Osprey, Men-at-Arms #374 Roman Military Clothing (1) 100 BC - AD 200 (2002) OCR 8.12

Roman Military Clothin (1) 100 Be -AD 2

Fnt publiIMd In Gr.-t 8rlIAon In 2002 ~ ~ F'I.obllII'IWlg. Elms Cot.rt. ~ W.,. BotIeot. 0 . _ 0X2 llLP. I...Wt.o ~ Em.iI: ~.com

Dedication This book III dedlclIled to CtlrlI Hairles and all !he pMt and ~ mlln and 'NDfTWI aI the StrMt Goard. in recognrtlon aI tta c ~ In Ronwl..-ch lind ~ Wooe the fo..ndabOn a1me .cldely on 1912.

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I sholAd lib 10 IhIriI Oft ..--. QwI ~ Tony SegIln a'ld Martwt 'I"o'hrM: a11h1 StJeM ~. who .. kuld the tme to COI'I'mliI'lt on .... _ _ of Ihs Iexl. or hIiIJ*:l WIlh p/wtoo;jI",.. 1n mdiIIon I WlllJd"IO"" MiM BoItIop. van 0riIIl-~, SimOn.Mrr-., .... ~ ~ ~ Rogers and ~ John , . . . 'Nikllor It.- '*PIA ~ a'lCI su~ "*"Y of whicto ku'ld Ins WWf InUl IhI fin.- ~ thougt1 a'lY .-rotS wI'kh ,..,..,. _ .mnfy IhI auIhor'a. I .m grntetulto CIado Ml(lfll..Ul. Masswno Bizzarri. RalfMMI D'AmlIto and In partiC\AlW 10 PMII Holder, who ku'ld moe! a11he obKuI1I photogfaphl tInd ,.,~ I .m IIlso gnnefullO !he IollowW'og Individuals and lns!lIut!or-., who kandIy assisted wtltl!he ~ 01 photographic rtIIIlerIaI: Ff1IIlelll AIifIari, Fnnze. Italy; Alan JetfNy ~.-.cer. TIlIlI8 Walldnland DeArIl Welsby, The BfIIish M~m: Dr Ur&U1II H&lmburg and Anita Rieche. RheinischM ~ ,

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Acknowledgements

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o.o.c.. WI ~. USA

Bconn; Andrew Ball. Ml,IHUm of London: Malcolm Chapman. The Manchester MLlIeUrn: Char\Q Kline and Or JeMlfer H~ 'NegIw. University 01 Pennsytvlll'lla M~: Robin and Pat Bn~. The Vlndolandll Muaeurn. Anally I would like 10 thank Andy 8odllIy. Eliline Ncwt:lU'y and Martin WIndrow. who at helped to mak,elNe PI'l:Jtecl~.

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Artist'. Note Re.dets m.y ~ to not, '"-' the cwlgInel ~ 110m whicto !he colour plel-. In Ihs l:IOl;*. - . prepa'tld _ ......... tor priYate sM.M~~~I$""'bylhe ~ M ~ IhouId be «ldI cd to:

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OMAN MILITARY CLO HI G (1) ROM CAESAR TO CO MODUS, 100 Be - AD 200 INTRODUCTION A oldin- nel'd not befr'm"l'd ;11 h' mone')' belt. (HA. L: H ,eLI I

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cmned, hod, aII'd and has omf>thing e and r, 52)

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and equipm basi

Annalus Daverzus, an auxiliary soldier with Cohors 11I1 Delmatarum. from his gravestone found at Bingen, Germany - see Plate B2. This best preserved example of the Rhineland tombstones shows the strikingly curved drapery of the early Impertal tunic (and also a legionary-style shield). A rectangular object seems to be tucked Into a waistband under his weapons belt. The fourth cohort of Dalmatians were later stationed at Hardknott Fort guarding the crest of a bleak pass In Cumbria, north west England.

if he is clothed,

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TUNICS (TUNICA} Ther i very liLtle evid ne dLUing the R pu Ii , and lit raJ ' and arti ti vid n f Domitiu' Ah n arb I

for the typ tunic u cd b the Roman arm recon'UU tion relic' n a ombination of . W lI-kn wn' ulpLur in luding til t r and th miliu Paullus III num nt, whil

Late Republican/early Imperial tunics on bronze statuettes from Italy:

IA) Telamon, IB) Villa Glulla, Rome. Both wear short, short-sle v d tunics.

B

ur and h R man

Late RepublicanJearly Imperial tunIcs worn by soldiers from the time of Julius Caesar.

IA) Mlnutlus, a centurion with Leglo III Martla from Padua, Italy; (8) a comlcen from Osuna, Seville, Spllin.

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Tunic dimensions, to constant scale: (Al Military tunic description from BGU 1564 - 1.55m long 111.40m wide. (B) Child's linen shirt, Nahal Hever, Israel, no.65·762 (after Vadin) - O.38m long II O.45m wide. (C) Young adult's tunic Nahal Hever no.6-210 (after Vadln) - O.65m long II O.gOm wide. (0) Mons Claudlanus, Egypt, tunic A (after Mannering) - O.80m long II 1.07m wide. (E) Nahal Hever, nO.22·8·4 (after Yadln) - 1.0m long II 1.15m wide. (F) NUbia, Egypt, Grave Q150 (after Thurman & Wllllams)- 1.27m long 111.40m wide.

earli r peri d Part of a rare glass vessel from Vlndolanda, England, showing a gladiatorial scene. The referee In the centre wears a typical broad, sleeveless Roman tunic In a buff colour, with reddish-brown clavI, the two vertical stripes from shOUlder to lower edge; the te"" came from clavus, 'naif. (Vlndolanda Museum)

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ABOVE A relief from Metz, France, pOSlllbly showing a merchant and his customer examining a tunic. Although this Is not a military tunic, and Is probably of a type known today as a 'GalHc coat', It gives an Impression of the wIdth of contemporary Roman garmelfls.

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ABOVE LEFT Late Republican

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and early Imperial tunIcs soldiers from the arch at Susa, Italy, dating from the reign of Augustus. tAl appears to be wearing a '/orics segmentata', perhaps the earliest representation of this type of armour. (B) seems to wearing only a tunic with a fabric waistband.

B

Early Imperial tunics showing drapery effects on tombstones soldiers from the Rhineland area of Germany: (A) Flrmus, of the Cohors Raetorum, from Andernach, and (Bl unidentified, from Bonn both wearing paenu/a cloaks; (C) unidentified, from Bingen.

pa for th ir equiprn nt, and d clothing w p r ent ofa oldi r' pa b a it pain c ntury

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OPPOSITE late Republican and early Imperial tunics In details of fighting figures from the Arch of Orange, dating to the reign of Augustus (31 BC-AD 14). The soldiers' equipment Is easily identifiable from other sources, so It Is InterestIng that none of them appear to wear any armour. Just visible on (S) Is a knot behind the neck, gathering the neck opening together.

mad fr m wo I, than on wi th at

him an evening me I l \ hich h mi ht invit as man of hi fri nd as h lik d. An officer hould receive fift), dra 'hmas a da and twO 'uit'l of lothe on to w ar a home and one to w ar wb n h W TIt out'. cording to Mauriki (tmt. 1.2) >Idi rs in th eastern R man arm of th 7th ntury w re tunic mad li'om ith r r ugh w I, lin n I' v n goa . hair. Lin n p iaily w uld b pr fi l-abl altem bV in h tter Iimal and als ft r m r Ii rmal ion . Th r ar t I two r fi rence t p ci I 'dina r luni (vestis r tunica cenalar7tL), n in a I tl r from indol nda (1: b. indo!. n 196), th ther a dinner co tume giv n b th Emperor Alexand r vem ( 222-23r;) to aximinu lh oun r r ord d in th criptol'e Hi lmiap Auguslae I ,30). xtant pap ru d umen fr m Egypt I' V al that bl ach d or natural- olour illl n was favoured [or 'umm I' garm n whil w I I th was worn in wint r. An in ncory f clothe b longin to Z non, a mana r for Ap lion it ,finan mini l r to King Ptol m n in .257 BC, gi a 0 d indi alion f th wardrob s whi h oliciaJ and oldiers mi I1t own. Zenon p s, ssed 13 Ilmi (1:\ 0 of th m with leev ), nin cloaks and ft ur pairs of cks. I

nwry Rhin land mad [rom a fine

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OPPOSITE Relief from Nickenlch, Germany; the figure may represent either Hercules, or a slave-trader. However, thh; Is one of the best representations of the draped tunic and fabric waistband. (Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn)

Early Imperial tunics on tombstones from Malnz, Germany. (AI Publlus Flavolelus Con:lus, Legio Xliii; his dress, including the sagum cloak, Is almost Identical to that worn by auxiliaries like Daverzus (see page 31, and he too seems to wear a waistband with a document or purse tucked Into it. IBI Unidentified - and It is impossible to state with certainty, just from the soldier's dress, whether he is a legionary or an auxiliary.

~Illralis - was worn to flatten the bunching around tlle waist, thus concealing how the drapes had been produced. These i1ll.erpretations are purely speculative, however, and any interpretations from sculptural evidence alone are always fraught with difficulties. Unless further e\~dcncc is forthcoming tlle deliberation over the correct design of these tlillies may never be resolved. It is not known LO what extent lhe Rhineland type of ulIlic was wom elsewhere ,,,itllin tlle empire but, to judge from the available evidence, this style \\IOIS only popular from around the beginning to tlle lauer half of lhe lSI cemury, when il disappears entirely to be displaced by a simpler, perh,lps more utilitarian version, This practical form of tunic dearly e.XiSICd before tllC Rhineland examples, as it can be secn on the Arch ofOl'ange (Augustus. 31 Be-AD 14), and on early Principalc tombstones from Caesarca in Algelia. Il is also tlle tunic made familiar by its depiction on Trnjan's Column (Trajan r.AD 98-117), and the Chatswonll relief (Hadrian, r.AD 117-138), and is dearly tlle slyle wom by the Camomile Streel soldic.' frolll London. The diffcrences between this lllnic and lhose shown on lhe early Rhineland tombstones arc readily appm'cnt: il has a su-aighllower hem and very few folds at all.

Decoration -

clavI

An inslalllly recognis.'l.ble fealUre of many survl\'mg tLInics from the Roman period are the lWO contrasting bands of colour known a.'i clavi which run from the shouldcl1i to lhe IXHlom edges. Altllough senatorial and c
RIGHT Early lmpernol tunk: on the relief of lin IIU~llary 'rom Cae.....a - modem Cherchell, Algeria - dating from the eariy 1.t century AD. The tunic doe. not display the characterl.tlc. of the 'draped' Rhineland eumple., .nd I, much plainer. FAR RIGHT Trelan" Column In

Rome, celebrating that empero.... Daclan ware at the end or the 1.t century AD, ha. been highly Influential Ifl term. of modem perception. of Roman mHltary d..... TIl.. I. particularly so In the ca.. of Ea,tem archers, who .....lmo.t Inv.rnobly depicted today •• they are app.rently .hown on the Column, with Iont flowing robe•.

A

Fuemes beli~'ed lhal some musicians in a gladiatorial scene depicted on a mosaic from Zlilen in North Africa mar represent members of a military band; these men wear military style yellow-brown cloaks and have short while wnics wilh black dfWi. (llowever. the presence of a female member of the band playing a w',tlcr-pow('red organ may cast some doubt 011 the pl'csumed milillll)' stalliS of the others.) A couple of the portrait paimings from Egypl - discussed below - may also show COllllllon soldiers, who have tllnics which al'e decorated with either red or black clavi. TIle rklvi were wo\'cn ilHo the fabrics during manufacture. At Mons Claudianus, Egypt. the majOlil)' of clamonlexLile fragments were between Inn and 4cm in width. bllllhcre were al~o a Illll'nber of fragmenLS lhal had IwO and three stripes. The dUll; themselves are someUlllt::s decorated and some of these examples can be around 7crn wide. The dropped shoulder and 'bunched' neck

On Trajan's Colullln some scenes seem to illusl.nlle !.hat legionaries involved in conSlnLCUOI1 dUl.ies wore a special mnic which ",,'as let do\,'n from the right shoulder, A similar appeamllce is found in civilian sources, e.g. representations of blacksmiths. However, modern re-enactors expericllce liuJc difficul£}' in working in the basic tunic; and it should ,llso be remembered that soldiers wcre expected to work in full annou,. if neccssal)', so should have been accustomed to any minor inCOllV('nience causcd by the wnic. (Might there have been a Roman equivalellt orthe 'Pioneer' Corps' who adopted lhis fashion? The literary sources seem to contradict the idea.) It seems that under normal circumstances the wide neck opening of the tunic \'~d.S gday wom by nomadic tribesmen in Mallretania. There arc two apparent disadvantages to wearing a tllnic tied into a bunch at the back: it might seem to require assistance in holding and

All the. . tombstone Images of arche.. show them wearing the same type of c:lothlng lUI wom by other .aldie..: (A) Pantera, of Coho.. t Segltterlorum, from BlngerbrGc:k, Germany; (B) Monlmus, of Coho.. I ltul1Ieorum, from Tehtbaeh near Mal~ Oermany; Ie) 'rom HouNS:lead., England. (D) 15 an l~ul1lr archer from the Column 01 Marcu. Aurellua, mld·tate 2nd

cenhJry, Rome.

ABOVE SOldle.... from TnJan.. Column, wearing the type of tunle whleh eould be let doWn from the right shoulder Or tied up behind the nec:k In a knot. The loose nature at the garment Is dearly evkient. ABOVE RIGHT A depletion of Vulcan, blackamlth of the goda, from Bonn, Germany. ahowing the tunle dropped from tM right shoulder, and another renef from Yortl, England, shows the aame etfec:t. As both communities had • aubalan1ial military preaenee, tM figures eould have been modelled on blaekamlths working for the army.

tying, and it is an unnecessary encumbrance when worn beneath annolll·. TIlt' first objcction disappears as SOOI1 as one \....Ilches a woman casually tying her hair up behind without benefit of a mirror. The second seems more serious: nevenhelcss. the existence of this peculiar fashion is confirmed by il~ appearance in more than one source, and when reconstructed U1C bunching at the rear produces all the types of folds observed in the sculptural renditions of military tunics. Alu10ugh there arc many texlile fragmenlS from military sites no complete examples of positively idelllilied military tunics exi!'il. If thcy were similar in manufacture and design to surviving tunics from this period. e.g. those from Nahal Hcver, then another problem presenlS itself. As thc survi\ing tunics are broader than they are long, this lcaves a lOt of sU'1,lus material belleaU1 the arms. Indeed, this phenomenon can be observcd on the ChaISworu1 relief where the soldicrs are shown in their undress uniform of tunic and belts (see pagc 46). This surplus or material .....ould appear to be an inconveniencc. especially when the soldier wore any fonn of body anllour. Modern re-enactors have favoured .. narTOW tunic, which may therefore be incorrect bill which does atlcast lit comfortably under the armour. This might seelll to lend support to the idea that Roman soldiers not onl)' wore a special tllnic when they weill illlo action. but lhat it W".t.s of a difTerenl design. However, in contradiction of this, recent experiments carried OUI by members of the Ermine Street Guard indicate that UIC wide Hmic can be worn comfortably beneath al1110Ur - indeed, it provides additional padding. Another feature which can be detected on the Chatsworth relief is what appears to be a narrow strap decoratcd llIiul studs which passes under lhe righl arm and crosses over the left shoulder. Fuentes confusingly termed this a 'pOlich bell' by analogy WiU1 those used by 18th/19th celllury cavalrymen, but suggestcd lhat its function \\",lS to restrict any blousing of the material "..hich might interfere ....,th the drawing of the sword. Even when \\·caring an undress uniform soldiers

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auxiliaries f th arl Prin ip

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Relief of an olive harvester from Cordoba, Spain. He wears the short-sleeved tu.nic of the type which could be let down off the shoulder, identical to those worn by some soldiers on Trajan's Column, with the wide neck opening restricted by a large knot tied at the back.

MILITARY CLOAKS from Imperial s ulptllre the common oldiers appear to hay favour d twO distin t typ of cloaks - the paenula and th agum - whil ffi r' f lh rank c mun nand ab v had lh pLi n of waring a mor formal 1 kn wn as a pal·udamenlUm. In R publican Lim at rding ivy ( I, 4.9), ther wa 1 arl a i ibl diEfi r n etwe n th loa' w rn b om e and heir m n. H des ribe h w lh Triblill Publiu D iu and' In f hi centurion wrapp d th m lye in ommon oldi'r cloaks to di gui their rank when th w n OUlon reconnaissance. he prumula wa aIr ad e LabJ.i h but i origin may hay b en ev n arli r. no unrlVlng xampl e. i from a p iti 1 military nl xt il i nJ P ibl t r on LrU tide ign b 11 jud

Jibed as

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Praetorian Guardsmen shown in sculptures from Italy; all wear paeflula cloaks. (A) & IB) Arch of Domitlan, Puteoll; (C) tombstone, Belglolosoi (D) Cancelleria relief, Rome. Auxiliaries from Trajan's Column. Points of Interest are the fringed cloak, left, and the shortness of both tunics, worn just below the waist. Both men also wear breeches, probably of wool.

Camomile Street soldier had two different types of fastener on his cloak, though the sculplOr certainly felt it was worthy of recording for posterity. Both the sagum and its shorter derivative, the sagululII, I\lcrc simply rectangular pieces of hea\')' woollen material. The papYnls document BGU 1564 includes an order for fall I' cloaks cach 6 cubits (2.66111) long and 4 cubits (1.17m) wide. These measuremcnts can be compared with a surviving cloak from Nubia which ....'as 1.75rn long x 1.05m wide; one from Nahal Ilcvcr (noo43) \\'hich '\~dS 2.iOm long x Io4Om wide; and anOlher example from Thorsbcrg in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, which measured 250m long x 1.68m wide. The document records that the cloaks ShOllld weigh 3Y. minae (1.6kg), and each cost 24 drachmae (6 denarii). The cloaks in BGU 1564 werc identical in size to a blankel recorded in the S
OPPOSITE Tombsto...e of a toldier lrom Corinth, Greece. He wean the paenul. fattened, anet partl~ folded up over the thoulden, giving the characterlttlc 'W' shape "t the lront. By tlmply pultlng the tides of the clOlilk up and flipping them onto hrt thoulden the aoldler h"d e"t~ accett to hrt tldearmt - which at the same time could be proudl~ dltplayed, Here he carries a fusfis Of" cudgel, and what seems to be " wrlUng tablet. Beneath the cloak there appean to be a tubttantlal tcarl, though thlt could allIO be Interpreted at a folded-down h....

Paen"l" cloak from

Eg~pt, of uncerUlln d.ate. It Is tn a 1.2 twill weave; a cUrYed hem hils been tumed back and f1nlthtKl with braid. (Unlvenlty of Penntylvanla Museum, E1&8031

, 100) and -acsar ( ivil War, r. ~ .6). io assius (E.]Jil, 50A) a iliat eta-vian" tr p' put 11 their milit,H1' cloaks imm dial I after war had I n d clar d again t I p tra ev n Ihough Ih w r till in ROland lh en 111 wer n wh r n r, Thi, o Jallon f particular gann nt with parti ular ireum tan I' info r . tJl id a til t 'oldi rs \ r difli r nl garments at diffi I' nt tim . S th agwfI W uld b mor pra tical in battl than th pflPnu[a \ hich auld mpl t I o' r the arm. it is perhaps not Irpri ing ilia' this lhe garm fit referred to tll 'milita loak'. h r IV re oth r unction' or th agul/I apart [I' m Ih obvi us ne f k ping Ih wearer warm. It \ d ubtl u ed b I Ii r n ampaign a gr lind h t r blank t, and a cording t g tiu ( ·:.flit., IV.) uld v n b trun LIp n b ttl m nts wab orb th impactofal'rm '. a itll (Hisl.. ,22) r late that when rebel 'oldier brok into a R man amp during th rev It 0 til Bata\~an. th Roman weI' S) tak n b urpli e that th had" wrap 1o. around th ir r r arm. t a t hild-.Taciu'aL writ (I{·t. ,23) that on an th I' oc a ion the Batavian th m el . had v n r on d to u ing h ir cloaks a ails. It' a matter of debat a to wh ther loaks c uld b worn in battl . Juliu' a ar ercainl did, whi h wa. on wa Ihat h was instantl gni abl ; and thi ma iJ lpl' that Ih r Sl f hi' men did n l. urin hi fli ht fr m th battl for th Pharo I -andri., .ae ar 10 t hi I ak, \ hi h wa' sub eqllenu calTi d off b the Alexandrians as a hi hl prized u'oph' (Appiall, n. 90). n raj an , olumn ,oldi r ngag d in baltl fight \ ith ut do' .. H w v r. the R man, Idi r kill d \ h n a unl llllin lIap d during th i g of Dura Eur p 2 wel' \ aring cJ a at the tim " th ir I ak bra \lrvi d. ltunn and I wll I' A number of I ks d pi ted n rajan' cl arty have at Ie ton fring d edg . It i not certain if !hi was a ign of 'tatus but it do app ar to e as ociated \ 1m higher Tad troop' in luding Praerorian. bellifiriarii. aval m n, 'Land rd b ar r, nd nior ffi rs u h u'ibun s. ther uJptur indicat Ula.t m I ak w r dora d with I at the b ttom com ( p g 47 and Pia 1). ni r m nLiLl d t w ar the p paludam ilium. hi "'-"l W rn drap dol' Lh 1 fL hould rand partjail ov r th left ann. u h it wa vid nu more a mark of rank rath r Ulan a practicaJ campaign garment, and affic r' are quail like} to be n \ earing th _mor fun Ii nal sag-um. Th paludame-nlu1/1 appear' t have b en r ctangular lik Ule sagum, although it ha. b n • ugg l d Ii' m ulptural idellc Lhat th low r m r ma hav b n CUL a\Va and r LInd d II.

DYES AND DYEING h niqu

LEFT Soldier in a peanuts cloak apparently hooded - and scarf, In a detail from the Adamkllssl monument.

b

d in

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nn on tilll nt

c mm n r d d luff in Lh madder, unkn wn at that

RIGHT Detail from Scene LXXXVI On Trajan's Column, showing unarmoured soldiers on the march. This man wears a paenuta clOak with the hood visibly thrown back and both sides thrown up onto his shoulders.

Paenuta cloak pattem, 1.95m long x 3.1 m wide. (After H.Granger-Taylor)


IIlg l eh-

an

v rLh 1 of a numb r

ver· bil,

A typical etIvalryman depleted on TraJan's Column. He wears a fringed sagum cloak over his dagged mall shirt, short tunic and calf-length breeches,

CATALOGUE OF THE EVIDENCE FOR THE COLOUR OF MILITARY TU ICS AND CLOAKS b developm nt of practi al history' roup 'in

g neral int r

incr ased

While Lhere is no doubt lhaL Lhe Romans had Lbe ciipabilit), of producing all these colours, lhe issue is whelher any or all \,'cre adopted b}' the arm}'. It should be remembered that it is impossible to specifically idelllify textile fragmellls as belonging to military nmics, including those from supposedly military sites. There is a tendency to forget that Lhere were many civilians presel1L in and al'Ound forts; and, perhaps more basically, that the Romans had as many uses for textiles Other Lhan for clothes as we do today. An anempt has been made here to address this imbalance and to presem without bias all the evidence that is currently available. By and large, readers are ultimately left lO dra\\' Lheir own conclusions as lO how this evidence is best interpreted; but a sumlllary is included in the forthcoming second part of this nudy, r-.kn·al-Arms 390.

The Emperor Marcus ,t,urellus (r.AD 1111-16O).s commander-lo· chIef, from. stlltl,le now In tn. B.ltlmonl Art a.llery. He hllS • pIIludamentl,lm f.stened on his left shoulder, draped around hIs blick, cllrrled f_lIrd IICntllS

the midriff 110<1 d.-ped ovar the left IIrm.

(I) Historical fresco, tomb on the Esquiline, Rome; Republic-cUt period This fnlgmem of a lomb fresco is probably among lhe olden surviving examples of Roman paillling, and provides us with the earliest clues for the colour of Roman military tunics. It appears 10 illustrate an e\'elll in c.326 BC during the Samnite wars. Arollnd lhe main celllral group of figures can be seen a number of warriors in short .....hite tunics and kilts. Becalu dates this fresco to the lst celllu'l' Be, bllt adds thal it appears to be a copy of a mllch earlier work. It may depict tlle historical event described but this is nOl certain. According to Livy (IX, 40, 2-3 & IX. 40, 9), one division of I,he Samnite army wore bleached white linen tunics. adopted because the)' had consecrated themseh'es and ,,,hite was the colour of the priesthood. Unfortumuely Livy neglected to leave liS a description of contemporary Roman anny tunics. An Etruscan fresco dating to tlle 4Lh century BC may provide a clue. The so-called 'Francois' tomb shows a legendary battle possibly between tlle ElfU.SCans and the Romans. or at least their Latin allies. A soldier in a bronze Illuscle cuirass and a red llmic is being killed by a naked opponent. As the defealed warrior is unlikely to be an Etruscan this could reasonably be seen as evidence for tlle colom' of RorD
(2) Historical fresco, tomb of the Statilii, Rome; Republican period This may also show Roman soldiers from the early Republic. The details of tlle costumes, such as the short. \\'hite kilts, are similar to the earlier Esquilille fresco, so lhis too may be a copy of a mllch earlier work. It is tllcrcfore possible that Lhis paillljng also represents another legendary battle between Romans and Samnites, but there is no general agreemem as to which historical evelll is depicted. (3) Silius ltalicus, IX, 420; late Republic The poel Silius ltalicus records thatlhe cloaks for lictOI'S were red while lhose used by senior commanders were eitller purple or while. (4) Africa" War, LVII, 54-6; late Republic Q.C'ledlius Scipio. commander orlhe Pompeian forces in Africa. al....'ays

",·ore a pUl'ple cloak. This apparently angered his African ally, thc NUlllidian king Juba L because lhis \\~,LS his own norma] aHire; ~ubscquelllly Scipio was obliged to dress in white. (5) Plutarch (c.ADSQ-120), LilH!$, Crassus, 23 On I.he eve of the Hileful baule of Carrhae (53 BC), Crassus mistakenly ",·ore a black cloak. Nol surprisingly this was imcrpreted as a b.,d omen, and Cmssus had 1.0 revert to wearing a purple cloak. Why he should choose to wear black instead of the general's colour ;s unexplained.

(6) Mosaic, Palestrina, Italy; date lmcertain The next lWO subjects, the I>alcslrina mosaic and the ~udgcment of Solomon' fresco, are perhaps the 1110st controversial as lOgetJlcr tJ1CY fonncd the cornerslOne of Fuentes' hypOlhesis on Roman lunic colours, in panicula.r for tJ10SC of tJ1C PmelOrian Guard and centllrions. The Palestrina mosaic (sec lhis page) shows an Egyplian landscape ";lh the Nile in flood and numerous exolic African animals. At the lower centre a grollp of soldiers are galhered around what is clearly a temple. Fucntcs refen-ed to the datc of this mosaic as ranging from anywhere bttwccn the lSI cell1ury BC and the 3rd Centllll' AD, but believed that the mosaic documented a \;s;t to Egypl by OClav;an (later the Emperor AugusfllS) aflcr the b.'mle of ACliulll in 31 BC. OCla\"ian's visit coincided \\;tl1 an abundanl flooding of the Nile which tJ1C mosaic seems 10 record. ~e\'ertJlelcss, other scholars are of the opinion tJlat the mosaic is in fact A copy of a much carlier work by an Alexandrian school, tJmt no longcr ~ur\'ives (this theory W'
From the Palestrina Mosaic, ttaty (Item 8; In the te...t CIItalogue) - • clOH-UP of the group of flgu,., frequently IdenUfled ., PnIelorl.n Gu.rd,men, ,tanding Delore .n Egyptl.n temple. A reddl'h tunic tied .t the b.ck of the neck Is vl,ible on the central figure. (Copyright Fnlltelll Alln'rll

Itam 7 In the taxt catalogue: pygmies dressed es military figure', from the late Republican '.Judgemant 01 Solomon' fresco, Pompeii. 'The armour and equipment reflect deslgna commonl)' used throughout the eastem MCtdltamanean world In the Hellenistic eta. The right-hand figure la dressed entirely In ted clothing, with a ted helmet crest.

Agrippa. According to Suelonius (AlIgtl.l"t1IJ". 25) AgJippa was in fuCI honoured by Octa"ian. who presented him witll a blue nag. The historian Appian (V, 100) records that in somewhat similar circumstances Sextus Pompey took to wearing a blue cloak because of his victories at sea. What appears to be tlle only other reference in Roman litCf""dturc to blue military tunics is when Lhe historian Vegetius (Epi/., IV, 37), writing in the 4th celllury AD, tells us thallhe sailors in the British neet dyed nOI only their tunics but also the sails of their • ships to match the colour of the sea. Onc of the figures in the Patesuina mosaic tllat has been obviously restored is the charactcr Fuentes idelllilied as Octavian. He appears to wear a grecn mouldcd linen or leather cuirass - possibly with attached groin Haps, pteruges - over a white chiton. While moulded lincn or leaLher cuirasses are not alwd)'S thought of as being Roman, these details do conespond to othcr Maccdonian tomb paintings from Egypt. Taking this imo consideration with the other evidcnce, including details of Lhe soldiers' dress (e.g. Creek-style bool~, unhades, rather Lhan Roman ca1igae, plus the Ebryptian setting), Me)'boorn concluded Lhat the figures on the mosaic in fuet represent members ohhe elite troops oftJle Ptolemaic anny, tJle Macedoncs. (7) 'The Judgcmcnt of Solomon', frcsco, Pompeii, Italy; latc Republican/early Imperial Fuente... argued lhal this court scene enacted by pygmies (see this page) echoed contemporary dress. Howe\'er. once more il is believed thaI this fresco is a copy of an earlier Alexandrian work and Lhat tJlerefore tJle eOlllemporary dress is Ptolemaic rather than Roman. Fuentes asserted thaI twO of the soldiers wear white lunics, although al first glancc lhe tunic of Lhe soldier about La cleave Lhe baby in half appears to be light blue; Sekunda in r.'lCl states thal this lunic is blue. Howevcr, Lhe fresco is badly damaged in places, including areas around this figure in particular. Whal appears as bluc may in fact be an attempt to render shading on a while ganuenl, a lechnique that is evident elsewhere on the fresco. The second soldier has a salmon-pink cloak. A tllird soldier wears a dark. red tunic and cloak, which Fuentes believed marked him Olll as an officer, most likely a centurion. Nevertheless, all three soldiers have similar rcd helmet crests, which would seem to weaken this tlleory. Vegetius, writing in the 4th century AD, records Lhat centurions wore

transverse silvered creslS to distinguish thcm in baLLle, but he does nm melllion them wealing a differelll tunic colour as well. The crest of the third soldier is certainly not transverse, nor does he show any of the usual attribUles associated with cellluriollS such as the vine stick or greaves. However, this soldier's armour and helmet are dilTerelll in colour from those of his companions, so Fuentes lllay be COITCCI in identifying this man as all officer. But of which army? (8) Tavern sign. Pompeii, Italy; late Republican/early Imperial TIlis wall painting (see this page) shows a soldier being offered wine by the landlord. Apparently off duty, he wears only a tUllic and cloak but appears to cany a spear which could well be a weighted fribllTL If so, this soldier would certainly be a legionary or a Pl'aetolian rather than a local policeman; he is in fact similar in ovcrall appeanll1Ce to the contemporary soldiers, probably PraetOlians, on the Ca.nccllelia relief in Rome. The soldier's cloak is clearly of the pae1l11la style and is a yellow-brown colour, apparently worn avera grer-green scarf. An alternative colour for the pOeJwlo may be suggested both by a tombstone \\;th some painted details surviving, found at Castleford in Yorkshil·e. and the remains of a cloak found with a bog body also discovered in Yorkshire in tJ1C 19th celltul]'. In bolh cases the cloak was green. although il must be stJ'essed that the identification of eitJler subject as a soldier is doubuul. A more positive suggeslion is supplied by one of the Vindolanda writing tablclS, which refers to a white /Jae11111a. In ,'iew of some of the later evidence from Dura Europos discussed below, this conceivably belonged to ule commanding officer of the cohort. (9) Wall painting, House of Valerius Rufus (or of the Trojan Shrine);

Region t, lns.6.4., Pompeii, Italy; late Republican/early Imperial In the upper registers of a painting are two figures. a male and a female.

The fonncr is almoured and wears a MOlllefortino-st)'le helmet with a red crest, a ,,,,hite linen cuirass and bronze greaves. He carries a large 0"0'31 shield and a spear in his left hand, and a
Pompeii, Italy; late Republican/early Imperial One more scene from Pompeii, which shows a

Details of frelIcos from Pompell (}tems 8 and 10 In the text catalogue). Lett, • soldlet" In a '.llow·bnI...... pHnllla ..loak with dar1o: l"IId·brown clavi and • grey-green scal11s drinking .t • tavem. Although the fTesc:o Is d.m~ It Is Just poult»e thlt trices of. while tunic .... Y1sltNe bene.th the hem of the cloak and st the soldler'1lllett s l _ . HellenIstic al11.ts tTequenUy did not paint In white .re.s, the, simply drew an outlIne on the unpainted plaster and I.tt It blink. The right-hand flgu... I' usually described .s a trlllellef", but his 'ppe8f1nc:e I, lIery military. He wears II ,eUowbrown s89Vm cloak over II whit. tunic.

co Domus Aurea Rome Italy; early d pic d in a [r 0 rom p 'ibl repr ents th

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A wax encaustic portrait from Egypt (Item 23 In the text catalogue), which may provide further evidence that the wearing of red cloaks was much more widespread than previously believed. The man wears a sword on his right side - the white, perhaps IVOry pommel with a bronze terminal Is Just visible; and this position Is usually an indication of the common soldier of the early Imperial period. The Antonlne hairstyle would appear to Indicate a date In the latter part of the 2nd century AD, a date which supports the beUef that his sword position is not that of a centurion. His tunic Is whl1e, with red clavI, and over his left shoulder he wears a red sagum cloak which partially obscures his sword belt wIth Its alternate bronze and sliver studs. (The Manchester Museum, The University of Manchester)

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(15) Textiles, Vindolanda, Britain; late Ist century AD OUlofa ampl ofnearl 10 l xliI [ragmen from ind landa, 50 weI' anal d fi r d and vid ne\ fi und n nl nin f Lh . Man lh th r le til w r [unpigm filed I and Lh re£ r 'uirabl fi r d in , bUl had b n t h aviJ r Lain d rr m burial l h VI an o-a e f d . Of Lh nin l til anal '" d. i hl w r d ed I' d' rn th r

Two more wax encaustic portraits from ElMlt dating between the reigns of ~an (AD 98-117) and Antonlnus Pius (AD 138-1611. Both men are Identffled 8$ soldiers and wear white tunics with dark blue cloaks on th.elr left shoulders. /AI seems to be a common soldier, since a sword pommel Is Just visible on his right side. In contrast, (8) has 8 sword belt crossing his right shoulde,., so at this date he could be a centurion. His tunic has black clavi; he also w ars a gilt wreathsee Plate G2.

appeared to have been a purple suipc. Thc red d)'c used was almoSl certninly madder, rubia /hlct()l'U/lt, which in the case of Britain would have had to be imponed. While a repon on the Vindolanda textiles concluded thaI the picture of Roman soldiers in red tunics may well be correct, we should remember thaI the textile fragmcnLS are extremely small and may not be exclusively from tunics at all. A recently translated document from Vindolanda actually refers to purple and red curtains... (16) New Testament Gospels, Matthew, 28, 28; 1st century AD It is perhaps of more than passing interest thaI the cloak the auxiliary soldiers of theJerusalem ganison used to mock Christ, as documented by Mauhew, was red. TIle reed stick and the crown of thoms immediately recall the vine .stick that centurions carried, and the crowns orJeaves that could be awarded to these officers. When the soldiers nagged Cluisl could they have been \~cariously getting their own back on someone else? The otller Gospels all refer to a purple doak. Under the circumstances a red cloak is far more likely to have been readily available, but il is ob\ious in what connotation the other Gospel writers regarded the significance of a pUl'ple cloak. (17) Martial, Epigrams, XIV, 129; 1st century AD 'When Manial described red canllsian cloaks he said that Rome wore brown, the Gauls red, but that this was a colour which bo)'s and soldiers also Iikcd, although it is not dear whether Martial meant all soldiers. (18) Pliny the Elder (AD 23/4-79), Natllral History, XX, 3; 1st century AD Pliny records that scarlet dye from the kennes was used for dyeing the paludimleTllwn, the distinctive officer's cloak. He mentions thaI the most commonly used red dye. madder, was grown near Rome; but that the most prestigious red dye was obtained from the kermes (kmllococC1lS venniliQ), a parasitic insect which infests the kennes oak throughout southem Europe. He wrongly believed thaI the dre came from the berries of the tree: it was in fact obtained from the female insects' egg sacks. While red cloaks are ill\'aliably thought of as belonging to generals e.g. Caesar (Gallic War, VII, 5) - even here we must exercise caution. When Sextus Pompeius (died c.36 Be) changed the colour of his cloak to blue as mentioncd above, Appian (died cAD 165) sa}'S lhat he changed it from the purple thal commandcrs usually wore 100). (h'e"tl!, howe\'cr. there seems to be some confusion in texts both ancient and modem as to the poi1ll. on the spectrum at which 'red' becomes purple.

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(19) Tombstone (elL xiii 6277), Mainz, Germany; 1st century AD A rare example of a tombstone that sUlvived with some of its original colouring mar possibly indicate that the practice of wearing red cloaks was marc widespread among ordinary soldiers. Although the paint did nOl sur...ive for long it was possible to delermine that either Silius, a ca...alry trooper in the Ala Picentiana, or his attendant (calo), had a red cloak. Meanwhile the remains of paint all another tombstone, that of Gnaeus Musius. the aquiliJer standard-bearer with Lcgio XliII Gemina Martia Victrlx, led the Gennan archaeologists who were creating a reconstruction of the monument to restore the tunic as white.

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(20) Pay receipt and textiles, Masada, Isrdcl; 1st century AD A recclllly excavated receipt sheds Iiglll on military lll11ics, and seems to con finn lh:u even ordinary soldiers owned more than one. The receipt belonged to C.~lessius, son of Gaius of the Fabian uibe, recnLitcd from Beirut. In spile of his local origin il is believed lh;l1 he sen'cd in Lc~rjo X Fn:lcnsis, possibly as a cavalryman, rmher limn in an auxiliary unit. Among the lisl of compulsory deductions from his pa}' were 7 clellani for a linen lllllie, and an unspecified alllount for a while tllnic. Cotton and Geiger suggested that as linen would have been an expensive item to purchase. this garment \,'ould !l,lve been kept for special occasions. However, I'>'C could expecl that in E..-.stcm climates soldiers may have preferred linen to ,,'oollen garments. For inst;mce, during t.he Persian wars of the 4th century. Ammianus Marcellinus (XIX, 8.8) describes how he and a companion tore up their linen clothes to make: a line so that they could lower a cdp into a welt to obtain water. A lIulllber of linen and wool fragments were also uncovered during the excavations al A'!asada: these llluSt, however, be treated "ith great caUlion as possible e\idence for Roman ann)' tunics. Man}' of the textiles would undoubtedly have belonged to lheJe\\;sh defenders and civilians Part of a tombatone from VIenna, present at the siege. and some of lhe fragmenu; were dearly not from ",,-tria, eommemorating Tltu' clothing at all. Nearly all of tJle linen textiles were left undyed but it was R.¥Iu, Drac:eus. He we• • -..lrymen, ..rvln, with Ala I 110t dear how white they would have been originally. It is t.herefore fairly FWrle Domltla'" Britannlea safe to suggest that the linen Ilmic mentioned in the Masada pay receipt "'l~ri. Clvfum Aomeoorum was white. A tme while had probably only been achieved by one textile • thousand·strong British fragment, which had been made from lamb's wool. ..,.Iment, Mnoured lor outBy wa}' of contrast, more than half of the 105 wool textiles that were stM1dlng ..rvlc:. during the German Of' Daelsn eampalgn, 01 analysed had been dyed. Of these 14 were red. which ranged in shade the Emperor Domlt~n (AD 81-H1 from a salmon-pink to dark maroon, whilc six other examples were with • bloc:k IInlnt 01 Roman eiulci' plajn blue or blue-green. ContraSting colour bands in dark blue, dtkenshlp. n.. tombatone h.d purple or mauve were observed on several fmgmenLS. It \l'"dS noted that tnc:e, of origInal blue c:olouring most of the coloured textiles would originally have been wom by still survlvlnll on Drac:cus' upper pnnent. women. and this is supponcd by Jewish literaLUre and the Egyptian funerary ponraits from U1C Roman period, where men's lunics are .-nc:r:Z;:.:"!;1;l'!'''''~ almost wilholll exception white. Ilowe\'cr, one textile frdgmclll. consistlllg of tWO tluck sel\'edges which had been sewn tOgelilCr and dyed red. \..~.:tS believed to come from a man's tunic, and with reference to Fuentes' anic1e il ......AS thought possibly a mililal)' onc. But at least one Egyptian funeral poru-ait depicts a woman in il scarlet-red tunic. so once more lhis evidence is inconclusive. In addition, while Jewish law forbade men from \\'caring coloured lunics there is evidence that, like the Romans, Jewish people did not always follow the rules. The Babylonian Talmud refers to a Jewish man who wore a Ilew Roman red tunic while wiulin a pcriod of mourning. "~J.~" We owe .nllld~ of our kno\\:ledg~ Ol~ tJle Roman '<:.~~: .~. :.~i§fft:..~~' anny ll"?~n thiS I~nod to the JewIsh hlstonan Josephus. ':'~'7t'~~"~~~~.;f" who paruclpated Ill. t.he wal~ was captul'ed, and later '~~~=~;;>~J'J"";'~~:4.t!~~"" collabomted with U1C Romans. In desclibing Ule full of Jerusalem he relates how one of lhe main Je\\ish leadcl"S. Simon

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Bar Cioras, tlied to tunnel out of the cit)' with somc of his followcrs, but was unable to get past the Roman lines. It appears that Simon tried unsuccessfully-to bluff his way pa.'it Roman guards by disguising himself as eit.her a Rornan soldier or an onicer. for he wore a number of white tllnic.'i and a reddish purple cloak (8j, 7.26-36). Interestingly.lhe combination ofa ,I'hite tunic ,\;th a red or purple cloak will appearscvcral times later. (2l) Papyri, Egyptj 2nd century AD Among tJ1C huge collection of ancient documents discovered in Egypt in a remarkable state of preservation are at least two pap)'Ii which refer to the delivery of clothing to provillcial armies. Together thcy suppOrt the belief that local communities supplied tJle army: nevertheless. it is interesting to note that villages in Egypt were supplying troops as far awa) as .Iudaea and C'\ppadocia (now part of modern Turkey), There is, howe-ver, other evidence that the sending or collecting of military supplies over great distances was not llnusual. A strength report of c.AD JO,iJ relating to COhOIOS I Vcterana Hispanorum Equilata, found in Eb')'pt but probably dating 10 a period when the unit was based in Macedonia, acruall)' records tJU\I soldiers had been SClll allLhe way LO Gaul (France) to obt.'\in clothing. Fuentes found it surplising that one of these Eg)'Ptian documents recording the delivery of 19 tunics for the 'guards and soldiers' scning in Judaea also referred to fi\'e white cloaks. 111is seemed to contradict the otJler pictorial evidence, which largely suggested that military cloaks in genernl should be )'ellow-brown. Howevcr, the papyT1ls documelll BCD 1564 also refers to four white cloaks, providing the addit.ional term ·Syrian'. To Ihese can now be added the white cloak from the Vindolanda document, and IWO while cloaks on the Fresco from Dura Emopos (to be discllssed in the forthcoming second \'olume of this study); while anmher papynLs from a slightl)' later daLe in fact mentions lhe 'comrollers of lunics and white cloaks'. There is anothl'r point of interest. bearing in mind that Roman milit'H)' documents arc quite minute in their demil. Thesl' docllments relate to the suppl), of clothing firsuy to the soldiers in Judaea, and secondly to Lhe armies in Cappadocia. It is kI101\'I1 that botJl provincial garrisons at this period comprised both lcgionall' and auxiliary troops. So il is surprising that the documents do nOI specif}' whether the clothing iii for legionaries or auxiliaries. It is debatable. IhereFore. whether an)' attempt was made to differentiate between citizen and noncitizen soldiers b)' tllC wearing of dineremly coloured llmics. Although Tacitus (/-list., I, 38: III, 47) refelOS on a number of occasions to distinctive weapons ;uld equipment used by auxiliaries, in contrast he also alludes lO a policy of Romanising the allied armies by gi\'ing them Roman armour and Slllndards. If both types of soldier ret:ei\'ed their clothing

a>POSITE Detail of the mld·2nd c.rtury Bridgeness dlstsnce sl.b ....... the Antonln. W.II In ~tland litem 25 In the t.1tt cNlog....l. The scene shows • .-tary IJIICrifice carried out by of leglo II Augutltlll, lilt

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_lcat.d by the lIeJI1//um flag In ... bltCkground. Behind the -.tnI1 figure, dressed In • . . . - possibly the legion" _mander Cl.udlus Ch.rall_ four other ...ldl..... On the

IMt 1$ • m.n .P98rently we.ring a -.gum cloak; the ..cond from . . right w...... a paenula. Red ,.,mt w.s discovered on the lIocly of the figure at the elttreme dght, who Is al... possibly _ring a p.enula. Apart fTom paenula .nd sagum, 411ther lerms such •• abolle end -.:ema .,.. u.ed In ancient _.relure, bYt th••e may simply hrte been e.t.m.tI...e n.m.s for . . . Arne cloaks rath.r then _pletely different d.slgns. a.••lc.1 write.... "".re fer more CDnCemed with style th.n with ....utla. of physical desc:riptlon, ..a trained to .'lOkI rwpeatlng the ..m. words.

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from the same supply sources one could conclude that it was likely that bOlh wore the same colour tunics. On the other hand, Fucntes suggested thallocally recruited auxiliaries could have \\'0111 lheil' own u-aditiomlily coloul'ed regional clothing. For instance, in thc earl)' 1st cenlUI1' lhe Creek histOlian Su-abo (GfoIK., 3. 3. 7) described hO\\' the men in a number of Spanish lribeS dressed in black, which may have been reneclcd in the colour of the tunics of lhe tribesmen rccnliled illlO the A'Itlllian infanu1' and cavah1' units raised from lhese regions. Almost cenainl)', before the reJorms of Augustus which established the attxi!ill on a professional footing, new recruits would have provided lheir own clolhing, a practice which mayor Ill:!}' nO! have conlinucd for some Lime aflcrwards. If there was a designatcd colour differcnce between dLil.cn and non-citizen soldiers it is not known how this applied to those dlizens who are known LO havc fonned some units of the auxllill. or if Lhe cohorts of citi7CIIS were distingui~hed in an}' war The best cvidence for the colour or auxiliary tunics are lhc rrescoes from Dura Europos, Luxor and C,stcllum Dimidi (to be discussed in lhe forthcoming second pan of !.his study). Frustratingl)'. lhese all dal,e from after lhl: Constillltio AnLoniniana b)' which the Emperor Car::.calla (AD 211-217) granted Roman citizenship to all free·born inhabitants of the empire. wiping Oul at a sLroke the u'::'lditional differences between citil.en legionaries and non-citizcn auxiliaries. (22) Terlullian (born c.AD 160/AD 170). De CQrolla Militi.s, 1.3. Tertullian describes a soldier being accused of being a Chrislian because he rerl.l5eS lO wear a military crown. Before uial call commence the accused is slripped of his milit;u1' insignia including his cloak, sword and sandals, until he is lefl clad 'on1)' in rcd'. Of furthcr interest is Termllian's descripliol1 of the milito\'e letter it would not be surprising if some or lhe slIl"viving ponrnil'i represented lllililary Illen; in lact at lea.,>t six paintings ha\'c no\\' been identified as soldiers, and not as members of .he PtOlemaic dynasty as previollsly believed. This identifi· calion resl'i chieny on the studded red leather s.....ord baldrics that lhese Chronolo~,'ically

figures wear. A comparison with tombstones from the early Prindpate ...."Quld sU'ongly suggest thaI those figures with sword belts crossing from their light shoulder to their left side would be centurions, who al this time wore their swords on the left. Most of these men, whether their belts cross to the ten or the lighl side, wear white tunics and blue cloaks; if some of them are centurions then the}' are nOl distinguished in any ob\ious way. One (see page 22) wears a red cloak. Although the Fa)'um portraits genera.lly depict ant)' lhc subjcct's head and shoulders another ponrait. from Dcir-eJ..Mcdinah neou' Luxor and dating to the l1lid-~rd cenlury AD. shows the soldier dO\\11 to his waist and reveals much of his ,sv.'ord. Like the men in the otht'r portf
OTHER CLOTHING

On Trajan's Column all the legionary soldiers have their scarves tucked beneath their armour; but the aweJlla. both foot and horse. wear the rs outside the armour. tied at the front - as Illustrated by this dramatic example, an auxiliary with his hands full While taking trophy heads from Daclan dead. There seems no practical reason for this convention, which Is repeated on the Column of arcus Aurelius; pam ps the only explanation Is that this was one of the artists' conv ntlonal ways of dlstlnguishlng the noncitizen auxiliaries from the citizen legionaries.

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The tombstone of Apinosus, " wortlman from Nievre in France, shows" rare Instance of a scarf worn olltslde the other clothing. This particular example is a long strip of material - est mated at about 1.70m - with fringed ends. It Is very similar to two scarves found in an Iron Age burial from Denmartl; and, of course, to countless scarves worn today.

BELOW Barbarian auxiliary from Tl"aJan's Column, wearing baggy trousers; there appears to be a fabric belt around his waist, but It could also be the top of the trousers rolled down. Finds of similar trousers from Germanic sites have added belt-loops around the waist.

Children" soc:b fTom elUler end of the Roman EmpIre: top, from Egypt, end ebove, from Vlndolanda, England, They llluatrate the varying quality In 'loman tertllea aa welt .a two dlfferenl soc:k dealgna. TtMo ElWPtlan verslOf'! would be worn with open, Hndal.type boola .nd h.a. se~rately knitted big toe 10 allow e boot strap to pa.. between the toea. The Vlndolanda eumple la cNde by com~ria.on, end Is made from an upper and Hie roughly tacked tog.eth.... thl. ty~ could be wom wtth the enclosed type of boola. (The Manchealar Ml/Mum, The Unlventlty of ManchHter, and Vlndolanda Museum)

A ca~u. - en enclo.ed boot of the type used by orncera - found at the IHlatecl deMlrt fOI1 al Our, lbrim, Egypt. (Copyright The Britlah MUlle1Jm)

in Pompeii shows two fares wearing purple-coloured sashes over I.heir white tunics, A similar colour scheme could be envisaged Ivorn by ofTdUly military men. Experiments by Peter de Haas with a reconstnlcted \\'aistband used a piece of material 350cm long x 30cm widc. A llumber of obscwduons were made when the waistband was I\'orn with replica armour. II. was found that the I"'listband supported the back, making il easier 10 endure the \\'eight of the armour, A waistband would also have prc\'ellled any rough edges from the rivets on the back of the bells from ripping !..he tunic; and would certainly cover an)' LUCks around the ''''list if thcy wcrc deemed unsighuy. If ule last turn of ule waistband \....."'s doubled a pOLich abOLlt IScm deep \\~dS created, providing a useful poekCL On military tombstones a rectangular object often appears to be tLicked illlo U1C waistband. and in Ult~ case of me aI/xi/ill ulis has been referred to as uleir discharge diplomas. However. a." le{,riomuics c."lrry them 100, alternative suggestions are thattJ1CY are wriling tablets or Icaliler purses, If Roman soldiers did indeed adopl the practice of wearing waistbands, Ihen two other sculptures may suggest where they oligimued. An El.ruscan I""'rrior on an urn from Volterra has a band of material wound around his waist instead of:t belt: and the sculplllre of a Celt now in Avignon r.,'IUSCUIll, France, also reveals a similar band of materia!' but in Illis case JUSt visible beneath his sword belt. In bolll instances ule warriors wear theil' sashes over a mail shirt. perhaps adding a splash of colour to an armour iliat was othen\'ise quite dull. Military boots In spite of being perhaps Ule bcst-knOl\'n item of mililary c!ouling. there is pr-dcucally no evidence - archaeological, sculptural or oLherwise - for Republic'lIl military footweal', lnvariabl)' sculptures from ulis period depict Roman soldiers barefoot, bm it is generally accepted among modern scholars that Ille details of footwear \\'ould originally ha\'e been added in paint which ha" long since WOn1 ofT. One notable exccpuon is a tombstOne from Padua in haly representing Minucius, a centlll'ion, which appears to show an enclosed boot probably of the type known in the ltupeJial period as a cakeus. The Cflkew c:.lme in three variants which reflected ule status of the .....earereither patrician, senalorial or equestrian. nlerefore in the anny uley would only ever be WOI11 by senior oOkers, including IllC emperor if he led his troops in Ihe field. There are references in Roman literature to the booLS of SenalOl1i being either scarlel or black, which coLild be interpreted as meaning they were made of leather dyed scarlet tied up with black thonged laces. ealai were almost certainly made with soft leallter uppers thai do not survive very well, I\'hile sculptures also sholv Illcm as having a clearly defined scparalc sole. Conscquenu)'

0' •

n,. sole blIdl)' worn hobn.lIed mlllt.ry boot 'rom Vlndol.nd•• England, pemaps evidence of the .pparent dlnleulty 01 .upj)l)'lng thl. partleular fort .Ituated In u.. eefll,. of the northem frontier zone. While providIng a firm grip on grass the nail. on the IOle. CO<.lld produc:e fatal reautt. on .n eKe_lvel)' smooth .urtaee: JOMphu. re<:onI. the death 01 • c:enturlon during the .I_Ish w..... who slipped and feU while leading a eharge aero.. the .tone-fl8!iJ'!iIed floor of the Antonia fortress In Jerusalem lBJ. e.1.8}. Modem I1Hlnacto... ....::ount.....Imllar problem. with recan.trueted boola on many of today" smooth road and pedestrian .urf.ee•• (Vlndoland. Mu.eum)

a number of sewn bootsolcs round on military sites of the 1st cenUlt)' AD have been idclllificd as the remains of (alui. Due to lilck or evidence it is impossible to S<"1Y when the 'dassic' military bOOLS. caliga~, first appeal'ed, but they were certainl)' in cOlllmon lISC b)' the German campaigns of Augustus and his successor Tiberius. The stOry or Gaius. the future emperor. is well known but illulllr::lleS how closely mlig(U'were associated with lhe military attbis date, As a small boy Gaius accompanied his flit her Germanicus, the adoplcd son ofTibcrius, on campaign in Germany; the child commonly \\'ore miniature versions of the soldier's boOLS, and was given the nickname 'Little Boots' by which he is inr."1ll1ously known to posterity - Caligula. This as.'iociation is further supported by an episode in 'The Sat}'ricon' by Petronius. His hem Encolpills tries to pass himself ofT as a soldier when he is sl.Opped in the street by a soldier for wearing a sword; the real soldier immediately sees through Encolpius' deception because of the whit.e slippers he is weating. Despite their appearance caligtlf are in fact boots r.uher than S<"\l\dals. Gillfgo!' were made from cow or ox leat.her prepared by a vegetable tanning process which took at least two years to complete, E.."\ch boot consisted of three layers: an insole. an outer sole. and an upper, which with its distinctive latticework Clil-ollts gave the boots their familiar sandal-like look, The layers of the sole were clenched togelher by iron nails which, "'hen hammered illlo a boot placed on an anvil or last, recur...ed illlO tile leather. It has been noted that the sound ofthouS3nds of men in nailed boots marching in step on metalled roolds would have pro\'ided an audible reminder of tile power of Rome. Juvenal warns pedestrians about encoLlntering a soldier in the street and gelling their toes trodden on by his hob-nailed boots; and advises abrainst provoking soldiers, who might kick tlleir shins in retaliation (Sat. iii. 232 & xvi, 25), The open latticework upper provided cxcel1em ventilation, reducing the possibility of sweaty leel and blisters. as \\'cl1 as being frce-dr,tining, In addition the flexible straps could be at\.justed to adapt to tile wearer's 1'001. PrnctiC.dl experiments with reconSlructions silo\\' that abrasions to the feet are minimal because of the absence of pressure 011 tOejoil1ts, the ankle and big toe, but socks could also be worn for additional comfort or in cold wealher, The caligrlf' were laced together with thongs tied through Ihe openwork SUotp ends: indeed, the tidge efTecl causcd by t.his method is often the onl}' fealure of the bCI... ~sion of a unit shoemaker, Except in extreme cases there is liltle evidence to suggest that boots were constantly repaired, which implies lhat it was quickel' and easier to replace them enlirel)' than to attempt repail'S. A dOCUlUctll from Egypt records how a soldier was issued with three pairs of boots per year. which gives a rough lifespan for (oligot: that modern cxperimenu with reconstructed cX
Enclosed marching boot from Vindolanda, England. These were among the early successors to the classic caligae. (Vlndolanda Museum)

Late 1st century AD nailing patterns from Vindolanda, after C.van Drlel·Murray. Nalls were not hammered into the sole In a random manner, but In regular patterns which demonstrate that the Romans understood the principles of the distribution of weight on the foot during marching. Weight is placed first on the heel and then transferred forwards diagonally towards the big toe. Accordingly, the placement of the nails generally follows a 'D'-shaped pattern. Modem scholars have noted that the Romans anticipated the principles of computer-designed sport shoes almost 2,000 years earlier.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

Detail of a relief In Rome showing a sacrificial scene from the time of Marcus Aurelius. The attendant Is dressed eJl8ctly as similar mill1ary attendants are shown on Trajan's Column.

BIBLIOGRAPHY monuc i,

., L'Eserrito di' Cesare 54-44 a.c., (Milan, 1996) B alti, ., Tlw A.rt of nrimt 'reere and Rome (L ndon, 196 ) Bi 'h p, M. '., Thl' Devl'lopmpnt oj Roman Alilitar)'

eqnipment in tilt> Fint Rlltwy AD and its reLellanrl! to tlU' rm and, oriety, ( h meld 19 1) Bishop, oulsLOQ, j. . ., Roman lilitary Equipment, (London 19.3) ou n, .L., .eig r, j., lHasada fl: Filial Report, The Latin and rl'ek Documl'ntJ~ U r aI 111 19 9) iadi, , The My tmous Fa wn P01traif : Fare from Rorrut1l l~'gypt, (L nd n, 199 ) Fink, R. " RfJlnnn l'vlililaT)l Records on Pap),rus, (Cas We t rn Re rv niv rsi ,1971) Fu me', ,,'Th Roman LiliLa, Tuni' in Daw n ( d.), Roman Military Equipment: Thl'

rroutml/Pllt

oj W(I/; Proc/' ding. oj lhe Third 1ilitary EquijJmPIII Re earrh ,eminnr Brili..\h rrhaeological RRport, 1m r 336, 1 7 x.ti rd) \Ie b om, P. .P., The ile Mo.wir oj Pale tlina, ( work. 1 95) be ta j., c B nfant , L. (ds.) Thf' World oj Roman 'ostwlle ( i n in, 19 4 kunda ., he Ptolemaic .tinny, ( Lo kp n, 19 5) haw, ,,'R man 1 a' " Exerritl , 1 4 and 5 J9 2 ( lou e l r) heffi r, ran r-Ta 'lor, H., 1asada I : Fi1wl Report, The Textiftt-s, (Jem alem, 1 4) tunnel' "Roman nn)': War: oj the Empire, (L ndon, 1 7) Wild, J.p., ' h B 19i a and p.362-423, 19

alIi RW Teil II,

Principal ancient ources (avaiJabJ as ither Lo b Classical Library or Penguin tran lations): .-\.ppian, ivil War.. The A Illfl tan Hi tone. criptor Hi I ri ugusla - I ); a al~ The Civil 1 aI' and Til.!' Gallic War: Dio Hi 101)1; Fr n linu., • trategem '; Horae, atiT:; Hdoru , Origin .. J llvenal The Sixteen ali res; Li • The Hist(1)l of Roml!' Martial Epigrams; vid Ar .-\matoria; Peu' niu, at'rieon: PIau l l . Mile G/ol'io 'us; Plio til Eld r, atural Hi to ': Plutarch, Live.; u t niu Li e oj the TweltlP .fIe (IT:; a illl, , nna!.s ;md IE torie " arr, On tgricultltTl', nd Leain Language; tius, c-)itome of MilUm cience: irgil, The ellcid.

Tombstone of a cavalryman, M.Aemllius Durlses from Cologne, Gennany, The deceased Is shown as if at his funerary banquet dressed In civilian clothing, along with his servant.

L

J

.. A

,.

Examples of recycled clothing - not to scale. (A) Both sides of a tunic made up from an old cloak, found at Mons Claudlanus, Egypt (after Mannering). (BI Textile fragment with a 'gamma' pattern found at Vlndolenda, England (after Wildl; the gamma was a darf(er colour, probably purple, and was almost certainly from a cloak. Like the eumple from Egypt, this fragment appears to have come from a garment made up from re-used cloth.

THE PATES A: THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC A 1: Gaius Julius Caesar, c.57 BC Almost everything Caesar did was calcuLated to get himself noticed, and this naturally extended to his taste In dress. Apart from his famous red cloak there is little mention of distinctive military equipment; but Suetonius tells us that on at least one occasion during the Gallic war, Caesar dressed as a Gaul to pass through enemy territory (Suet.. LVIII). In the battle against the Nervii (57 BC) Caesar grabbed a legionary shield and fought in the front rank to encourage his men. Here the shield is based on an example shown on stone reliefs from Nart:Jonne. France, probably from a monument commemorating the conquest of Gaul. It Is decorated with gold- and silver-plated fittings as described by Suetonius (Suet., LXVII). Caesar's muscle cuirass is also based on the Narbonne reliefs. Although it is decorated with a lozenge or rhomboid motif it is rather plain by comparison with other statues showing armoured figures, and the reliefs may therefore accurately record Caesar's battle armour. A2: Marcus Llcinius Crass us, c.53 BC Although Crassus earned a reputation for amassing a vast fortune by highly unscrupulous methods, his career was not without military success, his most notable exploit being the defeat of Spartacus in 71 BC. It was h s desire to emulate the achievements of Caesar and Pompey the Great that led to his death at Carrhae dUring a disastrous campaign against the Parthians. Crassus Is depicted here as described by Plutarch, 'replacing his black cloak with a purple one' (Plu., XXIII). His portrait is copied from a bust in the Louvre, Paris, but amended to match Cicero's description of Crassus as the 'bald heir of the Nannei'. A3: Sextus Pompeius (died c.36 BC) Although represented by Augustan propaganda as little more than a pirate, Pompeius was In fact one of Rome's few successful admirals. He established an ndependent power base in Sicily, and remained a thom in the side of the second Triumvirate until his defeat in 36 BC. As a result of

Remains of lhe slatue of a soldier from Cassaco, northern Italy, apparently wearing a sash-like waistband beneath his weapons belts - cf Plate C3. A writing tablet from Vi.ndolanda refers to soldiers repairing clothing. Including a waistband. ventra/em. to be repaired and restltched. The rectangular object (centre) Is probably a purse tucked Into the waist band. It Is not evident whether this soldier Is a legIonary or an aultlllary.

his tong run of victories at sea Pompelus styled himself 'Son of Neptune' and wore a blue cloak, according to both Appian and Dio Cassius (XLVIII. 48). It was unusual for Romans of this period to wear beards but Pompeius clearly wears one on his coins, perhaps in mourning for his father Pompey the Great. All three men were both patricians and senators and thus entitled to a paludamentum cloak and a tunic with broad purple stripes - the tunica laticlavia. All three wear the distinctive calcel boots worn by Rome's elite; various versions of these are Indicated in Roman literature and art. Caesar wore red-coloured boots (Dio Cassius, XLIII), while others could be tied with black thongs or decorated with silver crescents (JuvenaJ VII, 192).

B: GUARDIANS OF THE NORTH B1: Legionary, Germany. AD 14 At the beginning of the reign of nberius the armies on the Rhine and Danube frontiers mutinied over service conditions. The physical appearance of this Legionary matohes the account by Tacitus, while his armour and equipment are based as closely as possible on the latest discoveries from Kalkrlese, acknowledged as one of the sites of the running battle known as the 'Varus disaster' in AD 9. He Is wearing a red military tunic and has replaced the standard issue boots With a type called carbatinae. which are frequently found on milrtary sites in Britain and Germany, but are not normally considered military boots. He has adopted a native fashion - around his legs are wool wrappings. which sculptural evidence from this period would suggest was certainly not an official practice. The shield, based on the Arch of Orange, France, shows a design associated with Tombstone of a soldIer - possibly attached to the governor's staff - found at camomile Street, London. He wears a simple tunic beneath a psenula cloak; the latter appears to have two different styles of fastener, classed as the 'button and loop' type. See Plate 83. (Courtesy of the Museum of London).

Leglo II Augusta, wllo were Involved In the mutinies and .....ere later based in Britain. 82: Auxiliary, Germany, AD 20-50 Reconstruction of a dress unifOlTTl for an auxiliary Infantryman based on Rhineland tombstones, in particular that of Annaius Daverzus from Cohors Ill! Delmatarum (see page 3). WlthotJt evidence from the inscriptions on these tombstones there is often 00 obvious way of telling whether the soldier Is a legionary or an auxiliary - in fact the auxiliary tombstones are sometimes more elaborate than their legionary counterparts. As neither tunics nor cloaks had pockets, valuables could be tucked into the waistband, and many tombstones appear to shoW a purse protruding from its folds. B3: Benefic;arius, Britain, AD 70 This figure )s based on the tombstone found at Camomile Street, London, which almost certainly represents one of the provincial governor's staff. The soldier was possibly a beneficiarius, a man selected to carry out wide-ranging specialist administrative duties, Indicated by the wax-coated Wliting tablets wIlich he carries. These duties included inteUlgence, internal security and supervision of taxcollecting. Both legionaries and auxiliaries IleId this rank. and again there Is no known distinction, perhaps other than quality of equipment. Benefic/arii were Identified by a special lancehead: this example Is from Germany - later vernlons became very elaborate. He wears a whlle (unbleached) paenuia, as described In a document from Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall, alld enclosed boots with socks based on finds from the same site.

c:

OUTPOSTS OF EMPIRE C1: Auxiliary, Caesarea, Algeria, AD 40 Unlike the tombstones of similar date from the Rhineland,

those from modern-day Algeria reveal a simple style of tunic and cloak. Black clavi are seen In several North African sources but their use at this pefiod is conjectural. Uke many cosmopolitan centres In the empire Caesarea had a volatile population and riots were common. This tigure Is probably in walking-out-dress, and a cudgel known as a tusUs was a necessary addition. They were used in crowd oontrol- and to beat to death soldiers who fell asleep on sentry duty, a punishment known as fustuafium. C2: Auxiliary, Judaea c.AD 30 This soldier is dressed in local garb, which follows Greek fashions, while carrying out surveillance duties. A truncheon Is concealed beneath his cloak (known In the Greek-speaking East as a h/malion): although not visible from this angle, the corners woold probably be decorated with 'gamma',shaped designs in contrasting coloor - see Plate H3. Jewish sandals appear to have been worn without characteristic Roman hobnails (Shabbat 6.2). One modern ekplanation tor this was that nailed boots enabled Jews to hear when Roman soldiers were approaching... C3: Auxiliary centurion, Judaea, c.AD 30 This centunon is dressed in a tunic, paludamentum and waistband. He holds a vitls vine stick, the centurion's notorious badge of rank; It is held in a manner quite different from the way ordinary soldlern hold the fustis. According to the Gospels, one 01 the auxiliary units stationed in Judaea was an 'lIaJian' cohort: details of costume and equipmeot are therefore based on finds from Italy, including the waistband from the Gassaco sculpture. However, the sword scabbard is from Pula, Croatia. The Roman soldiers at the crucifixk>n of Christ divided his clothes amongst themselves by casting lots (Matthew, 28, 35-36): if nothing else, this tells us that they had a use for civilian garments.

LEFT Marching soldlar from the AdamkU..l monument, Romania, earty 2nd century ADsee Plat. D1. Unllk. his cOl"It.mporarl.s depicted on Trajan's Column In Rome he wears no a""our and doee not carry a marching pack; thie may therelore Indlc:at. eom. to"" of parade or drill dress. Also unlike hie lellow leglonariee on the Column, he Ie shown wearing calt·length breeches.

ABOVE Two una""ourvd $Oldl.... from TraJan's Column - . sllnger and a stone-thrower. Both men use their cloakS to carry missiles, and wear similar tunica 10 the leglOl"larles shown on tha Column - cf Plata E3.

D: EXPANDING THE EMPIRE 01: Legionary, Dacian Wars, late 1st century AD Based on the Adamklissl monument in Romania, this marching legionary wears no armour and has no marching pack - unlike his contemporaries depleted on Tra]an's Column; this could represent a light marching order or even drill dress. Another difference from TraJan's Column IS the use of wool bracae, breeches worn to iust below the knee. This manner of carrying the pl/um, like the modern 'Slope arms' position, IS seen on both the Adamklissi monument and the Cancelleria relief in Rome. 02 & D3: legionaries, fatigue dress, Dacian wars Both men wear the light 'working order' as depicted on Trajan's Column. The rear view D2 shows the tunic gathered and tied into a knot at the back of the neck. Both men carry the standard army pickaxe or do/abra. Trajan's Column still shows all soldiers weanng caligae. Figure 03 Is a German recruited into Imperial service. As well as the basic Roman tunic, wom untied and off the right shoulder to allow free movement of the arm, he has retained Items of native ongln ncluding the knee-length bracae and leggings; the design of the latter is based on finds from Denmark. but in thiS case they have been made from re-cycled tunic cloth.

E: EXPANDING THE EMPIRE E1, 2 & 3: Auxiliaries, 1st-2nd centuries AD These are based on the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. E2 Is a barbarian club-man, probably of German origin, carrying a simple shield made from planks of wood glued together (later even Roman shields would be made In this way). He wears baggy wool trousers Similar to those found at Thorsberg, Germany. The short half IS not necessarily indicative of service in the Roman army; Tacitus informs us that it was a custom amongst some Germans to shave off their beards and cut their hair after they had slain an enemy (Germania. 31). E1 is a Irregular archer with a long-sleeVed tunic, trousers and wool cap; leg bindings - like 19th/20th century puttees - were common in the later Roman penod,

but the existence of bandage-like material at the 1st century British site of Vindolanda suggests that they were used even earlier. E3 Is a stone-thrower. perhaps from northern Greece, as troops of this type known as PSI/Ol had fought in ancIent Greek armies. He uses a 'bagged' fold of his cloak to hold a supply of ammunition. F: THE POWER BEHIND THE THRONE 1, 2 & 3: Praetorian Guards, 1st-2nd centuries AD We can only guess at how the personal whims of profligate rulers like Nero (AD 54-68) or Elagabalus (AD 218-222) were reflected in the dress and equipment of the Imperial guards. Figure F1 may offer a clue, but the evidence is slight and Is based on a single wall painting in the Golden House of Nero. He wears a slivered and gilded bronze 'Iorica segmentata' of Corbridge type. but with bronze edging. Together with the Etrusco-Corinthian style of helmet, it gives an overall Hellenistic effect which would be In keeping With the tastes of many emperors. inclUding Hadrian. Around his body is draped a red paludamentum. Figure F2 is taken from a tavern sign In Pompeii dating before the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. The cloak Is the common yellow-brown colour but with dark reddish-brown clavi. The shield is of traditional design and Is based on the near-contemporary Cancellaria relief in Rome; a figure on this relief is dressed in similar fashion to the Pompeii figure, but his cloak is shorter. The men in both sources hold weighted pi/a. Figure F3 is a soldier from the Hadrianic relief now in Chatsworth House, England. He wears a loose-frtting tun c over an under-tunic, gathered and tied behmd the neck. A studded strap crosses the body from left shoulder to rfght side at a high angle; it resembles some seen in the later encaustic funerary portraits from Egypt.

G: POLICING THE GREEK EAST G1: Marine, Athens, mid·2nd century AD This reconstruction is based on a well preserved tombstone

LEFT Detail of a fresco from the Golden House, Rome, dating from the time of Nero (AD 5~8). The figure Is annoured and equipped In Greek style but seems to wear a Roman '/ories segmentata'. perhaps Indicating that the figure was modelled on a Roman soldier or even a Praetorian Guardsman. His tunic and helmet crest are green, and the cloak - wom like a pBludamentum -Is red. See Plate F1. RIGHT This soldier, probably a Praetorian, is one of a similar group from a relief dating to the reign of Hadrian lAD 117-138) now In Chatsworth House, England - see Plate F3. He wears a loose-fitting tunic tied behind the neck In a knot, with the edge of an under-tunic visible at the hem. In this group severel men have a narrow strap over the left shoulder and under the right ann; It Is clearly not a sword baldric, and it has been suggested that Its purpose was to keep the voluminous folds of the tunic out of the way of the sword hilt.

found In Greece. Note that the sagum has a small tassel on

the botlom corner. On the monument the sword appears to be fastened to a fabric belt similar to those noonally seen muscle-cuirassed statues. The use of red lor both doak and tunic Is atlested by the tombstone 01 another IfUlIine, sablnianus. found In Crete. The lantern is based on irChaeological finds from Pompeii, and is also seen on ships depicted on Trajan's Column. G2: Centurion, Alexandria, c,AO 150 thIS figure is largely based on an encaustic portrait found In Egypt. He has a white tunic with black clavi, and wears a blue paJudamenrum brooched on the left shoulder, On his head Is a gold-plated tin wreath based on an example lound In Egypt: a number of portraits show both Civilians and military men wearing these crowns, which may therelore indicate prowess on the athletics track rather than the battlefield. G3: Diogmitol, Ephesos, 2nd century This policeman is taken Irom a relief of a senior police officer - called In Greek a paraphylaJr - found near Ephesos In Turkey. this man appears to be greeting his commander, and on the relief he Is accompanied by two other men identically equipped. The green cloak - the colour taken from a contemporary Egyptian encaustic portrait - Is worn like a pa!udamenfUm, so he could be of centurial rank. Around the waist is what appears to be an extremely wide waistband, but this reconstruction follows the Italian historian AntonuccI. who suggests that It Is actually the cloak wrapped around the waist.

on

A pollee official ..Iutn his commander In this detail lrom • relief fOllnd near Ephesos in TUr1
H: SERVANTS OF ROME H1: Legionary under punishment, 1st-2nd century AD A mil'lOf punIShment pmscribed by Augustus was IBCOI'ded by SuetonIUS: 'He woolcl order men to stand all day In front 01 the general's headquarters. sometimes clad only in their tunics and without sword belts, or sometimes holding a len-fool pole or even a clod of eanh' ~gustus, 24,2). The ten1001 pole would be a surveyor's decempeda used for measuring, and IUrfs were the basic material for camp ramparts, which might suggest that this particular punishment was lor sloppy work during surveying or construction duties. The humiliation seems to have lain in the removal 01 the weapon belt - cingula militaris - which was particularly associated with military status.

This tombstone from Athens showa e me"ne weertng • $~lIm clo.k wtUI • sm.lI tls..1visible on one edge - see Plate 01,

Tombstone of T,CI.udllll Halotl.ls from Cologne, Gennany. This coml'l'llnder of. Dalmatian luJtlIlary cohort evfdentty chose to be represented in civlllan glm rather then mllltlry drelS lor his funeral portrait _ se. Pllte H3.

THE FAll Of THE REPUBUC

I: Gaius JUlius Cae$il~, c.S7 BC

2: Marcus Llcinius Crassus, c.S3 BC 3: Sel(lus Pompelul {died c.3!3 BCI

,

3

GUARDIANS OF THE NORTH 1: legionary, Germany, AD 14

2: AUJllliary, G rmany. AD 20-50 3: Benefic/arius, Britain, AD 70

2

OUTPOSTS OF EMPIRE Causa,.a,

I: AllJdIlary,

Algeria, AD 4() 2: AUXiliary, JUdaea.

....0'"

3: AuJr11lary C&rlIUlio
, 3

EXPANDING THE EMPIRE 1: legionary, Daelan wars. late 1$1 century AD 2 & 3: legionaries, fatigue dress. Oaelao Wars

THE POWER BEHIND THE THRONE 1,2 & 3, Praetorian Guerds, lSI-2nd eenlur>eS AD

3

3

,

POUCING THE GREEK EAST 1: M.lM, Atn.ls, mId·2nd ctI'Itur'Y AD 2: c.nlurion, AIto"andri., mid-2nd century AD 3: Dio{pnItol, ~ 2nd Qentur)' AD

SERVANTS OF ROME 1: Legionary under punishment, 1st-2nd centuries AD 2: Senior tribune, 2nd century AD 3: Commander of au~lIiary cohort, 1st-2nd centuries AD