r e b r o u g h t t o bear o n t h e m by the p o w e r f u l l a n d o w n e r s . In 7 1 BC, the y e a r the S p a r t a c a n rebellion w a s extinguished, C i c e r o delivered a forensic s p e e c h , the Pro Tullio, which survives only in f r a g m e n t s . B u t its interest for us is c o n s i d e r a b l e , for C i c e r o ' t a k e s us into the wild hill-country of L u c a n i a ' w h e r e ' w e find c a t t l e - b a r o n s a n d their hired h a n d s , a r m e d slaves that is, r a i d i n g a n d plundering each other's herds a n d h o m e s t e a d s ' ( S t o c k t o n 1 9 7 1 : 1 9 ) . Cicero's client, M a r c u s Tullius, h a d in fact h a d his villa in the region of Thurii r a z e d to the g r o u n d a n d his slaves b u t c h e r e d by a n a r m e d b a n d b e l o n g i n g t o a certain Publius F a b i u s , t h o u g h Tullius' o w n pastores w e r e quite c a p a b l e of similar atrocities. T h e c e n t r a l n a t u r a l a d v a n t a g e o f s l a v e h e r d s m e n w a s their f r e e d o m o f in m o v e m e n t a n d the p o s s e s s i o n o f a r m s . F r o m V a r r o ' s r e m a r k s o n pastores the a g r i c u l t u r a l h a n d b o o k he p u b l i s h e d in 3 7 B C , n e a r the e n d o f his l o n g a n d a c t i v e life, a s e n s e o f w h a t t h e y w e r e like c a n b e g l e a n e d . P r e f e r a b l y , V a r r o s a y s , h e r d s m e n w h o p a s t u r e d l i v e s t o c k for s u s t a i n e d p e r i o d s w i t h o u t returning daily t o the f a r m s t e a d w e r e t o be p h y s i c a l l y m a t u r e , b o y s b e i n g o f little use for this k i n d o f g r a f t , a n d well a b o v e a v e r a g e in fitness, in v i e w o f the r i g o u r s o f their w o r k a n d the t e r r a i n t o w h i c h they w e r e d a i l y e x p o s e d . ' Y o u s h o u l d c h o o s e m e n ' , he e x p l a i n s , ' o f p o w e r f u l p h y s i q u e , f a s t - m o v i n g a n d n i m b l e , w h o a r e n o t c l u m s y w h e n they m o v e their l i m b s , a n d a r e j u s t n o t a b l e t o f o l l o w after the flock b u t a l s o t o d e f e n d it f r o m p r e d a t o r y b e a s t s or b r i g a n d s , w h o c a n lift l o a d s u p o n t o the b a c k s o f the p a c k a n i m a l s , a r e g o o d a t s p r i n t i n g a n d a t h i t t i n g their t a r g e t ' (On Agriculture 2.10.3). O b v i o u s l y a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h w e a p o n s w a s s t a n d a r d for t h e s e m e n .

'Dying Gaul' (Rome, Musei Capitolini, inv. 747), Roman copy of a bronze originally dedicated to Athena Bringer of Victory by Attalos I of Pergamon (r. 241-197 BC). The oversize warrior was glamorized soon after its discovery as a 'Dying Gladiator' - 'butchered to make a Roman holiday', as Byron puts it in Childe Harold. Yet the torque, moustache and spiky hair are very much Gaulish traits. (Fields-Carre Collection)

T h e i n d e f a t i g a b l e V a r r o , w h o o w n e d l a n d a t b o t h e n d s o f the S a m n i u m Apulia t r a n s h u m a n c e route a n d p o s s e s s e d large stocks of cattle a n d sheep, o b s e r v e s further t h a t I b e r i a n s w e r e n o t a t all s u i t a b l e for h e r d i n g b u t t h a t G a u l s w e r e , a r e m a r k i m p l y i n g t h a t e v e n in his d a y h e r d s m e n w e r e o f t e n n e w s l a v e s (On Agriculture 2.10.4). So habitually armed and enjoying a c o n s i d e r a b l e f r e e d o m o f m o v e m e n t t h o u g h a n s w e r a b l e t o a magister pecoris or 'herd m a s t e r ' , a s they m o v e d their c h a r g e s a l o n g the d r o v e - t r a i l s b e t w e e n m o u n t a i n a n d p l a i n , s u c h m e n , n e w t o slavery, u s e d t o a certain i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d t o relying o n their o w n w i t s a n d r e s o u r c e s for s u r v i v a l , m i g h t well j o i n S p a r t a c u s willingly. 37

T h e magister pecoris V a r r o m e n t i o n s w a s to be a m a n physically s t r o n g but 'older than the rest a n d a l s o m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d ' (On Agriculture 2.10.2). S u c h s l a v e s , exercising m a n a g e r i a l functions, were u s e d t o c o m m a n d i n g a u t h o r i t y a n d to being o b e y e d . L i k e w i s e the vilicus in a r a b l e farming, w h o o r g a n i z e d the d a y - t o - d a y f i n a n c e s of the f a r m , b r o u g h t a n d s o l d m a t e r i a l s , a n d s u p e r v i s e d the a n n u a l cycle of w o r k . H e a l s o set the w o r k details a n d controlled the w o r k f o r c e ( C a t o On Agriculture 5 . 1 - 5 ) . H e w a s t o be 'of m i d d l e a g e a n d of strong b o d y a n d be k n o w l e d g e a b l e in agricultural w o r k ' ( C o l u m e l l a On Agriculture 1 . 8 . 3 ) . T h e vilicus e q u a t e d w i t h magister pecoris a n d these elite slaves p r o v i d e d the m a n a g e r i a l skills a n d technical k n o w - h o w needed to run farms and homesteads e x p l o i t e d by s l a v e l a b o u r . Since they a l r e a d y h a d e x p e r i e n c e in c o n t r o l l i n g a n d directing the w o r k a n d b e h a v i o u r of slaves, they c o u l d easily a p p l y the s a m e skills t o leading the rebels of S p a r t a c u s ' army.

Reconstruction of a metal smelting furnace or hearth, archaeological open day Bobigny, Seine-Saint-Denis. Charcoal was the preferred fuel for smelting (reduction of ore to metal), as it burned more slowly and evenly than wood, and since artificial draught (fan or bellows) was used the temperature would be controlled more easily. The blacksmiths in Spartacus' camp would have employed the same smelting techniques. (Fields-Carre Collection)

38

T h e c o r e o f the s l a v e s w h o incited a n d led the r e b e l l i o n , h o w e v e r , w e r e n o t vilici or magistri pecoris, b u t t h o s e w h o h a d b e e n t r a i n e d in b l o o d s h e d a n d s o a k e d in v i o l e n c e , n o t a s soldiers b u t a s g l a d i a t o r s . T h e s e w e r e m e n of the s w o r d , h a r d , a n g r y m e n , d i s c i p l i n e d t o inflict d e a t h o n o t h e r s , a n d , m o s t likely, e v e n t u a l l y be killed b y a s u p e r i o r killer. It w a s w i t h their h e l p t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a s able to t r a n s f o r m w h a t w a s essentially a r a v a g i n g b a n d of a m a t e u r b a n d i t s , s e e k i n g a p r i m e o p p o r t u n i t y for r a i d i n g a n d l o o t i n g , into a f o r m i d a b l e fighting f o r c e . Initially all the a r m s this fighting force h a d w e r e t a k e n in booty, p u r c h a s e d o r f o r g e d , w h i c h w a s sufficient o n l y for p a r t o f the s l a v e a r m y . T h e rest w e r e a r m e d w i t h s i c k l e s , p i t c h f o r k s , r a k e s , flails, a x e s , h a t c h e t s a n d other i m p l e m e n t s o f the field t h a t c o u l d be called into service for battle p u r p o s e s , or, w h e r e even these w e r e l a c k i n g , flourished fire-hardened sticks, s h a r p e n e d poles, hobnailed clubs a n d other w o o d e n points and bludgeons. These makeshift w e a p o n s w e r e a s m u c h for defence a s for d a m a g i n g the enemy, but naturally n o t h i n g w a s t o be s c o r n e d . S a l l u s t (Historiae 3 . 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 ) t a l k s o f m e n skilled in w e a v i n g a n d b a s k e t m a k i n g w h o w e r e a b l e t o c o m p e n s a t e for the lack of p r o p e r shields by m a k i n g s m a l l c i r c u l a r b u c k l e r s . F r o n t i n u s (Strategemata 1 . 7 . 6 ) p r o v i d e s us w i t h further d e t a i l s , s a y i n g these w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d o u t of vine b r a n c h e s a n d then c o v e r e d w i t h the skins of a n i m a l s . F l o r u s (Epitome 3 . 2 0 . 6 ) h a s the s a m e details c o n c e r n i n g the ' r o u g h s h i e l d s ' , a s he calls t h e m , b u t a d d s t h a t s w o r d s a n d s p e a r h e a d s w e r e f o r g e d by m e l t i n g d o w n a n d r e w o r k i n g leg irons t a k e n f r o m ergastula. S a l l u s t h o w e v e r , in a f r a g m e n t referring t o the c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t V a r i n i u s , s a y s the rebels n e e d e d 'to h a r d e n their s p e a r s in the fire, a n d give t h e m ( a p a r t f r o m the n e c e s s a r y w a r l i k e a p p e a r a n c e ) the c a p a b i l i t y of inflicting a l m o s t a s m u c h d a m a g e a s steel' (Historiae 3 . 9 6 ) . E x a c t details m a y differ, b u t the t h e m e is the s a m e , t h a t is, initially the rebels h a d t o e q u i p themselves with makeshift w e a p o n s .

TOP Selection of iron implements and weapons, archaeological open day Bobigny, Seine-SaintDenis. Blacksmiths did not have the technology to melt iron for casting, so instead it was forged (heated and hammered) using techniques quite adequate for producing very effective implements and weapons. One source of iron for Spartacus' blacksmiths would have been the shackles and chains plundered from ergastula. (Fields-Carre Collection) BOTTOM Reconstruction Gallic arms and armour, archaeological open day Bobigny, SeineSaint-Denis. Here we see the characteristic long slashingsword of the Gallic warrior, a weapon designed to either hack an opponent to pieces or to beat him to a bloody pulp. It is highly conceivable that such swords were forged by Spartacus' blacksmiths for use by the Gauls of his army. (Fields-Carre Collection)

T h e h e r d s m e n w h o c a m e t o j o i n S p a r t a c u s w e r e , u n s u r p r i s i n g l y , better a r m e d a n d e q u i p p e d . T h e s e m e n w e r e s t r o n g a n d wirily built, a c c u s t o m e d t o s p e n d i n g their d a y s a n d nights in the o p e n air, n o m a t t e r h o w i n c l e m e n t the weather. H u n t i n g s p e a r s , s h e p h e r d s t a f f s , k n o t t y c u d g e l s a n d s l i n g s s e r v e d t h e m a s w e a p o n s . T h e i r attire c o n s i s t e d o f the s k i n s o f w o l v e s or the h i d e s o f wild b o a r s . In a d d i t i o n they w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d by w a t c h d o g s , calf-sized brutes with e x t r e m e l y fierce t e m p e r s . S u c h w i l d , w i n d - b u r n e d m e n h a d n o t h i n g t o lose a n d everything t o g a i n t h r o u g h w a r , a n d , a s P l u t a r c h s a y s , s o m e of t h e m , especially t h o s e w i t h legs of i r o n , w e r e e x c e e d i n g l y useful ' a s s c o u t s a n d lighta r m e d t r o o p s ' (Crassus 9.3). A c c o r d i n g to A p p i a n (Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 6 ) , S p a r t a c u s h a d w e a p o n s m a d e for w h a t h a d b e c o m e , in his r e c k o n i n g , a force o f 7 0 , 0 0 0 after the d e f e a t o f Varinius, while at T h u r i i his f o l l o w e r s ' b r o u g h t lots o f iron a n d b r o n z e a n d did n o t d o a n y t h i n g t o h a r m p e o p l e w h o t r a d e d in these m e t a l s . In this w a y they c a m e to be well s u p p l i e d w i t h a lot of w a r m a t e r i a l ' (ibid. 1 . 1 1 7 ) . N a t u r a l l y 39

TOP Sheep and goats are light and mobile, and thus can cope with steep and rough terrain as well as thrive on poor pastures at higher elevations. Some of Spartacus' manpower came from slave herdsmen, who lived in the Apennines independently for months at a stretch. Because of the nature of their occupation, these pastores, as they were called, had to be armed to deter wilderness predators. (FieldsCarre Collection) BOTTOM Though most herdsmen of the slave army were dressed as such and carried 'rustic weapons', some are recorded as having watchdogs. Diodoros, on the First Slave War, says 'following close on the heels of each man was a pack of fierce dogs' (35.2.27). Mosaic in the entrance of a Pompeian house depicting a chained dog with bared teeth. Underneath is written CAVE CANEM - Beware of the Dog! (Fields-Carre Collection)

the m o s t fruitful s o u r c e s o f r e a d y - m a d e a r m s a n d e q u i p m e n t w e r e the R o m a n a r m i e s the r e b e l s c o n f r o n t e d a n d d e s t r o y e d . S o the c a p t u r e o f t w o R o m a n c a m p s , t h o s e o f G l a b e r a n d C o s s i n i u s , a n d their battlefield s u c c e s s e s over Varinius produced m o r e acquisitions. Finally, w e s h o u l d s p e a k o f the r o l e o f w o m e n in the s l a v e a r m y . W h e n A p p i a n r e c o r d s t h a t the rebels n u m b e r e d s o m e 7 0 , 0 0 0 , he m a y h a v e included the s o - c a l l e d n o n - c o m b a t a n t s in his t o t a l . B e f o r e the r e b e l l i o n b e g a n , m a n y male slaves must have formed unions with female slaves, wives w h o were p r e p a r e d in the event t o f o l l o w their h u s b a n d s in revolt. W h e n S p a r t a c u s w a s s o l d a s a s l a v e he h a d w i t h h i m a w i f e , a l s o T h r a c i a n by o r i g i n , w h o r e m a i n e d w i t h h i m after his t r a n s f e r t o C a p u a a n d p a r t i c i p a t e d in the r e v o l t he led. P l u t a r c h a d d s s h e w a s 'a p r o p h e t e s s a n d i n i t i a t e d i n t o the e c s t a t i c cult of D i o n y s o s ' (Crassus 8 . 3 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y n o m o r e is h e a r d of her, a n d she is o n l y m e n t i o n e d b y P l u t a r c h b e c a u s e she i n t e r p r e t e d the terrible significance o f the s n a k e t h a t o n c e c o i l e d r o u n d his h e a d w i t h o u t h a r m i n g h i m while he slept. P l u t a r c h g i v e s her n o n a m e . 40

W h i c h b r i n g s us t o a n o t h e r o f P l u t a r c h ' s c u r i o u s t a l e s . T h e R o m a n s w e r e stealthily a p p r o a c h i n g the c a m p o f a g r o u p o f r e b e l s led by G a n n i c u s a n d C a s t u s w h e n they w e r e s p o t t e d by a c o u p l e o f w o m e n . T h e s e t w o h a d left the c a m p a n d g o n e u p the n e a r b y m o u n t a i n t o m a k e , in P l u t a r c h ' s w o r d s , 'ritual sacrifices' (Crassus 1 1 . 3 ) . S a l l u s t r e c o r d s the s a m e i n c i d e n t , b u t s t a t e s t h a t the t w o w o m e n , G a u l s , ' c l i m b e d u p the m o u n t a i n t o s p e n d their m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d s t h e r e ' (Historiae 4 . 4 0 ) . Either P l u t a r c h m i s r e a d the o r i g i n a l L a t i n , o r deliberately b o w d l e r i z e d the t e x t . W h a t e v e r , these t w o w o m e n w e r e p r o b a b l y the w i v e s o f t w o of the r e b e l s .

THE ROMAN ARMY C a i u s M a r i u s h a s often been credited with t a k i n g the decisive steps that laid the basis for the p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d i n g a r m y of the P r i n c i p a t e . R o m e w a s n o w the d o m i n a n t p o w e r in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n a n d the a n n u a l levying o f w h a t w a s in effect a part-time citizen militia w a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the r u n n i n g a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of a w o r l d e m p i r e . M o r e o v e r , d e c a d e s of w a r o v e r s e a s h a d t u r n e d out t h o u s a n d s of trained soldiers, a n d m a n y of them w o u l d have found themselves strangers to civilian life after their y e a r s of service a b r o a d . T h e a r m y h a d been their life a n d M a r i u s c a l l e d t h e m b a c k h o m e . B u t b e s i d e s t h e s e leathery o l d v e t e r a n s o f R o m e ' s d i v e r s e c a m p a i g n s , M a r i u s a l s o e n r o l l e d another m o r e n u m e r o u s k i n d o f volunteer: the m e n w i t h n o t h i n g . A c e n s u s of all a d u l t m a l e citizens r e c o r d e d the v a l u e o f their p r o p e r t y a n d divided t h e m a c c o r d i n g l y into five p r o p e r t y c l a s s e s . H o w e v e r , t h o s e citizens w h o c o u l d n o t d e c l a r e t o the c e n s o r s the m i n i m u m c e n s u s q u a l i f i c a t i o n for e n r o l m e n t in C l a s s V w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m m i l i t a r y service. L a c k i n g the m e a n s t o p r o v i d e t h e m s e l v e s a r m s , t h e s e p o o r citizens w e r e listed in the c e n s u s simply a s the capite censi or ' h e a d c o u n t ' . H o w e v e r , M a r i u s w a s n o t c o n t e n t to s u p p l e m e n t his a r m y by only d r a w i n g u p o n 'the b r a v e s t s o l d i e r s f r o m the L a t i n t o w n s ' ( S a l l u s t Bellum lugurthinum 8 4 . 2 ) . T h u s , o f all the r e f o r m s attributed t o M a r i u s , the o p e n i n g of the r a n k s t o capite censi in 1 0 7 BC h a s o b v i o u s l y a t t r a c t e d the u n a n i m o u s d i s a p p r o v a l of ancient w r i t e r s , a s e n t i m e n t best p u t by his n e a r - c o n t e m p o r a r y S a l l u s t : Some said he did this because he could not get enough of a better kind; others, that he wanted to curry favour with men of low condition, since he owed to them his fame and advancement. And indeed, if a man is ambitious for power, he can have no better supporters than the poor: they are not concerned about their own possessions, since they have none, and whatever will put something in their pockets is right and proper in their eyes. (Sallust Bellum lugurthinum 86.2) A n d s o M a r i u s s t a n d s a c c u s e d o f p a v i n g the w a y for the s o - c a l l e d l a w l e s s , g r e e d y s o l d i e r y w h o s e activities w e r e t h o u g h t t o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d l a r g e l y t o the decline a n d fall of the R e p u b l i c a f e w g e n e r a t i o n s later. Yet w e s h o u l d n o t l o s e sight o f the fact t h a t M a r i u s w a s n o t the first t o enrol the capite censi. R o m e w a s ruled by a n a r i s t o c r a t i c o l i g a r c h y e m b e d d e d in the S e n a t e , w h i c h d i s a r m e d the w e a r y a n d c h e a t e d p o o r by p r e s s i n g s w o r d s in their h a n d s , the a s s u m p t i o n being t h a t a n y o n e w h o b e c a m e a soldier b e c a m e thereby o n c e a n d for all o n e of the p r o p s o f the ruling order. T h u s at t i m e s o f e x t r e m e crisis in the p a s t the S e n a t e h a d i m p r e s s e d t h e m , a l o n g w i t h c o n v i c t s a n d slaves, for service a s legionaries. In the d a r k d a y s f o l l o w i n g the c r u s h i n g

defeat at C a n n a e ( 2 1 6 BC), for instance, t w o legions w e r e enlisted f r o m slave-volunteers (Livy 2 2 . 5 7 . 1 1 , 2 3 . 3 2 . 1 ) . M a r i u s w a s merely carrying one stage further a p r o c e s s visible d u r i n g the 2 n d century BC, by w h i c h the p r e s c r i b e d p r o p e r t y qualification for service in the a r m y w a s e r o d e d a n d b e c a m e less m e a n i n g f u l . N o w the only real prerequisites were t h a t o f R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p a n d a w i l l i n g n e s s to g o soldiering. N o t i c e a b l y the ancient s o u r c e s d o not say that M a r i u s s w e p t a w a y the q u a l i f i c a t i o n , or c h a n g e d the l a w o n eligibility. O n the c o n t r a r y , he merely a p p e a l e d t o the capite censi for volunteers, w h o m he c o u l d equip f r o m state funds under the legislation d r a w n u p by C a i u s G r a c c h u s in 1 2 3 BC, by which the state w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for e q u i p p i n g the soldier fighting in its defence (Plutarch Caius Gracchus 5 . 1 ) . E v e n before G r a c c h u s ' lex militaria, there h a d b e e n a p r o g r e s s i v e d e b a s e m e n t of the p r o p e r t y t h r e s h o l d for C l a s s V f r o m 1 1 , 0 0 0 asses to 4 , 0 0 0 asses (Livy 1 . 4 3 . 8 , cf. Polybios 6 . 1 9 . 2 ) . In 1 2 3 BC, as o n e o f the tribunes of the p e o p l e , G r a c c h u s himself r e d u c e s the p r o p e r t y qualification a g a i n , setting the m i n i m u m at 1 , 5 0 0 asses ( G a b b a 1 9 7 6 : 7 - 1 0 ) . T h i s l a s t r e p r e s e n t s a very s m a l l a m o u n t of p r o p e r t y i n d e e d , a l m o s t certainly insufficient to m a i n t a i n a n average-sized family, but the effect w a s a n o n g o i n g a t t e m p t t o i n c r e a s e the n u m b e r of citizens that qualified for military service. A Roman praetor or consul was preceded by lictors, each carrying on his left shoulder a ceremonial bundle of bound, wooden rods (fasces) with a single-headed axe (securis) embedded in them. These symbolized, six for a praetor and 12 for a consul, the power of the magistrate to discipline by the use of physical force. This slab is built into a fountain at Paestum. (Fields-Carre Collection)

M a r i u s ' r e f o r m s h o u l d be seen a s the logical c o n c l u s i o n t o this d e v e l o p m e n t , s o m e t h i n g R o m e ' s o v e r s e a s v e n t u r e s o n i n c r e a s i n g l y far-flung fields h a d e x a c e r b a t e d . W h a t he d i d w a s t o legalize a p r o c e s s that h a d been present for a b o u t a century a n d that the Senate h a d failed t o i m p l e m e n t , t h a t is, o p e n i n g u p the a r m y t o all citizens r e g a r d l e s s of their p r o p e r t y , a r m i n g t h e m at state e x p e n s e , a n d recruiting t h e m n o t t h r o u g h the dilectus, the a n n u a l levy, b u t o n a volunteer b a s i s . W i t h M a r i u s the traditional link b e t w e e n p r o p e r t y a n d defence o f the state w a s b r o k e n forever. W h a t is m o r e , by the enfranchizing l a w s o f 9 0 - 8 9 BC the recruiting a r e a for t h o s e w h o c o u l d serve in the legions w a s e x t e n d e d t o all o f Italy s o u t h of the P o . S o the socii - L a t i n a n d Italian allies - d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d the R o m a n a r m y w a s n o w c o m p o s e d o f legions o f citizen-soldiers recruited t h r o u g h o u t p e n i n s u l a r Italy, a n d c o n t i n g e n t s of n o n - I t a l i a n s serving either a s volunteers or a s m e r c e n a r i e s . M a r i u s is a l s o c r e d i t e d w i t h c h a n g e s in t a c t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , n a m e l y he a b o l i s h e d the m a n i p l e (manipulus, p l . manipuli) a n d s u b s t i t u t e d the c o h o r t a s the s t a n d a r d t a c t i c a l unit o f the l e g i o n . T h e m a n i p u l a r legion of the m i d d l e R e p u b l i c h a d b e e n split i n t o d i s t i n c t b a t t l e lines. B e h i n d a screen o f velites, o r l i g h t - a r m e d t r o o p s , the first line c o m p r i s e d the hastati ( ' s p e a r m e n ' ) , the s e c o n d l i n e , t h e s o l d i e r s in their p r i m e , c o m p o s e d o f the principes ('chief m e n ' ) , w h i l e the o l d e s t a n d m o r e m a t u r e m e n w e r e a s s i g n e d t o the third line a n d c a l l e d t h e triarii ( ' t h i r d - r a n k m e n ' ) . T h e r e w e r e 1 0 m a n i p l e s a n d 2 0 c e n t u r i e s in e a c h b a t t l e line, m a k i n g a t o t a l o f 3 0 m a n i p l e s a n d 6 0 centuries t o t h e m a n i p u l a r l e g i o n . W h i l e M a r i u s m a i n t a i n e d the c e n t u r i e s a n d the

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m a n i p l e s for a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s , he c h o s e t o d i v i d e his l e g i o n i n t o 1 0 c o h o r t s , each of which consisted of three m a n i p l e s , o n e d r a w n f r o m e a c h o f the t h r e e lines o f hastati, principes a n d triarii. T h e c o h o r t (cohors, p l . cohortes) as a formation of three m a n i p l e s w a s not an entirely n o v e l i n n o v a t i o n , a s it a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n in u s e a s a t a c t i c a l , a s o p p o s e d to a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , e x p e d i e n t f r o m the t i m e of the S e c o n d P u n i c War. P o l y b i o s , in his a c c o u n t ( 1 1 . 2 3 . 1 , cf. 3 3 ) o f the b a t t l e o f Ilipa (206 BC), p a u s e s to explain the m e a n i n g of the t e r m cohors t o his G r e e k r e a d e r s h i p . S u r p r i s i n g l y , it r e c e i v e s n o m e n t i o n in his detailed a c c o u n t o f a r m y o r g a n i z a t i o n neither in the s i x t h b o o k n o r in his c o m p a r i s o n o f l e g i o n a n d p h a l a n x in the e i g h t e e n t h b o o k , a l t h o u g h , it s h o u l d be s t a t e d , t h e r e is little o n t a c t i c s in b o t h t h e s e n a r r a t i v e s . O n t h e other h a n d , s o m e h a v e d e t e c t e d , in S a l l u s t ' s a c c o u n t (Bellum lugurthinum 4 9 . 6 ) of the operations of Quintus Caecilius M e t e l l u s (cos. 1 0 9 BC) a g a i n s t I u g u r t h a ( 1 0 9 - 1 0 8 B C ) , the last reference t o m a n i p l e s m a n o e u v r i n g a s the s o l e t a c t i c a l unit o f the b a t t l e line H e n c e a belief t h a t M a r i u s s w e p t t h e m a w a y either in 1 0 6 BC or d u r i n g his p r e p a r a t i o n s in 1 0 4 BC for the w a r w i t h the C i m b r i a n d T e u t o n e s . It is r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the b a t t l e o f P y d n a ( 1 6 8 BC) w a s the t r i u m p h o f the R o m a n m a n i p l e o v e r the M a c e d o n i a n p h a l a n x , a n d this d i s p o s i t i o n w a s a d e q u a t e until R o m e c a m e t o m e e t a n o p p o n e n t w h o a d o p t e d a m e t h o d of a t t a c k different f r o m the s l o w m e t h o d i c a l a d v a n c e o f the p h a l a n x w i t h its ' b r i s t l i n g r a m p a r t o f o u t s t r e t c h e d p i k e s ' (Plutarch Aemilius Paullus 1 9 . 1 ) . T h e tactics o f the G e r m a n i c a n d Celtic tribes, the latter a r m e d w i t h a l o n g , t w o - e d g e d s w o r d d e s i g n e d for s l a s h i n g , w a s t o s t a k e everything u p o n a v i g o r o u s o n s l a u g h t at the s t a r t o f the b a t t l e , b e a t i n g d o w n the shields of the o p p o s i t i o n a n d b r e a k i n g into their f o r m a t i o n . T h i s w a s a terrifying thing, a n d at t i m e s c o u l d swiftly s w e e p a w a y a n o p p o n e n t especially a n e r v o u s o n e - b u t if it w a s h a l t e d the t r i b e s m e n w o u l d t e n d t o lose their e n t h u s i a s m a n d retreat quickly. T o m e e t this brutal m e t h o d of a t t a c k , w h e r e the p e r p e t r a t o r s believed t h a t fighting p o w e r i n c r e a s e d in p r o p o r t i o n to the size o f the m a s s , the f o r m a t i o n in three f i x e d b a t t l e lines o f m a n i p l e s w a s u n s u i t e d . T h e u n i t s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e fairly s m a l l a n d s h a l l o w , a n d a n a t t a c k s t r o n g l y p r e s s e d h o m e m i g h t easily o v e r c o m e their r e s i s t a n c e . In the w a r a g a i n s t the C e l t i c I n s u b r e s ( 2 2 5 BC) the hastati o f the f r o n t line h a d a t t e m p t e d t o c i r c u m v e n t this difficulty b y s u b s t i t u t i n g their pila for the t h r u s t i n g - s p e a r s o f the triarii s t a t i o n e d in the r e a r ( P o l y b i o s 2 . 3 3 . 4 ) .

Funerary monument of Tiberius Flavius Miccalus (Istanbul, Arkeoloji Muzesi, 73.7 T), 1st century BC, from Perinthus (Kamara Dere). On the right is an officer; his gladius hangs on the left, the opposite side to that of the legionary. The deceased was a prefect, who ranked higher than a military tribune but below a legate. The other figure is probably a standard-bearer or signifer. (Fields-Carre Collection)

Yet the small size of the m a n i p l e w a s a m a j o r w e a k n e s s a g a i n s t s u c h a style of fighting, a n d M a r i u s d e c i d e d t o s t r e n g t h e n his f r o n t line o f d e f e n c e b y increasing the size of the individual units. T h u s the c o h o r t t o o k the p l a c e of the maniple as the tactical unit of the M a r i a n legion, w h i c h w a s n o w o r g a n i z e d into 43

RIGHT The war-god Mars on the Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (Paris, Musée du Louvre, Ma 975) dressed in the uniform of a senior officer, most probably that of a military tribune. He wears a muscled cuirass with two rows of fringed pteruges, and a crested Etrusco-Corinthian helmet. Caesar was elected military tribune in 72 BC and may have served under Crassus the following year. (Fields-Carre Collection) ABOVE Funerary monument of Tiberius Flavius Miccalus (Istanbul, Arkeoloji Muzesi, 73.7 T), 1st century BC, from Perinthus (Kamara Dere). Here a legionary wields a gladius Hispaniensis, the celebrated cut-and-thrust sword with a superb twoedged blade and lethal triangular point. Recruits were trained to thrust, not slash, with this particularly murderous weapon. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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1 0 c o h o r t s , e a c h o f w h i c h w a s s u b d i v i d e d into six centuries. In effect the old threefold battle a r r a y w a s cut into 1 0 slices f r o m front to b a c k , with the c o h o r t b e i n g a l a r g e b u t m a n a g e a b l e unit of 4 8 0 m e n . W h e n d e p l o y e d for battle, the 1 0 c o h o r t s o f a legion still f o r m e d u p in the t r a d i t i o n a l triplex acies, with four in the front line, then a line of three, a n d finally three m o r e at the rear. A n o t h e r s o u n d a r g u m e n t for p l a c i n g a definite d e c i s i o n in f a v o u r of the c o h o r t at the t i m e o f M a r i u s c o u l d be t h a t , w i t h the l o w e r i n g of the p r o p e r t y q u a l i f i c a t i o n a n d its eventual a b o l i t i o n , the legionaries w e r e n o w e q u i p p e d by the state at p u b l i c e x p e n s e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , v a r i a t i o n s in e q u i p m e n t originally linked t o differing financial s t a t u s e s n o w c e a s e d t o h a v e a n y raison d'etre. All legionaries w e r e n o w e q u i p p e d with a b r o n z e M o n t e f o r t i n o helmet, a mail shirt (lorica hamata), the scutum, t w o pila, o n e h e a v y the other light, a n d gladius Hispaniensis, p l u s a d a g g e r (pugio). G r e a v e s d i s a p p e a r e d , except o n centurions. T h e legionary, like all p r o f e s s i o n a l f o o t soldiers before his d a y a n d after, w a s grossly overloaded - alarmingly so, according to some accounts. Cicero w r o t e o f 'the toil, the g r e a t toil, o f the m a r c h : the l o a d of m o r e t h a n half a m o n t h ' s p r o v i s i o n s , the l o a d o f a n y a n d everything that m i g h t be r e q u i r e d , the l o a d o f the s t a k e for e n t r e n c h m e n t ' (Tusculanae disputationes 2.16.37). N o r m a l l y , p e r h a p s , a legionary carried rations for three d a y s , not the t w o weeks t o w h i c h C i c e r o refers. H o w e v e r , it h a s been e s t i m a t e d that the legionary w a s b u r d e n e d w i t h e q u i p m e n t w e i g h i n g a s m u c h a s 3 5 k g if n o t m o r e . It a p p e a r s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a n o t h e r o f M a r i u s ' a p p a r e n t r e f o r m s w a s t o r e d u c e the size of the b a g g a g e train (impedimenta). T h e legionaries n o w h a d to s h o u l d e r m u c h o f their g e a r : b e d r o l l a n d c l o a k , three or m o r e d a y s ' ration of g r a i n , a b r o n z e c o o k i n g p o t (trulleus) a n d m e s s tin (patera), a m e t a l canteen or leather flask, a sickle for cutting g r a i n a n d f o r a g e , a w i c k e r b a s k e t for earth

LEFT Legionaries, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (Paris, Musée du Louvre, Ma 975), armed with scutum and gladius. Citizens no longer provided their own equipment, instead being issued with standard equipment and clothing by the state. Thus for many recruits enlistment was an attractive option, promising adequate food and shelter, a cash income, and a hope of something more both during their service and on their formal retirement. (Fields-Carre Collection) RIGHT Derived from Celtic helmets of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, the Montefortino helmet (Palermo, Museo Archeologico Regionale, 42644) was a highdomed pattern that gave good protection to the top of the head. It also had hinged cheekpieces, but had only a stubby nape-guard. The type is named after the necropolis at

Montefortino, Ancona in northern Italy. (Fields-Carre Collection)

m o v i n g , either a p i c k a x e (dolabra) or a n i r o n - s h o d w o o d e n s p a d e (pala), a l e n g t h o f r o p e , a n d a s t a k e (pilum muralis) for fortifying the o v e r n i g h t m a r c h i n g c a m p . T h i s g e a r w a s slung f r o m a T - s h a p e d p o l e (furca), a n d Plutarch s a y s (Marius 1 3 . 1 ) the soldiers w e r e n i c k n a m e d muli Mariani, M a r i u s ' m u l e s , a w r y d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t w o u l d r e m a i n in p o p u l a r currency. O n the m a r c h e a c h m e s s - u n i t of eight l e g i o n a r i e s , the contubernium, w a s a l s o a l l o w e d o n e fourlegged m u l e t o c a r r y the heavier items s u c h a s its leather tent a n d m i l l s t o n e s . T h e natural implication of M a r i u s ' decision to enrol p o o r citizens in the a r m y w a s that the newly raised legions w o u l d n o t all a u t o m a t i c a l l y cease t o exist w h e n the m e n w h e r e d i s m i s s e d f r o m duty. In effect, the legion b e c a m e a p e r m a n e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n into w h i c h n e w recruits c o u l d be a d d e d , k e e p i n g the s a m e n a m e a n d n u m b e r t h r o u g h o u t its existence. T o m a r k this c h a n g e in status, M a r i u s g a v e e a c h legion a p e r m a n e n t s t a n d a r d t o r e p r e s e n t it. T h e r e p u b l i c a n l e g i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o the elder Pliny (Historia Naturalis 1 0 . 5 . 1 6 . ) , originally h a d five s t a n d a r d s : eagle, wolf, minotaur, h o r s e , a n d boar. H e p l a c e s the a d o p t i o n of the silver eagle (aquila) a s the s u p r e m e s t a n d a r d of all legions precisely in 1 0 4 BC, at the start of p r e p a r a t i o n s for the w a r a g a i n s t the northern tribes. T h i s selection of the eagle, a bird of prey associated with Iuppiter, is thus firmly credited t o M a r i u s . T h e n e w s t a n d a r d w a s c a r r i e d i n t o b a t t l e b y a s e n i o r s t a n d a r d - b e a r e r , the aquilifer, s e c o n d o n l y t o a c e n t u r i o n in r a n k . It w a s u n d e r the p e r s o n a l c a r e o f the primus pilus ('first s p e a r ' ) , t h e chief c e n t u r i o n o f the l e g i o n w h o n o m i n a l l y c o m m a n d e d t h e first c e n t u r y in the first c o h o r t . W h i l e its s a f e c u s t o d y w a s e q u i v a l e n t t o the c o n t i n u a n c e o f the l e g i o n a s a fighting u n i t , h o w e v e r d e p l e t e d in n u m b e r s , its l o s s b r o u g h t the g r e a t e s t i g n o m i n y o n a n y s u r v i v o r s a n d c o u l d r e s u l t in the d i s b a n d m e n t o f t h e l e g i o n in d i s g r a c e . F r o n t i n u s , for i n s t a n c e , r e p o r t s t h a t after the d e f e a t o f the rebels led by C a s t u s a n d G a n n i c u s , C r a s s u s w a s a b l e t o r e c o v e r 'five aquilae a n d t w e n t y - s i x signa' (Strategemata 2.5.34). 45

T h e aquila n o t only w o r k e d t o increase the loyalty a n d d e v o t i o n of soldiers t o the legion t h r o u g h f o s t e r i n g a c o r p o r a t e identity, b u t it w a s a l s o reflective o f the s w e e p i n g a w a y o f the o l d c l a s s d i v i s i o n s within the R o m a n army. A n d s o l e g i o n a r i e s w h o v i e w e d the a r m y a s a career, n o t s i m p l y a s a n interruption t o n o r m a l life, c a m e t o identify very s t r o n g l y w i t h their legion, a n d these units d e v e l o p e d , in the fullness o f t i m e , t r e m e n d o u s c o r p o r a t e spirit. A d m i t t e d l y a n o l d p r o v i s i o n a l legion c o u l d be a first-class fighting unit, especially if s e a s o n e d b y l o n g service, b u t a n e w p r o f e s s i o n a l legion w a s o n a v e r a g e better trained a n d d i s c i p l i n e d t h a n its p r e d e c e s s o r s , s i m p l y b e c a u s e it w a s m o r e p e r m a n e n t . A t the t i m e o f M a r i u s , the legions w e r e p r o b a b l y still r e c o n s t r u c t e d every year, b u t by C a e s a r ' s d a y they certainly b e g a n t o retain their identity. T o s u m u p : in the r a n k s o f C r a s s u s ' l e g i o n s , t h a t is, t h o s e l e g i o n s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y e x t i n g u i s h e d the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n , there w e r e m e n of m o d e s t m e a n s , city-dwelling proletarii a n d their c o u n t r y c o u s i n s , the rural poor, w h o s e dire p o v e r t y o r m e a g r e fields, i n d e e d if they h a d s m a l l h o l d i n g s , m a d e t h e m w i l l i n g r e c r u i t s . T h e r e w e r e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a d c h o s e n the a r m y a s their p r o f e s s i o n , a n d their m i l i t a r y w o r l d w a s firmly r o o t e d in the esprit de corps o f their l e g i o n s . M a n y of t h e m h a d t a k e n their military o a t h w i t h the h o p e of a l a n d s e t t l e m e n t a t the e n d o f their t e r m o f service a n d the p r o m i s e of l o o t d u r i n g it. R e g a r d l e s s o f their s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n , these m e n w e r e R o m a n a n d free, a n d t h u s s a w t h e m s e l v e s a s far s u p e r i o r t o a n y alien s l a v e . B e s i d e s , even in a fight a g a i n s t s l a v e s there w o u l d still be fruits of war.

OPPOSING PLANS

THE SPARTACAN PLAN W e h a v e seen t h a t S p a r t a c u s , t h r o u g h the f o r c e o f his c h a r i s m a t i c p e r s o n a l i t y and military genius, w a s able to weld an a m o r p h o u s , inarticulate, semib a r b a r i a n h o s t o f ' s l a v e s , d e s e r t e r s , a n d r i f f r a f f ( A p p i a n Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 7 ) i n t o a f o r m i d a b l e fighting f o r c e t h a t m a n a g e d t o d e f e a t nine R o m a n a r m i e s ranging from a few t h o u s a n d untried recruits a n d time-served veterans, to tens o f t h o u s a n d s o f v e t e r a n l e g i o n a r i e s . T h e r e is a b s o l u t e l y n o e v i d e n c e t h a t S p a r t a c u s ever h e l d the b r i g h t v i s i o n o f a n e w w o r l d a n d d r e a m e d o f a b o l i s h i n g slavery. T h e r e is a s a d reality; the a n c i e n t w o r l d e m b r a c e d s l a v e r y a s p a r t o f the n a t u r a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s . W h i l e his f o l l o w e r s m a y h a v e a i m e d a t the e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f their o p p r e s s o r s , they c e r t a i n l y w a n t e d t o free t h e m s e l v e s a n d r e t u r n t o their t r i b a l h o m e l a n d s , p r e f e r a b l y after a s p r e e o f h e a v y l o o t i n g in Italy. S a l l u s t , a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f S p a r t a c u s , d o e s i m p l y t h a t he w a s o n e o f the f e w ' p r u d e n t p e o p l e ' w i t h 'free 3 . 9 8 ) in t h e s l a v e a r m y a n d p o r t r a y s h i m a s a n d n o b l e m i n d s ' (Historiae trying repeatedly, if vainly, t o r e s t r a i n the b a s e r instincts o f the m a j o r i t y o f his m e n w h o w e r e b e n t o n r a p e , m u r d e r , theft, a n d a r s o n . O f c o u r s e v i o l e n c e

Capua long remained a centre for gladiatorial combat and this Campanian city (along with Puteoli) possessed the largest permanent amphitheatre known (until overtaken by the Colosseum at Rome). It probably had an older one, which was subsequently superseded by the much larger facility we see here. It has been argued (Welch 1994) this amphitheatre was made specifically for the Caesarian veterans settled there by Octavianus. (Fototeca ENIT)

47

a n d u n r e s t s p r e a d t h r o u g h the I t a l i a n c o u n t r y s i d e like s o m e contagious disease, and we have t o i m a g i n e t h a t l a w l e s s elements e v e r y w h e r e t o o k a d v a n t a g e of the s t a t e o f r e b e l l i o n . Other sources, however, do j present a m o r e brutal side to Spartacus. Florus (Epitome 3.20.9) and Orosius (5.24.3) explicitly assert that Spartacus used R o m a n prisoners as gladiators in f u n e r a l g a m e s . A p p i a n (Bellum

civilia

1 . 1 1 7 ) is p r o b a b l y referring t o o n e

o f t h e s e w h e n he s a y s S p a r t a c u s sacrificed 3 0 0 R o m a n s o l d i e r s o n b e h a l f o f his d e a d friend C r i x u s . A p p i a n a l s o s a y s (ibid. 1 . 1 1 9 ) t h a t S p a r t a c u s crucified a R o m a n p r i s o n e r t o i n s p i r e his f o l l o w e r s by v i s u a l l y r e m i n d i n g t h e m o f the g r u e s o m e f a t e t h a t a w a i t e d t h e m if t h e y d i d n o t w i n . H e w h o c o m m i t s b r u t a l i t i e s f r e q u e n t l y a c t s u n d e r the i m p u l s e of fear or a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t he h i m s e l f will suffer the s a m e f a t e .

Relief (Munich, Glyptotek, inv. 364) showing a pair of gladiators, dated to 1st century BC They are wearing thighlength shirts of scale or iron mail - the shoulder 'doubling' suggests the latter - and Gallicstyle helmets, and may represent Gallic nobles captured about the time of Caesar's conquest and subsequently condemned to fight in the arena. However, the sword (gladius, perhaps) and round shields are problematic. (Bibi Saint-Pol)

A s well a s his character, the ancient a u t h o r s a l s o s e e m t o be a t o d d s a b o u t w h a t the m o t i v e s o f S p a r t a c u s w e r e . A p p i a n (ibid. 1 . 1 1 7 ) a n d F l o r u s (Epitome 3 . 2 0 . 1 1 ) write t h a t he i n t e n d e d t o m a r c h o n R o m e itself - a l t h o u g h this m a y h a v e b e e n a reflection o f R o m a n fears at the t i m e . If S p a r t a c u s d i d i n t e n d t o m a r c h o n R o m e , it w a s a g o a l s u b s e q u e n t l y a b a n d o n e d . P l u t a r c h (Crassus 9 . 5 - 6 ) only m e n t i o n s t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a n t e d t o e s c a p e n o r t h w a r d s to G a l l i a C i s a l p i n a a n d d i s p e r s e his f o l l o w e r s b a c k t o their h o m e l a n d s , w h e r e v e r they m i g h t b e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , this p l a n w a s a l s o a b a n d o n e d a n d the slave a r m y t u r n e d b a c k south again. A s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , it is difficult t o believe that the rebel slaves were a h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p u n d e r the sole l e a d e r s h i p of S p a r t a c u s . T h u s the question a r i s e s : w a s there g e n u i n e dissent arising f r o m divergent a s p i r a t i o n s ? P e r h a p s they h a d been in Italy s o l o n g t h a t despite their suffering they c o u l d not face the p r o s p e c t of a c t u a l l y leaving. M o r e o v e r , they m i g h t h a v e t h o u g h t a n a t t e m p t o n R o m e itself w a s p o s s i b l e , or a t a n y rate c o n t i n u e o n their career of looting the p e n i n s u l a . S u p p o s i t i o n s these m a y b e , b u t it is a g o o d g u e s s that S p a r t a c u s s a w the difficulties i n v o l v e d , for a successful c r o s s i n g of the A l p s w o u l d not n e c e s s a r i l y g u a r a n t e e f r e e d o m . B e y o n d lay m o r e R o m a n territory a n d other R o m a n a r m i e s . M u c h better, s o S p a r t a c u s p r o b a b l y r e a s o n e d , w a s to m a r c h s o u t h , c r o s s t o Sicily, w h e r e tens o f t h o u s a n d s of s l a v e s , full of m e m o r i e s of recent rebellions a g a i n s t R o m e , c o u l d be r a i s e d in revolt. It is S a l l u s t w h o s a y s t h a t C a i u s V e r r e s , w h e n g o v e r n o r of Sicily, 'strengthened the fortifications o n the s h o r e s closest to Italy' (Historiae 4.32). T h i s w a s the s a m e throat and paragon o f e x t o r t i o n in 7 0 h i m by m a k i n g his

48

Verres i m m o r t a l i z e d by C i c e r o a s a n a r c h s c o u n d r e l , cutof w i c k e d n e s s . W h e n Verres w a s b r o u g h t to trial o n charges BC, C i c e r o , w h o m he p r o s e c u t e d , p u r p o s e f u l l y m a l i g n e d a c t i o n s in Sicily s e e m even w o r s e than those of the rebels

Spartacus' movements, summer 72 B C

o f the Sicilian s l a v e w a r s (e.g. Verrines 2 . 3 . 6 6 , 4 . 1 1 2 ) . Such d e b u n k i n g w a s to be Cicero's signature. V e r r e s - or s o his p r o s e c u t o r c l a i m e d - m a d e o v e r ten m i l l i o n denarii in e m b e z z l e m e n t a n d s w i n d l e s o f all k i n d s in Sicily (e.g. i b i d . 2 . 1 . 2 7 ) . E v e n s o , his g o v e r n o r s h i p w a s in the y e a r s 7 3 - 7 1 BC, p r e c i s e l y w h e n the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n w a s r a g i n g o n the m a i n l a n d o f s o u t h e r n Italy, directly o p p o s i t e the i s l a n d . G i v e n t h e p r e v i o u s s l a v e w a r s , there w a s a r e a s o n a b l e f e a r t h a t the s l a v e s o f Sicily m i g h t rise a g a i n , a n d V e r r e s s e e m s t o h a v e t a k e n the a p p r o p r i a t e l y d r a c o n i a n m e a s u r e s ( f r o m the R o m a n p o i n t of view, o f c o u r s e ) n e e d e d t o k e e p his p r o v i n c e u n d e r c o n t r o l . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , the very clever C i c e r o m a n a g e s never t o m e n t i o n S p a r t a c u s by n a m e in his vitriolic a t t a c k on Verres' administration.

Ancient Capua, now known as Santa Maria Capua Vetera, was destroyed by the Arabs in the 9th century and the survivors emigrated to Casilinum, on the south bank of the Volturnus (Volturno), taking their name with them. In Spartacus' day, however, Capua was 'queen among cities' (Florus Epitome 1.16.6), a metropolitan rival to Rome itself, a voluptuous city rightly famed for its gladiators and perfumes. (Fototeca ENIT)

It is S a l l u s t t o o w h o s a y s (Historiae 3.96, 98) a m a j o r bust-up between S p a r t a c u s a n d C r i x u s t o o k p l a c e early o n in the rebellion. With the p r a e t o r Varinius c l o s i n g in, S p a r t a c u s sensibly w a n t e d to escape north as s o o n as possible, but C r i x u s , w i t h the G a u l s a n d G e r m a n s b e h i n d h i m , i m p r u d e n t l y w a n t e d to fight the R o m a n s h e a d - o n or a t least h a d his h e a r t set o n p l u n d e r i n g the p e n i n s u l a . W h a t e v e r the truth o f the matter, the s o u r c e s d o indicate that C r i x u s a n d O e n o m a u s m a d e a division of forces a n d split off with the G a u l s a n d G e r m a n s t o f o r m a s e c o n d slave army, t h a t O e n o m a u s w a s s o o n killed, a n d that C r i x u s b e c a m e the leader o f the G a u l s a n d G e r m a n s until h e , t o o , died in battle a n d w a s , p e r h a p s , succeeded by C a s t u s and Gannicus (Orosius 5 . 2 4 . 6 , Appian Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 7 , Plutarch Crassus 1 1 . 3 , Frontinus Strategemata 2 . 5 . 3 4 , Livy Periochae 9 6 , 9 7 ) . T h e q u i c k of annihilation of C r i x u s a n d his p e o p l e obviously p l a c e d S p a r t a c u s in a fatally w e a k e n e d p o s i t i o n . S p a r t a c u s a n d C r i x u s h a d s h a r e d the s a m e g o a l , n a m e l y that age-old desire for f r e e d o m . Unfortunately for their c a u s e they e s p o u s e d conflicting strategies to reach it, that is to say, to escape Italy v e r s u s t o stay in the p e n i n s u l a t o pillage a n d loot. S p a r t a c u s a n d his f o l l o w e r s r e f u s e d t o b e R o m a n s . T h e y e x p r e s s e d n o d e m a n d for R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p a n d its a t t e n d a n t r i g h t s . R o m e , font o f rationality, law, a n d o r d e r in the O c c i d e n t , h a d n o t h i n g to offer t h e m , s o the p r i s o n e r of w a r w a n t e d t o r e t u r n h o m e , the d e b t o r w a n t e d his l a n d b a c k , the s l a v e n o t b o r n into slavery w a n t e d his f r e e d o m b a c k , while the slave b o r n into slavery w a n t e d to taste t h a t f r e e d o m . We m u s t , therefore, reject the d o g m a that S p a r t a c u s w a s a p r o t a g o n i s t of the a b o l i t i o n of the institution of slavery or as a d e s t r o y e r of R o m e . T h e r e w a s n o c l a s s s t r u g g l e , n o r a n y social revolution. T h e s i m p l e a n d s o b e r truth w a s t h a t he i n c a r n a t e d the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of his f o l l o w e r s never, never, never t o be s l a v e s a g a i n . H a d he been merely a n a m b i t i o u s chief of b r i g a n d s of s m a l l fighting capacity, it is m o s t unlikely that he w o u l d h a v e left M o u n t V e s u v i u s .

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THE ROMAN PLAN W a r f a r e w o u l d n o t be w a r f a r e w i t h o u t a n e n e m y , yet for R o m e there w e r e t w o t y p e s o f w a r f a r e . O n e t y p e o f w a r , bellum, w a s the o n e r e c o g n i z e d a s g e n u i n e - a conflict b e t w e e n t w o l e g i t i m a t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d s t a t e s , a b a t t l e between the a r m e d forces of societies t h a t s h a r e d m a n i f e s t political s t r u c t u r e s a n d w h i c h f o u g h t a c c o r d i n g t o r e c o g n i z e d f o r m s o f c o m b a t . In this c a s e the w a r w a s labelled 'real' or ' g e n u i n e ' , a bellum iustum. T h e other t y p e o f w a r w a s that w a g e d by a state a g a i n s t i n c h o a t e , u n s t r u c t u r e d a n d s o c i a l l y inferior foes, in w h i c h c a s e it w a s r e g a r d e d a s a ' b u s h ' conflict or i r r e g u l a r war. A w a r of this type w a s u s u a l l y qualified by s o m e a d d i t i o n a l t e r m t h a t f o r m a l l y set it a p a r t f r o m a bellum iustum a s , for i n s t a n c e , w i t h the t e r m ' s l a v e ' , a bellum servile (e.g. F l o r u s Epitome 3.19.2). In the e a r l y s t a g e s o f the r e b e l l i o n the S e n a t e , f o r g e t t i n g the l e s s o n s o f recent history, l o o k e d u p o n the s l a v e s a s a m o t l e y c r o w d o f d e s p e r a d o e s w h o w o u l d fly at the first sight of a R o m a n l e g i o n . H o w c o u l d s u c h c o w e d a n d trembling slaves ever be a n d d o a n y t h i n g else? A n d s o a n y initial p l a n n i n g w a s very m u c h i n f l u e n c e d by the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y w e r e u p a g a i n s t a f e w r u n a w a y s l a v e s . It w a s n o t until the S e n a t e h a n d e d C r a s s u s the c o m m a n d a g a i n s t S p a r t a c u s t h a t their s o - c a l l e d bellum servile b e c a m e a f u l l - b l o w n helium iustum.

Author Howard Fast once commented in an interview that aside from the gladiator fight between Kirk Douglas and Woody Strode nothing in Kubrick's epic film Spartacus could compare in dramatic intensity with the corresponding scenes in the novel. Yet the influence of the film has been tremendous - the scene 'I'm Spartacus!' is iconic and for many today Spartacus is Douglas. (Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research)

THE CAMPAIGN T h e C a m p a n i a n m e t r o p o l i s of C a p u a , Italy's m o s t v o l u p t u o u s city a n d for over a century the m a i n entrepot for the training a n d h o u s i n g of g l a d i a t o r s , w a s also the h o t s p o t t h a t p r o d u c e d the g r e a t e s t g l a d i a t o r i a l s e n s a t i o n of all time. O n e d a y in the s p r i n g t i m e o f 7 3 B C , a g r o u p o f s o m e 2 0 0 g l a d i a t o r s , m a i n l y T h r a c i a n s a n d G a u l s , resentful of their i n h u m a n e t r e a t m e n t in the g l a d i a t o r i a l training school of C n a e u s Lentulus Batiatus, hatched a plan to escape. The l e a d e r s w e r e the T h r a c i a n S p a r t a c u s a n d the G a u l s C r i x u s a n d O e n o m a u s . It all s t a r t e d in the m e s s h a l l . T h i s w a s the p l a c e w h e r e the g l a d i a t o r s g a t h e r e d t o e a t , a t o n e e n d o f w h i c h w a s the k i t c h e n a n d the other a p a i r of h e a v y w o o d e n d o o r s . O n c e the g l a d i a t o r s w e r e i n s i d e , t h e s e d o o r s w e r e b o l t e d f r o m the o u t s i d e . H a v i n g t a k e n their p l a c e s , the g l a d i a t o r s w o u l d then b e s e r v e d by the k i t c h e n s l a v e s , w o m e n in the m a i n . P a t r o l l i n g the m e s s hall w e r e g u a r d s a r m e d w i t h hefty b a t o n s . A r m e d w i t h c l e a v e r s a n d s p i t s seized f r o m the k i t c h e n , they o v e r p o w e r e d the g u a r d s a n d f o u g h t their w a y t o f r e e d o m . A s they r a c e d t h r o u g h the streets o f C a p u a they f o u n d a c a r t l o a d e d w i t h g l a d i a t o r i a l w e a p o n s a n d e q u i p m e n t , w h i c h t h e y a l s o s e i z e d . O n c e o u t o f the city a n d h a v i n g d r i v e n off the d e t a c h m e n t o f t r o o p s ( p o s s i b l y l o c a l militia) sent after t h e m , S p a r t a c u s a n d

This is the ludus at Pompeii, as seen from the large theatre. That of the lanista Batiatus at Capua would have been very similar. A ludus usually consisted of an exercise square (palaestra), three sides of which were lined with cells to house the inmates. The fourth side contained a large kitchen-cummess hall. The harsh treatment suffered by Spartacus and his fellow gladiators in the barracks at Capua would foment a rebellion with profound consequences for the Roman Republic. Fields-Carre Collection)

52

the other g l a d i a t o r s s o u g h t refuge o n the s l o p e s o f n e a r b y M o u n t V e s u v i u s , then d o r m a n t a n d believed t o be e x t i n c t . F e w e r t h a n half s e e m t o h a v e s u c c e e d e d - ' 8 0 l a c k i n g t w o ' in P l u t a r c h (Crassus 8 . 2 ) ; 7 4 in S a l l u s t (Historiae 3 . 9 0 ) , L i v y (Periochae 95), Frontinus (Strategemata 1 . 5 . 2 1 ) , O r o s i u s ( 5 . 2 4 . 1 ) , a n d E u t r o p i u s ( 6 . 7 . 2 ) ; ' a b o u t 7 0 ' in A p p i a n (Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 6 ) ; 'fewer t h a n 7 0 ' in A u g u s t i n e (City of God 3 . 2 6 ) ; 6 4 in Velleius Paterculus (Historiae Romanae 2 . 3 0 . 5 ) ; n o m o r e t h a n 5 0 (taken at face value) in C i c e r o (Epistulae ad Atticum 6 . 2 . 8 ) ; a n d ' 3 0 or rather m o r e m e n ' in F l o r u s (Epitome 3 . 2 0 . 3 ) . A l t h o u g h the n u m b e r of fugitive-gladiators is v a r i o u s l y r e p o r t e d , the i m p o r t a n t p o i n t is the s o u r c e s ' a g r e e m e n t t h a t the beginnings of the rebellion involved b u t a h a n d f u l o f d e s p e r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s .

DEFEAT OF THE PRAETORIAN ARMIES, 73 BC In the crater of M o u n t V e s u v i u s S p a r t a c u s q u i c k l y f o r g e d a n a r m y o f r u n a w a y s l a v e s a n d free p e o p l e w i t h little t o l o s e , a n d d e f e a t e d the t r o o p s - ' f o r c e s p i c k e d u p in h a s t e a n d at r a n d o m ' ( A p p i a n Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 6 ) - u n d e r o n e of the p r a e t o r s of 7 3 BC C a i u s C l a u d i u s G l a b e r (MMR 11.109), sent t o b e s i e g e the r e b e l s ' v o l c a n i c f a s t n e s s . A b r a v e m a n a s l e e p is b u t a n i n f a n t , a n d the v i c t o r i o u s rebels seized the R o m a n c a m p w i t h all its p o s s e s s i o n s a n d s u p p l i e s . N e v e r w a s a military e x p e d i t i o n m o r e c e r t a i n o f f a i l u r e , a n d its fate t h r o w s into relief the c a s t - i r o n p r e j u d i c e s o f the R o m a n ruling order.

Mount Vesuvius (1,281 m), though clearly volcanic, was reputed extinct (Strabo 5.247). After the catastrophic eruption of 24 August AD 79, which obliterated Pompeii and Herculaneum, the sides of Vesuvius caved in to form an immense crater some 11 km in circumference. The northeastern side of this old crater still exists, but a new cone has formed on the south side. This photograph shows the eruption that took place on the afternoon of 26 April 1872. (Library of Congress)

M e a n w h i l e , in R o m e the S e n a t e w e r e still l o o k i n g u p o n the slave rebellion a s little m o r e t h a n a n irritant t h a t w o u l d be s o o t h e d in d u e c o u r s e , a n d s o t w o m o r e p r a e t o r s f o r t h a t y e a r w e r e s e n t s o u t h t o c l e a n u p this t r o u b l e a n d r e s t o r e o r d e r . T h e p r a e t o r s , L u c i u s C o s s i n i u s (MMR 11.110) a n d P u b l i u s V a r i n i u s (MMR 11.109, 1 1 9 ) , a s well a s V a r i n i u s ' l e g a t e F u r i u s ( C a i u s or L u c i u s , cf. MMR 11.112) a n d his q u a e s t o r C a i u s T o r a n i u s (MMR 11.110), all s u f f e r e d t h u n d e r i n g d e f e a t s in s e p a r a t e e n c o u n t e r s . F u r i u s , w h o c o m m a n d e d 2 , 0 0 0 m e n , w a s s e e n off w i t h little t r o u b l e . C o s s i n i u s first n a r r o w l y e s c a p e d c a p t u r e w h i l e t a k i n g a b a t h , o n l y t o die a s h o r t w h i l e later in a n e n g a g e m e n t o v e r his o w n c a m p . W h e n V a r i n i u s m a n a g e d t o s u r r o u n d his c a m p , S p a r t a c u s s t o l e his a r m y a w a y a t n i g h t , h a v i n g c r e a t e d the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t all w a s n o r m a l . B u t the s e n t r i e s p o s t e d , p r o p e r l y c l o t h e d a n d a r m e d , w e r e in fact fresh c o r p s e s l a s h e d t o s t a k e s , w h o s e o b j e c t , t o g e t h e r w i t h the evening fires t h a t h a d b e e n left b u r n i n g t h r o u g h o u t the c a m p , w a s t o p r o v i d e c o v e r for t h e r e b e l s ' silent w i t h d r a w a l . T h e R o m a n s w e r e i n d e e d f o o l e d a n d o n l y n o t i c e d s o m e t h i n g w a s a m i s s w h e n they m i s s e d the c u s t o m a r y insults s h o u t e d a c r o s s a t t h e m , a n d the s h o w e r o f s t o n e s t h a t n o r m a l l y greeted t h e m at s u n u p ( S a l l u s t Historiae 3 . 9 6 , F r o n t i n u s Strategemata 1.5.22). V a r i n i u s w a s t o fight several e n g a g e m e n t s w i t h S p a r t a c u s , a n d he lost each a n d every o n e o f t h e m . M o s t i g n o m i n i o u s l y , in the l a s t of these the p r a e t o r h a d his very h o r s e a n d s i x lictors c a p t u r e d , in o t h e r w o r d s , all the insignia o f his office fell i n t o the v i c t o r ' s h a n d s . T h e r e w a s a c o s t , o f c o u r s e , a n d s o m e t i m e d u r i n g t h e s e e v e n t s O e n o m a u s , w h o n o w d i s a p p e a r s f r o m the p a g e s o f o u r s o u r c e s , m a y h a v e b e e n killed in b a t t l e . E v e n s o , these s t u n n i n g v i c t o r i e s e n c o u r a g e d m a n y a m a l c o n t e n t t o flock t o j o i n S p a r t a c u s , a s d i d ' m a n y o f the h e r d s m e n a n d s h e p h e r d s o f the s u r r o u n d i n g r e g i o n s - h a r d b o d i e d a n d swift-footed m e n ' (Plutarch Crassus 9 . 3 ) . S p a r t a c u s s p e n t the w i n t e r t r a i n i n g a n d a r m i n g his n e w r e c r u i t s .

DEFEAT OF THE CONSULAR ARMIES, 72 BC T h e f o l l o w i n g s p r i n g , w i t h a n a r m y r e p u t e d by A p p i a n (Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 6 ) to be s o m e 7 0 , 0 0 0 s t r o n g , S p a r t a c u s s w e p t t h r o u g h C a m p a n i a , with specific assaults o n the p r o s p e r o u s t o w n s of C u m a e , N o l a , a n d N u c e r i a , the rebels leaving a thick trail o f d e a d m e n , w o m e n a n d livestock a n d b u r n i n g villas in their w a k e . T h e r e is a l s o evidence that the rebellion n o w affected L u c a n i a a n d B r u t t i u m , the latter a r e g i o n l o n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h r o n i c b r i g a n d a g e , w i t h the t o w n s o f T h u r i i (Sibari), M e t a p o n t u m (Metaponto) and Cosentia (Cosenza) a s o b j e c t s o f e v e n t u a l a t t a c k . S p a r t a c u s tried to restrain the w o r s e of this barbarity, but a perilous d i v i s i o n in the high c o m m a n d h a d resulted in his c o m r a d e C r i x u s d e p a r t i n g , t a k i n g the G a u l s a n d G e r m a n s w i t h h i m , a force of a b o u t 2 0 , 0 0 0 or t h e r e a b o u t s (Plutarch Crassus 9 . 6 , Livy Periochae 9 6 ) . 54

The sparse, denuded slopes of Mount Vesuvius, captured in a late 19th-century photograph. To those who lived around Vesuvius in Spartacus' day, the volcano was just a large, lush mound. Its last eruption had been a thousand years in the past, and its next was to be some 150 years in the future. It has erupted many times since that date, and any plants, shrubs or trees growing on it have been burnt away or swallowed by lava. (Library of Congress)

Like his c o m r a d e S p a r t a c u s , C r i x u s the G a u l h a d been trained a s a g l a d i a t o r in the s c h o o l of B a t i a t u s . T o w a r d s the e n d o f 7 3 BC he w a s t o s e p a r a t e f r o m S p a r t a c u s , it s e e m s , o v e r m a t t e r o f policy. W h i l e S p a r t a c u s w a n t e d t o h e a d north a n d leave Italy, ' C r i x u s a n d his p e o p l e ' , in the w o r d s of S a l l u s t , ' w a n t e d to m a r c h directly a g a i n s t the enemy, in o r d e r t o force a n a r m e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n ' (Historiae 3 . 9 6 ) . A n d s o it w a s in the s p r i n g o f 7 2 BC t h a t o n e o f the t w o c o n s u l s for the year, L u c i u s Gellius P u b l i c o l a , c a u g h t u p w i t h C r i x u s a n d his followers near M o u n t G a r g a n u s , o n the A d r i a t i c c o a s t . T h e n u m b e r s involved in the e n s u i n g battle w e r e , a s is u s u a l l y the c a s e , the subject of s o m e controversy. T h o u g h A p p i a n (Bellum civilia 1.116) p u t s C r i x u s ' a r m y at 3 0 , 0 0 0 s t r o n g , Livy, a n earlier s o u r c e albeit here in the f o r m of a later s u m m a r y , gives h i m o n l y 2 0 , 0 0 0 f o l l o w e r s . S a l l u s t , in the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d f r a g m e n t , identifies C r i x u s ' p e o p l e a s G a u l s a n d G e r m a n s , w h i l e P l u t a r c h n a m e s neither C r i x u s n o r gives the size o f his f o l l o w i n g , merely calling t h e m 'the G e r m a n c o n t i n g e n t ' (Crassus 9 . 7 ) . If the truth be k n o w n , C r i x u s led n o t a n army, b u t a w h o l e travelling p e o p l e - w a r r i o r s , w o m e n , w a i f s , a n d w a g o n s . O n the other h a n d , it is a l m o s t certain t h a t the R o m a n s h a d s o m e 1 0 , 0 0 0 m e n , w h a t w e w o u l d e x p e c t of a c o n s u l a r a r m y of t w o , full-strength l e g i o n s . D e s p i t e their t a t t e r d e m a l i o n a p p e a r a n c e , the rebels o f C r i x u s ' a r m y p u t u p a s a v a g e fight. A p p a r e n t l y , if w e f o l l o w the f r a g m e n t a r y S a l l u s t , G e l l i u s ' o r d e r e d his m e n t o f o r m a d o u b l e battle line o n a c o m m a n d i n g height o f l a n d a n d d e f e n d e d it, b u t w i t h h e a v y l o s s e s t o his o w n f o r c e s ' (Historiae 3.106). T h e rebels w e r e o b v i o u s l y the a t t a c k e r s , a n d the f a c t t h a t the d e f e n d e r s d e p l o y e d in a duplex acies, e a c h legion p r e s u m a b l y in a five-five f o r m a t i o n o f c o h o r t s , i n s t e a d of the m o r e u s u a l triplex acies, m e a n t the R o m a n s w e r e heavily o u t n u m b e r e d . B u t w e h a v e n o m o r e t h a n this. P e r h a p s , a n d in a n y case it is i m p o s s i b l e at this d i s t a n c e in time t o d o a n y t h i n g other t h a n s p e c u l a t e a b o u t the c o u r s e of the b a t t l e . We c a n g u e s s t h a t the rebels c l i m b e d u p the steep hillside a g a i n s t the disciplined R o m a n s o n l y t o be b o u n c e d b a c k d o w n a g a i n . T h e s e c o n d a t t a c k w a s l i k e w i s e r e p u l s e d , a s w a s the t h i r d a n d t h e f o u r t h . T h e a t t a c k e r s h e s i t a t e d , t u r n e d , a n d fled, a n d the p u r s u i n g s w o r d s 55

BREAKOUT AT CAPUA (pp 56-57) Since the purpose of a ludus was to produce prime prize-fighters, it was in the interest of the lanista to maintain his gladiators at the peak of physical condition. Thus, there was a kitchen staff charged with preparing wholesome meals for the gladiators. High in protein and fat, barley groats (polenta) made into a gruel, was the mainstay of the diet, a food believed to be healthy and muscle promoting. Gladiators were c o m m o n l y known as as hordearii, 'barley-men', which reflected the cereal's benefits in furnishing a g o o d layer of fat that helped prevent heavy bleeding if vital arteries were sliced in combat. This plate depicts the moment w h e n the group of some 200 gladiators, mainly Thracians and Gauls, resentful of their owner's inhumane treatment, executed their plan to escape. The chaotic

58

scene is set in the kitchen end of the mess hall at the gladiatorial training school of Cnaeus Lentulus Batiatus in Capua. The gladiators are overpowering the guards (1), who are armed with batons (2); this was all done to great effect in Kubrick's epic film Spartacus of course, with a lengthy scene (cut in the original) of a man being drowned in a pot of piping-hot soup. Except for loincloths (3), the gladiators are naked; they are clean shaven and their hair is cut short. From the kitchen they grab everything that can service as weapons, the knives and cleavers (4) and spits (5), and even the heavy, wooden pestles (6) used for grinding the grain for the daily porridge. And so it was the gladiators hacked and beat their way out of the school of Batiatus, and then fled in the direction of Mount Vesuvius.

TOP There is no evidence for Spartacus' army using siege machines and the slaves themselves probably did not have the ability to employ such technology. However, a number of fortified towns were certainly taken by them and it is possible such experts were to be found among their numerous Roman prisoners. Here we see the south circuit of Paestum, looking east. (Fields-Carre Collection) BOTTOM Temple of Hera (conventionally known as the Basilica), Paestum. Though not mentioned in our literary sources (e.g. Florus lists Nola, Nuceria,Thurii and Metapontum), it appears that Paestum was also devastated by the slave army. Under the pavement of the temple was found a hoard of baked clay slingshot, which has been dated to around the time of the Spartacan rebellion. (Fototeca ENIT)

w e r e n o t far b e h i n d . After t h a t C r i x u s ' c o m m a n d c e a s e d t o e x i s t ; w e shall a s s u m e t h a t the fiercely m o u s t a c h e d C r i x u s , s e e k i n g d e a t h o u t o n the battlefield, w e n t d o w n fighting. S u c h w a s the c a r n a g e a t G a r g a n u s . P l u t a r c h hints t h a t the g e n e r a l s h i p o f G e l l i u s w a s o p e n t o r e p r o a c h ; the high r e p u t a t i o n g a i n e d in this c a m p a i g n b y t h e y o u n g e r C a t o , w h o h a d v o l u n t e e r e d for service a g a i n s t S p a r t a c u s o u t o f d e v o t i o n t o his o l d e r halfbrother, Q u i n t u s Servilius C a e p i o , then s e r v i n g a s a m i l i t a r y t r i b u n e in the c o n s u l ' s a r m y , f o r m e d a t least a s i g n a l c o n t r a s t t o the elderly G e l l i u s ' halfh e a r t e d b u n g l i n g . C a t o , n o w a y i n f e r i o r t o the g r e a t a n c e s t o r w h o m he e m u l a t e d a l m o s t t o a p a r o d y , C a t o the Elder, e x t o l l e d the s o - c a l l e d s i m p l i c i t y a n d v i r t u e s t h a t w o n e m p i r e for R o m e in t i m e s p a s t d e s p i t e , in P l u t a r c h ' s stinging w o r d s , 'the e f f e m i n a c y a n d l a x i t y o f t h o s e w h o f o u g h t in the w a r ' (Cato minor 8 . 2 ) . 59

ROMAN UNITS A Legio I B Legio III REBEL UNITS 1 Slave army under Crixus, c. 30,000 strong

CRIXUS

EVENTS 1 Having split off from the main slave army, Crixus and his followers are now encamped in the vicinity of Mount Garganus in north-eastern Apulia. 2 Lucius Gellius Publicola has caught up with Crixus, but being outnumbered decides to deploy his two consular legions on high ground in duplex acies, each legion adopting in a five-five formation of cohorts. 3 Crixus responds the way he knows best, and promptly marshals his Gauls and Germans for the attack. 4 Crixus leads his men up the steep hill in three successive assaults on the Roman position. The fourth and final one results in Crixus' death and the destruction of his army.

MOUNT GARGANUS, 72 b c Crixus' slave army is destroyed in the vicinity of Mount Garganus, in south-eastern Italy, by the pursuing consular legions under Lucius Gellius Publicola. 60

Note: the gridlines are shown at intervals of 1 km/1,093 yds

Seating and orchestra of the Greek theatre at Metapontum (Metaponto). Sometime in the early part of 72 BC, and before he trekked north to the River Po, Spartacus, like Hannibal before him, used Metapontum as a friendly base. As well as securing supplies for his army and gathering its strength, he would have trained recently arrived recruits in the relative security of the town. (Fototeca ENIT)

M e a n w h i l e , C n a e u s C o r n e l i u s L e n t u l u s C l o d i a n u s , the o t h e r c o n s u l , a t t e m p t e d t o h a r r y S p a r t a c u s a s he h e a d e d n o r t h . S p a r t a c u s , h o w e v e r , seized the initiative a n d t u r n e d o n the R o m a n s b e f o r e they c o u l d j o i n f o r c e s a n d s m a s h e d b o t h c o n s u l s in t u r n , w h o w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y recalled t o R o m e in d i s g r a c e a n d p r o m p t l y r e l i e v e d o f their d u t i e s b y the i n f u r i a t e d S e n a t e 1 0 . 1 ) . T h e p r e s e n c e o f a r m i e s o f different c o n s u l s clearly ( P l u t a r c h Crassus r a i s e d all the p o l i t i c a l a n d o p e r a t i o n a l difficulties of d i v i d e d c o m m a n d . A s N a p o l e o n w o u l d l a t e r h a v e it, ' o n e b a d g e n e r a l w o u l d be better t h a n t w o g o o d o n e s ' (Correspondance, v o l . I, n o . 4 2 1 ) . H o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r i n g the Senate's ( u n u s u a l ) r e a c t i o n , in this p a r t i c u l a r c a s e it s e e m s w e are dealing with t w o b a d g e n e r a l s u p a g a i n s t a brilliant o n e . A p p i a n (Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 7 ) tells h o w , in m o c k e r y of the R o m a n c u s t o m , S p a r t a c u s n o w f o r c e d 3 0 0 o f his R o m a n p r i s o n e r s t o fight a s g l a d i a t o r s , killing their o w n c o m r a d e s t o s a v e their o w n lives, t o a p p e a s e the spirit of d e a d C r i x u s . T h u s , in the r a t h e r fitting p h r a s e o f O r o s i u s , ' t h o s e w h o h a d o n c e b e e n the s p e c t a c l e b e c a m e the s p e c t a t o r s ' ( 5 . 2 4 . 4 ) . C l e a r l y the T h r a c i a n h a d a cruel s e n s e o f irony. M o v i n g n o r t h a g a i n , S p a r t a c u s ' intention, a c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h (Crassus 9 . 5 ) , w a s t o c r o s s the A l p s i n t o G a u l a n d then t o T h r a c e . O u t s i d e M u t i n a ( M o d e n a ) o n the p l a i n o f the R i v e r P o he d e f e a t e d C a i u s C a s s i u s L o n g i n u s (cos. 7 3 B C ) , the g o v e r n o r o f G a l l i a C i s a l p i n a a n d g e n e r a l o f a n a r m y of t w o l e g i o n s . T h e p r o c o n s u l w a s n e a r l y killed b u t e s c a p e d w i t h difficulty. T h e r o a d t o the A l p i n e p a s s e s w a s o p e n a n d the p r o s p e c t s l o o k e d p r o m i s i n g . A t this p o i n t S p a r t a c u s c h a n g e s his m i n d , a n d for s o m e i n e x p l i c a b l e r e a s o n he turned b a c k a n d h e a d e d s o u t h a g a i n . A t o n e j u n c t u r e he c o n t e m p l a t e d a t t a c k i n g R o m e , yet in t h e e v e n t h e r e t u r n e d t o the s o u t h o f the p e n i n s u l a a n d e v e n t u a l l y s p e n t the w i n t e r n e a r T h u r i i i n s t e a d ( A p p i a n Bellum civilia 1 . 1 1 7 ) .

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Spartacus n o w p o s e d an e n o r m o u s (and embarrassing) threat to R o m e . H e a n d his s l a v e a r m y h a d s h r e d d e d the a r m i e s o f three p r a e t o r s , t w o c o n s u l s and one proconsul with apparent ease. T h e rebellion h a d b e c o m e war, a n d w a r to the bitter e n d .

THE WAR WITH CRASSUS, 71 BC M a r c u s L i c i n i u s C r a s s u s , w h o h a d b e e n p r a e t o r in the p r e v i o u s year, w a s given 10 legions, six of t h e m newly raised a n d the rest t a k e n over f r o m the d i s g r a c e d c o n s u l s , a n d e n t r u s t e d w i t h the o v e r a l l c o m m a n d o f the w a r a g a i n s t S p a r t a c u s . A s the rebels w e r e m a k i n g their w a y s o u t h , C r a s s u s t o o k u p a p o s i t i o n in the r e g i o n o f P i c e n u m ( p r e s e n t - d a y M a r c h e s ) a n d o r d e r e d his l e g a t e M u m m i u s t o s h a d o w b u t n o t t o e n g a g e S p a r t a c u s . W h e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y p r e s e n t e d itself, he d i s o b e y e d the o r d e r a n d a t t a c k e d ; his t w o legions w e r e t r o u n c e d , a n d r e p o r t e d l y a l a r g e n u m b e r o f the t r o o p s r a n f r o m the battlefield. In t u r n , S p a r t a c u s r e t r e a t e d a c r o s s L u c a n i a t o the s e a . V i o l e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y in w a r , is a c o n f u s e d a n d u n c e r t a i n activity, highly u n p r e d i c t a b l e a n d d e p e n d i n g o n d e c i s i o n s t a k e n by fallible h u m a n b e i n g s . It is furthermore a h o t - h e a d e d activity in w h i c h c o m m i t m e n t s a n d r e p u t a t i o n s c a n develop a m o m e n t u m of their o w n . C r a s s u s m u s t h a v e feared his o p p o n e n t , for instead of forcing a decisive battle he p l a n n e d t o t r a p S p a r t a c u s in the t o e o f Italy by m e a n s of a n i m m e n s e trench t h a t stretched ' f r o m s e a t o s e a , a c r o s s the n a r r o w neck of l a n d , for a length of three h u n d r e d s t a d e s ' (c. 6 0 k m , P l u t a r c h Crassus 1 0 . 5 ) . C r a s s u s then h a d a l o w e a r t h r a m p a r t , t o p p e d w i t h a p a l i s a d e a n d s t u d d e d w i t h turrets, t h r o w n u p a l o n g its entire length.

Gargano hills of Promontorio del Gargano, ancient Mount Garganus. It was somewhere in the shadow of these hills that Crixus and his followers, Gauls and Germans in the main, met their untimely end. Their nemesis was one of the consular armies, that of Gellius. Despite his advanced years (he was in his sixties), the consul stubbornly held his own by deploying his two legions on high ground. (APT Puglia)

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TOP Roman amphitheatre at Thurii (Sibari). After the war with Hannibal the Romans repopulated Thurii - by then deserted - thus founding the colony they called Copia. It was in and around this southern settlement that Spartacus and his followers wintered after their long trek back from the north. It was here also that his blacksmiths were amply supplied with iron and copper for weapon production. (Fototeca ENIT)

It h a s been d o u b t e d by s o m e t h a t the t r e n c h stretched for the 3 0 0 s t a d e s t h a t P l u t a r c h c l a i m s . W a r d ( 1 9 7 7 : 8 9 - 9 0 n. 2 0 ) , for i n s t a n c e , s u g g e s t s t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a s e n c a m p e d o n the S c y l l a e u m p r o m o n t o r y , just n o r t h of R h e g i u m ( R e g g i o di C a l a b r i a ) a n d o v e r l o o k i n g the strait s e p a r a t i n g Italy f r o m Sicily, a n d t h a t C r a s s u s d u g a t r e n c h t h a t t r a v e r s e d this p r o m o n t o r y a n d n o t the w h o l e t o e o f Italy. It is t r u e t h a t S p a r t a c u s h a d h o p e d t h a t C i l i c i a n p i r a t e s w o u l d t r a n s p o r t h i m a n d his m e n a c r o s s the n a r r o w b u t t r e a c h e r o u s strait t o the i s l a n d - the S e c o n d S l a v e W a r h a d n o t l o n g e n d e d a n d c o u l d e a s i l y b e r e k i n d l e d - yet in the e v e n t they t o o k the m o n e y a n d s a i l e d off. B e s i d e s , Plutarch is quite specific in the details of length a n d a f r a g m e n t of S a l l u s t , the

LEFT An extensive part of Lucania (present-day Basilicata) was given up to pasture, and the crazy jumble of lofty peaks that occupied almost the whole were carpeted with forests. Somewhat sparsely populated, these abounded with wild boars, bears and wolves. Monte Pollino (2,248m), shown here, is home still to the wild boar and bear, though the Apennine wolf struggles to survive. (Fototeca ENIT)

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TOP Like its northern neighbour Lucania, Bruttium (present-day Calabria) was a mountainous region whose economy was chiefly based on livestock breeding and the use of the forests. It was considered by the Romans as a wilderness where decent people hardly dare venture and where bandits abound. In the 19th century the region was still the scene of acts of banditry. A view of Largo Arvo, Calabria. (Fototeca ENIT) RIGHT An oft-forgotten achievement of Crassus was the fortification, some 60km long, which he had constructed across the toe of Italy to bottle up the slave army. Pinpointing the actual course of this barrier, however, is an exercise in conjecture. This is the Calabrian seaside town of Pizzo, on Golfo di Santa Eufemia, a possible candidate for its western terminal. (Fototeca ENIT)

p o s s i b l e s o u r c e here, tantalizingly m e n t i o n s 'that p a r t of Italy that stretches o u t in the d i r e c t i o n o f Sicily is e n t e r e d b y a c o r r i d o r t h a t is n o w i d e r t h a n thirtyfive [ R o m a n ] m i l e s ' (c. 5 2 k m , Historiae 4 . 2 5 ) . S u c h p a t i e n t feats o f military e n g i n e e r i n g w e r e well w i t h i n the c a p a b i l i t i e s o f the a r m y of the R e p u b l i c a n d , by w a y o f a c o m p a r i s o n , the s t o n e w a l l o f c o n t r a v a l l a t i o n a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g ditch t h a t s e a l e d off N u m a n t i a f r o m the o u t s i d e w o r l d , c o n s t r u c t e d s o m e 6 0 y e a r s earlier, r a n for a t o t a l d i s t a n c e of 4 8 s t a d e s (c. 1 0 k m , A p p i a n Iberica 9 0 ) . In a n y event, S p a r t a c u s a n d his a r m y w e r e certainly cut off f r o m the m o r e s u c c u l e n t l a n d s t o the n o r t h , a n d f r o m n o w o n w o u l d h a v e to e n d u r e m u c h a n d live o n little. T h e rebels w e r e i n d e e d c a u g h t in a r a t t r a p . It w a s n o r m a l o f c o u r s e for a n y a n c i e n t a r m y t o live off the l a n d in w a r t i m e c o n d i t i o n s , o r else t o e x a c t a p p r o p r i a t i o n s f r o m l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s t o o p o w e r l e s s t o resist, a n d w i t h the rebels m o v i n g f r o m o n e locale t o another,

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TOP Due east of Pizzo, and on Golfo di Squillace, sits Soverato. However, the one major difficulty with locating Crassus' barrier between these two towns is that the narrow neck of land that separates them is only some 35km wide, in other words far too narrow a corridor if we follow Plutarch's assertion that the barrier was 300 stades in length. (Fototeca ENIT)

windfall acquisitions m u s t have m a d e u p a large p a r t of requirements. H e r d s m e n u s e d t o h a b i t u a l l y living off the c o u n t r y w o u l d o b v i o u s l y h a v e k n o w n w h a t t o t a k e for their i m m e d i a t e n e e d s , b u t for the rest o f the a r m y it w a s a different matter. C a e s a r w o u l d later s a y t h a t w a r c o u l d feed w a r , a n d he w a s right; the c o r r e s p o n d i n g F r e n c h a x i o m la guerre nourrit la guerre c a n a l s o be f o u n d in N a p o l e o n ' s w r i t i n g s (e.g. Correspondance, v o l . I, n o . 4 9 ) . M o r e o v e r , a s the w a r g r e w i n t o l o n g c a m p a i g n s d u r i n g difficult w i n t e r m o n t h s , a m o r e efficient m e t h o d o f p r o v i d i n g p r o v i s i o n s w a s d e s i r a b l e in o r d e r t o c o m p l e m e n t the g a i n s o f s i m p l e p l u n d e r i n g .

LEFT Castrum Petrae Roseti (1260), Roseto Capo Spulico. Just north of Sibari (ancient Thurii), Roseto Capo Spulico is another possible candidate for the eastern terminal of Crassus' barrier. Due west, on Golfo di Policastro, is the medieval town of Maratea. As the crow flies it is some 65km between the two, close to Plutarch's 300 stades. However, the terrain in the central part of the corridor is particularly mountainous. (Fototeca ENIT)

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DESTRUCTION OF CRIXUS (pp 68-69) Towards the end of 73 BC Crixus and his followers separated from Spartacus. The following spring he and his entire force were destroyed near Mount Garganus (Promontorio del Gargano) in north-eastern Apulia after being compromised by one of the two consular armies sent to quash the slave rebellion, that of Lucius Gellius Publicola. It is of interest to note here that in Kubrick's Spartacus, contrary to ancient sources, Crixus is always portrayed as Spartacus' loyal lieutenant, right up to the famous scene after the final battle when he is one of the first to stand up and call out, 'I am Spartacus!' This illustration shows the moment of the third (penultimate)

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attack by Crixus' army. The rebels are beginning their slow ascent of the hill, atop of which stand the waiting Romans. Crixus (1), on foot and looking very much the Gaulish warlord, is prominent in front; the elderly Gellius (2) w h o was about 64 years old, on horseback, is slightly to the rear of the Roman (double) battle line. The steep hillside is strewn with the dead and the dying. Crixus' followers are mainly Gauls (3) or Germans (4), some sporting their native style of dress and weaponry, others in a melange of native and Roman equipment, yet others looking more like herdsmen (5) than warriors. A few women (6) combatants are evident too.

T h e Pledge of Spartacus', marble statue group in the neoclassical style by LouisErnest Barrias, Jardin des Tuileries, Paris. Both Sallust (Historiae 3.91) and Plutarch (Crassus 8.2) praise the great bodily strength and spirit of Spartacus, but here we view the rebel gladiator in defeat. Executed in 1871, Barrias' sculpture obviously symbolizes the tumultuous political events that had just shattered Paris, the glittering capital of Europe. (Ancient Art & Architecture)

In spite o f t h e s e r e v e r s e s , h o w e v e r , o n e w i l d , w i n t r y n i g h t , w i t h s n o w falling o n the g r o u n d , S p a r t a c u s a n d a p o r t i o n o f his s l a v e a r m y m a n a g e d t o p e n e t r a t e C r a s s u s ' m a k e s h i f t b a r r i e r b y filling a s e c t i o n o f the t r e n c h w i t h both m a t e r i a l s (earth, w o o d , b r a n c h e s ) a n d c a r r i o n ( h u m a n , cattle, a n d h o r s e ) . A g a i n S p a r t a c u s w a s s o o n at l a r g e in the o p e n c o u n t r y o f the m a i n l a n d . A g a i n C r a s s u s p u r s u e d . N o m e n t i o n is m a d e in o u r s o u r c e s o f the fate o f t h o s e w h o did n o t b r e a k o u t , t h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e t h a t these w e r e the rebels u n d e r the c o m m a n d of C a s t u s a n d G a n n i c u s - l e a d e r s p r e v i o u s l y u n h e a r d o f - w h o fell victim to a s u r p r i s e a t t a c k (Plutarch Crassus 1 1 . 2 - 3 , F r o n t i n u s Strategemata 1.5.20, 2.4.7, 5.34, Orosius 5.24.6).

THE TRAP CLOSES: RIVER SILARUS, 71 BC M e a n w h i l e the S e n a t e , b e c o m i n g i m p a t i e n t , c a l l e d u p o n P o m p e y , w h o w i t h his v e t e r a n l e g i o n s w a s r e t u r n i n g h o m e b y l a n d f r o m I b e r i a , a n d M a r c u s

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ROMAN UNITS A 10 legions under Crassus REBEL UNITS 1 Slave army under Spartacus

EVENTS 1 Having constructed their marching camps near the banks of the Silarus, some of Crassus' soldiers are detailed to dig a trench. Meantime, Spartacus has deployed his forward outposts. 2 The final battle turns out to be a spontaneous affair, starting as a minor altercation between the Roman work-parties digging the trench and some of the rebels on picket duty.

CRASSUS

3 More and more men get involved as Roman coverparties come to the diggers' aid, and other rebels jump into the fray. The skirmish rapidly escalates into a fullblown battle. 4 Spartacus now deploys his whole army in battle order. 5 Crassus quickly follows suit with his ten legions, deploying them in the traditional triplex acies. 6 After a protracted struggle, the Romans get the better of the rebels. 7 Spartacus rushes at Crassus, but never reaches him. He is probably killed in the fighting, as his forces are overcome. A terrible fate awaits those that survive the Roman onslaught.

THE SILARUS RIVER, 71 BC

Spartacus' forces are annihilated by Marcus Licinius Crassus in the upper reaches of the Silarus (Sele) River in south-western Italy, bringing the slave rebellion to an end. 72

Note: the gridlines are shown at intervals of 1 km/1,093 yds

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SPARTACUS

The Sele (Silarus) originates from Monte Paflagone, Monti Picentini range, just above Calabritto, and flows into the Golfo di Salerno in the Tyrrhenian Sea just north of Paestum, a length of some 64km. Its main tributaries are the Tanagro (Tanagrus) and the Calore (Calor), which join it from the south. It was somewhere along the Sele, probably near its source, that Spartacus fought his final battle. (Fototeca ENIT)

T e r e n t i u s V a r r o L u c u l l u s (cos. 7 3 B C ) , the y o u n g e r o f the t w o L u c u l l i a n d p r o c o n s u l of M a c e d o n i a , t o a s s i s t C r a s s u s in t e r m i n a t i n g the war. O n learning o f t h i s , S p a r t a c u s set o u t for B r u n d i s i u m (Brindisi) in o r d e r t o e s c a p e by sea t o E p e i r o s , b u t w h e n he d i s c o v e r e d the p o r t w a s g a r r i s o n e d , p r o b a b l y w i t h the s o l d i e r s o f L u c u l l u s , he a b a n d o n e d the a t t e m p t . T h e s a n d s o f t i m e w e r e r u n n i n g o u t . C r a s s u s w a s far a w a y , b u t he w a s s t e a d i l y c l o s i n g the d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d S p a r t a c u s . After a series o f e s c a l a t i n g c l a s h e s , S p a r t a c u s w a s finally b r o u g h t t o heel in n o r t h - w e s t e r n L u c a n i a by the d o g g e d C r a s s u s . A t his b a c k , for b o t h p o l i t i c a l a n d p e r s o n a l r e a s o n s , C r a s s u s m u s t h a v e h e a r d t i m e ' s w i n g e d c h a r i o t h o v e r i n g near. It t a k e s little effort for u s t o i m a g i n e a C r a s s u s w h o w o u l d h a v e b e g u n to fear P o m p e y ' s r e t u r n , a m o v e t h a t w o u l d steal his thunder. S o m e t i m e in the s p r i n g o f 7 1 BC a m a j o r b a t t l e w a s f o u g h t n e a r the s o u r c e of the R i v e r Silarus (Sele) in n o r t h - w e s t e r n L u c a n i a , a n d S p a r t a c u s w a s d e f e a t e d a n d slain. T h e w o r d s o f P l u t a r c h p r o v i d e u s w i t h o n e v e r s i o n o f the final m o m e n t s of this heroic figure:

Slingshot (Paestum, Museo Archeologico) found under the pavement of the Basilica at Paestum. Believed to date to the time of the Spartacan rebellion, these examples are of baked clay. Such purposemade projectiles allowed a very high consistency of size and shape that would aid range and accuracy. Of course they were easy to mass-produce in large quantities too. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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Then pushing his way towards Crassus himself, through many flying weapons and wounded men, he did not indeed reach him, but slew two centurions who fell upon him together. Finally, after his companions had taken to flight, he stood alone, surrounded by a multitude of foes, and was still defending himself when he was cut down. (Plutarch Crassus 11.6-7) A n d s o perished the heroic gladiator, eventually defeated b u t never d i s g r a c e d . A s A p p i a n n o t e s , ' T h e b o d y o f S p a r t a c u s w a s never f o u n d ' (Bellum civilia 1 . 1 2 0 ) . O f c o u r s e , it c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t if t h e b o d y w a s never f o u n d there is n o p r o o f t h a t S p a r t a c u s d i d n o t s u r v i v e t h e c a r n a g e . B u t w h a t o f t h e price o f this c a r n a g e a n d the u g l i n e s s c o n n e c t e d w i t h it? In all probability, a l o n g with S p a r t a c u s , 6 0 , 0 0 0 o f his f o l l o w e r s w e r e slain that fateful day, while the R o m a n losses a m o u n t e d t o a b o u t 1 , 0 0 0 m e n (Livy Periochae 9 7 , A p p i a n Bellum civilia 1 . 1 2 0 ) . Yet victory h a d its o w n price t o o ; three years of devastation, especially in the s o u t h , a n d 5 0 , 0 0 0 a d d i t i o n a l recruits levied t o help q u a s h the rebellion. All this o n t o p of a butcher's bill that included, as far a s w e c a n tell, 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 a m o n g the servile p o p u l a t i o n o f the p e n i n s u l a a n d t h o u s a n d s of R o m a n s (Brunt 1 9 8 8 : 1 0 7 ) . T h e conflict h a d d i s p a t c h e d c o u n t l e s s people, rebel survivors a n d p e a s a n t s alike, w h o p r e s u m a b l y resorted t o banditry, the only alternative in p o o r preindustrial societies, t h o u g h for the free p o o r there w a s a l w a y s the o p t i o n o f joining the army.

SPARTACUS RUSHES AT CRASSUS (pp 76-77) A n d so it came about, in the springtime of 71 BC, that Spartacus died on his feet fighting, surrounded by Romans. Not far away was a grassy knoll whereupon Crassus stood and watched.

but as a gladiator in an arena. Thus ended the battle by the River Silarus, w h e n the Spartacan rebellion went down into the dust of Roman history.

O n that fateful day instead of meeting the enemy on horseback, Spartacus refused to mount his horse, a symbol of aristocratic generalship, w h e n it was led up to him. Dramatically proclaiming that he would have plenty of horses to ride if he w o n and no need of one if he lost, he then plunged his sword into the magnificent animal. Then, bloody sword in hand, he plunged fearlessly into the fray o n foot and almost cut his way to Crassus before he was cut d o w n . He did, however, kill two centurions that came to Crassus' rescue. He died not as a general of an army,

This illustration, in some respects, is reminiscent of a scene from the arena. Spartacus (1) has just cut down one of the centurions (2) and is about to e n g a g e the second (3). In the background, m u c h like a spectator at the Roman games, stands Crassus (4). Meanwhile round and about, almost a blur in fact, rages the final battle between the slaves and the masters. As for Spartacus' arms and armour, he wields the gladius (5) and scutum (6) of an ordinary Roman legionary, and likewise wears a legionary's mail shirt, the lorica hamata (7). He is bareheaded and battle scarred.

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AFTERMATH T h e V i a A p p i a , c a l l e d by the p o e t S t a t i u s (Silvae 4 . 3 ) the regina viarum, w a s b e g u n d u r i n g the c e n s o r s h i p o f A p p i u s C l a u d i u s C a e c u s ( 3 1 2 B C ) , m a k i n g it e a s y for R o m a n t r o o p s t o m o v e b e t w e e n R o m e a n d the n e w c o n q u e s t o f C a p u a . F o l l o w i n g the a p p r o x i m a t e line o f a n earlier t r a c k w a y t o the A l b a n hills at B o v i l l a e , it w a s p a v e d w i t h b a s a l t f r o m the P o r t a C a p e n a , a g a t e in the S e r v i a n w a l l n e a r the C i r c u s M a x i m u s , t o the t e m p l e o f M a r s , the initial mille passus o r R o m a n m i l e ( 2 9 6 B C ) , then all the w a y t o B o v i l l a e ( 2 9 3 B C ) , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y e x t e n d e d a c r o s s the m a l a r i a - i n f e s t e d paludes Pomptinae, the m o u n t a i n s b e t w e e n F u n d i a n d F o r m i a e , a n d the ager Campanus, thus running a t o t a l o f 1 3 2 R o m a n miles t o C a p u a . A further 3 2 - m i l e e x t e n s i o n w o u l d t a k e it o n t o B e n e v e n t u m , the r o a d p a s s i n g n e a r the n o t o r i o u s defile o f C a u d i u m , site o f the b a t t l e o f the C a u d i n e F o r k s ( 3 2 1 B C ) , a n d t h e n c e b y V e n u s i a t o T a r e n t u m , t h e r e b y a d d i n g a n o t h e r 2 0 2 R o m a n m i l e s , a n d finally B r u n d i s i u m . A n i m p o r t a n t aspect of R o m e ' s a b s o r p t i o n of c o n q u e r e d territory w a s to c o n s t r u c t r o a d s l i n k i n g n e w c o l o n i e s t o R o m e . In Italy itself, a s the V i a A p p i a ideally illustrates, the m a j o r arterial r o a d s t e n d e d t o f o l l o w R o m e ' s c o n q u e s t s b o t h in t i m e a n d s p a c e . Yet R o m e ' s first g r e a t h i g h w a y , the ' Q u e e n o f R o a d s ' herself, w a s a b o u t t o b e c o m e the r o u t e o f the d a m n e d .

CRUCIFIXION W i t h S p a r t a c u s d e a d , the r e m n a n t s o f his s l a v e a r m y w e r e q u i c k l y h u n t e d d o w n a n d terrible e x a m p l e s m a d e o f t h e m . R o m a n l a w s a n c t i o n e d the m o s t brutal of d e a t h penalties, the summa supplica - t h r o w i n g t o the b e a s t s , b u r n i n g a l i v e , a n d c r u c i f i x i o n - a s s a v a g e r i e s t h a t w e r e n e c e s s a r y ' t o set a p u b l i c e x a m p l e ' (Digesta 4 8 . 1 9 . 1 6 . 1 0 ) . C r u c i f i x i o n , w h i c h w e n t b a c k well i n t o the e a r l y y e a r s o f the R e p u b l i c , w a s a n a g g r a v a t e d c a p i t a l p u n i s h m e n t c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the d u a l a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d t h r e a t s o f servile r e b e l l i o n a n d b a n d i t r y . U s e d earlier in t h e N e a r E a s t a n d p r o b a b l y d e v i s e d in P e r s i a , crucifixion at R o m e seems to have developed f r o m a f o r m of p u n i s h m e n t (the p u b l i c c a r r y i n g o f a c r o s s , b e i n g b o u n d t o it, a n d w h i p p e d ) t o a f o r m o f e x e c u t i o n (being a t t a c h e d t o a c r o s s a n d s u s p e n d e d ) . V i c t i m s of c r u c i f i x i o n died slow, a g o n i z i n g d e a t h s , a n d they w e r e g u a r d e d . Usually, t o p r o l o n g the m e s s a g e o f d e t e r r e n c e , c o r p s e s w e r e then s i m p l y left t o suffer c o n s u m p t i o n by c a r r i o n b i r d s , w i l d a n i m a l s a n d n a t u r a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n . E a c h s t e p o f c r u c i f i x i o n w a s d e s i g n e d t o b e , in every s e n s e o f the t e r m , e x c r u c i a t i n g (Latin excruciatus, literally ' o u t o f the crucified'). H u n g f r o m nails 79

the victim w o u l d suffer in the e x t r e m e , eventually d y i n g w i t h fractured l i m b s a n d b l a c k e n e d t o n g u e . F o r e x e m p l a r y effect, crucifixions were held at welltravelled p u b l i c r o a d w a y s , offering a stark c o n t r a s t t o the h a l l o w e d burials of g o o d citizens nearby.

The Via Appia, which connected Rome with Campania, Lucania and Apulia, was the first and most spectacular of the consular roads. As far as Terracina, a distance of 62 Roman miles, it ran in an almost entirely straight line, even through the Alban Hills, where the gradients are steep. Here we see the wellpaved stretch just beyond the Tomb of Cecilia Metella, Parco Regionale dell'Appia Antica. (Fields-Carre Collection)

C r u c i f i x i o n w a s C r a s s u s ' choice of punishment. H e o r d e r e d a r o w of w o o d e n c r o s s e s to be set u p o n either side of the Via A p p i a , lining the 132-mile r o u t e of his m a r c h f r o m C a p u a , w h e r e the rebellion h a d b e g u n , to the very gates of R o m e , as a g r u e s o m e w a r n i n g t o e v e r y b o d y p a s s i n g a l o n g it. T h e 6 , 0 0 0 rebel slaves w o u l d h a n g at r e g u l a r intervals in a n uninterrupted s e q u e n c e . T h e a g o n i z i n g p r o c e s s for e a c h o f the r e b e l s w o u l d n o d o u b t h a v e been the s a m e . T h e c r o s s for e a c h r e b e l , h u r r i e d l y h e w n o u t of fresh n e w p i n e , w a s p l a c e d o n the g r o u n d . T h e rebel w a s q u i c k l y t h r o w n b a c k w a r d s w i t h his s h o u l d e r s a g a i n s t the r o u g h w o o d o f the patibulum, a horizontal beam a t t a c h e d t o the vertical b e a m t h a t w o u l d s o o n be set in the g r o u n d . A R o m a n s o l d i e r felt for the d e p r e s s i o n a t the f r o n t of the rebel's w r i s t , b e f o r e forcefully driving a heavy, s q u a r e wrought-iron nail s o m e 1 2 - 1 8 c m l o n g t h r o u g h the m a n ' s flesh d e e p i n t o the soft w o o d . T h e soldier w o u l d then m o v e q u i c k l y t o the other side a n d r e p e a t the p r o c e s s , b e i n g c a r e f u l n o t p u l l t h e a r m s t o o tightly, b u t t o a l l o w s o m e flex a n d m o v e m e n t . T h e c r o s s w a s then r a i s e d slightly. T h e left f o o t o f the rebel w a s p r e s s e d b a c k w a r d s a g a i n s t his r i g h t , a n d w i t h b o t h feet e x t e n d e d , t o e s d o w n , a nail w o u l d be driven t h r o u g h the a r c h of e a c h into the vertical b e a m , leaving the k n e e s f l e x e d . T h e c r o s s w a s then fully r a i s e d a n d set into the g r o u n d . A s he s l o w l y s a g g e d d o w n , m o r e o f the rebel's w e i g h t w a s p l a c e d o n the n a i l s p i e r c i n g the w r i s t s , c a u s i n g e x c r u c i a t i n g p a i n t o s h o o t a l o n g the fingers a n d u p t h e a r m . A s he p u s h e d h i m s e l f u p w a r d t o a v o i d this t o r m e n t , he w o u l d p l a c e his full w e i g h t o n the nail p i e r c i n g his feet. A g a i n he w o u l d feel the s e a r i n g a g o n y o f the n a i l t e a r i n g t h r o u g h flesh a n d b o n e . A s the a r m s t i r e d , c r a m p s w o u l d s w e e p t h r o u g h his m u s c l e s , c a u s i n g t h e m t o k n o t . W i t h these c r a m p s c a m e the inability t o p u s h himself u p w a r d s t o b r e a t h e . Air c o u l d b e d r a w n i n t o the l u n g s , b u t n o t e x h a l e d . H e w o u l d fight t o r a i s e himself in o r d e r t o c a t c h o n e s m a l l b r e a t h . A s c a r b o n d i o x i d e a c c u m u l a t e d in his b l o o d s t r e a m , the c r a m p s w o u l d p a r t i a l l y s u b s i d e . S p a s m o d i c a l l y , he w o u l d be a b l e t o p u s h himself u p w a r d t o e x h a l e a n d g a i n o x y g e n . H o u r s of p a i n , cycles o f c r a m p s , intermittent a s p h y x i a t i o n lay a h e a d . T h e n a n o t h e r t o r m e n t w o u l d b e g i n : c r u s h i n g p a i n in the c h e s t a s the p e r i c a r d i u m s l o w l y filled w i t h fluid a n d b e g a n t o c o m p r e s s the h e a r t . T h e l o s s o f b o d i l y fluids w o u l d r e a c h a critical level, the h e a r t s t r u g g l i n g t o p u m p t o r p i d b l o o d , a n d the lungs m a k i n g f r a n t i c efforts t o f u n c t i o n . T h e rebel w o u l d n o w be feeling the chill of d e a t h . T h e j o u r n e y h o m e f r o m C a p u a for C r a s s u s a n d his t r o o p s w a s t o be a s p e c t a c l e the like o f w h i c h h a d n e v e r b e e n s e e n b e f o r e . T h e i r r e t u r n w a s i n t e n d e d t o b e o n e l o n g t r i u m p h a l p r o c e s s i o n . It is s i m p l e t o s a y t h a t the p u n i s h m e n t fits the c r i m e , b u t the deliberate cruelties of p r o p e r t y a n d privilege a r e i n v a r i a b l y m o r e f i e n d i s h t h a n the h o t - h e a d e d r e v e n g e s o f p o v e r t y a n d o p p r e s s i o n ; C r a s s u s ' p r i s o n e r s d i e d horribly.

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In a d d i t i o n t o the 6 , 0 0 0 r e b e l s c r u c i f i e d b y C r a s s u s , a n o t h e r 5 , 0 0 0 o f S p a r t a c u s ' f o l l o w e r s , a s t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o flee n o r t h w a r d s , fell in w i t h P o m p e y , w h o p r o m p t l y e x t e r m i n a t e d every l a s t o n e . P o m p e y , a l w a y s o n e t o t a k e his o w n c h a r m a n d a u t h o r i t y for g r a n t e d , t h e n p e n n e d a brief d i s p a t c h t o the S e n a t e , c l a i m i n g ' t h a t a l t h o u g h C r a s s u s h a d d e f e a t e d the g l a d i a t o r s in a p i t c h e d b a t t l e , he h a d e x t i n g u i s h e d the w a r t o its v e r y r o o t s ' ( P l u t a r c h Pompey 2 1 . 5 ) . P o m p e y ' s s e l f - p r o m o t i o n h e l p e d t o m a k e h i m a p o p u l a r h e r o . C r a s s u s ' h u r t c a n o n l y be i m a g i n e d .

THE RETURN TO ORDER

Early 11th-century mosaic on a gold ground, narthex of katholikon, Osios Loukas Monastry showing 'Jesus Christ and Him crucified'. A foot support has been added to prolong the ordeal. The nails are shown piercing the hands, not the wrist as per normal practice, while each foot is nailed as opposed to the feet being nailed one on top of the other. (Fields-Carre Collection)

T h e a r m i e s o f C r a s s u s a n d P o m p e y c o n v e r g e d o n R o m e in a m o o d o f m u t u a l hostility, yet b o t h m e n l o o k e d for a c o n s u l s h i p a n d t o g a i n it e a c h n e e d e d the s u p p o r t of the other. C r a s s u s ' a s s e t s w e r e t h a t he w a s f a b u l o u s l y r i c h , a n d n u m e r o u s s e n a t o r s w e r e i n d e b t e d t o h i m ; P o m p e y ' s t h a t he w a s the idol o f the p e o p l e . S o they set their differences a s i d e , p r o v i s i o n a l l y linked a r m s , a n d w e r e duly elected t o the c o n s u l s h i p s for the f o l l o w i n g year. T h e y t h e n d i s b a n d e d their w a r - w e a r y v e t e r a n s . O n t h e p r e t e x t t h a t t h e y w e r e a w a i t i n g their t r i u m p h s , the p a i r h a d m a i n t a i n e d their a r m i e s a n d t h e n h a d m e n a c i n g l y pitched u p a t the very g a t e s o f the c a p i t a l . We s h o u l d n o t o v e r l o o k the fact t h a t P o m p e y r e c e i v e d a t r i u m p h for defeating Sertorius in Iberia. T h i s w a s rather irregular a s S e r t o r i u s h a d been a R o m a n citizen a n d P o m p e y h a d yet t o h o l d p u b l i c office a n d enter the S e n a t e , b o t h of w h i c h he w a s to d o o n 2 9 D e c e m b e r 7 1 BC, the very d a y he r o d e in g l o r i o u s t r i u m p h a l o n g the V i a S a c r a . T h e l e g i t i m a t e C r a s s u s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , w a s only voted a lesser t r i u m p h , a n ovatio or o v a t i o n , a s the v a n q u i s h i n g of S p a r t a c u s a n d his slave a r m y w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d w o r t h y o f the full g l o r y o f

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a full-scale t r i u m p h . In the s e c o n d - r a t e victory p a r a d e , however, he did w e a r a c r o w n of laurel rather t h a n the c u s t o m a r y myrtle, which m a y h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d a s a s p e c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n for the o t h e r w i s e bitterly d i s a p p o i n t e d C r a s s u s ( C i c e r o In Pisonem 5 8 , Pliny

Crassus' chief rival at the time was already popular with the Roman masses Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus, proud, pompous and pretentious. As a young outsider he had won spectacular victories for the Sullan regime in Sicily and Africa, and more recently in Iberia, for which he was to earn his second triumph. This marble bust (Paris, Musée du Louvre, Ma 999), dated to 70 BC, represents the up-and-coming Pompey. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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Historia Naturalis 1 5 . 1 2 5 , P l u t a r c h Crassus 11.8, Aulus Gellius Nodes Atticae 5 . 6 . 2 3 ) . A s for their y e a r of c o o p e r a t i o n , u n s u r p r i s i n g l y vanities c l a s h e d . P o m p e y , c o n c e i t e d a n d u n s c r u p u l o u s , tried to treat C r a s s u s like a j u n i o r c o l l e a g u e , a s the a p p r e n t i c e t o the s o r c e r e r he e x p e c t e d a d m i r a t i o n a n d d e f e r e n c e . W h e r e a s C r a s s u s , conceited and superior, w o u l d look d o w n on P o m p e y a s his s o c i a l inferior, little m o r e t h a n a v u l g a r p a r v e n u 4 . 4 8 , P l u t a r c h Crassus 1 2 , Pompey 2 2 ) . (Sallust Historiae O n e m o r e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s t o be a n s w e r e d , in truth the m o s t r e a l i s t i c a n d m o s t p r e g n a n t q u e s t i o n o f all: d i d S p a r t a c u s ' r e b e l l i o n ever h a v e the s l i g h t e s t c h a n c e o f s u c c e s s ? It is p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e that, at least initially, n o t e n o u g h slaves h a d j o i n e d S p a r t a c u s t o m a k e his victory p o s s i b l e . At o n e p o i n t or another, S p a r t a c u s m u s t h a v e realized that the m a s s e s o f s l a v e s w h o toiled in Italy w o u l d n o t or c o u l d n o t rise u p a n d j o i n h i m , a n d , m u c h like H a n n i b a l b e f o r e h i m , n o m a t t e r h o w m a n y times he k n o c k e d o u t a R o m a n a r m y , a n o t h e r w o u l d s t u b b o r n l y t a k e its p l a c e . A s the c i n e m a t i c S p a r t a c u s s a y s t o his wife V a r i n i a , ' n o m a t t e r h o w m a n y t i m e s w e b e a t t h e m , they a l w a y s s e e m t o h a v e a n o t h e r a r m y t o s e n d a g a i n s t u s . A n d another.' A l s o , e x t r e m e m e a s u r e s t o p r e s e r v e unity m i g h t h a v e been the only w a y to keep the chances for future victory alive. Any b r e a k a w a y m o v e m e n t s b y p o r t i o n s o f the s l a v e a r m y w o u l d a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y l e a d t o disaster, a s it u l t i m a t e l y d i d . In a n a r m y , n o s u b o r d i n a t i o n n o d i s c i p l i n e , a n d n o d i s c i p l i n e n o a r m y . O f c o u r s e , it is the privilege of h i s t o r i a n s t o be w i s e after the e v e n t , a n d the m o r e f o o l i s h the h i s t o r i a n the w i s e r he u s u a l l y a i m s to be. R e v e r b e r a t i o n s o f the w a r c o n t i n u e d after the final d e f e a t of S p a r t a c u s . D u r i n g the C a t i l i n a r i a n c r i s i s o f 6 3 BC the S e n a t e d e c r e e d the t r o u p e s o f g l a d i a t o r s in R o m e w e r e t o b e r e m o v e d t o C a p u a a n d o t h e r C a m p a n i a n t o w n s in o r d e r t o relieve the c a p i t a l o f the p o t e n t i a l d a n g e r s their p r e s e n c e r e p r e s e n t e d . In 4 9 BC, a s civil w a r b e g a n , C a e s a r h a d 5 , 0 0 0 g l a d i a t o r s l o c a t e d in C a p u a , a b o d y t h a t t h e P o m p e i a n c o n s u l L u c i u s C o r n e l i u s L e n t u l u s c o n t e m p l a t e d u s i n g a s t r o o p s b u t w h o s e m e m b e r s w e r e , in the w o r d s o f C i c e r o , 'very s e n s i b l y d i s t r i b u t e d b y P o m p e y a m o n g the p o p u l a t i o n , t w o per household'(Epistulae ad Atticum 7 . 1 4 . 2 ) . S o m e s u r v i v o r s f r o m the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n even m a n a g e d t o r e m a i n at l a r g e for n i g h o n a d e c a d e after C r a s s u s c e l e b r a t e d his ovatio by h i d i n g o u t n e a r T h u r i i , p e r h a p s in the s a m e m o u n t a i n h a u n t s they h a d o n c e s h a r e d with S p a r t a c u s himself. A n d s o s m a l l guerrilla-like b a n d s o f p e a s a n t s , h e r d s m e n a n d s l a v e s w e r e still b e i n g q u a s h e d by R o m a n f o r c e s in s o u t h e r n Italy in the late s i x t i e s BC. O n e o f the m o s t n o t a b l e e x a m p l e s o f a m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n of this k i n d m u s t be t h a t o f the p r o p r a e t o r C a i u s O c t a v i u s , father o f A u g u s t u s , the first e m p e r o r o f R o m e ( S u e t o n i u s Divus Augustus 3.2, 7.1).

THE LEGACY OF SPARTACUS T h e m y t h o f the h e r o is n o t i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e u s w i t h i c o n s t o a d m i r e , b u t is d e s i g n e d t o t a p into the vein o f h e r o i s m w i t h i n o u r s e l v e s . M y t h m u s t l e a d t o i m i t a t i o n o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , n o t p a s s i v e c o n t e m p l a t i o n , a n d t h e r e is n o doubting that S p a r t a c u s ' determination to win f r e e d o m remains as vividly alive t o d a y a s w h e n his r e b e l l i o n b e g a n . B e f o r e the final b a t t l e in S t a n l e y K u b r i c k ' s epic film Spartacus ( 1 9 6 0 ) , C r a s s u s tells his g a t h e r e d officers t h a t his c a m p a i g n w a s 'to kill the l e g e n d o f S p a r t a c u s ' . In this he w a s a n y t h i n g b u t v i c t o r i o u s . S p a r t a c u s the g l a d i a t o r w a s t o c o n q u e r d e a t h a n d b e c o m e a m y t h , a n icon o f s o m a n y s c a t t e r e d a n d fiercely held h o p e s . U s u a l l y i n d i v i d u a l s w h o figure in h i s t o r y d o s o b e c a u s e a n o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l c h o o s e s t o r e c o u n t their d e e d s for p o s t e r i t y . R e m e m b r a n c e is a r e a l a n d v a l u e d f o r m o f i m m o r t a l i t y . H o m e r i m m o r t a l i z e d A c h i l l e s , a s d i d Virgil for A e n e a s , P l a t o , a l o n g w i t h the u n p r e t e n t i o u s X e n o p h o n , p r e s e r v e d t h e m e m o r y of S o k r a t e s . C a e s a r n a t u r a l l y t o o k c a r e o f his o w n r e p u t a t i o n . B u t w h a t of S p a r t a c u s ? T h e w a r a g a i n s t S p a r t a c u s w a s c o m m o n l y r i d i c u l e d a n d d e s p i s e d a t first a s merely a m a t t e r of g l a d i a t o r s a n d s l a v e s . T a k e F l o r u s , for i n s t a n c e , w h o v i e w e d the r e b e l l i o n n o t s o m u c h a s a m o n u m e n t a l s t r u g g l e for f r e e d o m b u t a s a d i s g r a c e f u l u n d e r t a k i n g , p e r p e t r a t e d by s l a v e s a n d led by g l a d i a t o r s , 'the f o r m e r m e n o f the h u m b l e s t , the l a t t e r m e n o f t h e w o r s t , c l a s s ' (Epitome 3 . 2 0 . 2 ) . Cicero, a c o n t e m p o r a r y of S p a r t a c u s , once sarcastically referred to a t r o u p e of g l a d i a t o r s a s ' i m p r e s s i v e , n o b l e , a n d m a g n i f i c e n t ' (Pro Sestio 1 3 4 ) , a n d w a s e q u a l l y s c a t h i n g a b o u t the r e b e l s . L i k e o t h e r s o f the l a n d o w n i n g elite of the t i m e , C i c e r o v i e w e d S p a r t a c u s a n d t h o s e w h o f o l l o w e d h i m a s sinister i n s u r g e n t s w h o d e s e r v e d their fate a n d w h o w e r e t o b e d e s p i s e d a s servile p e o p l e (e.g. Philippics 3.21, 4.15, 13.22). M a n y of t h o s e like C i c e r o , b e c a u s e of their p r o p e r t y interests, t e n d e d t o be dismissive of the terrible threat S p a r t a c u s p o s e d , thinking he w o u l d best be forgotten or at least c o n s i g n e d to a s m a l l , albeit n i g h t m a r i s h , f o o t n o t e in the p a g e s of R o m a n history. T h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n o f R o m a n s w o u l d be c o m f o r t e d by the t h o u g h t that S p a r t a c u s h a d t a k e n his p l a c e a s o n e of R o m e ' s c a n o n i c a l foes of the p a s t , r a n k i n g a l o n g s i d e H a n n i b a l n o less, a p r o f e s s i o n a l b u t c h e r turned o u t l a w m u r d e r e r w h o o n c e threatened the very stability of the R o m a n ruling order, b u t h a d been r e d u c e d t o a nursery-rhyme b o g e y m a n , a n a m e w i t h w h i c h t o h u s h children. T h u s , in the p o l i s h e d m e t a l o f H o r a c e , S p a r t a c u s is chronicled in the line, 'nor C a p u a ' s rival strength, n o r the fierceness of S p a r t a c u s ' (Epodes 1 6 . 5 ) , a n d a g a i n in the lines, ' a n d w i n e , that k n e w the M a r s i a n war, if r o v i n g S p a r t a c u s h a d s p a r e d a single j a r ' (Carmina 3 . 1 4 . 1 8 - 2 0 ) . A n d s o the

s o u r c e s o n the S p a r t a c a n rebellion were not only w r i t t e n by t h o s e w h o o w n e d a n d h a t e d slaves, b u t c o n s i s t s o f n o m o r e t h a n a few p a s s a g e s in Livy, Plutarch, A p p i a n a n d Florus, less than 4 , 0 0 0 w o r d s all told. It s e e m s the w h o l e e p i s o d e w a s so humiliating that the less said a b o u t it the better. T h e o n e e x c e p t i o n s e e m e d to h a v e been Sallust. S o S p a r t a c u s w a s t o o m e n a c i n g a figure for the R o m a n s t o c o n s i d e r a w o r t h y o p p o n e n t let a l o n e s o m e o n e w o r t h r e m e m b e r i n g . Besides he w a s a s l a v e , g l a d i a t o r , a n d rebel, s o m e o n e w h o h a d n o business running a r o u n d being an epic-style h e r o . H o w e v e r , later g e n e r a t i o n s a n d cultures w o u l d n o t s h a r e this dismissive attitude. In 1 7 6 9 , t w e n t y y e a r s b e f o r e the fall of the Bastille to the Parisian m a s s e s , Voltaire m a d e one of the first specific references to S p a r t a c u s in the c o n t e x t o f the j u s t i f i c a t i o n of a r m e d resistance t o u n j u s t o p p r e s s i o n . In w o r d s that w o u l d later be e c h o e d in the A m e r i c a n D e c l a r a t i o n of I n d e p e n d e n c e , Voltaire referred t o the rebellion led by S p a r t a c u s a s 'a just war, indeed the only j u s t w a r in h i s t o r y ' (Correspondance generale

Marx's attention had been drawn to Spartacus by two significant events of his own time, namely the American Crisis, as the civil war was referred to in Europe, and Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82), the romantic rebel who was engaged in liberating Sicily and southern Italy from foreign domination. This is his bust in the public garden at the foot of Torre di Federico ll°, Enna. (Fields-Carre Collection)

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4 6 1 - 6 3 , Letter 2 8 3 , 5 . 4 . 1 7 6 9 ) . A s leader of the Pbilosophes, Voltaire's b a t t l e cry, w h i c h he s o m e t i m e s u s e d i n s t e a d o f his s i g n a t u r e o n letters, w a s 'Ecrasez l'infame!', ' C r u s h the i n f a m o u s ! ' T h e I n f a m o u s , t o h i m , w e r e t h o s e w h o e x e r c i s e d i n t o l e r a n c e a n d p e r s e c u t i o n , bigotry, unfair privilege, believed in superstitions, a n d p u r s u e d the e m p t y folly o f war. A t the t i m e , the so-called A g e of R e a s o n , m e n w h o w e r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s s l a v e s a n d h a d never been o p p r e s s e d or d o w n t r o d d e n let a l o n e s l a v e s , in other w o r d s the w e l l - m e a n i n g intellectuals of the d a y , u s e d the i m a g e o f the a r m e d rebel s l a v e S p a r t a c u s t o think a b o u t , d e b a t e , a n d p r o m o t e their o w n v i s i o n s of liberty for the freeborn citizens of the n e w l y risen n a t i o n - s t a t e s . Yet the m o s t striking e x a m p l e o f this s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p h e n o m e n o n m u s t be t h a t f u r n i s h e d b y S a i n t D o m i n g u e , the F r e n c h c o l o n y t h a t o c c u p i e d the w e s t e r n p a r t o f the C a r i b b e a n i s l a n d o f H i s p a n i o l a , w h e r e rebel slaves a n d f r e e d m e n led b y T o u s s a i n t L ' O u v e r t u r e w e r e a b l e t o a c h i e v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y f r e e d o m by c r e a t i n g a n e w state fully i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m E u r o p e a n d o m i n a t i o n . A s e l f - e d u c a t e d s l a v e freed s h o r t l y b e f o r e the u p r i s i n g in 1 7 9 1 , the utterly e x t r a o r d i n a r y T o u s s a i n t j o i n e d the b l a c k rebellion t o liberate the slaves a n d b e c a m e its o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g e n i u s . H e h a d r e a d C a e s a r ' s commentarii, for i n s t a n c e , w h i c h h a d g i v e n h i m s o m e i d e a of politics a n d the military art a n d the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . First defeating the S p a n i s h , a n d then siding with t h e m t o t r o u n c e the B r i t i s h , T o u s s a i n t finally f o r c e d the F r e n c h t o the n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e , a n d t h u s H a i t i , a s it w a s n o w c a l l e d , b e c a m e the first i n d e p e n d e n t b l a c k state o u t s i d e A f r i c a . In 1 8 0 7 , only three y e a r s after H a i t i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e , the British ( a n d A m e r i c a n s ) e n d e d their A t l a n t i c s l a v e t r a d e . T o u s s a i n t h i m s e l f , h o w e v e r , w a s n o t t o e n j o y the fruits o f his l a b o u r s . T r e a c h e r o u s l y s e i z e d a n d b u n d l e d off t o F r a n c e b o u n d like a c o m m o n c r i m i n a l , he w a s t o die m i s e r a b l y in a d u n g e o n a t F o r t - d e - J o u x high in the Jura Mountains.

It w a s K a r l M a r x ( 1 8 1 8 - 8 3 ) w h o b r o u g h t S p a r t a c u s i n t o the c e n t r e s t a g e of R o m a n history, a n d it w a s the O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n t h a t e l e v a t e d h i m i n t o a c o n s c i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a d e r w i t h a definite s o c i a l p r o g r a m m e . F r o m t h a t d a t e h i s t o r y t o o k h i m u p , never t o let h i m g o . R e v o l u t i o n , s a y s M a r x , is the l o c o m o t i v e o f history. E v e n in its n e a t e s t s e n s e , ' r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r ' refers t o the c o n q u e s t o f p o l i t i c a l p o w e r b y the u s e o f a r m e d f o r c e . If it f a i l s , it r o u t i n e l y b e c o m e s , in the j a r g o n o f v i c t o r y , a ' r e v o l t ' o r a ' r e b e l l i o n ' . R e v o l u t i o n is the s o u r c e of legal r i g h t , b u t r e b e l l i o n is a d i s o r d e r p r o m o t e d by a g r o u p of d i s s a t i s f i e d p e r s o n s in o r d e r t o g r a b , f r o m t h o s e in p o w e r , b o t h the political s i n e c u r e s a n d the e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e s . T h e c o m m o n o u t c o m e is n o m o r e t h a n a c h a n g e o f h a n d s in the d i v i d i n g u p o f p r e r o g a t i v e s a n d p e r k s . Yet a s a fully d e v e l o p e d c o n c e p t r e v o l u t i o n is a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o n largely b e c a u s e it is s o c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t w o a s p e c t s o f m o d e r n i t y - i n d u s t r i a l i s m a n d i m p e r i a l i s m . In every cult t h e r e is a n e l e m e n t of the u n t r u e a n d the i r r a t i o n a l . In the c a s e o f S p a r t a c u s , t h a t e l e m e n t is the identification o f his r e b e l l i o n w i t h a c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t a t s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . Before S p a r t a c u s j o i n e d the p a n t h e o n o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y h e r o e s (or entered i n t o the c o n s u m e r m a r k e t p l a c e , for t h a t m a t t e r ) , he w a s a s l a v e , a g l a d i a t o r , a rebel a n d a n i n s p i r a t i o n a l leader. T h e R o m a n slave w a r s , w h i c h b e l o n g t o the s e c o n d a n d first centuries BC, p r o b a b l y reflect the big c h a n g e s g o i n g o n in the R o m a n e c o n o m y a n d of c o u r s e society at the t i m e . C e r t a i n l y these three w a r s s h o w a m a s s i v e e x p l o s i o n o f slave discontent, but they were n o t revolutionary m a s s m o v e m e n t s in a n y sense, the o p p r e s s e d slaves a n d free p r o l e t a r i a t fighting for their o w n political s p a c e in civil society as it w e r e . M a r x e x p l a i n e d a n d predicted all social conflicts w e r e enduring class w a r s , b u t it w a s Lenin w h o actually d e v e l o p e d the idea of a class struggle in antiquity between slave a n d m a s t e r - subsequently repeated by Stalin but, ironically, a view n o t a l w a y s s h a r e d by M a r x . Yet of g r e a t significance is the fact that n o o n e m a r c h e d under the b a n n e r ' d o w n with slavery' d u r i n g these w a r s , o n the c o n t r a r y they w e r e r e b e l l i o n s a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l m a s t e r s o r rebellions by individuals w h o n o longer w a n t e d t o be e n s l a v e d . In t r u t h , the have-not slaves a n d p r o l e t a r i a t did n o t rise u p t o get their s h a r e .

Francois Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture (c. 1744-1803), Haitian patriot and martyr, the 'black Spartacus' who led his people to freedom and independence. Taking heart from the French Revolution, the concepts of Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite were manifest in Toussaint's political make-up. Little known in the Anglo-Saxon world, his valiant life and tragic death are the topic of one of Wordsworth's finest sonnets. (Ancient Art & Architecture)

In the U n i t e d S t a t e s the l e f t - w i n g n o v e l i s t H o w a r d F a s t , w h o w a s i m p r i s o n e d for his p o l i t i c a l v i e w s , s a w S p a r t a c u s a s the a f f i r m a t i o n o f m a n ' s ability in all e r a s to resist d e h u m a n i z a t i o n . G r e a t l y e n c o u r a g e d by the w r i t i n g s of R o s a L u x e m b u r g , w h o h a d very definite views a b o u t f r e e d o m , the u n d e r l y i n g t h e m e o f F a s t ' s 1 9 5 1 n o v e l Spartacus is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , n a m e l y t h a t n o tyranny, r e g a r d l e s s of its p o w e r , c a n u l t i m a t e l y p r e v a i l o v e r the f o r c e of m a n ' s p a s s i o n for f r e e d o m . U s i n g the little t h a t w a s k n o w n a b o u t S p a r t a c u s a s a b a s i s , e v e n g o i n g s o far a s t o t e a c h h i m s e l f L a t i n (pity for h i m the m a i n s u r v i v i n g s o u r c e s w e r e written in G r e e k ) , H o w a r d F a s t m o u l d e d the g l a d i a t o r rebel i n t o a m y t h i c a l h e r o , a m e s s i a n i c f i g u r e e n g a g e d in a n e p i c r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r u g g l e t o o v e r t h r o w R o m e in o r d e r t o r e s t o r e a l e g e n d a r y G o l d e n A g e o f p r i m i t i v e tribal c o m m u n i s m s a i d t o h a v e e x i s t e d in s o m e d i s t a n t e p o c h p r i o r t o the a d v e n t of h u m a n e x p l o i t a t i o n . T h e m o d e r n r e a d e r h a s a d e v e l o p e d , scientific v i e w of history, t h a t is t o say, w e a r e c o n c e r n e d a b o v e all w i t h w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d . T h e s t o r y o f the G o l d e n A g e , a very e a r l y a n d a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l m y t h of a lost p a r a d i s e , w h e n p e o p l e lived in h u m b l e c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h n o technology, n o art or c u l t u r e , a n d n o w a r , w a s never i n t e n d e d t o be h i s t o r i c a l . F o r F a s t , h o w e v e r , strict a d h e r e n c e t o t h e k n o w n h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s w a s less i m p o r t a n t t h a n the t i m e l e s s m o r a l t r u t h t h a t w a s i m p l i c i t in the l e g e n d o f 85

S p a r t a c u s . A m y t h , after all, d o e s n o t i m p a r t f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t is p r i m a r i l y a g u i d e t o i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o u r - it e x p l o r e s o u r d e s i r e s , o u r fears, our longings, a n d provides a narrative that r e m i n d s u s w h a t it m e a n s t o be h u m a n . It is n o t yet o u t o f d a t e . Yet b e c a u s e m o s t o f u s n o l o n g e r u s e m y t h , O c c i d e n t a l m o d e r n i t y being the child of r e a s o n , m a n y o f u s h a v e lost all sense of w h a t it is. C o m p a r e d with Fast's upbeat novel, where S p a r t a c u s is the e m b o d i m e n t o f the l o v e o f life h o w e v e r a w f u l life i s , A r t h u r K o e s t l e r ' s n o v e l takes a rather m o r e melancholic approach. K o e s t l e r , w h o w a s b o r n in B u d a p e s t in 1 9 0 5 , h a d b e e n a n a c t i v e m e m b e r o f the C o m m u n i s t Party a n d h a d f o u g h t in the S p a n i s h C i v i l War, b e i n g c a p t u r e d by F r a n c o ' s r e b e l s a t o n e p o i n t a n d i m p r i s o n e d under sentence of death. H e w a s d i s i l l u s i o n e d a n d e m b i t t e r e d b y the s h o w trials a n d left the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (or K P D , C o m m u n i s t P a r t y o f G e r m a n y ) , the s u c c e s s o r o f the Spartakusbund.

On April Fool's Day 1865, Marx's eldest daughter, Jenny, presented her father with a survey asking him his likes and dislikes; favourite food (fish), favourite colour (red), etc. To the question about his heroes, Marx replied 'Spartacus and Kepler'. Yet the philosopher's admiration for the gladiator was a modern sentimentfreedom for him entailed release from commercial labour. (Ancient Art & Architecture)

H i s n o v e l , The Gladiators, w h i c h w a s written a t the t i m e his c o m r a d e s w e r e b e i n g s e n s e l e s s l y p u r g e d , is a b o u t h o w r e v o l u t i o n s t u r n b a d . M a n ' s inability t o unite is divinely o r d a i n e d a n d i n e v i t a b l e , a n d t h u s S p a r t a c u s is p o r t r a y e d a s b e i n g f o r c e d by c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o sell o u t . A g r a m m a r i a n a n d a r h e t o r i c i a n c a l l e d Z o z i m o s is given a cynical speech: And I tell you, it is dangerous to combine so much power in the fist, and so many lofty reasons in the head, of one single person. In the beginning the head will always order the fist to strike from lofty reasons; later on the fist strikes of its own accord and the head supplies the lofty reasons afterwards; and the person does not even notice the difference. That's human nature my lad. Many a man has started out a friend of the people and ended up as a tyrant; but history gives not a single example of a man starting out as a tyrant and ending up as a friend of the people. Therefore I tell you again: there is nothing so dangerous as a dictator who means well. (The Gladiators, 1999, p. 204) In o t h e r w o r d s , the e n d r e s u l t w a s a l w a y s the s a m e , n a m e l y a n a u t o c r a t i c , centralized g o v e r n m e n t , h e a d e d u p by a ruthless dictator. T h e dictator, m a k i n g a m o c k e r y o f e l e m e n t a r y h u m a n r i g h t s , h a d t o be o b e y e d , n o m a t t e r w h a t he t o l d s o m e b o d y t o d o . A s w i t h all d i c t a t o r s h i p s , it w a s o n l y all right for t h o s e at the t o p . B u t S p a r t a c u s h a d t o o m u c h c o m p a s s i o n for his followers t o t a k e s u c h a r o u t e , s o he d o o m s his r e v o l u t i o n t o c e r t a i n d e f e a t . T h e failure o f a r e v o l u t i o n s o often d e r i v e s a s m u c h f r o m the w e a k n e s s a n d m i s t a k e s of the r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s a s it d o e s f r o m the s t r e n g t h o f their o p p o n e n t . We leave t o the p o l i t i c a l p u n d i t s o f c y n i c a l w i s d o m the d u b i o u s p l e a s u r e o f p o i n t i n g o u t ( f r o m the h i n d s i g h t o f the 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y S o v i e t e x p e r i e n c e ) t h a t p e r e n n i a l c h e s t n u t t h a t ' r e v o l u t i o n s a l w a y s e a t u p their c h i l d r e n ' . F a s t m a y h a v e believed in the nobility o f the h u m a n spirit, n o t s o J a m e s L e s l i e M i t c h e l l . M i t c h e l l f o u n d a n a t u r a l a t t r a c t i o n t o the s t o r y o f the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n a n d , w r i t i n g u n d e r his S c o t t i s h p s e u d o n y m o f ' L e w i s

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G r a s s i c G i b b o n ' , he p r o d u c e d Spartacus in 1 9 3 3 a t the height o f the G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n . A s a D i f f u s i o n i s t , M i t c h e l l believed civilization w a s a blight, o v e r t a k i n g originally free a n d h a p p y h u m a n i t y f r o m the E g y p t i a n pyramid-builders o n w a r d s , bringing to p e o p l e w h o w e r e a l r e a d y living full a n d i m a g i n a t i v e lives s e t t l e m e n t , culture, a s well a s p r o p e r t y , c o m p u l s i o n , w a r , t y r a n n y , religion, a n d m e n t a l e n s l a v e m e n t . T h e n o v e l is a telling indictment of men's inhumanity to those over w h o m they h a v e t o t a l c o n t r o l . Since the c o n s e n s u s o f o u r a n c i e n t a u t h o r s is t h a t S p a r t a c u s d i e d in b a t t l e , his e l e v a t i o n t o the c r o s s c a n have no p u r p o s e other than to evoke c o m p a r i s o n with t h a t other f a m o u s f r e e d o m fighter, the N a z a r e n e . S l a i n by o p p r e s s o r s , his d e a t h t h u s a c q u i r e s a n a u r a o f sanctity a n d he h i m s e l f b e c o m e s a s o r t o f p r o t o - C h r i s t , a secular M e s s i a h . In this r e s p e c t it is interesting t o n o t e that G i b b o n ' s n o v e l b e g i n s a n d e n d s o n the s a m e n o t e : 'It w a s the S p r i n g t i m e in Italy, a h u n d r e d y e a r s b e f o r e the c r u c i f i x i o n o f C h r i s t ' . In d e a t h t h e g a u n t a n d bearded Che Guevara bore an uncanny resemblance to a sacrificed C h r i s t , w h i c h h e l p e d create a n i m a g e o f h i m as a m a r t y r a n d p r o p h e t . L i k e S p a r t a c u s , C h e G u e v a r a b e c a m e a m o r e p o t e n t s y m b o l in d e a t h t h a n he h a d ever been in life. M e n ( a n d w o m e n , for t h a t m a t t e r ) d o n o t die w h e n their life a n d e x a m p l e c a n s e r v e a s a g u i d e to others. T h e intelligentsia of the Soviet U n i o n h a d a n e a r - o b s e s s i o n w i t h S p a r t a c u s as a 'world revolutionary figure'. T h e t w o decades between 1 9 3 3 a n d 1 9 5 3 f o r m e d a p e r i o d w h e n the c o l l e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l t h i n k i n g o f the S o v i e t intelligentsia, f o l l o w i n g l e a d e n hints in directives i s s u e d by C o m r a d e S t a l i n , w a s d o m i n a t e d by the d o c t r i n e t h a t the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n h a d b e e n a c l a s s struggle b e t w e e n the o p p r e s s e d a n d their o p p r e s s o r s , a conflict b e t w e e n the 'slave-owner class' and 'politically-aware slaves'. Then along c a m e J o s e p h V o g t a n d a b a n d of fellow G e r m a n a c a d e m i c s f l a u n t i n g a n anti-Soviet banner. O b v i o u s l y f i n d i n g fault w i t h the S t a l i n i s t v i e w t h a t S p a r t a c u s led a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a r m e d s t r u g g l e t h a t o v e r t u r n e d the d o m i n a t i o n o f the c l a s s s y s t e m of the t i m e , V o g t a n d his n a t i o n a l i s t c h u m s w e r e k e e n t o p r e s e n t a m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c v i e w o f s l a v e r y ; t h o u g h the institution w a s m o r a l l y w r o n g , w a s it really that b a d after all? S u c h c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s fitted in nicely w i t h the c o n t e m p o r a r y climate of C o l d - W a r rhetoric a n d helped c o m b a t the c o m m u n i s t use of the S p a r t a c a n rebellion a s a m e a n s o f e n n o b l i n g a n d e n c o u r a g i n g the class struggle a g a i n s t m o d e r n c a p i t a l i s m . O n his side o f the I r o n C u r t a i n V o g t t u r n e d a w a y f r o m the nastier a s p e c t s o f s l a v e r y by highlighting the p r a c t i c e o f m a n u m i s s i o n , w e t - n u r s i n g , p a t r i a r c h a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d the like.

For James Leslie Mitchell (Lewis Grassic Gibbon), a lifelong follower of Marx and a successful historian of early civilization, Spartacus allowed him to focus on his fiercely held beliefs in the nature of society, the freedom of the individual, and the inevitable collapse of civilization. He published Spartacus in 1933, two years before his sudden death at the age of 34. (The Grassic Gibbon Centre)

S t a n d i n g a g a i n s t this a n t i - c o m m u n i s t - c u m - h u m a n i s t i c a p p r o a c h w a s M o s e s Finley w h o a n n o u n c e d , in his t y p i c a l l y u n c o m p r o m i s i n g f a s h i o n , t h a t in the final a n a l y s i s the s l a v e w a s a p i e c e o f m o v a b l e p r o p e r t y a n d e v e n if granted certain privileges these were unilateral grants f r o m an individual m a s t e r a n d n o t a right t h a t r e c o g n i z e d the s l a v e a s a h u m a n b e i n g . T o u s e the h a p p i n e s s o f s o m e t o offset the m i s e r y o f o t h e r s (surely the v a s t m a j o r i t y ) w a s pointless. 87

A GUIDE TO PRIMARY SOURCES

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t written s o u r c e s for a n y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the S p a r t a c a n rebellion are the a c c o u n t s by the R o m a n historian Sallust, the G r e e k biographer P l u t a r c h , a n d the G r e e k h i s t o r i a n A p p i a n . Plutarch's Life of Crassus (8-11) p r o v i d e s the f o l l o w i n g s k e l e t o n of events: • •

T h e g a r r i s o n o f C a p u a is o v e r c o m e . T h e p r a e t o r G l a b e r ( P l u t a r c h s i m p l y calls h i m C l o d i u s ) w i t h 3 , 0 0 0 t r o o p s is d e f e a t e d .

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V a r i n i u s enters the s t o r y : his l e g a t e F u r i u s is r o u t e d (with 2 , 0 0 0 m e n ) a s is his f e l l o w p r a e t o r C o s s i n i u s ( s u r p r i s e d by S p a r t a c u s ) , then V a r i n i u s himself. S p a r t a c u s t a k e s V a r i n i u s ' h o r s e . M e a n w h i l e G e l l i u s , o n e o f the c o n s u l s , falls o n a c o n t i n g e n t ( P l u t a r c h s p e c i f i c a l l y c a l l s it the G e r m a n c o n t i n g e n t ) f r o m the s l a v e a r m y a n d d e s t r o y s it. L e n t u l u s , the o t h e r c o n s u l , is in t u r n d e f e a t e d by S p a r t a c u s , w h o sets off for the A l p s , w h e r e he c o n f r o n t s a n d r o u t s C a s s i u s (with 1 0 , 0 0 0 m e n ) the g o v e r n o r o f G a l l i a C i s a l p i n a .

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C r a s s u s , d e c i m a t i n g the s u r v i v o r s o f M u m m i u s ' l e g i o n s , e s t a b l i s h e s firm l e a d e r s h i p w h i l e S p a r t a c u s h e a d s s o u t h for L u c a n i a a n d the s e a ; b a r g a i n s w i t h C i l i c i a n p i r a t e s b u t is b e t r a y e d by t h e m . S p a r t a c u s e s t a b l i s h e s h i m s e l f in B r u t t i u m ; C r a s s u s t r a p s the s l a v e a r m y w i t h a fortified t r e n c h ; d i s s e n t in the s l a v e c a m p . C r a s s u s b e g i n s t o fear the r e t u r n o f P o m p e y . M e a n w h i l e , S p a r t a c u s e s c a p e s w i t h o n e - t h i r d o f his a r m y t h r o u g h C r a s s u s ' b a r r i e r o n a s n o w y , s t o r m y night. T h e s l a v e s , internally d i v i d e d a n d w e a k e n e d by d e s e r t i o n , a r e b e a t e n o n c e (Plutarch m e n t i o n s the force u n d e r C a s t u s a n d G a n n i c u s , the latter he calls C a i u s C a n i c i u s ) a n d h e a d for the m o u n t a i n s o f Petelia. S p a r t a c u s t u r n s o n his p u r s u e r s a n d r o u t s t h e m , s e r i o u s l y w o u n d i n g the q u a e s t o r S c r o f a (Skropbas in P l u t a r c h ' s G r e e k ) . T h e final b a t t l e in L u c a n i a ; S p a r t a c u s is c u t d o w n w h i l e trying t o r e a c h a n d kill C r a s s u s .

B y u s i n g a d d i t i o n s a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n s f r o m S a l l u s t a n d A p p i a n , a fuller, m o r e v i b r a n t picture of the rebellion is feasible. Sallust's Historiae, for instance, p r o v i d e s a n insight i n t o the r e l e v a n c e of the rebellion t o the m a c h i n a t i o n s of the S e n a t e a n d its i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s , v o l a t i l e a t b e s t e s p e c i a l l y s o w h e n w e

c o n s i d e r the c l a s h of e g o s t h a t w e r e C r a s s u s a n d P o m p e y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y for u s , h o w e v e r , the Historiae, c o m p o s e d s o m e 3 5 y e a r s after the e v e n t , a n d t h u s a r g u a b l y the m o s t o r i g i n a l s o u r c e o n the r e b e l l i o n , r e m a i n s o n l y in tantalizing f r a g m e n t s . B u t then A p p i a n ' s Bellum civilia, his b o o k s d e a l i n g w i t h the civil w a r s o f the R e p u b l i c , a r e i n t a c t a n d offer u s ( 1 . 1 1 6 - 1 2 1 ) s o m e d r a m a t i c details: • •

T h e occupation of M o u n t Vesuvius. T h e n a m e s of O e n o m a u s a n d C r i x u s .

• •

T h e sacrifice o f R o m a n p r i s o n e r s t o the manes o f d e a d C r i x u s . T h e n e a r - a t t a c k o n R o m e ( n o t in P l u t a r c h ) i n e x p l i c a b l y a b a n d o n e d .

M o r e o v e r , A p p i a n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the b r e a k o u t f r o m C r a s s u s ' t r a p in B r u t t i u m is full a n d v i g o r o u s . H i s d e s c r i p t i o n of the final b a t t l e , w h i c h c o s t S p a r t a c u s his o w n life, is a l s o vivid. T h e r e a g a i n , b e f o r e the c o n c l u d i n g c l i m a x Plutarch h a s S p a r t a c u s sacrifice his s u p e r b w h i t e stallion. O f c o u r s e the t w o G r e e k writers c o m p o s e d their a c c o u n t s a b o u t t w o centuries after the rebellion o c c u r r e d , while all three c a m e f r o m the privileged elites o f their day. S a l l u s t w a s a R o m a n s e n a t o r retired f r o m active politics, Plutarch a n d A p p i a n w e a l t h y G r e e k a r i s t o c r a t s w i t h c l o s e political ties t o the i m p e r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t , a n d naturally n o n e of t h e m h a d m u c h s y m p a t h y for s l a v e s . Indeed, we m u s t r e m e m b e r that these writers viewed the S p a r t a c a n rebellion a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a h i c c u p in the g r a n d s c h e m e o f t h i n g s . N o t o n e a c c o u n t w a s w r i t t e n by a s l a v e or a f o r m e r s l a v e , a n d b e c a u s e the r e b e l s h a v e left n o s t a t e m e n t s of their a s p i r a t i o n s a n d i n t e n t i o n s , their v i e w o f events m u s t r e m a i n i r r e c o v e r a b l e . T h u s it h a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d t h a t the i n f o r m a t i o n w e h a v e c o m e s f r o m n o n - s l a v e s o u r c e s , m e n w h o r a t i o n a l i z e d the b e h a v i o u r of the rebel s l a v e s in their o w n w a y , a n d , a s in all t h i n g s h u m a n , f r o m a f a r events are i m a g i n e d m o r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d less i n t e r t w i n e d , yet everything l o o k s different c l o s e t o . O n l y o u r three m a i n a u t h o r s a r e listed in the p a g e s t h a t follow. F u r t h e r details a b o u t these a u t h o r s , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t other s o u r c e s , is m o s t conveniently available in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd edition). In the following notes 'Penguin' d e n o t e s Penguin C l a s s i c s , a n d ' L o e b ' d e n o t e s L o e b Classical Library. T h e L o e b editions, which are published by H a r v a r d University Press, display a n English t r a n s l a t i o n of a text n e x t t o the original l a n g u a g e .

APPIAN (b. A D 95) A p p i a n ( A p p i a n u s ) w a s a n A l e x a n d r i a n G r e e k w h o r o s e t o h i g h office in his native city, a n d a p p e a r s t o h a v e p r a c t i s e d l a w in R o m e , w h e r e he p l e a d e d c a s e s b e f o r e the e m p e r o r s H a d r i a n a n d A n t o n i n u s P i u s . H e c o m p o s e d his Roman Affairs (Romaika) s o m e t i m e d u r i n g the reign o f A n t o n i n u s P i u s , a t the height o f the p e r i o d t h a t E d w a r d G i b b o n a p t l y l a b e l l e d 'the g o l d e n a g e of the A n t o n i n e s ' . A p p i a n ' s t a r g e t a u d i e n c e w a s the c u l t u r e d G r e e k - s p e a k i n g privileged elite o f the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , w h o h a d l o n g b e e n n o t m e r e l y affected by R o m a n r u l e , b u t a l s o d e e p l y i n v o l v e d w i t h its w o r k i n g s . S o m e o f its m e m b e r s h a d a l r e a d y b e c o m e R o m a n s e n a t o r s a n d e v e n c o n s u l s , w h i l e m a n y m o r e , like A p p i a n himself, h a d benefited f r o m i m p e r i a l p a t r o n a g e . B u t a l t h o u g h R o m e h a d e s t a b l i s h e d a s e c u r e w o r l d order, it r e m a i n e d a f o r e i g n p o w e r , its h i s t o r y g e n e r a l l y little u n d e r s t o o d o r a p p r e c i a t e d by m e n w h o h a d

b e e n b r o u g h t u p o n the G r e e k c l a s s i c s a n d did n o t s u b s c r i b e t o quite the s a m e v a l u e s a s their p o l i t i c a l m a s t e r s . T w e n t y - f o u r b o o k s in l e n g t h , A p p i a n ' s a c c o u n t o f R o m a n h i s t o r y is essentially a narrative of conquest and struggle, and therefore a narrative o f w a r . H i s f u n d a m e n t a l a i m is t o p a i n t a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the R o m a n s t o the v a r i o u s n a t i o n s w h o m they b r o u g h t u n d e r their sway. T h i s l e a d s h i m t o b r e a k u p his n a r r a t i v e in s u c h a w a y t h a t e a c h b o o k d e a l s w i t h the i n t e r a c t i o n o f R o m e a n d a p a r t i c u l a r ethnic g r o u p . N o n e t h e l e s s , he f o l l o w s a fairly c l e a r c h r o n o l o g i c a l s c h e m e , p l a c i n g the b o o k s in the o r d e r in w h i c h the v a r i o u s p e o p l e s first c l a s h e d w i t h the R o m a n s . T h e r e is a L o e b t r a n s l a t i o n o f w h a t s u r v i v e s o f A p p i a n ' s w o r k a s a w h o l e , while a P e n g u i n e d i t i o n e n t i t l e d The Civil Wars a d m i r a b l y c o v e r s the p e r i o d f r o m 1 3 3 BC d o w n t o 3 5 B C , t h a t is, f r o m the t i m e w h e n T i b e r i u s G r a c c h u s w a s c l u b b e d t o d e a t h b y his p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t s t o the terrible civil conflicts f o l l o w i n g the m u r d e r o f C a e s a r b y his s o - c a l l e d f r i e n d s , a n d t h u s i n c l u d e s the c h a p t e r s d e a l i n g w i t h the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n .

PLUTARCH (c. A D 46-120) F r o m C h a i r o n e i a in B o i o t i a , the h u g e l y l e a r n e d a n d prolific P l u t a r c h ( L u c i u s [?] M e s t r i u s P l u t a r c h u s ) w a s a n a r i s t o c r a t i c G r e e k w h o m o v e d in the cultured R o m a n circles o f his d a y , a n d m a y h a v e held s o m e i m p e r i a l p o s t s u n d e r the e m p e r o r s T r a j a n a n d H a d r i a n . H e a l s o s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r of the college of p r i e s t s a t D e l p h i . G r e e c e w a s t h e n a c o m f o r t a b l e , d e m i l i t a r i z e d b a c k w a t e r of the R o m a n e m p i r e a n d A t h e n s itself, w h e r e he s t u d i e d p h i l o s o p h y a s a y o u n g m a n , a self-satisfied u n i v e r s i t y t o w n a n d c u l t u r a l c e n t r e . N o m a t t e r they h a d b e e n d e a d for c e n t u r i e s , A t h e n s w a s still the city o f P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e , a n d for a n y p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y a n d a c a d e m i c a l l y inclined s t u d e n t it h a d s t a t u s , c l a s s , a n d a r e p u t a t i o n t h a t o t h e r p l a c e s o f l e a r n i n g c o u l d never e q u a l . H i s Parallel Lives (Bioi paralleloi) is a n e x t r e m e l y useful s o u r c e for R o m a n ( a n d G r e e k ) h i s t o r y , a s he c o l l e c t e d m u c h d e t a i l a n d v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , P l u t a r c h c a n b e fairly u n c r i t i c a l . H i s m a i n a i m is t o m o r a l i z e a b o u t the n a t u r e o f t h e m a n , this k e e n i n t e r e s t in i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g y b e i n g c o u p l e d w i t h a n e q u a l l y k e e n eye (as S h a k e s p e a r e w a s t o a p p r e c i a t e ) for a d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n . Yet it s h o u l d b e s a i d t h a t P l u t a r c h d o e s m a k e a fair s t a b in s o m e o f the Lives, w h i c h w e r e w r i t t e n in p a i r s o f G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s o f s i m i l a r e m i n e n c e a n d then a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the t w o , at p r o d u c i n g s o m e s o r t o f h i s t o r y . T h u s , for i n s t a n c e , A g e s i l a o s is c o m p a r e d w i t h P o m p e y a n d N i k i a s w i t h C r a s s u s . T h e Lives, o f w h i c h there are 2 3 p a i r s a n d f o u r t h a t h a v e b e e n left u n p a i r e d , a r e a v a i l a b l e in v a r i o u s P e n g u i n a n d Loeb volumes.

SALLUST (86-c. 35 B C ) S a l l u s t ( C a i u s S a l l u s t i u s C r i s p u s ) , w h o held v a r i o u s p u b l i c offices in R o m e a n d later a g o v e r n o r s h i p in A f r i c a , w a s a p a r t i s a n o f C a e s a r a n d a n o p p o n e n t o f P o m p e y . H e w a s b o r n in A m i t e r n u m , a p r o v i n c i a l t o w n in the S a b i n e h i g h l a n d s o f c e n t r a l Italy, a n d d u r i n g the e a r l y y e a r s of his political career he b e c a m e i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e populares, a m o n g w h o m C a e s a r w a s the m o s t p r o m i n e n t . A popularis w a s an aristocratic populist w h o tended to bypass

the S e n a t e by enlisting the s u p p o r t o f the t r i b u n e s o f the p e o p l e a n d t h r o u g h t h e m of the p e o p l e a t l a r g e . H e p a s s e d t h r o u g h the j u n i o r m a g i s t r a t e s o f a s e n a t o r i a l career, b e c o m i n g a q u a e s t o r a r o u n d 5 5 B C , a n d , in 5 2 B C , he w a s elected a s o n e o f the t r i b u n e s o f the p e o p l e . T w o y e a r s later he w a s e x p e l l e d f r o m the S e n a t e by the c e n s o r s for a l l e g e d i m m o r a l i t y ; m u c h t h a t w a s s a i d a b o u t h i m b y his e n e m i e s w a s m e r e m a l i c i o u s g o s s i p . A y e a r o r s o later, h o w e v e r , the i n f l u e n c e o f C a e s a r e n a b l e d h i m t o b e e l e c t e d t o a s e c o n d q u a e s t o r s h i p a n d t o re-enter the S e n a t e . S a l l u s t c r o s s e d the R u b i c o n w i t h C a e s a r , a n d d u r i n g the y e a r s 4 9 t o 4 5 BC he loyally s e r v e d h i m a s a n officer in v a r i o u s c a m p a i g n s o f the civil w a r , w a s elected p r a e t o r , a n d w a s installed by the d i c t a t o r a s g o v e r n o r o f A f r i c a N o v a , a p r o v i n c e j u s t f o r m e d f r o m the k i n g d o m o f t h e p r o - P o m p e i a n I u b a o f N u m i d i a . S a l l u s t is s a i d t o h a v e fleeced the p r o v i n c i a l s i g n o m i n i o u s l y a n d t o h a v e b e e n s a v e d f r o m c o n v i c t i o n o n l y b y the g o o d g r a c e o f his p a t r o n , t o w h o m he a p p a r e n t l y g a v e a s i z e a b l e b a c k h a n d e r . C e r t a i n l y he d i d very well by C a e s a r , o w n i n g a g r a n d villa a t T i b u r ( T i v o l i ) a n d a s p l e n d i d p a r k a t R o m e , the c e l e b r a t e d horti Sallustiani, w h i c h the h i s t o r i a n l a v i s h l y e m b e l l i s h e d f r o m his o w n p u r s e .

A recently resurfaced section of the Via Appia in Rome, photographed in the 1950s. Built on a monumental scale, Roman roads combined practical utility with visually impressive statements of power. They also provided direct, well-maintained routes along which the legions could move with ease. (Library of Congress)

A s a h i s t o r i a n S a l l u s t is b e s t k n o w n for his t w o Iugurthinum, s u r v i v i n g m o n o g r a p h s , the Bellum w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the w a r b e t w e e n R o m e a n d the N u m i d i a n k i n g I u g u r t h a f r o m 1 1 2 t o 1 0 5 BC, a n d the Bellum Catilinae, w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the u n s u c c e s s f u l r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t the R o m a n R e p u b l i c in 6 3 BC. In the late forties BC, h a v i n g set a s i d e the s w o r d for the p e n after t h e d e a t h o f C a e s a r , S a l l u s t a l s o w r o t e a c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y o f R o m e in five b o o k s , w h i c h c o v e r e d t h e e v e n t s f r o m the r e b e l l i o n o f M a r c u s A e m i l i u s L e p i d u s in 7 8 BC a t least d o w n t o the y e a r 6 7 BC if n o t 6 0 BC, the y e a r the o p p o r t u n i s t i c coalition b e t w e e n P o m p e y , C r a s s u s , a n d C a e s a r , the so-called first t r i u m v i r a t e , w a s f o r m e d . It is k n o w n t h a t the S p a r t a c a n rebellion w a s included, but unfortunately o n l y a f e w set s p e e c h e s a n d letters a n d a q u a n t i t y of s h o r t n a r r a t i v e f r a g m e n t s o f the Historiae survive. T h e r e a r e all s o r t s o f r e a s o n s w h y t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r b i t s a n d p i e c e s r a t h e r t h a n a n y o t h e r s s u r v i v e the centuries, a m o n g s t them pure chance.

Another of Sanesi's illustrations for Giovagnoli's Spartaco, this time depicting Spartacus sacrificing his horse before the final showdown with Crassus. Frequently reprinted after its initial publication, as well as translated into many other languages, this historical masterpiece also provided the basis for the first cinematic portrayals of Spartacus, produced in the fledgling nation of Italy just prior to World War I. (Reproduced from R. Giovagnoli, Spartaco, Rome, 1874)

92

S a l l u s t m a y h a v e p r o v e d t o be a p o o r soldier, but he w a s c e r t a i n l y t o b e c o m e f a m o u s a s a writer o f influential style. K e e n t o illustrate t o his r e a d e r s h i p the decline a n d c o r r u p t i o n of the R o m a n s t a t e , w h i c h he a s c r i b e s t o the r e f i n e m e n t a n d r i c h e s c r e a t e d by the w a r s of the s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, S a l l u s t w r i t e s in a highly i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o m e w h a t artificial style, m o s t l y in s h o r t , terse s e n t e n c e s , p a c k e d full o f i d e a s t h a t he s e e m s i m p a t i e n t t o e x p r e s s . H e is f o n d o f a n t i t h e s i s , i m i t a t i n g here the G r e e k style o f T h u c y d i d e s , w h o m he g r e a t l y a d m i r e d , b u t a v o i d s s y m m e t r y a n d s m o o t h n e s s , even t o the p o i n t o f a b r u p t n e s s .

BIBLIOGRAPHY Adcock, E E . , Marcus Crassus: Millionaire (Cambridge: Heffer & Sons, 1966) Bradley, K.R., Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World, 140 BC - 70 BC (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1 9 8 9 , 1998) Brown, S., Spartacus (Nottingham: Warhammer Historical Wargames, 2 0 0 4 ) Brunt, P.A. Italian Manpower 225 BC - AD 14 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1 9 7 1 , 1987) Brunt, P.A. The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988) Cohen, G.A. Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978) Gabba, E. (trans. P.J. Cuff) Republican Rome: The Army and Allies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1973) Garnsey, P.D.A. and Sailer, R.P. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture (London: Duckworth, 1987) Grant, M . Gladiators (London: Penguin, 1 9 6 7 , 2 0 0 0 ) Greene, K. The Archaeology of the Roman Economy (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986, 1990) Fields, N . The Roman Army: The Civil Wars 88-31 BC (Oxford: Osprey Battle Orders 34, 2008) Finley, M.I. Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (Princeton, N J : M a r k u s Weiner, 1980, 1998) Finley, M.I. The Ancient Economy (London: University of California Press, 1999, 2nd ed.) Harris, W.V. 'Spartacus', in M . C . Carnes (ed.), Bast Imperfect: History according to the Movies (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), pp. 4 0 - 4 3 Hopkins, K. Conquerors and Slaves (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978) James, C.L.R. The Black Jacobins (London: Penguin, 1 9 3 8 , 2 0 0 1 ) Katzenberger, E. (ed.) First World, Ha Ha Ha! The Zapatista Challenge (San Francisco: City Light Books, 1995) Marshall, B.A. Crassus: A Political Biography (Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1976) Rice Holmes, T. The Roman Republic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1923) Rubinsohn, W.Z. (trans. J . G . Griffith) Spartacus' Uprising and Soviet Historical Writing (Oxford: O x b o w Books, 1983) Shaw, B.D. 'Bandits in the R o m a n Empire', Past & Present, 105 (1984), pp. 3 - 5 2 Shaw, B.D. (ed.) Spartacus and the Slave Wars: A Brief History with Documents (Boston & N e w York: Bedford/St Martin's Press, 2 0 0 1 ) Stockton, D.L. Cicero: A Political Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971) Sullivan, J.P. (ed.) 'Marxism and the Classics', Arethusa, 8:1 (1975), pp. 5 - 2 2 5 Trow, M.J. Spartacus: The Myth and the Man (Stroud: Sutton, 2 0 0 6 ) Urbainczyk, T. Spartacus (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2 0 0 4 ) Vogt, J . (trans. T.E.J. Wiedemann) Ancient Slavery and the Ideal of Man (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974) Ward, A . M . Marcus Crassus and the Late Republic (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 1977) Welch, K. 'The Roman arena in late republican Italy: A new interpretation', Journal of Roman Archaeology, 7 (1994), pp. 5 9 - 8 0 Winkler, M . M . Spartacus: Film and History (Oxford: Blackwell, 2 0 0 7 ) Wisdom, S. Gladiators 100 BC- AD 200 (Oxford: Osprey - Warrior 3 9 , 2 0 0 1 ) Yavetz, Z . Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome (Oxford: Transaction Books, 1988) Ziegler, K. 'Die Herkunft des Spartacus', Hermes, 83 (1955), pp. 2 4 8 - 5 0

GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS Aedile

Annually elected junior magistrate (two plebeian and

As/asses

two curule or patrician) responsible for public works and games. Copper coin, originally worth

Aquila/aquilae

l/10th of denarius (q.v.), but retariffed at 16 to the denarius at the time of Gracchi. 'Eagle' - standard of legio (q.v.).

Munus/munera Pala/palae Patera/paterae Passus/passuum

'Obligation' - gladiatorial fight.

Pilum/pila

Spade. Bronze mess tin. 'One-pace' - 5 Roman feet (1.48m). Principal throwing weapon

Pilum muralis

of legionaries. Wooden stake for marching camp defences.

Pugio/pugiones

Dagger carried by legionaries.

Scutum/scuta Sesterce/sestertii

Shield carried by legionaries. Brass coin worth 1/4 of

Centurio/centuriones

'Eagle-bearer' - standard-bearer who carried aquila (q.v.). 'Head count' - Roman citizens owing insufficient property to qualify for military service. Officer in command of centuria

Centuria/centuriae

(q.v.). Sub-unit of cohors

Cohors/cohortes

Standard tactical unit of legio

the mina being a unit of weight

(q.v.). 'Tentful' - mess-unit of eight legionaries, ten per centuria (q.v.). 'Ten as piece' - silver coin, now worth 16 asses (q.v.). 'Choosing' - levying of troops.

equivalent to 100 Attic drachmae or 70 Aiginetan drachmae.

Aquilifer/aquiliferi Capite censi

Contubernium

Denarius/denarii Dilectus Dolabra/dolabrae

Signum/signa Talent

(q.v.).

Trulleus Quaestor

denarius (q.v.). Standard of centuria (q.v.). Fixed Greek weight of silver equivalent to 60 minae (Attic-Euboic talanton = 26.2kg, Aiginetan talanton = 43.6kg),

Bronze cooking pot. Annually elected junior magistrate principally responsible for financial matters. Bailiff.

Pickaxe. Member of equestrian order.

Vilicus/vilici

Eques/equites Furca/furcae

T-shaped pole carried

Abbreviations AE

Gladius/gladii

by legionaries. Cut-and-thrust sword carried

L'Annee Epigraphique (Paris, 1888-)

by legionaries. Baggage animals. Principal unit of Roman army. Mail armour. Head herdsman. 'Handful' - tactical unit of manipular legion of

CIL

ILS

T. Mommsen et al., Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (Berlin, 1862-) H. Dessau, Inscriptiones

MMR II

Latinae Selectae (Berlin, 1892-1916) T.R.S. Broughton, The

Impedimenta Legio/legiones Lorica bamata Magister pecoris Manipulus/manipuli

Mille passus

94

middle Republic. 'One-thousand paces' Roman mile (1.48km).

Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. II (New York, 1952)

INDEX Figures in bold refer to illustrations.

entrapment of 6 3 , 6 5 - 6 , 6 6 , 6 7 , 6 7 , 7 1 , 8 8 , 89

agricultural slaves (mancipa

rustica)

15,

18-19, 35, 37-8

armour/dress 2 0 , 2 4 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 4 8 , 5 6 - 7 , 58

final defeat of 7 1 , 7 4 , 7 6 - 7 , 7 8 , 8 1 - 2 Crixus (rebel leader) 2 4 , 3 0 , 5 2 , 5 5 , 89

Agrigentum 9, 9

death of 4 8 , 5 0 , 5 9 , 6 2 , 63

amphitheatres 2 3 , 4 7 , 6 5

fighting force

combat 2 4 - 5 , 28, 51 equipment/weaponry 2 0 , 2 4 , 2 4 , 3 1 , 3 2 , 48, 5 6 - 7 , 58 feeding and training of 2 5 , 5 6 - 7 , 58

Antiochos (slave king) 8

c o m p o s i t i o n 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 3 , 6 8 - 9 , 70

harsh treatment of 5 2 , 58

Appian (historian) 2 8 , 8 8 - 9 0

dress and w e a p o n r y 6 8 - 9 , 7 0

prisoners as 2 4 , 2 7 , 3 0 , 3 1 , 4 8 , 6 2

pirate operations 2 0

final battle 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 3 , 6 8 - 9 , 70

sacrifice of prisoners 4 8

movements (72 BC) 3 6

slave army/rebellion 3 0 , 3 1 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 7 , 5 3 , 5 5 , 6 2 , 7 5 , 84, 89

and Spartacus 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 7 0

rebellion in C a p u a 5 2 , 5 6 - 7 , 58 Grassic G i b b o n , Lewis 8 6 - 7 , 8 7 grave markers 3 0 , 3 1 , 3 2

crucifixion (prisoners) 4 8 , 7 9 - 8 0 , 8 1

G u e v a r a , Ernesto ' C h e ' 5 , 6, 8 7

armour 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 5 , 3 9 , 4 4 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 5 , 4 8 , 7 6 - 7 , 78 Athenaios

19-20,28

Athenion (slave king)

9-10

decimation (as punishment) 3 2 , 88

H e r a , Temple of 5 9

Delos 16, 16

house slaves (mancipa

Demeter, Temple of 6, 7

h u m a n sacrifices 2 0 - 1 , 2 2 , 4 8

15

urbana)

D i o d o r o s 7, 8, 9, 4 0 Batiatus, Cnaeus Lentulus 5 2 , 58 Bithynia

D o u g l a s , Kirk

51

Iberia/Iberians

28,30

31,32,37

Iugurtha, King of N u m i d i a 4 3 , 9 2

Brundisium 7 4 , 7 9

Enna (Sicily) 5 , 5 , 6, 6, 7, 8

Bruttium 2 5 - 6 , 6 6 , 6 6

eques

and slave army 5 4 , 8 8 , 89

14, 3 5

equites

busts/statues 8, 3 3 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 7 1 , 8 2 , 84

kitchen equipment 4 4 , 5 6 - 7 , 58

14, 2 0 , 33

Kleon (slave)

('work barracks') 3 5 , 3 8 , 3 9

ergastula

8,9

Kubrick, Stanley 5 1 , 5 8 , 7 0 , 83

Eunus (slave) 8, 8 Caesar, Julius 7, 3 3 , 4 6 , 4 8 , 9 0 , 9 1 , 9 2 elected as military tribune 4 4

Licinia (Vestal Virgin) fasces

42

32-3

Lilybaeum ( M a r s a l a ) 8, 10, 10

importance of gladiators 2 4 , 82

First Punic War 7

Livy on slave rebellion 3 0 , 5 3 , 5 5 , 84

ownership of slaves 19

First Slave War 6, 7, 8 - 9 , 4 0 , 5 0

L'Ouverture, Francois 8 4 , 85

and slave army 2 7 - 8

Florus on slave rebellion 2 5 , 3 0 , 4 8 , 5 3 ,

Lucania/Lucanians 2 5 - 6 , 6 5 , 80

C a m p a n i a 2 2 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 5 2 , 80

5 9 , 8 3 , 84

C a p u a 2 5 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 88 gladiatorial training school 2 8 , 4 0 , 4 7 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 6 - 7 , 5 8 , 82

attacks on Greece 2 5 - 6

Frontinus on slave rebellion 3 8 , 4 5 , 53

duels as competition

funerary m o n u m e n t s 2 1 , 4 3 , 4 4

and slave rebellion 3 7 , 5 4 , 7 4 , 8 8 , 89

Furius, C a i u s (legate) 5 4 , 88

Lucullus, M a r c u s Terentius Varro

Gallia Cisalpina 4 8 , 6 2 , 88

ludus, configuration/purpose of 5 2 , 5 2 ,

Castello di L o m b a r d i a 5 , 7, 8

(proconsul) 7 1 , 74

Castrum Petrae Roseti 6 7 Castus (rebel leader) 3 0 , 4 5 , 5 0 , 7 1 , 88 C a t o and battle at G a r g a n u s

59

C a t o the Elder 9 - 1 0 , 18, 2 8 , 59 on use of slaves

15,18,19

Cicero (historian) 5 , 3 7 Caius Verres

8,48,50

(commoners)

Gannicus, C a i u s (rebel leader) 3 0 , 5 0 , 7 1 defeat of 4 5 , 88 G a r g a n o hills 6 3 , 6 3 G a r g a n u s , battle at (72 B C ) 5 5 , 5 9 ,

provision of slaves 3 5 , 3 7 and slave army 3 0 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 62, 63, 6 8 - 9 , 70

R o m a n army 3 4 , 4 4

prisoners as gladiators 1 7 , 2 4 , 4 8 , 5 2 , 5 6 - 7 , 58

slave rebellion 5 0 , 5 3 , 83 Cilician pirates

weaponry

10,20

consuls 9, 2 4 , 3 1 , 5 9 , 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 8 - 9 , 70 Cossinius, Lucius (praetor) 4 0 , 5 4 , 88 Crassus, Marcius Licinius (praetor) 2 7 , 3 1 - 3 , 33, 44, 88, 90, 92 businessman 3 1 , 3 2 - 3 , 81

8 1 , 8 2 , 8 8 , 89 military c o m m a n d e r 3 1 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 5 1 , 6 3 , 80, 8 1 - 2 , 88 political ambitions 3 1 , 3 3 , 8 1 , 82 45,51

M a r x , Karl 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 8 6 on freedom/revolution 8 5 , 86

6 8 - 9 , 7 0 , 88

Mithridates IV, King 2 0 , 2 8 , 3 0 M o n t e Pollino (Lucania) 6 5 mosaics 4 0 , 8 1

43

in slave army 3 5 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 3 ,

M o u n t Vesuvius 5 3 , 5 4 , 5 5 rebel slaves on 3 0 , 5 0 , 5 3 , 5 8 , 89 M u m m i u s (legate)

Glaber, C a i u s Claudius (praetor)

defeat by slave army 6 3 , 88

defeat of by slave army 4 0 , 5 3 , 88

hostility towards Pompey 3 2 , 3 3 , 7 4 ,

and slave army/rebellion

defeats slave army contingent 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 3 , Germans/Germany

and R o m a n army 4 1 , 4 2 - 4 , 4 5 , 4 6 M a r s (war-god) 4 4

Metapontum 54, 59, 62

6 8 - 9 , 70

character traits 3 2 - 3 , 82

82

on S p a r t a c u s 6, 8 4 , 8 5 , 86

39

Gellius, Lucius (consul) 5 9 , 6 3 , 6 8 - 9 , 7 0

betrayal of Spartacus 6 5 , 88

28,30,43

M a r i u s , C a s s i u s (consul) 31

justness of slavery 8 Sicily 7, 8

Macedonia

M a g n u s , C n a e u s Pompeius

Gaul/Gauls 14

5 6 - 7 , 58 Luxemburg, Rosa 5, 85

6 8 - 9 , 70

gladiatorial c o m b a t 2 3 , 2 4 - 5 , 8 2 , 83 proletarii

21

31,32,33,

gladiatorial contests 2 1 - 2 , 2 2 , 2 4

Octavianus (Augustus) 2 0 , 4 7

amphitheatres used 2 3 , 4 7 , 6 5

O e n o m a u s (slave leader) 3 0 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 89

development/popularity 2 2 , 2 3 - 4 , 2 5

Orosius

role of lanistae

O s c a n speakers (groupings of)

22

30,48,53,62 25-6

gladiatorial training school 2 8 , 4 0 , 4 7 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 6 - 7 , 58 gladiators (bustarii)

2 0 - 5 , 2 7 , 8 2 , 83

Paestum

21,25-6,59,74

palaestra

52

95

Perusia, fall of 2 0

role/rule of Senate 4 1

legal definition of 16, 1 7 - 1 8

Pizzo (Calabria) 6 6

as slave society

master-slave relationship

Plutarch (historian) 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0

and slave uprisings 5 , 7, 8 - 9

cost of slaves 19

15-20

threat of attack on 4 8 , 6 2 - 3

Crassus 27, 33, 63, 6 5 , 67, 90

R o s e t o C a p o Spulico 6 7

16-17

15,16-17

Social War ( 9 1 - 8 8 BC) 2 4 , 26 Soverato (Calabria) 6 7

legionary's equipment 4 5 Pompey

treatment of

Spartacus see also slave army/rebellion

90

Sallust (historian) 6 6 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0 - 2

rebel slaves/slave army 4 8 , 5 3 , 5 5 , 6 2 , 8 4 , 89

decline of R o m a n state 9 2 R o m a n army 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 8

slave herdsmen 3 9 , 54

5 4 , 6 2 , 6 6 , 7 1 , 7 6 - 7 , 7 8 , 8 2 , 88, 8 9 , 92

slave rebellion 3 8 , 4 7 , 5 0 , 5 3 , 5 5 , 7 1 ,

Spartacus 6, 2 7 , 2 8 , 3 1 , 4 0 , 4 8 , 6 2 , 7 1 , 74-5

brutality of 4 8 , 5 9 , 6 2 , 89 clashes with R o m a n armies 3 2 , 4 7 , 5 3 ,

84,88-9

c o m p a s s i o n for followers 86 death of 7, 7 4 - 5 , 7 6 - 7 , 7 8 , 87, 88, 89

Salvius (slave king: Tryphon) 9, 10

depiction of 7 1

Pompeii 2 3 , 2 8 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4

Samnites 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 4 , 2 5 - 6 , 2 7 , 3 2

cinematic 5 1 , 5 1 , 5 8 , 8 2 , 8 3 , 9 2

Pompey 2 0 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 3 1 , 7 4 , 9 0 , 9 2

Second Punic War 7, 4 3

graffito

character traits 8 1 , 8 2

Second Slave War 9 - 1 0 , 4 8 , 5 0 , 6 5

literature 5 1 , 8 5 - 6 , 8 7 , 9 2

hostility t o w a r d s C r a s s u s 3 2 , 3 3 , 8 1 ,

Senate/senators 9, 10, 3 1 , 9 1

mythological/revolutionary hero 5 - 6 ,

8 2 , 89

enrolment of capite

41,42

censi

and rebel slaves/slave army 7 1 , 8 1 , 8 2

exclusivity/prestige of 14

p o p u l a r support for 8 1 , 88

and gladiatorial spectacles 2 4

Porta Collina, battle of (82 B C ) 3 2 praetors, role of 9

pursuit of Spartacus 5 1 , 6 2 , 7 1 , 74

use of slaves 7, 8, 3 7 , 4 8 R o m a n rule 7, 8 - 9 , 10, 4 8 , 5 0

q u a e s t o r s , role of 8, 1 0 , 9 1

and slave army 4 8 , 5 0 , 6 5 slave uprisings 6, 7, 8 - 1 0 , 4 0 , 4 8 , 5 0 , 6 5

reliefs 1 7 , 2 0 , 2 2 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 8

slave army/rebellion see also

Spartacus

as gladiator 2 4 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 2 8 , 30 legacy of

30-1,47

83-7

movements of ( 7 3 - 7 1 BC) 2 0 , 2 9 , 36, 4 8 , 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 5 , 5 8 , 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 4 , 6 5 , 74, 88 relationship with Crixus 5 0 , 5 4 , 55 Rome's reaction to 6 - 7 , 5 1 , 8 3 , 84 sacrifices white stallion 7 8 , 8 9 , 9 2

River Silarus (Sele) 7 4 , 7 4 , 78

47, 50, 53, 65, 82

strength and spirit 71

R o c c a di Cerere (Enna) 5 , 6

assaults on towns 5 4 , 5 9 , 5 9

Thracian origins 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 0

R o m a n army

chances of success 8 2 , 86

training of new recruits 5 4 , 6 2

clashes with R o m a n armies 3 2 , 3 4 , 6 2 ,

weakness of position 5 0

composition/elements of 4 2 - 4 , 4 6 (standard-bearer)

aquilifer

45

centurions 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 7 6 - 7 , 78 hastati

(spearmen) 4 2 , 4 3 (baggage train) 4 4

impedimenta

legionnaires 9, 3 4 , 4 4 - 5 , 4 4 M a r i a n faction/legion 3 1 , 3 2 , 4 1 , 4 2 - 4 , 4 5 , 46

7 5 , 88 mess-unit (contubernium)

signifier

45

(chief men) 4 2 , 4 3 (standard-bearer)

slave-volunteers

43

41-2

triarii (third-rank men) 4 2 , 4 3 velites (light-armed troops) 4 2 dress/uniforms 4 3 , 4 4 age of the citizen-soldier

41-2

4 1 , 42, 45, 46

censi

Strode, Woody 5 1

34-5

auxiliaries for R o m a n forces 2 8 , 3 0 and slave army 3 5 , 6 2

50

prisoners as gladiators 2 4 , 3 0 , 3 1 , 5 2 ,

division a m o n g s t leaders 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 8 2 , 88 intended dispersal of 4 8

Thrax people 3 0 , 3 0 , 3 1

m a k i n g use of prisoners 5 9

Thurii, and slave army 5 4 , 5 9 , 6 2 , 6 5 ,

movements of ( 7 3 - 7 1 B C ) 2 0 , 2 9 ,

victories 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 3 , 6 8 - 9 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 7 4 , 7 6 - 7 , 7 8 , 8 1 - 2 , 88 weaponry 4 3 , 43, 44, 44, 45 Rome

Varinia (Spartacus' wife) 4 0 , 82

provisions for 3 7 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 5 0 , 6 6 - 7 role of w o m e n in 3 5 , 4 0 - 1 Senate reaction to 5 1 , 5 4 , 83

and class (classis)

training of new recruits 5 4 , 6 2 7 0 , 74 slave herdsmen (pastores)

14, 4 6

h u m a n sacrifice 2 1

Varinius, Publius (praetor) 3 8 , 5 0 defeat by slave army 3 8 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 54, 88 Varro, M a r c u s Terentius 1 5 , 16, 18, 2 8 , 35,37,38 Verres, Caius (governor of Sicily) 7, 8, 1 7 - 1 8 , 4 8 , 50 Via Appia ('Queen of R o a d s ' ) construction of 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 0 , 9 1

8, 9, 3 5 , 3 7 ,

38, 39, 40, 54

crucified rebels along

79-80

vilicus (bailiff) 9 - 1 0 , 38

join slave army 3 7 - 8 , 3 9 , 5 4 , 6 7 , 6 8 - 9 , 70 use of w a t c h d o g s 3 9 , 4 0 slave owners 1 5 , 1 6 - 1 7

citizen assemblies of 14

6 5 , 82

36, 48, 49, 50, 55, 58, 62, 63,

weaponry 3 9 - 4 0 , 39, 59, 6 5 , 6 8 - 9 ,

s t a n d a r d s , adoption/use of 4 5 - 6

5 6 - 7 , 58 slaves for Italy 3 5

suicide to avoid capture 3 5

tactical organization 3 4 , 4 2 - 4 , 4 5 , 5 5

Thrace/Thracian tribes 3 0

cost of putting d o w n 7 5

threat to R o m e 4 8 , 6 2 - 3 , 89

46

Tertullian 2 1 - 2

39, 52, 54

rewards of service 4 5 , 4 6 esprit de corps

Sulla, Lucius Cornelius 2 0 , 3 1 , 3 2

7 5 , 88

and property qualification 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 4 equipment 4 4 - 5 , 4 5

96

Stoicism and slavery 17

8 8 , 89

6 4 , 6 5 , 7 4 , 88

enlistment/recruitment 4 2 , 4 5 , 4 6

5 , 86

70, 7 1 , 74, 75, 7 6 - 7 , 78, 7 9 - 8 2 ,

desire for freedom

pilus (first spear) 4 5

and capite

S p a r t o k o s I, King of Thrace 2 7

composition and strength 3 4 , 3 5 , 3 7 - 8 ,

defeats 3 8 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 7 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 6 3 ,

principes

Spartakusbund

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s within

cost of to support 3 1 - 2 , 4 2

primus

6 6 , 6 8 - 9 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 7 6 - 7 , 92 defeats and losses 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 3 , 6 8 - 9 ,

victories 3 8 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 7 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 6 3 ,

87

in R o m a n service 2 7 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 5 0 , 6 2 leadership skills

agricultural prosperity of 7, 9

Pydna, battle of (168 B C ) 4 3

4 7 , 5 0 , 8 3 - 6 , 87 proto-Christ/secular Messiah

Sicily 4 , 5 , 6, 7, 9, 1 0 , 84

provincial governors, role of 9

28

slavery/slaves 1 7 , 1 8 , 2 0 , 3 5 , 8 7 cost of 19 as sign of wealth

wall paintings 54 weaponry 2 0 , 2 2 , 3 8 , 3 9 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 43, 43, 44, 44, 4 5 , 4 5 , 48, 6 8 - 9 , 70, 7 4 , 7 6 - 7 , 78

18,20

production of 3 8 , 3 8 , 3 9 , 6 5

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Accounts of history's greatest conflicts, detailing the command strategies, tactics and battle experiences of the opposing forces throughout the crucial stages of each campaign

SPARTACUS AND THE

SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC

A gladiator rebels against Rome Italy in 73 BC saw a slave-society's worst nightmare - a slave insurrection. Gladiators, led by the Thracian Spartacus, broke out of a gladiatorial training school and formed an army, made up of runaway slaves and others with little to lose. With some 70,000 men, Spartacus rampaged throughout Campania, assaulting the prosperous cities of Cumae, Nola, and Nuceria, and defeating two consular armies. Spartacus now posed a grave threat to Rome, and M. Licinius Crassus was given the job of destroying him. In a major battle near the source of the river Silarus, Spartacus was defeated and slain, and his army was crushed. As a warning to others, Crassus crucified 6,000 prisoners along the road from Capua - where the revolt had begun - to the very gates of Rome.

Full colour battlescenes _ Illustrations _ 3-dimensional'bird's-eye-views' _ Maps

US$19.95 UK£14.99 CAN $22.95

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