Osprey, Men-at-Arms #058 The Landsknechts (1976) 96Ed OCR 8.12

llmm MIUTARY

'lEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

58

THE LANDSKNECHTS f I

i

l

l •<

DOLGI .. \S \lILLER

G.\ E\lBLETO:\"

EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW

rillm1 HIUTARY

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

58

THE LANDSKNECHTS Text by DOUGLAS MILLER Colour plates by GAEMBLETON

First publisht::d in Cn'at Britain in 1976 hy Osprt::}', an imprint of Rt'ro Consumt'r Books Ltd. ;\Iichdin Hou:.e. 81 Fulham Road, London SW3 6Rll and .\uckland, ~Idboumt::, Sin~port' and Toronto

e Copyrighll9;6 Rttd Internalional Books ud. Rt'print«l. 1980. 1981. IgB2. 198.J, IgB5. 1986, IgB7. 1988, 1990· 1991. 1992, 1993· 1995, 1996

All righb rescn ed.•\pan from any r.'lir ckalin~ for tht' purpost: of pri\
Tht' author would like to thank Messrs O. & M. Hausser,J. Tonn,

P. Kaus and?>.lr A. V. S. de Reuck for their most valuablt' assistance': in providing research material.

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Swabian alliance was fanned in 1487---a, which set up an arm) to keep the po\\ erful princes of Bohemia and Bavaria at bay. This initial forcc of 12,000 foot and 1,200 horse is described by many as The word 'Londsknteht' first appeared in the the first anny of Landsknechts to be recruited on German language around 1470. 11 is said to have Cennan soil. In 1+87, in the same year thaI the last been coined by Peler von Hagcnbach, who records national joust look place in Cennan) al Worms, ha\'ing commissioned such troops for the service of the first units ofCennan Landsknechts wcre being Charles the Bold of Burgundy. Landsknecht trained in the strccts of Bruges b) Maximilian's literally means 'servant of the country' yel as early commander Craf Eitclfritz \"on Hohenzollem. as 1500 me word had already transfonnt"d into However, the campaigns in the ;\1"ctherJands and Lan;:;kn«ht as the pike became the trademark or the footsOldicr. No\\ ada)'s, how eYer, the term Lands~ knecht is usually associated wilh the type of Gem131l merccnal) originating from what is ((:>day Alsace, Baden Wiirtlcmberg and the Austrian T)roJ and who served during the reigns of .\Iaximilian I (1493 1;19) and his grandson Charles V ISI!rS6 ). When these troops were first employed, warfare was in a state of transition. The Burgundian Wars (1476-7) had shown that cavalry was virtually helpless against well drilled pike formations and the new handgun. The fifteen Burgundian 'Compagnies d'Ordonnanccs' had outlived their usefulness and wcre considered as nothing morc than an army of redundant knights. Moreover the cost of raising such a force of mounted lroops had increased considerably due to lhe rise in the economic and political status of the European nobility. Those who stood to gain therefore were those 'gentlemen of war' or Kriegsherren, as lhey were called in Germany, who could supply large bodies of mobile infantry, usually pikemen, able to Mn;milj*n I (1459'"'5'9) know.. as th.. 't.S( of dl.. kJUghls', 10 lh.. thro..., in '4'nand b), virt"..ofth., marriage- of follow in the tradition ofthc now famous and feared lIuc:ceeded hin,,~"'f, hi. . .n, and his , .....d . .n, pioed Ih., N.,thu....d".ad Spain, HW>pry and Bob.,mia, lh... c:reating. v. .1 Unp~ for Swiss. his ...ec.'...r Charl.,s V and f .. rtb.,rmembe oftheHabtibol~ It was against this background that Maximilian, dr-"Iy, Hi" mareb UIlO CoIOSft., in ISOS> ed with. balbc:o;d bead ofa c:ol" of~d.l<.oec:bl.b.,raIded • .... hcir to the Holy Roman Empire, had to raise a force allb., Gennany, Apart fro th., erealio.. of Lb., ~ds"n.,du. 10., i. capable of upholding his claim to the Burgundian aI.. c:red.iled with th.,d.,,,,elop....,..1of110., finl.dV&llc:ed "yst.,m of ord. .,... Both wer., 10 prov., vital ... lois . .m.,whal legacy of the Netherlands and of controlling his nlloro l)' c:ond :led fortip policy, future tcrritories in the cast. To this lattcr end the (P."mtotryD.m. A t.\u........ ,11..-. r,......!

Illfrorlllrtioll

w.,......

1H ....... ter pa.rade (Mu§t"ru.acl was adopl~ Croon lh.e S....'4. and was u_tia1 U. d~e~ tile dlicieacyoCt.ia.......1 to tM: ~ The prK'OOdilio.. for .ec::qxaa~ Lato tile I'Jlks was thai ...Idien sloovJd po5Hl1. thei.. 0_ weapo.... It was the tat;k oCtile p-ytnaliler. wbo DOrm.al.Iy stood al ~ f_t arm.. arch, 10 _s1lre that thOH recruiu f*s.i.al!: throo&f;:h we.... of ....UDd mind and body. It oft.... ocaa.rred thai the paym.uter ."Oped 10 _tinS tile recru.iIJi 'double-eowued' for tloe .....e offiaancial' i.e. 10 .windle the Kriq;_hltrT. , 11"wt/M.,jlUl.l_ft_'Dn LuJJ!;.u,f. ~,Fr"""i:lI81... G6t11t.: /8821

'tII/"'''

lalCT in Bohemia, although successful. were to p,'o\'e that the nucleus of the 'German' anny consisted of nothing Illore than bands of illorgani.sed mercenaries. It was not until after the storming of the fonn.'SS of Stllhlweisscnbcrg in Bohemia in 1490, whereupon Ma.ximilian ordered his men to swear an oath of allegiance, thal the 'father of the Landskncchls' succeeded in instilling his troops with a sense of discipline and csprit dr corps. Onl) by emulating the Swiss, howcver, by adopung their customs and tactics, would the Cennan Lands· kneeht be abk' to hold his (Mn and to this end ~laximilian modelled his whoit' milital) system on the amlics of the S\\ iss Confederation. The Muster

According to S\\'iss tradition, if a lord required an arm) to scHlc a dispute he nOlmall} contracted a gentleman ofwar b} means of the BtslaJlungsbriLfor letter of appointment. This contained a recruiting commission and the letler ofartidcs, .lrtiI.Asbriife.

whieh set out th(' legal conditions under which the Landsknechts werc to sel"\'e, Having accepted the appointment and secured the means of finance, the colonel, or Obrist as he \\'as called, then began appointing in tum his sceond·in·colllmand and the captains in charge of thc Fa/mtein or companies which were to make lip the regiment. This done, drummers would be scnt out to beat for recruits, The muster \\as seldom a difficult task; colonels with great reputations such as Frulldsberg and "011 Sid:ingen \\ere capable of raising annics of 20,000 foot in a mat tel' of \\ ecks. The problem in fact often lay in rejccting those who ,\ere either incapable or tOO ill-equipped to be accepled into the ranks. In spite of lhe selection process, \\ hich depended on whcther the recruit brought his 0\\11 \\eapons or not, the regiment must havc been a motle} crew of joume) men, (X'asalllS and students all inspired b) lhe chance of adHnture and. of course. pay and loot. and the sons of wealth) patricians, there for the sake off."lmil} honour. Ha\"ingsigned up, the recruits \\ere instructed to meet at a certain time and place for the muster· parade. Here the} \\ ere ordered inlo two columns facing each other and al the end of the gap between them an arch consisting of twO halberds and a pike was erected. J twas throul;"h this that each man had to pass befon" being acceptcd into the ranks. I twas the task of the recruiling officer losland at the arch and check lhat those mcn who passed through were of sound mind and body, At this stage the regiment was divided up into FiiJmfein of 400 men, each Fiihllltin having 100 experienced soldiers, or DQppet· soldner as they wen' called. since lhey recei\'ed double the pay of the ordinal)' fOOlsoldicr. As soon as the Landskncchts had been paid one month's wage the) assembled in a circle surrounding the Ghrist whose duty it then was to read them their rights, duties and restrictions in the form orthe 'Lctter of Articles'. The artides consisted or a \'el)' dctailed code of conduct laying out all the punishable oflcnecs such as mutiny, unwarranted plunder, drunkennc"S on dllty, ha"in~ more than one woman follo\\ ing in the baggage train, and so forth. This \\ as followed b} an oath.taking cen"· mall) in which e\"Cl') Landsknecht swore his allegiance to his cause, his Emperor and his officers, and promisl-d to abide b) the la\\s set Ollt in the 'Letter of Articlcs'.

..,

For the enforcement and administration of these laws the Obrist appoinled a Prot-osl and a &hulthtiss respectively. During this ceremony the standards were handed over to the ensigns who were obliged to swear an oath never to allow the standards to leavc their hands in battlc. The ensigns in tum joined their F{jhnl~in \\ here thc captain would be introducing the appointed adjutant, chaplain, doctor and quartermaster to his men. The remaining formality was the formation of the Rollen or platoons, each being rcsponsible for electing ilSown Rottmtista.

parade. Commanding the rcgimelll was of course the Ftldobrist or colonel. Sometimes the Obrisl was in command of several regimclHs at a time, in which case he received the rank of Obtrster FeldlwllplmmJ1l. The task of leading the Feldobrist's regiment in this case would fall to the lAcoltntnl- lieutenaOl-coloncl the second in command who onl) held the rank of captain while the Obrist was present. The colonel, as laid down in the Imperial Diet at \VOllns in 1507, was enutled to a staff or S/(1o/ of twellly-two officials. This included a chaplain. a scribe, a doctor, a scout, a quartcnnastcr, an ensign, drummer and fifer, and a bocIyguard of eight trustworth) men. ,Sec Tablt A. Each Fahn/eill had in turn its own complement of Each Regiment normally consisted of len Fiilmleill officials. The captain had the privilege of his own or companics-Fahnlein is the German word for a personal cook and servant and a bodyguard OflWO small flag or standard carried within thc unit. The DopptlsOidna. There \\ erc also an interpreter, a Fahnlein, as already stated, was divided up inlo chaplain, a scout, a fourier, and the usual colour Rottm or platOons. Each Rottt had ten common party with musicians. The sergeant majors, FtldLandsknechts or six Doppe/siildlltr. A regiment ll·tibel, wcre given the responsibility of carrying thercrorc, usually numbcring about 4,000 mcn, was out drill and formation. There was normally divided into ten units of 400, each unit having forty a regimental sergeant major the Ob~rs/rr­ platoons often men. It must be noted here that this Ftldwtb~/-who \\ as responsible for battle for4,000 was by no means a standard number-the malion. General discipline and liaison between complement often depending on the number of officers and men was largely the task of the It'tibtl men who presented themselves at the muster (sergeants) and the Gtmtinwtibtl, the latter being elected on a monthly basis as spokesmcn for the Landsknechts. (Sec Table n.) In addition to lhe above there was an independent group ofofficials who were responsible for ma.intaining discipline and ensllring that the Landsknechts conformed with the Articles. The most feared 9fTiciat of all was the Provost who remained unimpeachable during his period of office. His retinue consisted ofajailer, a bailiff and an executioner called the Frtimann, recognisablc by his blood-red cloak. The red feather in his berct and the 100is of his trade, name!) the e.xecutioner's sword and the hangman's rope which hung from his belt, acted as suitable deterrents for the Landsknt-chts, who gcncrall) regarded him as an untrustworthy character. Each Regiment had a full complement of The mUSl" p-rwde was followm by llte..-diAs of!.h., leu" of mililal) police and judges, including Ihe Schulanid... (Verles_S). Hertupon the Laad....... ech~ we.... or-dend 10 tonn a riDS uwI the colonel (Obrilft) Wonned !.hem of theiss, the Profoss PrO\·ost) and the Gmltillll·~ib~/. their rip'" and 1"8&1 r... trairtt.lf. ne lett.... of amd ... which always accompanied the letter of conun.i..io.. waS read every The total pay for these oflicials came to 236 guilders s;" months and was invoked immediately hO"'tilitiu bega.n. per month. (It'llIIodtwl bJ' JDII A_..... )

(9/;r{flllisotioll

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Table A

Pay

Rank Regiments Staat (ColoneLJs Staff) FeLdobrist Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel LorotirlLnt Chaplain . Kaplan Adjutant .. Scnreibn Officer of the Watch. Wadltmeistn Quartcrmaster Quartinmeisler Storekeeper PrOl:iantmmln F,ldKhnDoctor .. Feldar~1 Field Doctor Trommelschlagn Drummer. Pfeifer Fifer Interpreter. Dolmet$cher

Koch

Cook

Trabant (8) Hurenweibel Fuhrknuhl

Bodrguard. Sgt of the Train Seout

400 Guilders '00 02

24 4° 4° 4° 4° 4° 8 8 8 8 4 02

4

.. .." .. .. .. .." .. .. .. .. each .. .. ..

Table B Rank Ead/ Foot Fannlein 1 Hauptmann 1 LLutnanl 1 Fiihndrich 1 Chaplain I FeLdwehel I Filkrn I Fourin 2 JVebeL 2 TromfrlLlschliign 2

Pftifu

2

Trabantm DolmelsCntr HauptmlJnllJ Junge Fiihndriclu Junge HauptmanllS Koch Reisiger Knecht

I I I

Pay Captain. Subaltern Ensign Chaplajn Sgt Major. Scout Fourier .. Sergeants . Drummers. Fifers Bodyguards Interprcter. Captain's boy Ensign's boy Captain's cook Horseman

40 Guildm

20 20 8 12 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

...

.. .. " " each " cach " each each

.. . .. .. .. .. ..

(From: Kriegsbildn dn drolschLn Landsknechle by \'on Zwiedeneck.Siidcnhorst.) The pay for the whole force of foot-soldiers numbering 4,000 (10 x 400) amountcd (0 32,000 guilders pcr month, DopptlsQldner receiving 8 guilders per month as opposed to 4 guilders for the ordinary Landsknechl. Thus the total cost of a

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regiment for a month was 34,624 guilders. Each La.ndsknccht was normally contractcd to serve for a minimum period of six momhs. At the Imperial Diet at Worms in 1521 the reforms of the military brought about are·

organisation of the war finance system, to assist Charles in his Italian campaigns. TIle Imperial army was set initially at 20,000 foot-soldiers and 4,000 mounted, each Reichstand being obliged to offer a contingent. This force cost 128,000 guilders per month and although a new tax unit was invented-the Simplum, equalling the above amount-the problem of financing a lengthy campaign could never be resolved. In 1526, Frundsberg, for example, was obliged to pawn his estate and treasures (MindcJheim) for 30,000 guilders in order 10 finance a campaign in Italy for Charles V. This sum, however, only covered haifa month's pay and his troops mutinied on him. Similarly, the Spanish general Leyva had to melt down the chalices from the church in Pavia and even the gold chain from around his neck to prevent his garrison ofCcrman Landsknechts from defecting to the French.

CJjf{tics{file!qorlll{ftioll In the Burgundian Wan the Swiss had shown the

TIoe oado-takiDs ctremOOlY (v~s) (oU_cd tbe reuii..q

o( doe articles -....d __ ....tt~pc 10 .... til dUeiplUoe -....d aUepa..ce into ... otberwUie wakDowa baad o(.....m... inlnot OQ mooey ... d .dvnoRlre. The «remo..y, which _ . held by the Scloultheiu •• the official rflpoQ.ible (or .dmil1i.terUtl junice, boWHI doe Lauo.S hi..m

10 swear ... _do o f ~ « to doe Ea1peror, or _ ....ord as the e:a- Dli&hl be. AI doe _ e time the __ip-...,re .wardcd tIoeit staada.rd.s, _ whida tItey 100 had 10 pve . . oath. (JfJIA_J

tactical superiority that could be achie\'ed by a well lTained lxxIy of pikemen. This superiority was soon to be challenged by the arquebus (although in lhe first quarter of the sixteenth century it was still used with some restraint). Despite the 'miracle of Creazzo' where Frundsberg's arquebusiers, withdrawing from earthwork to earthwork, wreaked havacon theoncoming Venetian fOOl, skirmishers in open order were considered to be tOO vulnerable. The upshot of this was that different generals tended to adopt various sets of taChes at these times largely depending on the composition of their forces and the type of terrain. The Swiss, for instance, anxious to shorten their campaigns as much as possible and being largely dependent on the strength of their pikemen and halberdiers, preferred a short swift encounter and were therefore inclined towards a pike charge in echelon formation of Vornut (van), Gewallhul (centre), and NMhhut (rear). This of course was in lum determined by the lay of the land. The Germans and Spanish, later relying heavily on the strength of their arquebusiers, tended towards a more defensive position, if possible on uneven ground to upset the impetus of a pike charge. As a result of these diverse tactics the general of the day was always at pains to outmanoeuvre his enemy so that when il finally came to a confrontation his forces would have the advantage of terrain. The German Landsknechts who often adopted defensive positions required a new formation which would ensure maximum tactical efficiency from both pike and arquebus. This formation adopted from the Swiss system was called thegmerle Ordnung and is the forerunner of the infantry square. In this formation the pikemen and the halberdiers formed a solid square in the centre with the two-handed swordsmen in the front and rear ranks. Behind the first two ranks of Dop/Nlso!dur stood the ensigns in the centre of the first three FiiJmlein. Then came a virtual fon:sl of pikes, in the middle of which were to be found the ensigns of the four centre companies. At the rear came the final three ensigns amongst the most experienced troops in the regiment. These were positioned at the back to add impetus to the anack and also to discourage the faint hearted from deserting the ranks in front. Around this block stood a wall of arquebusien affording protection from the pikemen and occupying the most effective 7

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___ ~' \1,'

-. .- --,·r~~--· .

.....,'"

The obe...te.. Fe&dhaupUDaaD (...prelDl! coan...Ddcor) dirutly I"6poDlI'ible 10 the EmpeO"O.. or pri.n« who co.......i.. ioned hi.... Despite t.hU be load • free baad compMitioo or~ anny and the IHlectiOD "fJU. office Obri•• who c:onunanded the rqimedl waa On , ...... re1Ipo

was load the

The ible to the obe...IU FeJdhauptnlanD. The d ~ of rflpon5ibility was rewarded accordingly with ooe bWldredfold the pay of.

common Landllkn~Jn. The pay WlUl a.eeI in muh.iplea of"

guilde... per month at the In>perial Di..t al CoruU.ance in 1507The Obnll thu. rec~""N 400 pild..... per month phi. an add.ilional600 Su.ildr.rs for the upkeep of hi. 'Staat', (11'.,00"1 b) JI~1U THrlllg, 'K"'IJbud' ~ Grqf NmmiI.Td qf $olmJ /545', B~IK~ SllJIJub,blllillvk, MUllullj

poSitiOn in attack. Towards the middle of the sixteenth century the arquebus became more important and it was customary for a regiment in squared fonnation to have four wings of arquc· busiers \\ ho were trained to advance and fire and then drop back to mc rear to reload, SO mat me momCllIum of the ad,-ance could be maintained. To complete the defensi,'c position the artillery pieces werc drawn up in front of the square where they commanded a good sweep of the baulefield.

Because of this it was necessary to position experienced troops in the from ranks of the square to protect the artillery. If the order was gi"cn to advance, a line of foot was normally strung out in front of the square. Kno,,'n as the tIO/OurU HaJift (forlom hope it was composed of either volunteers, prisoners hoping to redeem themselves or mose unfortunates who had been picked by lot. It was their task to advance in front of the square wim their pikes and two-handed swords to stave off the oncoming enemy and hack his pike to pieces so that their comrades would be able to penetrate the gaps they had made. To remind these mJants pndlu of the perilous life and death situation they were in, the plain red 'blood flag' was always carried lnlhis somewhallhin rank. The verlore11t Nmife, olien distinguished by the while feathers which the Landskncchts wore in their berets, was sometimes used as a dccoy to lure the enemy into thinking Ihal they were being charged, whereupon Iheir countercharge would be met wiLh a hail of bullets from the arquebusicrs placed behind them. In defensive situations the order " as given for the regiment to form an 19t1 or 'hedgehog'. This was carried out in either square or circle. In this ploy the arquebusiers moved to the third rank while the pikemen moved to the front, levelling their weapons at an angle to take the oncoming cavalry. The DopptlsOidner wilh halberds and lwo·handers plugged the gaps in the front and second ranks al the same time, allowing space for Ihe arquebusiers to fire. Before the batlle commenced the commanding officer, who usually stood in lhe front rank, would call for his Landskncchts to kneel down and give grace to God. This cuslom was complelely misconstrued by the Italian historian Paul Jovius who claims that il was Ollt of fear of Ihe cannonbaJls which were flying around during the early Slages of Ihe baltic lhal the Landsknechts 'took to Ihe ground', \\'hale\'er the case a virtue was made of necessity. Sir Charles Oman refers 10 battles in lhe renaissance era as 'games of chess in which checkmate \\'as accepted with little acrimony and still less bloodshed', It came therefore as a shock to the Italians when the French, Swiss and Cermans crossed lhe AJps wilh the intention of laking towns

8 r

and slaughtering prisoners. In fact gcmlemanly conduct soon began to disappear from the battlefield as devious tactics wcre introduced. Fronsbergcr in his masterly work of 15561isLS fifteen ploys which the Ohrist of the day considered when drawing up his anny for battle: l.

'2.

The strength of the enemy. his number of horse, and his ty{>(= of annour should be determined in advance and the lay of the land, the weather, the time of day. all laken into consideration before deciding on the type of battle formation to be adopted. Prisoners should be taken before lhe battle and subjected to torture to extract the desired information.

3·

4·

5· 6.

A suitable body of men ~hOllld be picked to form thc 'forlorn hope'. This should advance in column at the side oflhe square. \'eerin~ off and firin~ before droppin~ back to reload. The regiment should always be organised in such a way that the heavily armed men are drawn up on the plain while those nOI so well equipped should be placed at the rear or drawn up on the slopes of a hill. The \\eakcst troops should be facing the left flank of the enemy. The infalHI) should keep together and avoid extending imo a thin line. Advantage should be taken of both the sun and the wind and the Landsknecht should be reminded of the more sllbtle ways ofrl·ndcr·

l'~{

~~ --,,- -

II was 1I---n)' the quartum.asler'. task 10 .d.......~ ahead Dr 1Jo... anQ)' and tak.. can of the .«0............ 00.. ror dI.. troopL n... woodC1&t, apia by DO~ depictll. quartenna.ter iD full • nn-.. whic.ll by thU tm>"-l~WUrtoll)' articulaled, wilJo. doe 'tobll'ter' laS...... a.ad .....1.. pi.,.,... n .............., .im.ilar to lilat _ ... by FnaadJlbnJ;, show•• diniacc Roonaa iDfI...... ~_ lIGUT: SiDce it - . . c:u.llornary ror 1Jo... Uadllkaecbt to tak.. 1IU wir.. -.ad chiJd...... widl IWn On aunpaip 1Jo... n: oft....

",

,

.........11 a U'aiD of ~ b 1.. size uod clUarTa)'. It w.s th ro eceuary to !lave _ .. Co...... of pollee to kiEep tioe eck- n .. .-.~I of tM t (above) was 1.... iD lJo.is Non_"'t dern hus: ....... by doe Ru..mo te.r, wh_ duty it - . . to ...,. t .. qooarTt!l'00'0 b)' m of a tnuocheoo 1Jo...
la,

9

7.

8.

ing the enemy pike ineffecti\'e by using sand or dust to blind them. (At Bicocca, for instance, the Swiss used Stones to disable the Gennan pikemen at a distance.) The light horse should be used to create a dust screen thus enabling a well ordered troop to get behind the enemy lines. Ahernauvely other Falm/Lin can be employed to draw the enemy out of his position by faking a roul. As the enemy breaks his ranks in charging after this Fiilm/tin the opening gaps can be penetrated by a well-timed cavalry charge. A further ploy should be the drawing up of several squads of horse, foot and members of the train at some concealed. spot at the rear of the army. These are to hide until a crucial stage in the battle whereupon they arc to

appear seemingly as reinforcements. g. In close combat situations shorter weapons were to be used at all times, i.e. halberds, Ka1zha/gtr, two-handed swords and axes. 10. The use of nets to trap the fieeing enemy was also effecuvc on occasion. II. Disguising oncself as the encmy (which was never a difficult task) was a practice which also was to be exploited. By sending impostors inlo the cnemy camp rumouT'Scould bequickly spread that the Ohrisl had been murdered by his subordinate officers. 12. The rear of the geritrtL Ordnung was always to be composed ofsturdy experienced fighlcrs 10 'discourage' those cowards wishing 10 retreat, and to give impetus to the attack. 13. Rotten were always to be placed at the disposal of thc commander to replace thc wounded. 14. Above all it should be the duty of the Ohrisl to maintain moraJe. Those contemplating desertion from the field of battle. for instance, were to be warned that to do so would be tantamount to killing their comrades stand· ing next to them. It was, howcver, the punishment of immediate death which de· terred such cowards. 15. Before the order was given for a pike charge the Obrisl was to call up a squad oflancers to advance in front ofthe pikemen and charge at the right momcnt with the aim of 'jousting' the pikes out of the enemy's hands. Towards the middle of the sixtcenth century, as the arqucbusier and mounted pistoleer grew in importance, somc ofthe morcdanng ploys began to disappear as movemenl became restricted by firepower.

"Weapolls It wal Kfl.elltUll for the eaplain (above) 10 wear annOur al h.e norm.al.ly foughl in the fronl rank .longlide the DoppelllOldner and was often cluI.UeDged to .. duel by h..i. eowUerparl. in the eDeDlY rlUI.k.JI. II il inleretlting 10 Qote th.at the dagger wal fuler>ed 10 the right teg by Dleana of a thiD Mlh_almost in 'PJUllia.g:er' fadoion. The _poD he is ea""""'g il a boar-

~~ t)' H.-J o..lJII} 10

The major weapon of the Landsknecht was of course initially the pike. The ash stave was one and a half inclIes thick and usually between 14 feCI and 18 feet in lc:nglh. The steel head was iO inches long and the tip had the shape of a 'frog's mouth'. Adopting the customs of the mOlllHed knighl, the Landsknecht would sometimes tie a fox's brush or animal's tail to the tOp of the pike,

R~vift& twiee tloe pooy of ~ C O _ O I l "1~. tloe Dopptl.oklaol:r ao.-...al.ly "",Id the (roat aM rear posiliocu iD the 'sevtu1e Onbl-l'.11 was !heir taP. to ad ........ee iD (nJQl otlhe cornlJlll'y swi..pc tIttir rwo-iaaadftlliWO...u. 10 ","I doWlllO tile pike uafb: oftlte -iDA: dratiDJ chit CrocIl ra.ab of tloe ~n>y'. lio.. of battle

while doe ........-.iaiaS ~~u: roUoWfll them up, co.... solidatiDS thm posilioa i.a the pp. Tbrir prisb ~ • . became. boue of COIlleuUcn> with the nobility, who dema.nded tloe iDtroduetioD. or....uorm so WI ....... would be dUtiAsuiulObi... M_ximiJi.n, bowevor.r. overruled their dem....d. 00 the Jrounds that the f..aQddtaecht d~.....ed at Ie••• ollelwrury in hi, miserable lif... Thul frefliom of d,..,. . _ s S ..... ted al the

Imperial Diet at

AuS~but'J Ua

1503.

because of an aJlcgcd magic healing property and the power of protection. The haJberd, which was relegated to a 'secondary' position, was carried by the NCO'S and Dop~uiildner and used to dress the ranks. I t too had a shaft one and a halfinchcs thick but was only six to seven and a half feel in length. There were of course variations of the halberd, notably the Voulge, the Glaivc, the Partisan, the Spctum, and a type of Fouchard which was used by Charles V's boc.l}'guards and borc the emblem oCtile two pillars of Hercules and the Burgundian cross on the blade.

There were two main types ofsword designed for different types of combat. In the case of the Dopp~iJijldn~r both were carried. The smaller 'Roman' styled thruSting sword, known as the K(lt~b(llgaor 'mangler' had a short metal hilt which joined a broad double-edged blade about 28 inches long and had a guard of two S-curved quillons forming rings, It was carried in a leather or metal scabbard, and the weapon was usually worn horizontaJly over the stomach at the belt. TheZwti!Iandtr, the enormous battle sword about 66 inches long, also had a double-edged blade, sometimes undulating in design with a long grip co,'ered in leather or cloth. The hilt was reinforced with two curved quilJons and two nng-guards on each side. The lugs at the heel oCthe blade served as a second guard, to parry blows as well as to enable the user to grasp the weapon at a lower point, as prescribed in the drill movements. This was facilitated by a leather ricasso between the ring guards and the lugs. On the march it was sometimes slung over the back crosswise by means of a strap, The other weapon brandished by the Dopp~lsij[dntr was of course the arquebus. This was a hand gun fined with the matchlock, which consisted of a lighted fuse or match attached to an Sshaped hook trigger which swung over to ignite the touch powder when the trigger was pulled. This

,

·

· ,· ·· ·

..,- . _. . :..:x.:.::

,

~

,-._.._._-

•

•, , , , , , , , •

i

I

• ,

Fo..a .."..;.... (~ne OrdaI&Dfl) of ...- "'-' c.1540- If ~e squared fonnatioa _ . auaeked by cavalry. the fonnaUOD ____ily adaptable 10 a d ..fensiye ploy. The pikanea facias in the respectiye dlrectio... with the erwI. of!JIeir pikK du« inlo !JIe .,..-th would _till fOnD tlae ......... wall while tlae arquebu.ie... !IUl'TOundinS the... would advaac:e oul in liae to face the onoo....u.g bo....e. Afler their 6 ....1 yoUey. they would ..elura 10 the front raak. of pike to reload. (F,rwrr. ..." <'lCltlh~r1-&b"JwUI)

II

had a range of up to 400 yards but was inaccurate and often rendered useless by a shower of rain. Although lhese guns must have had a considerable weighl lhere is lillie evidence from contemporary prints that the arquebusiers used a rest to support their weapons. The arrival of lhe longer·barrelled musket around 1520 necessitated the useofa rest. It was not umil the middle of the sixteemh celllury that the first major development was made in firing mechanisms. The wheel·lock pistol made its first appearance at the Battle of Muhlbcrg in '547. Invented by the gunsmiths of Nuremberg, this gun worked like a cigarcuc lighter. When the trigger was pulled, a milled wheel driven by a spring SlTUck a spark from a piece of pyrites or flint which in tum lit the touch powder. Although used mainly by the famous &hU!or{,t Rnkr these pistols also found their way imo the belts of officers and DopptlsiJfdntr. The crossbow, which had originally been the forerunner of the hand gun, gradually became obsolete as the arquebus bcc....me accepted as the standard weapon. Yet at Marignano there were still 200 mounted crossbowmen in Francis' royal guard, and Gascon foot brandishing crossbows. The later crossbows were fitted with a cranequin, which consisted of a small iron drum filled with hooks \."hich were actuated by a crank handle thus drawing the bowstring back and selting it in

Huaprian Ordinanc.... In '53~, wb..... Chart.... V ....rc::bed .sain5t th... Turlo5, who wue be51"'llnS Vi_,.t th" bead 0(. buge armoy ftumbering 90,000 (oot and 300000 ho......., h ... d ... viud • ft~ ba,ll" (onnatiaft wbic::b would re.i51 any TurlWi.b uuult.Jovius d ....cribes this (onn.doft.s haviBS. (remt ',000 paces to""S. It co_isted o( three uaiu o( pik~..... _c:b 'J,f,ooo fDnl strollS (a, b, &r. c). The... were • .utably spaced apan to aUow twO muses o( cavalry, Ncb c:ontaiaiftg 'n,GOO borH (A'" B), to take up potIitio... Surrow:u1inS tbU nw>n:nous (onnatiOIl wall a five ...... deep 'I:oed,e' o( arqueb.... ie... spaced :JO yanh (rom the pike aDd the bo There were IWO Pi'll in Ibis 'I:oed(..... 10 allow th... ho to ch,....l Ie th.rou&b at the edeIDY· Outside this bloc Ibe artillery was spaced at • .utable u.lervab aDd the whole (ormati_ was a......ed by IWO wiDJs o( H_priaa bo.......-(D .. C).. Kftowa a. Ibe Huapriaa 0rdiD-oe. this sq..-re _s (ar (rom c:u.mbenorne aDd ...... Turks were tuaI.ly repulsed by drec:tiv... c:ha'll" o(th" Imperial lao aDd (oot.

(F,.. R....IaI!. '(;,~Jn hif..umr 18141

12

posilion. The quarrel or bolt usually had a wooden night which o'eated a rotary action in flight thereby increasing its penetrating effect. The crossbowmen normally carried a shield which in defensive situations was propped up with a stake or sword so that a wall could be formed. The Fiihnftin were normally subdivided accord· ing to the type of weapon. Since the main weapon was the pike, the core of the unit was formed from pikemen. This nucleus numbered 300, the remaining 100 comprising Dop/Nlsofdntr, 50 of whom were armed with arquebuses and a further 50 with two· handed swords and/or halberds. Later records show that the number of pikemcn began to diminish as the firearm became more popular. Thus, according to Wilhdm Fronsbcrger, by 1596 only 200-220 pikemen were required.

u1i1i//ery (/lid eqllipJllent In Emperor Maximilian's biograph~, Wtiss Kunig, menlion is made of the talented young prince who was capable of handling artillery pieces with greater precision than any of the more experienced master gunners of the day. Weiss Kunig also records how the young Emperor achieved a new technical superiority in one of the first·ever organised systems of ordnance. Thc new pieces which Maximilian ordered to be made at thc factOries of Beck at Augsberg, and of Sattler at Nuremberg incorporatcd several new developments. Firstly they were lighter, being cast in bronze, their calibres being bored out. For the firsl time the barrels were carried on carriages whereas earlier they had been carried on separate wagons. Trunnions and elevating mechanisms began to appear and there were also developments in the type ofshot, which incidentally was now iron instead of stone. Freysleben, the keeper of the Imperial arsenal, records the major types ofcannon which the Emperor had constructed: I.

The Hauptbiithstn or heavy siegc·guns were nothing morc than huge gun barrels mounted at an angle 011 wooden supports with numerous rows of shoring behind the barrel to take the shock from the recoil. Often such cannon were so cumbersome that the) took days to set up

_11:_

first uHd as • tactical ploy u. the HUliliite W do", ~.... fon' oaIy prov~ reaUydea.in lfthe anDy ccompaai~ by • -...,idet-abl", artillny uaia. To add ..u..tIlp aad lire power to dae O1Ir-rd 'w1llJ.,', La.rJe ana.... ba.... W~ o(tna

kNld.ed _to with ~ d o o.... necoUUDaDder.. lnat was u._riably fOOUld iQ the C'e'Dl", of dae _ p and ado ..taadard .. toed al the iwa.d. of ",ny ,roup or l.... ttI or datil"'" bdoasialllO dae fihaln.o.. (..t-. c.'UrJ ~,.. 8nllJl.\I_

and hours to load. As a result a protective shield pivoted on a frame would be placed in rrOllt of the cannon and only raised on firing. The greatest example of such a monster was 'Mad Meg ofChent'. Her barrel was eighteen feet long, had a 33 inch bore and a weight of firtecll lOns and required a span or 30 horses to pull it. '2. Thc hcavy arullery, comprising the Schaifmtl<.t. Nachligalf, the long and short KOTtaunt (cannon royale) and the ROlhbiichst, were longer pieces and had a smaller calibre than the Hauptbuchsm. As a rule the barrels had a length 6"e to eight and a half times their calibre, and a reinforcement abo\-e the firing chamber. 3. The morc mobile medium artillcl) was composed largely of &hlallgtn eukerins-both long: and short, and Basilisks. The length of tile

barrel was usually twenty to fort}' times its width. ~laximilian also ordered the construction of siege Illortars, organ gUlls and grape guns, the details orwhich are for the most part unknown because artillery makers or the day were pledged to secrecy in case the ellemy should equip himse1fwith similar weapons.

4.

Concerning the colour schemes of the artillery. the carriage was invariably painted black and the metal fittings rcd. The wheels wcrc Icft in natural colours. A wooden box was oftcn placed over the firillgchambcr to k~p it dl)'durillg transport and a small flag or pennant denoling thc colours of thc regiment was attached to the traillcK, usuaJl~ on the left hand side. Because of the e.xtraordinal) sizc of somc cannon, notably the siegc pieces. a considerabl) largc train was required. Fronsbcrger (1566' estimates that a train of 130 artillery pie<:es

13

including 100 field guns needed the following complement: 2,675 Horses 891 Carters 5 Geshimneister (Officers in charge of Ihe transport of the pieces). 124 Master gunners (Biichsmmtister). 63 Ammunition carriers. 4 Fiihnlein sappers (often taken from the train, i.e. women and children). 200 Schneller (loaders), usually artisans. Apart from this a further 100 wagons were required for ammunition and equipment, with an additional 400 horses and 150 men. I f one could keep running costs down to a quarter of a guilder per man and horse one still had to scrape together some 42,839 guilders a month !O prevent a mutiny! Added to this came the costs for the actual construction of the cannon. Fronsbergcr gives an example of such a bill:

A 1lCl"D." taken from MIlXimi1illn'. bi"graphy 'd".. WeiSIl Kunilt' depictiDg th" battle "f Utr«ht. n" main battl" lItandanf. displayOld are th" 'Haing"rna.hJ', incorporatiDg th" CI"Ou "fSt ADdrew, and the l:I"nnal battle Rag bearing. whit" CI'OSS on • ..Old backgl"Ow>d. (C
NACHnCALL

gun barrels. The SChan{Pltister or engineers who held the equivalent rank of a captain were in command of the sappers or SchanzbautT, whose task it was to strip the houses of wood foJ' future earthworks. The remaining important offices belonged to the Gescltirrmrisler responsible for transporting the artillery, and the Zeugwart who commanded the train and the arsenal. The artillerymen, being regarded as a special breed ofLandsknechlS, were paid accordingly. The fully skilled master gunner usually received between eight and sixteen guildcrs; his services werc, however, only demanded when a battle was Because of the enormous running costs the imminent. Even the Schneller-the loaders-were artillery always had first preference when it came to paid six guilders per month (two more than the plundering besieged cities. The Oberster Zeugmeisltr nonnal Landsknechts). Fronsbergcl' writes that the (Master General of the Ordnance), who had the artillerymen were rewarded with both extra pay same rank as a field marshal, had the sole right to all and privileges because they had to keep their the artillery and ammunition that was still intact positions during the battle and consequently were and was also allowed to appropriate any remaining not allowed to lake part in the ensuing plunder. arms and armour. He was, however, obliged to Such privileges included immunity from the hand over one third of the booty to the Kriegsherr. Prowsi, the cannon as a place of asylum for fugitives The master gunners were emitled to all the powder from justice, and the freedom of gunners' wives to and shot. It was customary to seize the church bells form their own train. Due to their immobility on since they provided a valuable source of metal for the baulefic1d artillerymen were normally clad in

60 hundredweight of metal including wage for the caster 1,080 fl The cradle inclusive of wood, metal attachmellls and wage for the construction The carriage The limber The limber spike Chains Two sets ofwhecls for lhe limber and the carriage 10 fl Ladle, sponge, matchlock, etc 2 fl

14

greens and browns, otherwise they would have been obvious targels for enemy sharpshootcrs, The artillerymen were subject to their own Articles and

normally came under thejurisdictian afthe master general of the ordnancc,

Table of Ordnance under Maximilian

7jpe Srknrfmtlze Basiliew ,N(Uhtigall Singtrin Large KartauM Small Karlaum RothschLange Dmli RotJuchLange Sau (Bautt, Delise) Falkaum FaJl.end &harffdinnle

Weight

Slwt (kg.)

JVagollJ

Horses

(tons)

5 3i 3

50 35 '5

3' 17 13 7 6

163 119

,

I,

1*

" I

I, 1* i

<0

8 5

88

41 '7 16

, , ,

3'5

10

Artill"Jmm

48

30 ,6 I'

8 5

21

13 17 5 3

2-5 I

*

Hauptbiichsm, &karfmetz.en, Basilisks, Singtrinnm and Kartaunen were the larger siege pieces, the remaining types made up the field artillery. There seems to have been a rationalisation oflhe artillery under Charles V:

Table of Ordnance under Charles V

Type Cannon Royale Mcdium Piece Culverin Demi Culvcrin Saker Falconct Mortar

Weight/Shot

Weight/Baml

(kg.) 18'7 11'2

(kg.)

5"6 ,·8 3'0 1'4 6 4 '7

',goo 2,3 00 1,380 1,230 1,235

795 ',600

Calibre (mi.) 18 15 I'

9'1 10 7 35'5

Length oj BamL (metres) 3'5 3"4 3"9 3'5 2'9 ,·8 1'5

his marriage in the same ycar to Mary, the daughtcr of the Duke of Burgundy, regarded Ihese territories as his rightful inheritance. AI the ensuing Battle of Guingate in 1479 ~Iaximilian's foot regislered thcir first success in defeating Louis, In Upon the death ofCharles the Bold ofBurgundy on the batt.lefield of Nancy, the French King, Louis '493 when Maximilian became Hoi} Roman XI, laid claim to the Burgundian legacy, which Emperor, this somewhal personal conflict between included the Netherlands. Maximilian, by vinueof the French court and himself o\'er Burgundy was IS

CjJie {!tll/poiglls

ne army on the D1.II.rdo DOrrnally adopted a Connauon wbido would be ea.ily adaptable libould it liuddenly corne under auad.. nu. the onu",I
and rea.r. ne a..m.onuoition and provilion. were protected by a .e.-.eD oCpi.ke in the centre. h i. interntin! to Ii" the method of tl'1l.Dliport employed for the huse arqueb....eli in the immediate foresround. (A_p. Co.tltJ.J oj IN BnfUA .If_I

now raised to an international level, thus destroying the hundred-ycars' peace iliat had existed between Gennan) and France. Although he had secured the Nethcrl:lnds and Austria, Maximilian soon found himselflhreatencd in the southern reaches of his Empire. In [494Charles VIII, the successor to Louis XI, crossed the Alps and invaded haly with the intention of conquering the Kingdom of Naples to which France had a centuT)'-old claim. Facing no resistancc whatsoevcr, Charles VI J I entered Naples in May 1495 with ~Iaximilian standing helplessly in the wings. Yet this bold move by the French set loose a countcrreaetion throughout Europe. When Charles finall) reached Naples he found thai a great coalition had been formed behind his back. TIlC League of Venice, concluded in March '495, had brough! Spain, the Pope,

i\lilan, "enice, and the Hal) Roman Emperor together in a military alliance against France. ~laximiliaJ1 immediately despatched a force of several thousand Landsknechts to hah lhe retreat of the French over the Alps, but they could nOI prevent thc withdrawal at FornUQvo. The Emperor's plan was for the League to launch a concentric altack on France with the aim of splitting the French territOT)' into pieces. The plan \\as never rcalised. The League, which had been concluded on a 25 year basis, began to crumblc as signatory after signatory abandoned the agrecment when France withdrew from their territory. There were, howcvcr, twO important developments in the wake ofthis. First!). £\la.ximilian struck an c\-erlasting alliance with Spain through the marriagesofhis daughter ~Iargarete to Don Juan, the heir to the Spanish throne, and his son, the Archduke I>hilip,

16

....

Donna Juana, thc daughtcr of Fcrdinand and Isabella. Secondl)', he summoned the princes of German) to the Imperial Diel at Worms in April 1495 in which he laid out plans for (among~a other things) a general war levy. The scheme remained on paper, !t.laximilian having to rely on the rich Venctian and !t.lilancsc families for financing his campaigns. In 1499 hostilities ,\cre rcsumed when a French army crossed the Alps again in a second attcmpt 10 take ~Iilan. The new King of Francc, Louis XI I, succeeded in holding the cil) until the spring of 1500, the Duke of ~lilan, Lodovico Sforza, having been bctra) ed by his own Swiss mercenaries. The next prize was :\aples and an alliance with Spain soon made its capture a fonnality. However the allies then began to quarrel and at the battle of Garigliano October 1503 the Spanish sword·and· buckler troops won a resounding "ictory o"er the French, who were forced to withdraw from the Kingdom of Naples. !t.laximilian now called for a new Imperial Dict which met in Augsburg. The invasion of~'lilan was the pretexlthe Emperor had needed to com'ince his princes of the imminence of the French threat. Yet he was still unable to stir his nobility into providing him with the financial support necessary to mount a campaign against France. !t.laximilian was so desperale that he allowed the formation of a R,ichsrtgimtfll a council oftile leading princes who were prepared to buy their share in the running of the Empire. In the following years Maximilian transfonncd his stratcgy and adopted a marc peaceful policy towards France, hoping to presclve his prize so that he might inherit her a\ a later date. In 1504 and 1505 rcspeclively, tbe Treaties of Blois and Hagcnau werc signed, in which thc daughter of the French king was bctrothed to thc Archduke Charles. Thc accord lasted only a year. In 1506 Louis proclaimcd that his daughter Claudia would marry thc crown prince, Francis of Angouleme. This was fclt as a great }X>litical blow against ~Iax.imilian. Howcver, due to domestic conflict he was obliged to post}X>ne any plans for re,·enge. After the dealh of the Duke of Landshut, George 'the Rich', in 1504, the Wittclsbach family began to quarrel ovcr Ihe legacy. Thc Palatinate Ruprecht allied with Vladislav, King of Bohemia, whiJe 10

Albrecht IV of Bavaria·~lunich (urned to his brother.in.law ~Iaximiliall and thc Swabian Alliance for assistance. Th(' Swabian Alliance was a political and milital) organi<;ation which had been fOlmed in 1488 betwcen the Emperor and the leading princes, among them Dukc Sigmund of Tirol and Eberhard, Dukc of Wurltembcrg with the main aim of preserving peace in Ba\aria. The opposing forccs met at the village of WenZCllsbach ncar Regcnsburg. This was the first major test for Georg von Frundsbcrg later to be nicknamed the ·father of the Landsknechts· in command ofa regimcllI from ~Iemmingen. ~lax­ imilian commanded the anny of his brother·inlaw, Albrccht, which outnumbered the encm~ quite considerably. Ruprechl's men had taken up a defensive position on a hillock behind a wall of shields. Thc battle was decided, however, b) the devious tactics of ~taximilian's Landsknechts \\ ho advanced to meet Ruprechl's horse. The latter

Early WoodCUI& &UUKI thai the arqu"bus wa& ..-ed wilhout the aid of& relit. ney w"re raLber primiliweaad ~berso_" afFai"> c:c: I1" _d wiLb & 1"Il-IlJ" of appro..-ately 400 yard&. ne dew"lopme," towards Lbe .,...... t:! look place La the "s- wlM:a the rul wa& Ualroduced, . . baadpas bec:a.m" er .... Ilad • wid" calibre. (F,..; MIII.Il-./i-. ~"d.j..u."Iwt/ld.lJtatid,

·
r.

17

charged the Imperial 'forlorn hope' only to be lured. into a thick \\'all of pike behind them. Some 1,600 men were slaughtered. The victory at Regensburg and subsequent succ(..'SSful siege of the fortress of Kufstcin did much to enhance the military re· pUlation of the Emperor and al the Impel"ial Diet at Constance which was held in 1505 all his demands, particularly for his militaI) budget, were met. It was at this Diet that an organised system of payment was establi~hed for the LandskncchtS. In 1508 ~Iaximilian dre\\ up plans to rene\\ imperial control in Italy. At thc Imperial Dict at Constance he had demanded financial support for his Rome campaign, promising knighthoods for those princes who would follow. His desired ann) of 20,000 LandsknechtS was never realised. Of the 12,000 men that were placed at his disposal only a fraction e\'entualJ) took the field. It was obvious that r>.laximilian was intent on war \\ith Venice and not the French. The Venetian Republic barred the way to Rome. This barrier proved to bc tOO strong, for in February that year the Emperor's anny ground to a hah at Trient. Without adequate militaf) suppon ~laximjJian was obliged to sign a

three year truce with the Venetian Republic. The Pope, who had meanwhile become fearful of the growing po\\'er of Venice, now sought a protectivc alliance with :-'Iaximilian. The resulting League ofCambrai formed in IS08 included Spain and France. In Ihe following year lvlaximilian commissioned Frundsberg 10 march down the River ElSCh via Trient and recruit a regiment for the Alliance ",hich was now preparing to atlack the Venetian positions. Realising that their strength lay in their diplomatic ralher than their militaI) cunning the Venetians tried to manoeuvre each member of the League into a position whereby quarrel and ultimale dissolution would become inevitable. Thus Pope Julius II and me Spanish King Ferdinand the Calholic were persuaded that their interestS did not lie in the Habsburg camp. The League was dissol\·ed, Germany finding itSelf on the same from as I-ranee. Fnllldsbcrg, who had meanwhile held the fortress city of Verona, was relieved an~ joined the french force commanded by AlessuJ1Cl.ro Trivulzio. In May 1511 they succeeded in defeating the Papal·Venetian forces between Imola and Bologna and then pushed

StaB" w",poa. or ~ 6f'1~Lh. aDd .... teeaLh. can..tie.: .) Military rork;".) Ahlforsdo ; 3) RaJuo,o .. r or Runka HI) Co.-que;

S It 6) h.ll.... la.are. de boeu.f; "'2) Partisans; I:J-Isl ConeqlO"116) RWIb; '1) h.liaa Bill; ") Glaive.

18

II

Th~ basic difl"~rencebelWftft Swi5lll and German pikedrill ....s lhal the German Landljkn~Ju. b~ld the pike al ",houlder Ioel&bt wbenali the Swi",. prefft'Tftl to bold their wcapo... at an a.a.s1e or.bove the bead. TbiIi phoforapb mo_ the nllietItial

poliihonli of the drill, ...... y of which we.... adoplM by the Germanli. The armour shown I. Iypical Maximilian lityle, cbaracreriRd by the llw:nel'O'" HUM!li On the brea"t plat.. aDd the cuili..... (c..tU!J~tiIII&....... \~ ,11_. ;:'_ndj

north-east, thus forcing the \enetians to \\ ithdra\\ from their foru'csses in the Friuli dislricl. It is said that with only I,Boo men Frundsberg succeeded in defeating 9,000 Venetians and laking the fortresses of Scala, Covelo and the 'impregnable' Cadore in the Dolomites. The strategic importance of this viclory was that il secured the main crossing points in north-eastern Italy for fUlure Imperial armies. This was to be me only gain from Frundsbcrg's viclory, for ne\\ political developments had upsel the international scene once again. In 15" the Pope fanned a Hal) League with Spain and Venice and Henry VIII of England against France. Maximilian, secing this as a great opportunity to seal the fatc of France and al the same time secure haly once and for all, joined the League.

It was at this stage mal a ne\\ power began 10 make itself felt-Switzerland. The cnmil) between the Swiss Confederation and Germany had arisen largely due 10 the desire on the parl of i\laximilian 10 bring the Swiss under his political wing. The n.'Suh had been a succession of border clashes me 'Swabian Wars' in 1499 in which a three pronged Imperial assault froOl Alsace, Constance and lht' Tyrol had failed miserably at the Baltle ofDomach on 22 July. From lhat day onwards the Swm Confcderation bccame an independent political cmity. This break ",ilh Gemlany had strengmened Swiss sympathy for the French. Vel surprisingh the finest troops in Europe had now entered the scr\ict' of Pope Julius II, thus helping to s'J·en.~then the Holy League which was no\\ intent on dri\ing France out of Italy.

19

The Battle of Ravenna

f\t Ravenna in '5[2 tbe opportunity arose for the new allies to show their strength. The Papal. Spanish army under the command of Raimund Cardona made a stand three miles from the city, which the Frcnch commander Gaston de Foi" had deliberately besieged in an effort to draw the army of the League into a confrontation with his own force, which numbered 22,000 and included a contingent of 5,000 German LandsknechtS. Draw· ing up his forces barely 30 yards away from the banks of the River Ronco, Cardona ordered earthworks to be erected across his front. With his horse on both flanks and his infantry arranged in echelon formation similar lO the Swiss tactic, the Spanish commander ordered wagons to be drawn up in front of the forward infantry square. On these wagons were placed large arquebuses, while lhe heavy artillery was positioned in front of the left wing of cavalry. As the French advanced towards Cardona's front a heavy cannonade bcgan. De Foix, noticing that the enemy had placed mOSI of his strength on the left flank, ordcred his artillery to be drawn up and for twO hours bombarded Cardona's weak right (lank. The effort proved succcssful, for he brought the enemy out of a strong defensive position on to the field. Colonna, the commander of the Italian horse, threw his troops against the French right wing. Outnumbered twO to one the French were forced back, bllt the advance of the Leaguc was soon checked by a counter-chargc from the French lancers in the rearguard and, thrown illlo confusion, the League was put to roul. In the centre the Spanish and Italian infantl)' began their advance towards the German Lands· kncchtS who stood in typical squared formation. At this poilll the lauer, breaking into a great charge, swooped into the ranks of the Spanish and precipitated biller hand·to-hand figlaing. Seeing that the Spanish were gaining the upper hand Caslon ordered his horsc to attack the Spanish foot, causing the latter to take up a defensive instead of an offensive formation. Surrounded on all sides, tbe Spaniards tried to keep together and reach the banks of the Ronco where lhey could make a retreat between the earthworks and the river. Furious ,hat the Spaniards were retreating, Caston ordered a final charge which cost the French

20

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Medium artillery p;«e5, probably Kartaune... In general the rate "ffiring WIIS ..low. Thi. was ..... part due 10 the D«essity 10 cool IlDd dean the bon: each time to p...,venl prem.ature e"'plOt;io.... wben reloading; vinegar __ .... ed to cool the barrels.

commandcr his life. Ravenna was one of the bloodiest ballies of thai era. Over 10,000 bodies lay strewn on the bauleficld with double losses for the League. According 10 Machiavelli the French victory was gained solely due to the stubborn resistance and fierce c1ose·quaner fighting or the German Landsknechts. Several days after Ravenna Maximilian ordered all the German Landsknechts in the pay of the French to return home. All except 800 obeyed their Emperor; and these Soo wcre to form the nucleus of the infamous 'Black Legion'. In the following year the Holy League broke up on the death orthe Pope Julius II. The Venetian Republic, seeing that its real enemies were lhe Germans and the Spanish, struck an alliance with France; and the Pope, a Medici, had other interests. Creazzo and Novara

In the summer of 1513 a new army 7,000 strong commanded by Frundsberg and Ulrich von Hlitlen crossed the Alps and was joined by the veterans of Ravenna. Uncertain of the political situation, which was in a SlalC of pcrpclllal fllIX, the Imperial army marched on Padua whcre a large Venelian army was reported 10 be assembling. Reinforced with Spanish and Italian contingentS, Frundsberg, after severa] minor skirmis.hes with local units, turned nonh·wcst towards Creazzo wherc the commander of[Jle Venetian forces, d'Alviano, had confidcntly invitcd thc gentry of Padua to observe the resounding victory which he was about to

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register against the Imperial forces. Yet Frunds· berg and his Locolcllt!1l1 Jakob VOll Landau, selling their men up in squared formation, converted what seemed a certain victol1' for the Venctians into a humiliating defeat. Some 8,000 mercenaries of the Republic met their death against only minor losses for Frundsbcrg's men. ~Ieanwhile the French had been forced to withdraw from Italian soil after suffering defeat at the hands of the Swiss at the BatLie of~ovara,June 1513. The French amly, encamped some 28 miles west of Milan were taken by surprise by a '3,000strong Swiss force. In Ihe deadly battle which ensued, the German LandsknechlS of the Black Legion and the French Gascon foot were thrown back and hacked to pieces by the Swiss halberdiers. Out of 10,000 men thc French suffered 50 per ccnt losses. Those Landsknechts in the pay of the French who surrendered were e.xecuted wilhout mercy by the Swiss. Novara was the highwatcrmark of Swiss military achicvcment. By the end of '514 most of north·eastcm Italy wascomrolled by Imperial troops until in 1515 the Curtain began to rise on a new act in the Italian tragedy.

his imperial claim on Italy, was faced with a new problem. The young and impetuous successor to the French duone, Francis I, was intent on rccovering the lost Dukedom of Milan. In August 1515 a French army, 30,000 strong with a train of 72 guns crossed the Alps and surprised their encmies in the rear, pitching camp at Marignano ten miles south·east of ~tilan. Francis had takcll the trouble to recruit 9,000 German Landsknechts under the command of the Duke ofGucldres, having lillic rcgard for his own Gascon infantry. II is said that man} of the Landsknechts belonged to lhe infamous Black Bands, so-called because of the black uniform and armour which lhey wore. The Swiss, 25,000 Slrong, had withdrawn to Milan where they received a considerable bribe from Francis to turn against their hosts. Howe\'er, careful persuasion b}' their leaders made them realise that the French meant to destroy them. The opposing forces met at Marignano on Septcmber 13. Whilc the Swiss hesitatcd over the bribe from Fmncis, lhe French king took up a defensi\'e position. making dfcCli\'c U5C of the ditches which broke up the terrain in frolll of his ranks. Having ordcred some of these to be built up illlo eanhworks Francis placed his artillery, ar· quebusicrs and Gascon crossbowm('n in the front line. Behind this came the Gemlan Landskncchb in 21

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Marignano

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~Iaximilian, who had juggled about with France and the Venctian Republic in an attempt to secure

H~ w .. flll'tbu esampl.. of _ aiI~ wiu aD onoat.. twisted barrtt IUld wa...,..,J .truu 10 add ...bill.,. l& U .. wIoole carriat.. d~ U"Ul$pan.

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squared formation, Ranked by the French ho~. Somewhat confused but anxious to get at their treacherous enemy, the Swiss had meanwhile left Milan and drawn themselves up in typical echelon fonnation with a forlorn hope well ahead of the main Cru.'a/tltut. Pressing forward, the 'forlorn hope' reached a small fannhouse where, under cover from enemy fire, the Swiss were able to SCt up the fourculverins which !.hey had taken from the Milan arsenal. Francis immediately ordered a troop of horse to approach the farmhouse with the illlention of setting it on fire. This they succeeded in doing, rendering the cannon useless. Pressing on, the 'forlorn hope' crossed the ditches, wading through waleI' in some places, and traversed the walls built by the French engineers. Complctely overpowering the Gascon archers and arquebusiers the Swiss van, now closely followed by the main body of foot, reached the last ditch protecting the Frcnch position and crashed illlo the German Landskncchts. In thc ensuing melee the Swiss captured several guns and for a while the two forces were locked together 'at push of pike'. Fortunately the Germans rallied and at their second assault the Swiss were checked by a Ranking charge from the French horse and salvoes from the French artillery, which ripped holes in their ranks. By midnight the battle had reached stalemate. It is said that both Swiss and Germans slcpttogether on the battlefield until fighting was resumed the folJowing morning. Finally, after 28 hours of

22

fighting, the Swiss withdrew from the field with only 3,000 men left. The French were thus able 10 recover Milan, while Maximilian could only offer token opposition. When in 1516 the Emperor organised a campaign from the Tyrol against Venice and ~liJan, his military bankruptcy was exposed. One half of his troops were Swiss mercenaries in the pay of the English, man} of whose comrades "'ere still in the pay of the French (lhe Confederation had been divided). l\loreovcr l\1a.ximilian was not e\·cn commander of the whole arnly. In spite of this his anny had managed to reach the gates of Milan, yet when he hesitated over the assault of the city in favour of a more stratcgic manoeuvre, his troops grew impatient and demanded their Sturmsold. When this moncy was nOI forthcoming they mutinied, some defecting, some returning home, leaving the Emperorwi!.h no choice but to abandon his campaign and make a hasty retreat to the T)TOI. This marked the end of Maximilian's military engagements. Forced to adopt a more peaceful policy towards France, he concluded the Peace of Brussels with France in December '516, by which he delivered up his last prize of the Venetian

Th.. So or Sow _ . _l4bt fidd piece wiu_ 8TftIteT traj«cory thaa u .. mvuiD •. The equlpm.... t req~ to rna.inu.in Lb.. anillery ... load onieT ova. quit.. COG.id.. ~bJ.. , -.idtl" and .cyth" for deariDl th.. uad"rvowtll, -.boyd. IUld KoOpS for th.. ean.bworks, boo.1a.a_ aDd wti.pt. for m ....urinJ out u .. doarJ" or papawd , I er buekeu for carT')'iD« U .. powder Cram ~ d p to u tadletl for cha.rJin&: uem, ad.. lP'ftH for ue wb_1s, plIO. barrel. of......ns, _po c:aadI.... Ia.ot~ and thO! .ecunr')' tool..

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fro... the p.n the ProVOll( _llld IlOt .........1 .b.i.m.. If I.bU law wa. broke. thea the Ulalltft'1lftle,,1 of the orda.a.nc:e had the ritl:btto withdraw hi. artillery train from the .. nny.

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Wars-the CityofVerona to Francis. In the same pronounced aim ofa 'A!onorchia L'nivtrsaliJ' which year Charles, Duke of Burgundy, the grandson of posed a great threat to France. Maximilian, inherited the Kingdom of Spain from Ancr several minor engagements in northern Ferdinand. This suddenly posed a military threat Spain (Villalar, 1521) and thc Netherlands nOt only for France but for the Pope too, for the (Bouchain) hostilities resumed in northern Italy. whole of soulhem Italy belonged to Spain. Thus Francis had renewed his alliance with the Venetian when Maximilian died in 1519 Pope Leo X allied Republic and Genoa and had recruited an anny of with Francis I, seeing this as the only move capable 16,000 Swiss mcrccnal;es under the command of of countering a possible pincer movement which Albrecht von Stein and his uco/rnent Arnold von Winkelried. The French forces under the supreme any future Gennan emperor could mounl. The eJection ofCharles as Hoi) Roman Emperor command of Lautrec had occupied most of the was no clear cut malleI'. Francis I, w;th consider- kingdom of Lombardy. able financial resources at his disposal, set about Frundsberg, commander of the Imperial forces, wooing the German princes who were responsible was approached by several Italian princes to raise for the election. His challenge was shortlived. an army and hah the French advance, With the Charles succeeded in securing the necessary help of hundreds of peasants he cleared a way for financial supporl from the rich Fuggcr and Welser his Landsknechts through the snowed-up Bergam· families of Augsburg, thus enabling him to askian Alps and joined the Imperial-Papal forces influence several of the more importam princes. At under the command of Prospero Colonna at Milan the same time Maximilian's grandson arranged for in February 1522. The French Army, which had an army to be despatched to Frankfurt the venue meanwhile been forced back cast of~lilan, decided for the election). This showofforce commanded by to make a stand at La Bicocca in April 1522. This Frundsberg and Franz von Sickingen was 3. was a decisive baule not for any strategic reasons sufficient deterrent for Francis and his prospective but because for the first time Swiss and German voters amongst the German Electors. This con- mercenaries faced each othel" in considerable frontation meant a revival of the Habsburg-Valois numbers. struggle which was to be intensified by Charles's

23

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La Bicocca Milane Novara

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• Florence Map oftbe North Italian and Tyrol~ theuret of war during tbe fint quarter of Ihe .Ui:1e..ntb century.

24

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Pieve de Cadore

I hnperial Herald, 15'15 Georg von Frund1bers :J GOI:! von Berlichingen (1481 15&:z)

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H

Bicocca and Pavia

Colonna, the Italian commander in chargc of the Spanish cOlllingent, had realised that the hunting lodge at La Bicocca presellled a considerable defensive position. A sunken lane ran between the bottom of a garden and the fields which separated Ihe two armies. He ordered the bank to be built up on the garden side illlo a rampan, and positioned hjs arquebusierson it in ranks four deep, aJong with several heavy cannon. The German pikemen took up the rear of the rampart. As the Swiss advanced across the fields (with roeks and sand in their hands ready to throw at their enemy) their ranks were decimated by the murderous fire from the Spanish arquebusiers and artilleT). Those who succeeded in reaching the lane found themselves in a deathtrap and were slaughtercd by the arquebusiers, who were so high that the Swiss pikemen could not even louch them. Frundsberg, adopting the Spanish 'tercio' method, had deployed his pike in chequerboard formation behind the arquebusiers. This proved to be unnecessary, as his pike rushed down into the lane (0 finish olfthe Swiss. In the ensuing melee Albrecht von Stein and Arnold von Winkelried were killed at the hands of Frundsbcrg. Some 5,000 Swiss, including 2'2 of their officers, were killed in theonslaughl. La Bicocca was a disaster for the Swiss. Lautrec ,,·as forced to withdraw from Lombard)- and in the following months Genoa surrendered. La Bicocca proved once and for all the supcriority of the Spanish and German arqucbusiers and the Landsknecht pikemen. ~lean"hile a new domestic conflict had broken out between the German princes and the knights. The latter, led by Ulrich von Hutten and Franz von Sickingen, felt themselves threatened by the increasing influence of the nobility which had been manifest in the formation ofa RtiduTtgimtnl. Franz von Sickingen had planned to align the knights with the eities in an allempt to seize the political power from the princes. In August 15'2'2 he began his campaign at Trier, bcseiging the Archbishop Prince, Richard von Greiffenblau. Immediatel)· the princes united against him and a large force under the Prince Louis of the Palatinate and Duke Philip of Hcssen engaged him throughout the year until finally in the spring of 15'23 their flags were flying on the Landstuhl-Sickingen's castle.

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&eo... von Fl"WId.sbe..., Ifn-1sa'. Lord of MiJodoeUoeioa, is reprcled by m_y.a Lbe true 'C.Lbn- of the LaacbJutecbu'. He bec:arne Iiupreme corornauder of the Imperial forc:eli IlJlIdnCharleli V portly afler the latter Ii"cc~ed Lbe throoe. Fn&Ddabe"l! fougbl hili finl _g.g",,_1 .pinal !he Swi•• in 1499 aDd in the same year wu amo,,& the Imperial 11'00I"' de.paldoed 10 . .sis, the Du.l.. FnuMI.be......i.ted Mnimm•• iB o........ia&: the Laads.kDechl. and in lsog, 1513 -...d 15'f ~.tu-ed owne...... '''Cc:elises .pil"l the V_etiamI aad the Frellcl>.. Throush hi. victory.l Bicocc:a in 15'1:1 be bro"plw grealer pari oCLombardy ....der!.he iDftuftlce oCCharl" V,.I !.he _ e time d"U'oyiDg Lbe ~"tatl.oo oC the Swiss as Lbe besl Cool_ldie"' .... Europe. He also played. onajor role in the d~""I of the F .......cl>..I PII.viso in '5"" He died in Aups. ,p:8.1 MiDd~uloa...ud £nuo loi.ezt.... h·e_paicIu: iBltaly. (PM/wI "...t........tn .u""'W"" ,...".II~ __. _\f~

The internal weakness of the Empire had in fact been o\'ershado\\ed by polilical ructions on the international scene. In haly the Habsburg ally, Duke Francesco Sforza, had taken conlrol of Milan, long regarded as the rightful inheritanc(' of France. Henry VIII of England had landed in Northern France, as had been planned \\ ith Charles V. Yet Francis was to suffer an ('\cn greater setback. Charles, Duke of Bourbon and Constable of France, had quarrelled with his king and taken service wi III the Emperor, who had promised him both the hand of his sister Eleonora, the wido" of the KingofPortugal, and a kingdom in the south of

25

'fhilI pamlinS by Titi.lul. depict. Charles V a' the B.nle of Miihlbers. 1547, we-riDS a .Wl of b.lf...-mo.........de by hQ penon.al ~olU"er DHideri... HehDKbmied.. It .. of bhoe .IHI deco.....ted .n o~ baacb: ....t. c:urved dericR etdaed ia Sold. He .. we-riDS the red or pink conlln• ...:ler'. sash which the field .ip for the ea"'olia at MiiJdbe"!:.

wi'"

w"

(PrDde ••\fadnJ/)

France. ntis was a gl"eat diplomatic move, fOI" by cl"cating an ally in southem France, a front from Italy to Spain could be established against Francis. There was only one drnwback and that was the successful invasion of Provence. Joining the 1m· perial army in Northem Ilaly, the Duke of Bourbon setoffon his campai~n in the South ofFrnnce. After six \\cells of inconclusive campaigning he was fOl"ced to make a hasty withdrawal. Francis, instead of pursuing Bourbon, had crossed the Alps in the meantime with an ann) of 40,000 men. Suddenl) the tables had tumed. B) October '524- Francis was at Ihe gates ofMilan with only a handful offortified cities I"emaining under Imperial conlrol. On hearing the news that Milan had fallen, the anny of Gel"man Landsknechts undel" the command of Kaspar \'on Frundsberg, the son of the famous commander, and GrnfEiteifritz von Hohenzollcm, which had been marching on ~liIan, was forced to rctum to Pavia where Ihey joined the old Spanish general Don Antonio de Leyn. On the same da) that Ihe French entered J\lilan the firsl assault began on the southcm walls of the city of Pavia.

26

The situation was becoming quite serious for Charles. Pope Clement VII had tumed his back on the Empin: and entered into an alliance with France and the Venetian Republic, allowing a French anny under the command of the Duke of AJban) through the Papal Stale to attack Naples. Charles, in response 10 the call for help from Leyva, hadlo throw new troops into the Italian arena. Bourbon, afler a disastrous retreat from Provence, entered Gennany and began recruiting a new anny inJanuary 1525. Together with Lannoy he approached the ailing Georg von Frundsberg, \\ ho obliged and promptly raised eleven Fiilmltin. At Lodi, north·east of Pa\;a, he joined Marx Sinich von Ems, who had brought a further eighteen eompanies with him. Along with the Spanish troops of Pescara, a considerable anny numbering some 17,000 infantry and 1,000 horse was ready to relieve lhe garrison at Pavia. Meanwhile attempts by the French to diven the River Tissino had proved a failure and a thrce· pronged assault on the city had been equally unsuccessful. Realising that the Imperial relief force would soon be aniving, Francis had moved his headquarters to the park of Mirabello, securing a strong position bel ween Pavia and the oncoming Imperialist ann)'. Frundsberg, ordel"ing pontoons 10 be built across the Po, dl"ew up his forces facing tht' French artiUery. There foHowed three weeks of trench warfare and intennitlenl sonies. Frundsberg's men succeeded in making contact with Leyva in the city, supplying him with ammunition and provisions and co.ardinating plans fOI" the oncoming baule. Drenched by rain and decimated by sickness, the French soon began to lose morale. On '20 February, 6,000 French troops insisled on returning home. At the same time 2,000 Cennans deserted the French camp, thus reducing Francis's army to less than 20,000 men. Of this total 9,000 were Italian, 5,000 Swiss, 4.500 Cennans and 1,300 Gendannerie. His generals advised Francis to withdraw, while Leyva, in a similarly desperate situation, warned Lammy thai he could no longer hold the cil)'. At this point Bourbon begged for an attack. At midnight '23/'24 February the Imperialist anny, under cover of an artillel) barrage and a nois), dcco) cl"eated by three companies of Landskncchts remaining in the camp, moved nonh-

wards up the River Vernavola to a fordable strctch and proceeded to cross it, thus outflanking the French. Having crossed the ford they reached the wali of thc park. Without drawing the attention of the enemy the Spanish engin(..ocrs succeeded b} daybreak in making a breach 50 yards wide. Frundsberg now formed a van of seven Fahnltin, ordering them to put on their white shins over their armour (those who did not have shirts wercordered to use paper) so that they could easily recognise comrades in the darkness. B} da}break the Imperial forces had advanced in column on Mirabello, Lannoy and Bourbon commanding the horse in front, with the artillery and thc main body ofinfamry under Pcscara behind them. With three blasts from a cannon Frundsberg signalled to Leyva that it was time to attack. The French, now having to reverse their front, were brought into confusion. Since most of his troops were guarding the lower banks of the Vcrna\'ola, Francis was forced to deploy the remainder (the more doubtful units of the Black Legion) to the right and the Swiss to the left. Leyva, seeing the time was right, now swept out of the city, thus cUlling offAlcm;on, in command ofthe Frcnch forces on the western nank, from his king. Francis, ordering the attack, sent his horse against the breach in the park wall where several companies of Italians wcre persevering with the remainder of the artillery which was bogged down in the mud. The French had lillie trouble in forcing the Italians [0 withdraw to a near-by wood. On seeing this, Pescara ordered Lannoy to throw his horse against the French lines, but they were met wilh such a hea\'} fusilade from the French artillery that they too had to seek shelter, this time behind a group of fannhouses. Francis now took the offensive and ordered his horse to charge, with the Swiss and Gcmlan [OOtIO follow. The salvo which Galiot, the French military commander, had fued at the Gennan horse was his first and last, for the French were now charging across his line of fire. In spite of this situation the French had rallied well and were attacking in good order. However, the infantry were too slow in following up the charge and were checked by the Imperialists. The Gennan Lands· knee-hts of the Black Band now found themselves facing their own kinsmen in the ranks of Frunds· berg and Ems. In the violent melee which ensued

the mercenaries in the pay of lhe French were surrounded on three sides by the Imperial foot and hacked to pieces. Meanwhile the Swiss, facing Pcscara's arquc· busiers positioned in the trees of the park, suffered grievously as swift vollies from 1,500 muskets began decimating their ranks. With his fOOL in rout Francis now threw his mounted Gendannes into the fray in a last·ditch attempt to break the Imperial assault. However, with their lances useless amidst the trees in the park, they were gunned down at point-blank range by the no\\ well. positioned arquebusiers. Francis was one of the victims. His horse shot from beneath him, he "'as only barely s.1.Vecl from a mob of vicious Spaniards b}' sevcral of his entourage and the speed}

Fruu;:itI t, 14!H-1547, wu KiDS of FI'UlCe fl"On> '515 _til biI death. A.uDou.s 10 ..-lUe the Valois d.a.iDu 0.. Milan aJId ~y, lie pursued an agrn,pve fomp poliq wllidt. "'vulved IWn i .. a Rriu of wan willi Charles V oC Gern>a.ay By iii. victory at MaripaJ>o lie WOD the rqn.tatio.o oCth.....oa powerful aad I:l0riou. prince ... E...-ope. Ia 15'9 be ....-cc:es..fv.I . . c:aadidate Corllle dectioD DC ...... Holy Ro Emperor. Ia '50 F......cis failed to acqu~ tJl.e .uppa" 0 Henry vm at ...... Fidd of th.. Cloth oC Gald, and ~ fu ......er Ht-backs al Mila.o. ... '50 and with the d d " _ 0 Charles Duke OfBo.rboD iI:t 1,5ll3o Ia retaliario.. for Bourbon' ....ali 0 .. M.anftlln F...... cis ODce more ...vaded Italy, .... was ddn.led resowulirtslyat lIIe Bani.. oCPavia .... 'S-50 8e~o biI death, F..... w ud IDOU-llled further e:am.pups .,.... Charles aided Illy Dew allin_the Turtt. and th.. Protes Priac.on ofGerrna.ay. (P.,.tutt ~ 0.-1, l.~ M _ ; ~ c.ru.ryStJ.)

2

intervention of Lannoy, who granted him safe conduct from the field of battle. The battle had been equally disastrous for the French on the right flank. Kaspar von Frundsberg, leading the charge from the cit) against Alem;on's troops, had succeeded in dri\-ing hundreds of the French into the Tissino \\here man) drowned in their hea\') annour. In less than twO hours 8,000 Frenchmen had fallen at the expense of only 700 Imperialists. The defeat of the French at Pavia left Ital) at the mercy of Charles, and proved that the Spanish and the Gennan Landskneehts were the best shock troops in Europe. Francis, exiled to Spain, had to suller the humiliation of complying with Charles's terms before he could return to his kingdom. Thus he pledged to renounce his claims on Burgundy, Italy

and Flanders. However, no sooner was he rem· stated at his court than he declared the temlS of peace invalid and sct about cstablishing a nC\\I amiHabsburg alliance. On '2'2 .1\la) 15'26 in Cognac, Frands fonned the Holy League with the Pope, Francesco Sforza of Milan, and the princes of the Venetian Republic and Florence.

Loc:oc_1., or ........I.........I-Coloaft. 11 .....1~ H_~. ·AmpMlt-lli,-.! RnrJt.J.js.L.s'. ~4t ~~.,4tt.M..d

fine &pre: a. the Ioead of doe ~e.1I or FiJ:mJeiD. II ...... _ IUllCOlllU:llOa .0 6Dd the eou;ip ia do.. L1Uclo: of the &.o.y def~ lIIQ: .raadard Iiteno.Uy wido toodo ....l Bail. Jori..... doe halia.. hiJiu.ria.a, tP\"eS ... aCCOlPlI or a dead eo:uip fowod Da doe h.llJdi",td with bedo aTDUI Iuocl
RlOIfT:

TIle UlIilp WlUI a1 ..... ys haDd-picl
co.u.......uyaccornJl"li'ied by the drununer ...d fifer,....l CUi a

28

Italian Cantpaigns 1526 29 .1\lcanwhile Charles had been faced with internal problems. The Gennan peasants had sought to venL their political frustration by means of revolt, but this had been speedily crushed by the Swabian Alliance. Furious at the defiance shown by the French court Charles approached Frundsbcrg once again. The forces of the League had already begun to consolidate their positions in Lombardy. "',lith

an army of 12,000 Landsknechts, poorly equipped and without adequate financial resources, the Imperial commander succeeded in avoiding an engagement at Trient and reached Brescia by midXovcmber 1526. However, Frundsberg and Bouroon were divided and unable (0 join together. ~Iedici, commanding the Papal forces, had planned to ambush the Imperial almy under Frundsberg south of Mantua at the Po crossing by Bargofone. Frundsbcrg rightly hesitated to cross, hoping to hear news of the conclusion of a peace treaty, but on seeing that the Papal Venetian army was about to take the offensive he ordered a small falconet to be brought up: loading it himself, he hit the commander of Lhe enemy's forces, smashing Medici's leg 10 pieces with only his second shot. The Italians withdrew in confusion. Although the Imperial troops were now able to cross the Po and enter Papal territory their strategic position was not strong, as provisions and finances were veT)' low. \\'hat Frundsberg must have been fearing had already happened to Bourbon-his Spanish troops had mutinied and were now running riot in the Italian Countryside. By the end ofthc year Bourbon had succeeded in assembling an army again and in February 1527. with some 20,000 men, he left Milan and joined Frundsberg near Piaccnza. A march on Rome now secmed inevitable, for only by forcing Clcment to recognise the Impcrial claim to Italy cOllld Charles succeed in splitting the League down the middle. At the same time the Imperial anny was thirsting for plunder and to deny the Landsknechts such an opponuniry would have been an open invitation to mutiny. On the march to Romc news came that the Pope had signed a peace treat)' with Lannoy and had offered 60,000 ducats to appease the Lands· knechts. Enraged at the off"er of only twO ducats pcr man, the Spanish and Italian contingents mlltinied on Bourbon. The news soon spread to Frundsberg's camp, where his men demanded immediate payment on Lheir AlonatssoJd. In a great speech the veteran commander tried to placate his troops, who seemed to be on the verge of mutiny. His attempt was in vain, yet JUSt when il seemed that total rebellion was incvitablc, the situation was saved by an odd twist of fate. Frundsberg, exhaus· ted b)' his cxtensi\'e campaigning and no\\ in ill health. collapsed in front ofhis men. Their reaction

BlocIdl.oodt al ADlwftJ>' nu. woodCUI l;akea from ~ 'WN. KlUliC (CCMU'tn)' of the BriIiAb M _ ) depiru. _ e r....... _01M.ximm.n'.arl)'_~iatheLowCo"'lri_Lo

1111 wllea M••imjlian __ ID&I'do.iag ... ADlwftJ> be __ lI.hed by a btockhouH which Charm VD.I .!lad erected to d.f.nd the city. Altho..gh o..cn...... bered, Maxirni1.ia.n. avoided the blO(:lo.ho..... and charged the eaemy al hi. Darrow..t froat to m,.l,,: ..B'ed;v.... At: of hi. Land.bedu•. After takUtg th.. bloekJoo..se lie ordered it to be n>ced ...... the occu.....,. ba....ro-Iy ""eo;>Ited by ~ aDd the 'wllet:l'.

was one of immediate sympathy for their com· mander and all thoughts of mutiny soon disap· pcared. Frundsberg was taken to Ferrara and Konrad \·00 Borneburg took o\cr his command. Disciplint', in spite of the incidcnt in the German camp. \\ now virtuall) non·existent. I t was only the thouKht of rich plunder which drove the Imperial arm) on towards Rome. By April, Bourbon and Boynebur~ had reached Florence, and by decoy. passed an army of the League which stood in their way By ~fay they had reached Rome. Bouroon, who had been forced to leave his artilleT)' behind and was withollt any siege equipment, asked the Pope for provisions for his men and free access to Naples. Clement. hoping for relief from the Duke of l:rbino, refused. The Constabk. now gro\",in~ desperate, had to make a quick decision. The amty of the League which he had c1e\'erly by-passed was now in his rear and his own troops wcre ~~n~ for an assault. On the morning of6 ~fa) 1527 the first German

29

Landskncchts broke through the walls of Rome. Bourbon, who had insisted on leading the first assault, was killed climbing the city wall. As soon as the first cannons had been captured lhey were aimed at the fortress of San Angelo. The Pope followed by his cardinals only just managed to escape to the Castel San Angelo, while his Swiss bodyguard fought a fateful rearguard action in the Vatican. Within lhree hours lhe whole Vatican had been taken. Von Boyneburg made an attempt to restrain his troops from plunder, but predictably, it was in vain. Although they had assembled in squared formalion, expecting an attack from Urbina's oncoming relief force, the) soon dispersed on sight oflheir Spanish and Italian comrades who began a wild rampage through the city, looting and murdering. The 'Sacco di Roma' outraged the sentjment of lhe whole civilised world. Charles, now with the whole Papal State in his power. was ex~cted to declare himself 'The Supreme Head of the Christian Church'; but he refrained from doing so, seeing that he needed the

J

Pope to maintain his hold on ltaJ). Not until February 1528 did the last units of Landsknechts leave Rome. For the march on Naples a final muster-parade was arranged. Of lhe 1'2,000 men who had crossed the Alps with Frundsberg scarcely 5,000 remained, the ranks having been decimated by the plague which had mcamvhilc broken out in Rome. The war in Italy did nOl end until the summer of 1529. Atlhe Peace of Cambrai Francis renounced his claims on Italy for the second lime at the Imperial expense of the Duchy of Burgundy. Charles had to promise to overthrow the Medicis of Florence in return for the Papal recognition of Habsburg sovereignty in Italy and Europe. In February 1530 Charles V was cro\.. noo Empcrorofthe Holy Roman Empire by the Pope in Bologna. The' MonorchiD UnilNTsalis' thus seemed to have been achieved at last. However, external pressures were soon to change this. In the East the Turkish Emperor Suleiman 11 had been extending his innuence. In 1532 the Turks, having swept

\

/

_.

Tak... (renD Ihot 'ScbwfturKhlacht' by Ha.oo. Holbela, this .... vivid po""'raJ or Wto.al 'bad war-i.e. a coftf"rOIlt.atiOIt betwee:a $wi.. and Germ.... mercenaries_m...l hit.... beftl

30

like. Tbe more KaabaJ«er pro~·ed ...osl elfeo;:ti~·e al do.e qllltrters apia.sl Ihot cumbersome halbercltl aad plkes. rc..kV IN 10 ~,jtrJtuftJ.U/1'dl, BIU/t)

through Hungary, had arrived at the gates of Vienna. Charles, who had bttn involved in religious conflict wiLh factions within the Empire, was forced to concede to the Protestant princes once again in order to acquire arms and money at the Imperial Diet at Augsburg in 1530. In 1532 he ad\'anced on the Turks at the head ofa huge army and repulsed them in the woods of Vienna. Despite their defeat the Turks maimained their aggressive policy. [n the ).,Iediterranean Barbarossa, the much-feared pirate, became the scourge of Spanish and Italian shipping and in 1534 crowned himself 'King of Algiers and Tunis'. In the same year he approached Genoa with his f1cct as an open gesture of challenge to Charles. The lattcr promptly of me Battle ofRav_l.) CoIOJUla with800beavy bOrM relaliated and with an army of 30,000 and an Map b) 6,woSpamsh ialuatry. c)600 b_vy cavalry. d) ,,-WlUlt"; armada of some 364 ships and galleys attacked m Iquan< uader Carda-. e) 400 bnvy borM. f)..- (__ ,) whh . , _ l.if!:;bl bof'ft_ .J Duke of Fern... with 7SO Barbarossa at Tunis, uttcrly defeating the Turkish PHcanl. be.vy ca... try from me Compllpn d'Ordoroaaaee.•) 1,000 commander both on land and at sea. Francis, who Gee....... LandslulKhu u.ader MoUard and Jaoob von Ern•• 3) ,,- e . - aDd Picard)' U'y m .uppo.....tJ La l'ali .. had In pan instigated the aggressive Turkish with s80 beavy cavalry. s) 00 WaJlU'y, rnaiaJ)' h ..l 6) liS11i bol'M. policy, was unable toolfer the Turks any dircct hclp ],000 (1-;_ R...IIN.. '~sdN.u tl61'!f1Ul1~'''', f·.... Ij since thc Imperial campaign had the aura of a crusade for '-Veslcrn civilisation. He did, however, alliances with the Turks and Charles promised to hastily conclude the so·calJed 'Capitulations' with yield Sa\'o) and two-thirds of the territory of Suleiman, strengthening their alliance III an Piedmont to the French. Milan \\as not discussed. The Turkish pressure was soon to gather fresh attempt to restore the balance of power. momenlUm. In 1538 Corfu fell to Barbarossa and Ferdinand was dealt a second blow b} Turkish Campaigns of 1536 54 forces at PCSI in Hungary. Charles was obliged to In the meantime the war in Italy had flared up undertake a second expedition, Ihis time against again. Francesco Maria Sforza, the last Duke of Algicl'S. His flcet ravaged by the clements and his ~lilan, died in 1535 without an heir. The Duchy of arm) drenched b} rainstorms, the expedition Milan therefore fell to Charles V. Francis promptly proved abortive. In the light of these defeats claimed the Ouch)' for his son Charles Ill, Duke of Francis decided to declare war on Charles once Orleans and occupied Turin in 1536. As a result the again, using the murders of his diplomats as a German Emperor crossed the Alps once again, this pretext. Aftcr a succession of inconclusive camtime entering his opponent's tcrrito')-. With an paigns the French lost Luxemburg and much of army 50,000 strong he devastated Provence and their southern from around Piedmont. In February began besieging ~'larscillcs. He was soon forced to 1543 Charles entered illlo an aJliance with Henn. beat a retreat as his ranks were decimated by the VI I I of England and in June the same} ear the (1('\\ plague, and he retumed to Germany with his Imperial ally declared waron France. The idea W
3

the French into batLle in an atlempt to relieve the fortress. The twO annies met at Ceresole d'Alba, some 30 miles south east of Turin. Enghien had mustered 13,000 foot, 600 light horse and goo hea\l' cavalry while del Vasto's force comprised 18,000 fooL, 800 light horse and 200 heavy cavalry. The battle was nOlable for the inlroduction of new lactics by both sides. The French concealed most of their arquebusiers immediately behind the artilJery in the front, and on the wings between the fonnations of horse and pike. The Imperialists employed cxacd) the same tactic, the overall intent.ion being to fire on impact of the two front ranks, thus killing the officers and seasoned troops. During the ensuing bloodbalh the Imperial horse on the left flank registered an initial triumph against Enghien's gendarmes, but the fooL guarding the right Rank were soon repulsed and rouled by the French 'provincial legions', and Swiss detachments. Del Vasto managed to beat a hast) retreat ha\'ing lost some 6,000 men and all his art.iUery. Yet in spite ofthis victor)' the French were recalled from Piedmont as Charles had invaded Champagne with 30,000 Landslmechts and 9,000 Spaniards. Henry VIII had also landed and takcn Boulogne, wilh 4-0,000 troops. By July 1544 Charles had taken Saint Dizier, Epernay, and Chateau Thierry. Henry VIII, contenl with his 'Enterprise of &ulogne', showed no intent.ion of advancing inland and the Dauphin, who had successfully implemented 'scorched earth' tactics, placed the Imperial anny in an impossible SIlUation. The Cennan troops, starving and mut.inous, began to desert and Charles was forced to sign the Peace of Crepy on 18 September, whereby the Emperor renounced his claims on Burgundy while Francis acceded Naples, Artois and Flanders; Savo)' and Piedmont were restored to their rightful houses. In the space of 27 rears the Valois·Habsburg struggle had brought four wan to Europe without either side gaining any monumental advantage. Francis died in 1547, giving Charles the leeway he needed to turn his attention to the religious eonAict which was lhreatening to split the Empire from within. In December 1545 an ecumenical council had been held at Triel1l to solve the religious question. The Protestant princes, notabl)- Moritz, Elector of Saxony, and Philip, Duke ofHcsscn had

32

i

--_.

i [,1 I·

.- . . _~

'--

)'

_"--

• -«...... o

..-

•

0 0

0

I ii II

'- 1.1. : •.• I U '-/

-'"

.1.'

--

,

,,

•,

•

--',,-':--;-'....,._

r

/ TILi. detailed pba of ....e Balde of P.via .hoWl' b_ ....e

m.pnialU;I ...... y OUtJnaBoeavrM FraIII
(Photo uu,1tsy &l>'lt RomJmd LJd)

refused to accept the authority of this Council and were consequently outla\\ed by Charles. The electors had fonned thc Schmalkaldic League in 1546 in an attempt to defend Protestant interests against Imperial intc[yemion. B} 1547 the)' had mobilised a considerable army supported b)' the cities of Vim, Augsburg, Constance and Strasbourg. In April lhat year Charles engaged Moritz of Saxony at Miihlberg with t3,000 Imperialists and 3,500 Papal troops. The battle was importam for the introduction of a new tactic detennincd by the increasingimponanceofthe mounted pistoleer. This new mobile firepower proved devastating against infantry, and the repeat<.'C! vollies fired by each line of horse bcforedropping back demolished ranks at a time. The Protestant ann)', numbering 9,000, was thoroughl)' defeated by the Imperialists, who su[fered only 50 casualties. The two Protestant leaden were taken prisoner and all fears of a prolonged ci\'il war seemed to have been groundless. In France, however, the new king Henry II had resumed his father's policy of aggression and

concluded an alliance with the PrOlcslanl princes in Germany. In 1551 Henry met Moritz of Saxony and Philip of Hcsscn al Friedewald, and t.hey arranged to assist the French king in taking the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun. In 1553 Charles Al Imperial Htrald, 1525 besieged Metz but was forced to retreat and in 1554 If several regiments were together in one army it he suffered a further defeat at the hands of the was customary for the commanding officer to have French king at Reuly. ~Ieanwhile ~IOrilZ had been a herald who could act as liaison and convey pressing south towards Innsbruck, the Emperor'S messages to the enemy. He was normally clad in a place ofrcsidence. In 1552 Ferdinand of Austria, silk surcoat bearing the embroidered coat ofarms of me brother of the Emperor, was forced to sign the the Obrist or, as in this case, the Imperial double· Treaty of Nassau with the Protcstanls. Charles was headed eagle. As a symbol of his peaceful task he b) now no longer in a position to govern his Empire carried a while baton. and handed Ferdinand this responsibility. In 1554 Charlt'S, in a last attempt to weaken the A2 GnJrg ron Fnmdsbtrg French threat, organised a marriage between his son Philip ofSpain and ~Ial)- Tudor of England. In Born in Minde1heim in 1473, Georg von FrundsJanuary 1566 Charles abdicated in favour of his berg became a devoted servant of the Habsburgs. son, who received control of all the Italian lands He continually wore the Imperial field recognition and colonies. In September thai year he renounced sign, which was a red sash, and was noted for his me Imperial tiLie in favour of his brother Fer· Roman.st)led hclmet and the halberd which he bore with distinction. dinand.

C]/ie 'P/rlf6

Conclusion

Although the L.'tndsknechtS \\lere 10 sec service throughout Europe, it was precisely this in· tcrnational involvcment which caused their ul· timate disappearance. Charles was continually at pains to acquire funds and support for his cam· paigns from his Princes, who wcrc inclined to o[fer financial aid only at a political price. The Lands· knechts, for their pan, suOered largely from a breakdown in discipline, as the mercenaries were prepared to renounce their allegiance to the Emperor at a price. The ultimatum 'No money no Landsknechts' was often beard. Many historians are led to believe thai the decline of the Landsknechts began upon the death ofFrundsberg. Certainly the original conception of .Maximilian's reign-that ofa lxxIy ofpikcmcn who would be a malch for the S\\liss-had gradually been superceded due to the progress offirearms. B}' the second half of the sixteenth CCOllll) garish costume began to disappear, and e\'en the word Landsknecht soon made wa) for 'kaistrlichtr Fussknuht' (Imperial FOOl.soldier), thus marking the end of one of the most colourful periods in European military history.

Aj Got-t von Btrlichingtn (1481 1562)

Known as 'Gotz of the Iron Hand', he belonged to the class of Imperial knights who were fast becoming an anachronism al Ihis time of upheaval. His iron hand was a substilute for the onc he had lost at the Siege of Landshut in '5°4-. Largely celebrated as a 'robber baron', he took part in many campaigns in Burgundy, Lorraine, Switzer· land and for Maximilian in t497 and 14gB; his career ended wilh the wars against the Turks in Hungary in 1542 and the campaigns ofCharlcll V against Ihe french in t54+ He was also prominent in the Peasant's Revolt, in which he led L11e peasant 'Bw/dsdlUh Regiment'. (Thc standard was a red nag with a green shoe and trailing ribbon motif.) He was acquitted by the Imperial Chamber for his part in the rebellion, bUI seized by the Swabian Alliance in 1528 and kept prisoner at Augsburg until 1530. B TIlL Emptror Maximilian I

Apart from his contribution towards the creation of the LandsknechtS and Ihe development of a 'modern' artillel)' system, ~1aximilian was also responsible for the production of one of the most important styles of renaissance armour. Known as

33

nu.

rather wCc:u.nlte reprneae.tioD of P by P.tiDier a1pCures, oevenheles.. the maio fcatvru of the nle. I... the cop Ide of the piclure 0011' caD see Alenl;oD'a croops io their vain .uempe to eacape .eros. the Tiu;ioo. I... the CftIln: the

lm.peria.I eroo. . are forciol their _,. thro"tl:b th", breach io the wall of the Park of Mlnboo:Uo. I... the forqroUDd, the cla.ab belW_ th", Fnncb 1D0Ufteed e-darrn.,. .Dd Lanno}"a eavalry ;. cl.....ly vi.iblt:. (Au.rllm/«ulMs MIlSt~'"' j'ItMIJ)

'Maximilian armour' in referencc to the support which lhc Emperor gave lO the amlOuring guilds in Gcrmany and Austria, this style was dominanl in lhc ycars between 1500 and 1530. II was characterised by the multiple groovcs and flutings which affordcd both omameillation and greater pl'O~ teclion. The Emperor owned IwO sets of horse furnishings. The larger battle armour retained a Gothicoutline and \\as festooned with the Imperial device (the two-headed eagle). The horsc furniture depicted here is the lightcr sct bearing the Austrian coat of anns notc the Tyrolean eagles on the pectoral.

was Cuslomary to find the' Hauprftutt' in armour. This captain is wearing a lalcr fonn of 'Maximilian' armOlU· wilh ornamenlal flulings. A laler dcvclopment was the so-callcd Trablwmisch or trOlling armour, which was a much lightcr form of protection with more rounded articulations, wider ann-guards and shoulder pieces. Hcadgear in gencral consisted ofa felt. beret with a basin-shaped crown and a wide brim. Often this was cuI al regular intervals all round, and sometimes turned back 10 fonn stiff loops. This was suitably adorned with bright fealhers, or ruffled wool.

C2 CI Captain, 1520

Since they were expected to fight in the front rank it

34

S(kullh~iss,

C.1520

Since this office was usuall) taken up by a village magistrate or somc other public dignitary, lhe

ul1ifonn Tarel)' underwent a transfonnation of any sort. The important features arc the chain ofoffice and the Slaff, a foml of roar spear, which was probably the forerunner of Ihe officer's spontoon. The skull cap he is wearing, known as a calQ/lt, was usually made of cheesecloth or thin linen, de· cora ted with slashjng. The purpose of the cap was to keep rolh hair and hal in place but in actual fact it was originally a type of hairnel worn by the womenfolk. The tunic, in Italian Renaissance style, is Iypical of the dress worn b)' officers, members of the nobility and indeed Ihe mounted troops of the day.

ing needle, grease, rag and clout was worn at the waist and suspended beneath this \'0 as a small tin phial containing olive oil for cleaning and lubricating the moving parts of the arquebus/musket. Further accoutrcments were the small touch. powder horn, somctimes hooked all to the butt of the gun; the iron ramrod, which was later replaced by a wooden version; and a four.foot.long match which hung from the belt on the ri~ht hand side. In \'oct weather this was carried under the berel or in the leather pouch. The invention of the cartridge case in lhe lauer half of the sixteenth centul1' greatly facilitated the wholc procedure ofloading.

C3 Standard BeaUT, 15°5

D2 Gem~inlL'thtl, lI'illibold Pirdhelmtr Rtglment, 15 29

Hairstyles were still long at the beginning of the sixteenth centuI) and beards were not yet in fashion. With the advent of the Spanish trends in fashion a reversal in slyies look place, short hair being preferred, together wilh long, orten exag~ gerated beards. A certain AUSlrian by the name of Andreas von Rauber, it is recorded, let his beard grow to the ground and whenever he fought tied it round his waisl; and the Oberst GrafEiteifritz von Hohenzollern plaited his beard from his chin downwards! The red cross, which was the field sign for Imperial troops (the other being a red sash) was sewn all to the doublet. The Swiss mercenaries wore a white cross on their jerkins to distinguish themselves from Ihe foe in times of "bad war'. The standard is the 'BlutJalm£ which was carried in the 'forlorn hope' to remind the Landsknechts of the deadly situation in which they found themselves.

Dl Arquehusitr,1520 Before the early 15205, which marked the arrival of the musket, the arquebusiers rarel) used rests. With the introduction of the musket, incorporating a longer barrel, rests became more common. It was also cuStomary for arquebusiers 10 carry Ihe powder, unmeasured against the number of bullets, in a hal'll around thc neck. Herc, however, we see a bandolier bearing the 'Elcven Apostles', Ihe eleven charges equalling 1 lb. of powder. Each charge was contained in a wooden vessel with a leather covering, which was preferred to the somewhat noisy copper vcsscls, and attached finnl) to the bandolier. A leather pouch containing shot, clean·

The only attempt made in these times at some fonn of uniformity was made by the Nuremberg patrician Willi bald Pirckheimer, who raised a regiment in 1529, fining it out wilh red jerkins and hose, red being Ihe heraldic colour of :'\Iurcmberg, and also blending in well with blood! This corporal is wearing the Donnal shin gathered at the neck, \\;th full slecn."S which were pulled OUI through the slashes in the puffed-out jerkin. The origin of 'slashing' probably lies in the complete un· suitability ofsixlcenth century costume for fighting. An oversized shirt, often gathered at the neck, and tight-fitting hose and doublet restricted movement at the joints. Realising this the Landsknecht sel about com'erting and adding to his ·unifonn'. The first step was to slil open thejerkin at the elbows and shqulders, the hose at the knees and hips. To create a more striking appearance, slrips of ribbons were tied round tbe arms and the shin was pulled through the jerkin in bunches.

D3 Pikffllon, (.1520 It was uncommon for the nonnal foolSOldier to wear armour. The 'true' Landsknechl never \\-ore a backplate since he nevcr turned his back on the enemy. It was, however, due 10 lack of resources that Ihis cuStom was adopted. The len leg was oftcn left bare, free of any hindrance, so that pike drill could be carried Qut with greater de'\tcrity. Sometimes lhis was carried to the extreme, the bUllOCks being completely exposed. The hose were sometimes slashed in the upper part and striped in

35

the lower. The Icgs were of different colours and decoratcd in various ways wlth pipings, stripes and spiral bands.

E Locolmml, 1545 Armour underwent several changes during the sixteenth century. A complete suit of armour usually weighed between forty and fifty pounds. it was therefore necessary to introduce as many articulations as possible to increase mobility in some way. By 1530 the Maximilian-styled armour with its multiple grooves and flutings had disappeared, with the breast plate and the cllisscs revcrting to their former smooth states. The breast plate bcgan to assume a more curved shape, taking on the form of a peascod. The neck-piece was replaced by a collar with a gorget which was articulated in lobster fashion, as were the upper arm sections and the gauntlets, which had jointed fingers. The saddlery, which at the bcginningofthe sixteenth century had been essentially iron with the cantle fiued to its mountings, was now made of wood and leather reinforced with iron, affording greater comfon and freedom of mo\'ement. There

were also developments in the horse-armour, which began to show greater articulation, notably with the three-piece hinged 'pcytral' or pectoral buckled to the main body-piece by means of leather straps. The bulbous ornamentation on the pectoral, known as the glance-knob, was designed to parry lance blows. Fl Drummtr, 1525

The drum was often large and cumbersome and was usually carried on the back during the march. Sometimes it bore the Imperial motif either the double-headed eagle or the Burgundian crossed staves and fiery devices. F2 Landskntehtl c.1553

The origin of the Pluderhost' the huge baggy hose dates back to 1553 when they first appeared in the camp of Prince Moritz of Saxony who was besieging ~Iagdeburg. So monstrous was their appearance that the clergy banned them. The court priest at Berlin, a certain ~llusculus, in a great treatise on the subject complained that the hose did more to expose the anatomy than hide it since it was divided at the hips by a huge often obscene; codpiece in the form of a bow of slashed material. Before its acceptance as a fashion it was not uneommon for Landsknechts caught wearing Pludtrhost to be incarcerated. Essentially the hose consisted of yards of material held up by' slasht:d bands sllspended from the waist at the front and rear. C

F3 Ensign

110e "Redu de:r .....,"'"' Spies"" or 'jud&m",",1 o( the pikes' ...... a rOnD of n>aai.ot me p_deL After the priamler bad Hna tried by jury l:Ie ...... led 10 eM plaICe O( .....ecutio... wlricll ...... aD av",",ue O( OM pikes o( Iris c:ontndes. Aller the uecuticm, 1M Pro~_1 ~ed them _ICe more o( the "mela' and thoe <:os! or Tailia& to obey them..

36

of Nuremberg,

155 0

By the mitl-sixteenth century costume had undergone a considerable transformation, being influenced to a large extent by Spanish trends. Beards became more pointed; and the wide slashed beret gave way to a much smaller version, or to a helmet ofmarion and burgonct type. The burgonet had hinged cheek-pieces, and often an additionaJ faee plate known as a beaHr. The marion was a simple open helmet used particularly by the arquebusiers. Doublets were prone to c.xtensive vcrtical slashing, and the shirt was rurned at neck and cuffs in typical Spanish fashion. Footwear began to cover the whole instep at this stage. in the earlier period an exaggerated type of shoe called

As WIIS ofteo the CII""'. jUlilice .ameli...... h.d lO be .dJniDi.... lerfll withoul lrial. Co... mon (ormJl of eseculioR were

•Kuhmiiult' -cow's mouth-had been fashionablc,

but the open instep and elaborate toe section was quite impractical on mudd) battlefields. GI DopptlsolJntr oj tht Black Ltgion, 1520

Known as the 'Black Legion' or 'Black Bands', this

'"-M'

Ixlle.-diDS auwI the 'wheel'. {Woo'(MI ~, BMr~t-lrf ..... 'Wtiu Ii. Mf"t' ,(I>M1Ul7 8111IJh ,1/Mmt1>l1

group of soldiers grew originally from a nucleus of some 800 Landsknechts in French pay \\ ho refused to return to Cemlan) in accordanc~ with ~1a.ximilian·s decree artcr the Imperial defeat at Ravcnna in 1512. Cnder the command ofthe Duke of Gueldres, this nOLOrious compan) was outfitted

37

DnunDlrr and Piper: Found invariably in th ....nlouragr ofth., "Dsi"" thr m.usicians w .. r .. relipo.u;;bl .. fot' m.aintaiaing th.. intpetus i.D th.. aliliauh, mo".,mrnt being art a' W .... pile.... for

in black jerkins and hose, and their armour was blackened by fire to avoid rusting. The 'Black Legion' was finally destroyed at Pavia in 1525.

r"rry 6".. beats of th.. drum. During th., march On" tnuliici.an Dormll1ly joined th.. rear.

(1I'oodo
oJ ]o.sl .Immutl ttl 8/(lu" •Orr d,ul!.:!" ""'tldsAnnA!')

require, and was often the fil'Stto join in the plunder of a caplUred town. G3 Provost

G2 Sulltms The sutleress and her male counterpart were often found in the train, where their goods found a certain market. Their prices were fixed by the &h.uJthtiss to avoid any haggling, which was often the cause of camp brawls. In general the sutleress provided \'inually everything a soldier might

38

The provost was responsible principally for policing the Landsknechts and enforcing the 'articles'. After the quanennaster had selected a suitable site for the camp, the provost immediately detennined the location of the marketplace and ordered a galJows to be erected. While the &huJthtus fixed the prices of the goods to be sold, the proVOSt charged

the sutlers and sutlercsscs a small 'protection' fee. Similarly he often demanded a sum of money from prisoners who had finished their sentence in the camp gaol (oftcn the provosl's own lem).

flag was nOI 10 be unfurled until the unit had reestablished ils honour. During this time the standard was always carried with the point facing theground. On the death ofthe ObriSl, his body was draped in the flag and buried with it. Similarly. H: Standards when the regiment disbandccl after a campaign, me standards were usually taken down from their The Fiihnltin, which in Gcmlan is the diminutivc of staves and tom into pieces, each soldier recei\'ing a Rag, was by no means a small affair. Standards were portion as remembrance for his service. usuaJly anything up to ten feet in length with a width of six feet. The staO" was nonnaJl)f slightly There were also flags designed for the train. The leading carriage of thc Emperor or the FtJdobrist longer than the width of the standard and bore a usually carried the imperial standard or that of the knob at the lowcr end whieh was used 10 facilitate commanding officer. ThOS(' wagons carrying bread the cdebratcd 'flag swinging', which still goes on in and flour carried a white flag, and the field kitchen paruofSwitzerland and Southern Gennany loday. a red. flag. Oftcn standards were taken aJong \.. hich The standards of the Fiihnll!ln usuaJly bore the had no place in the train whatsoever. TIltse of colours and heraldic devices of the captain, or of a course belonged to unwarranted bands the so· city, ifit was represented. The material was usuaJly called Aftroiltbrudtr, from which we have the word silk and the shape and size often varied. Conmarauder J who were to be found in most annies on temporary prints show rounded standards attached the march at that time. to haJberds, for example. The standard was a symbol of the april ilt corps and accordingly if a HI The Reichsstunnfahne was the Imperial regimen! or Fiihnltin had fallen into disrepute the batLle flag and as such always bore the double-

/

The whole _uale '

oneo derisively caJ.lecI the 'wltorn

aDd. ........ n', wu in y retlpKU • ....ul in iudf,"'~;ta Owa .. laAdard aDd. of1_ bdDti en>pJoyecl 10 ........ trua

artlo_rb or ... tid, the artillery. The w .....e u-aia wu uader the c:om.rnand of the HtlreDwllibd, ... offieer with lIM: raak of c:apuiD wbo had biti _ ti~,etUUI', eaa;p. ..... Rrw-t'L

39

headed cagle. When the Emperor was not present the standard ofthe commanding officer became the leading baule nag.

H2 In the Turkish Wars, '532, the standard of Friedrich of Bavaria who was the supreme commander of the Imperial forces was used instead of the double-headed eagle. It bore the figure ofSt ~Iichael on the Bavarian colours beneath the words 'DE COELO VICTORIA'. H3 Charles V as successor to MaximiHan inherited an immense empire. This was s~ mbolised on a new Imperial flag depicting the twin pillars of Hercules i.e. German)' and Spain and the motif 'PLUS OULTRE' or in Gcnnan ':',lOCH WElTER'.

Cunp' Wil1t.in ....... was_ Cort., doe I .. od,kn~u: w~ Wt to ~. to 6JKI or ~ .....m ........ abdt...... Thit oCtao lOOk tile Corm oC ...impl.. leaa-co Or aD l.locI-.l>aped lau' __d .. oCb.......d>... -....d mud .upported ... aD A' &a.m... oCIoalbndL 110.. (:IlIDp ~ Itevtr _ to 0 _ be
pmbliaS tabl....

H4 Arter the marriage of Maximilian to ~fary, daughterofCharlcs the Bold, the Burgundian motif HIO RnthsrtmifoJmt. This Rag was always carried of the cross of St Andrew was adopted and by the arch-marshal alongside the Emperor. appeared on all his standards until his death. The figure of the crossed branches later appeared in BIBLIOGRAPHY gold, blue and red. It was nOt uncommon to see the Cross of St Andrew nanked by the twin pillars of Anon, Wtu.r Kun;g, Biography of Maximilian I, Hercules "ith the words 'PLUS ULTRA' above. 15 18. Blau, Friedrich, Dtr deutsche LiIndrknecht, Garlitz HS Standard of Georg von Frundsbcrg. 1882. Deiss, Friedrich, Dos deutstht &ldotenhuth, Berlin f/6 The Cross of St Andrew orten appeared In 193 2 . simple fOlm against a yellow background. Doring, Hans, Kriegshuch oj GraJ Rtinhord rif Solms, '545· H7 Standard oflhc Fugger family, Augsburg. Lezius, Martin, Vonviirts ... Vorwiirls ... zur Geschichte dtr dtulschm Landskntclll, Leipzig 1935. /-/8 Standard of Memmingcn, Nell, Martin, Zur En/sleJlUllg der deu/schen UJndsStandard of the Georgschild Rirtergesellschqfl (league of Swabian knights). This standard was adopted by the Swabian Alliance and ultimalely carried by Swabian troops in the fifteenth and sixleelllh centuries.

Hg

40

knechle. Richter, Erich, Frtmdsberg, Munich 1968. RUSfOW, Vol. I, Geschichte dtr lrifallttrie, 1884.. Scheer, Johannes, Das UJndsknechtsltben. Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst, Hans von, Kriegsbildtr der deutschm LiIndsknechlJ Stuttgart, 1884.

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