SAVING THE AMUR LEOPARD FROM EXTINCTION From the makers of
TM
THE TRUTH ABOUT
BATS
150 OVER
AMAZING FACTS
PLUS
SNAILS WHALES RHINOS GECKOS
SMELLIEST ANIMALS
THE STINKIEST CREATURES ON EARTH
SEA TURTLES
DISCOVER THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD’S OCEANS
1 IN 1000 HATCHLINGS SURVIVE INCREDIBLE LIFESPANS EPIC MIGRATIONS
WILDLIFE OF THE GRAN CHACO
Meet the inhabitants of the forgotten forest
ALL ABOUT MANTA RAYS
Uncover the secrets of these gentle giants
UNEXPECTED COLOUR
Animal hues that will blow your mind
EXPLORE ICELAND
Journey to this wildlife paradise
THE RAINBOW BIRD ISSUE 34
Meet Milo…
We’re delighted to introduce Milo Parker, Durrell’s newest Ambassador. The 13 year old actor portrays the young Gerald Durrell in ITV’s hit series ‘The Durrells’. Milo says he is honoured to join the Durrell family as our Ambassador. Milo will be helping us raise the profile of the pioneering conservation work we carry out across the globe.
To find out more visit durrell.org/thedurrells find us on
saving species from extinction
Welcome Bats are probably some of the most misunderstood animals on Earth, so in this issue we’re here to bust some myths and to highlight just why these flying mammals deserve some positive attention! Turn to page 20 to read our interview with Chris Packham, the Bat Conservation Trust’s president, and to find out all about these winged wonders. Big cats and sea turtles may be more charismatic, but we still need to raise awareness about their plight. The Amur leopard is critically endangered, and six of the seven kinds of sea turtle are threatened or endangered. On page 64, we take a look at the work being done to protect the elusive big cat and on page 12 we meet the seven incredible species of sea turtle. If you love aquatic animals like the turtle, head to page 86 for everything you need to know to master underwater photography. We’d love to see your wildlife photos too! Send them to
[email protected].
Zara Gaspar Editor
Editor’s picks SOS: snails in distress While it is important to safeguard the future of big, charismatic animals like the elephant, the smaller species are just as vital. Find out all about the work being carried out to protect the Partula snail on page 80. Creature comforts Here at World of Animals HQ, we adore all things animal, which is why I love our wish list on page 84. Why not treat yourself to a flamingo watering can for the garden or make some panda-shaped picnic sandwiches this summer?
10% of our profits help fight poaching Learn more and donate at www.animalanswers.co.uk
© Getty; Sam Aberdeen; Chester Zoo
Meet the team…
Designer Lauren Debono-Elliot
Staff Writer Naomi Harding
Assistant Designer Briony Duguid
Picture Editor Tim Hunt
Meeting a mate is messy work if you’re a toucan – they have food fights to find the one! Meet the bird behind the beak on page 36.
Bats (page 20) really are diamonds in the rough(age). A diet of shiny insects means their poo sparkles in the moonlight.
All hail King Julien, ‘Lord of the Lemurs’, and friends on page 34, as WOA explores some of Madagascar’s favourite natives.
Find out what’s making a stink in this issue, as we look at some of the worst offenders in the animal kingdom on page 56.
Follow us at…
@WorldAnimalsMag
worldofanimalsmag
Meet the reptile that is older than the dinosaurs on page 70 Visit www.animalanswers.co.uk for Exclusive competitions Hilarious GIFs Upload your photos and win prizes!
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Welcome to Issue 34 06 Amazing animals 12 Sea turtles
Discover the seven amazing species of sea turtle
20 The truth about bats Uncover the secrets of these flying mammals
Explore this largely uninhabited South American territory
34 Meet the lemurs
Get acquainted with some of the most peculiar primates
36 Meet the bird behind the beak
Find out all about the toucan
41 Bizarre leaf-tailed gecko
The lizard disguised as a leaf
42 All about the manta ray
50 Unexpected colour Animal hues that are sure to blow your mind
THE IUCN RED LIST Throughout World of Animals you will see symbols like the ones listed below. These are from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of animal species in the world. Here’s what they mean:
EXTINCT EXTINCT IN THE WILD CRITICALLY ENDANGERED ENDANGERED
LEAST CONCERN
4
36
64 Conserving Amur leopards
Find out what work is being done to save this big cat
70 Endangered tuatara 72 Explore the Earth: Iceland
Journey to the one of the best whale-watching destinations in the world
80 Working for wildlife
An interview with a snail keeper
84 Creature comforts
Our must-have items for animal lovers this summer
96 Lost forever: Black western rhino How this African treasure went extinct
Meet the wings of the ocean
NEAR THREATENED
The smelliest creatures on Earth
Why this living fossil is in need of our help
28 Wildlife of the Gran Chaco
VULNERABLE
56 The big stink
28
56
Xxxxxxxxxxxxx
86 Underwater photography
Find out how to capture the best shots underwater
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SEA TURTLES
90 Keeping in touch
DISCOVER THE SECRETS OF THESE UNDERWATER WONDERS 34
94 Readers’ Q&A
20 72
50
Enjoyed the issue? Save 25% when you subscribe! Page 92
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The amazing world of animals
6
© Stuart Price/Make it Kenya/REX/Shutterstock
The amazing world of animals
Two young elephants lock their trunks together as they play fight with each other on the savannah Elephant calves are known for being playful with each other. Once they have been weaned by their mothers, the males will wander off while the female young stay close to mum.
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The amazing world of animals
© Getty; Henrik Sorensen
A polar bear gets ready for a swim as it hits the water using its paws like oars to steer its body Polar bears are excellent swimmers and can swim at speeds of up to 10km/h (6.2mph). They have a thick layer of fat under their fur to keep them warm in the cold water.
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The amazing world of animals
King penguins develop a fluffy brown coat as chicks which they lose aer a year. As adults they have a silvery-black coat with bright orange and yellow markings on their head and neck.
© Getty/GalloImages
This adult king penguin surrounded by a colony of chicks definitely stands out from the crowd
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© Ian Reid/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock
The amazing world of animals
Two gannets make a huge splash as they battle it out to see who gets the fish These beautiful white seabirds hunt by flying high in the air and circling the area before diving at speeds of 100km/h ( 62mph) in to the water to catch their prey.
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The amazing world of animals
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Sea turtles
LOGGERHEAD TURTLE Caretta caretta Class Reptilia
Territory Mediterranean Sea and Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans Diet Molluscs, crabs and sponges Lifespan 50 + years Adult weight Up to 135kg (300lb) Conservation status
VULNERABLE
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ABOVE Loggerhead turtles are the most common sea turtle in the Mediterranean
SEA TURTLES They’ve been around since the dinosaurs’ time, but modern day sea turtles face their toughest challenge yet. Whether or not their story has a happy ending depends on us Words Matt Ayres Sea turtles are among the most iconic animals in the ocean. In a habitat dominated by fish, invertebrates and the occasional mammal, these ancient creatures are some of the only marine reptiles. And while saltwater crocodiles, sea snakes and marine iguanas also call the sea home, no other ocean-based reptile occupies such a vast territory. Found in most of Earth’s oceans, sea turtles are only absent from the frigid waters of the polar regions. They swim incredible distances on migration routes between feeding grounds and nesting sites – locations that are often hundreds of miles apart. As a result, they have evolved differently from their freshwater relatives.
The most obvious difference is in their size: sea turtles grow significantly larger than pond- and riverdwelling varieties. Their streamlined, fusiform bodies aid their long-distance swimming, although this difference in anatomy means that sea turtles are unable to withdraw their heads and limbs into their shells like other turtles. Human activity poses a significant threat to sea turtles. Predators that pick off helpless hatchlings on the beach pale in comparison to the ongoing dangers of fishing nets, pollution, coastal development and climate change. These man-made problems are by far the biggest cause for the decline in turtle numbers.
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Sea turtles
7 species of sea turtle From colossal leatherbacks to pint-sized Kemp’s ridleys, our oceans are home to seven species of sea turtle, each with their own distinct evolutionary traits
Fourth heaviest reptile LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLE Dermochelys coriacea Size 183cm (72 inches) Diet Jellyfish Conservation status
VULNERABLE
Unlike other sea turtles, the shells of leatherback turtles are covered in leathery skin; this makes them easy to distinguish from the likes of loggerheads and green turtles, which have tough bony carapaces. These turtles are also much larger than their hard-shelled cousins. Leatherbacks are the fourth heaviest reptiles in existence, beaten to the top spots by three different kinds of crocodile.
It is estimated that a third of all leatherback turtles have ingested plastic – the animals regularly mistake plastic bags littering the ocean for jellyfish
Spends 85 per cent of the day underwater HAWKSBILL SEA TURTLE
Eretmochelys imbricata Size 89cm (35 inches) Diet Sponges and other invertebrates Conservation status
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
Stomachs venomous prey This turtle’s mouth is hooked like a hawk’s beak, hence the name. The plates on its back (known as scutes) overlap near the back flippers, giving the bottom of its shell a serrated look.
Well-equipped to spend life at sea, loggerhead turtles spend 85 per cent of their day underwater and can remain submerged for four hours before coming up for air. LOGGERHEAD SEA The omnivorous swimmers TURTLE aren’t particularly picky about Caretta caretta Size 110cm (43 inches) what they eat: their diets are the Diet Invertebrates and plants most diverse of all sea turtles, Conservation status with meals ranging from squid to sea cucumbers. Loggerheads have even been known to eat VULNERABLE hatchling turtles.
Some of the invertebrates that the hawksbill turtle eats are venomous, and its own flesh can become poisonous as a result. Unfortunately this hasn’t stopped people from hunting and eating the reptiles.
Turtles by size
These reptiles come in all shapes and sizes
Leatherback sea turtle 183cm (72 inches)
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Green sea turtle 114cm (45 inches)
Loggerhead sea turtle 110cm (43 inches)
Flatback sea turtle 99cm (39 inches)
Sea turtles
Sun-seekers that bask on land
KEMP’S RIDLEY SEA TURTLE Lepidochelys kempii
Size 65cm (25.5 inches) Diet Crabs, jellyfish and shrimps Conservation status
Green turtles are the largest members of the Cheloniidae family. They are the only herbivorous sea turtles – while young green turtles will eat invertebrates like crabs and sea sponges, their diet becomes plantbased when they reach maturity. Another distinguishing trait of green turtles is their habit of sunbathing. While most sea turtles only leave the sea to lay eggs, green turtles enjoy basking on land.
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
GREEN SEA TURTLE Chelonia mydas
Size 114cm (45 inches) Diet Sea grasses and algae Conservation status
Rarest species of sea turtle As well as being among the smallest species of sea turtle, the Kemp’s ridley is the most endangered. It is estimated that only 1,000 nesting females are left in
ENDANGERED
the wild, mostly in the Gulf of Mexico. The greatest dangers to dwindling populations of Kemp’s ridley are overharvesting of eggs and fishing nets.
The shells and skin of green turtles are usually brown. Their name comes from the green coloured fat found beneath their carapaces
Flatback turtles lay fewer eggs than other sea turtles, but their hatchlings have better chances of survival
Home-dwellers avoid long distances FLATBACK SEA TURTLE Natator depressus
Size 99cm (39 inches) Diet Invertebrates and sea grasses Conservation status
DATA DEFICIENT
Hawksbill sea turtle 89cm (35 inches)
Flatback turtles have flat carapaces, distinguishing them from other species. They can also be recognised by their pale grey-green colour and the upturned edges of their shells. This species has the smallest geographic range of any sea turtle. They do not undertake the lengthy ocean migrations associated with other sea turtles.
Olive ridley sea turtle 70cm (27.5 inches)
Kemp’s ridley sea turtle 65cm (25.5 inches)
Mums gather to nest in numbers Olive ridley sea turtles are famous for their mass nesting instincts. The reptiles are the most abundant sea turtles in the world and gather in huge numbers on the same beaches OLIVE RIDLEY SEA where they first hatched, with TURTLE thousands of mothers laying Lepidochelys olivacea their eggs over the course of a Size 70cm (27.5 inches) Diet Invertebrates, fish and few days. algae These turtle gatherings are Conservation status known as arribadas (Spanish for ‘arrival by sea’). Kemp’s ridley sea turtles also perform these VULNERABLE nesting processions.
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Sea turtles
Trouble at sea The fact that six out of seven sea turtle species are classified as threatened or endangered is almost exclusively down to the actions of humans. Although different species are affected by different issues due to their geographical and biological diversity, some of the most devastating hazards to sea turtles include entanglement in fishing equipment, poaching, coastal development, marine debris, ocean pollution and global warming. The incidental capture of turtles while fishing (known as bycatch) is generally thought to be the greatest threat to sea turtles. Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) attached to nets have the potential to eliminate this problem. However, since there is no legislation to ensure that shrimp trawlers and other fishing boats use these devices, turtles continue to become entangled in nets and drown as a result. Climate change is another worrying phenomenon that threatens sea turtles. Because turtle gender is dependent on the temperature of the sand incubating their eggs, warmer weather results in a disproportionate number of female turtles. Without enough males for those females to mate with, overall turtle numbers will inevitably continue to decline.
BELOW Loggerhead turtles like this one and leatherbacks face the greatest risk of getting caught in nets due to their feeding habits
Sea turtles in numbers
12,744 1.44 2.6 9 1% MILES 50,000 110 MINUTES
Sea turtle populations around the world might be low, but some of the other figures documenting these remarkable reptiles are shell-shockingly high
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mph
Top speed of a swimming sea turtle
16
metres
Length of the largest sea turtle ever recorded
MILLION
MILLION
Highest number of green turtle eggs laid in a year
Number of years that sea turtles have been around
Time between heartbeats of a resting sea turtle
Likelihood of a sea turtle surviving until sexual maturity
Longest ever migration journey, achieved by a Pacific leatherback turtle
sea turtles
Number of sea turtles killed in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific every year
Sea turtles
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Win the chance to adopt a turtle and help protect them with the Marine Conservation Society. Enter by visiting animalanswers.co.uk
“The incidental capture of turtles while fishing is generally thought to be the greatest threat to sea turtles” 17
Sea turtles
Turtles under threat
Olive ridley turtle
Location: West Indian Ocean Key nesting sites: India and Oman
In 2011, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) produced a report highlighting the 11 most threatened sea populations
In the eastern Indian state of Odisha, olive ridley turtles arrive in staggering numbers, laying their precious eggs along the Bay of Bengal coastline.
Key Location of sea turtle populations
Loggerhead turtle
Location: Northeast Atlantic Ocean
Key nesting sites: Cape Verde The third largest loggerhead turtle nesting population can be found on Cape Verde. Turtle watching tours here provide a humane alternative to income from illegal poaching.
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Leatherback turtle
Location: East Pacific Ocean Key nesting sites: Mexico, Costa Rica and Nicaragua The far-travelling leatherback turtle has established several important nesting sites in Mexico and Central America. Conservation work helps to secure future generations of these Pacific giants.
© Getty; Thinkstock; NaturePL; freevectormaps.com
East Pacific Ocean
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Hawksbill turtle
Location: East Pacific Ocean Key nesting sites: El Salvador, Nicaragua and Ecuador
Hawksbill turtle
Location: East Atlantic Ocean Key nesting sites: Congo and Sao Tome and Principe
A population of hawksbill sea turtles was discovered hiding in the east Pacific’s mangrove estuaries in 2011. Since then the habitat has been labelled an important site for the survival of the species.
Loggerhead turtle
Location: Northeast Indian Ocean Key nesting sites: Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Myanmar
There are two populations of hawksbill turtle, both of which are considered critically endangered. It can take 20-40 years for these turtles to mature before they are ready to mate.
This sub-population is listed by IUCN as Critically Endangered due to the low number of mature adults (around 25-50 individuals remain).
Sea turtles
5
Olive ridley turtle
Location: Northeast Indian Ocean Key nesting sites: India This part of the world has a long history of commercial egg harvest and an interest in turtle meat and byproducts. This adds to the already existing pressure of egg predation from other animals.
things you can do to help sea turtles
Loggerhead turtle
Location: North Pacific Ocean Key nesting sites: Japan Yakushima Island in Japan is an important stronghold for loggerhead turtles. After nesting, they migrate the full length of the Pacific to feed off the coast of Mexico.
rd their the wo Spreadaviour by sharing
le s dia. e a turt cial me Becom ry through so sto
West Pacific Ocean
Avoid plastic bags
Olive ridley turtle
Location: Northeast Indian Ocean (arribadas)
Key nesting sites: India and
ten Plastic bags of end up in the ing sea, endanger turtles. Buy reusable bags instead.
Sri Lanka This is one of the largest arribada sites for the olive ridley turtle in the world, where females will gather ashore to lay their eggs. So many eggs in one place leaves them vulnerable to the threat of poachers.
West Pacific Ocean
Use natural cleaning products
Find biodegradable alternatives to chemicalbased cleanin g products, whi ch contribute to ocean pollutio n.
Keep beaches clean
Organise a seaside tidy-up to prevent turtles becoming tangled in rubbish.
seafood ally sourced Choose ethicd from companies who fish
oo ns. Only buy seaf tion regulatio ildlife protec w to g in rd acco
Hawksbill turtle
Location: Northeast Indian Ocean
Key nesting sites: India, Sri
Hawksbill turtle
Location: West Pacific Ocean Key nesting sites: Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines
Lanka and Bangladesh Hawksbill turtles are heavily targeted by illegal wildlife traders for their beautiful patterned shells. Marinelife Alliance in Bangladesh helps to safeguard the critically endangered animals.
The largest nesting area for this population is at Turtle Island in Sabah, where females make around 500-600 nests per year. Although it sounds a lot, it actually isn’t many. Other species are able to produce hundreds of thousands of nests at some sites.
20
The truth about bats
THE TRUTH ABOUT
BATS Without bats, we wouldn’t have sonar, ultrasound or tequila. It’s time to dispel the negative connotations associated with these flying mammals Words Naomi Harding Tales and myths about blood-sucking vampire bats have contributed to their negative reputation, but bats are declining on a global scale, and it’s now more important than ever to challenge public perception and publicise the crucial role they play. The world’s only flying mammals are extremely resourceful, making homes in a wide variety of places, from subterranean haunts to cosy attic hideaways. They are an essential part of many habitats as varied as humid rainforests and dry deserts. We probably wouldn’t have tequila without bats around to pollinate the agave plant. Alongside the pollination benefits of nectarfeeding species, insectivorous bats are estimated to reduce the US agricultural industry’s pesticide bill by around $3.7 billion (£2.6 billion) a year. Fruit-eating bats are known as architects of their landscape, due to their seed dispersal capabilities.
Bats have also given us technological advances; the development of sonar for ships and ultrasound was inspired by bat echolocation. The ability to fly at full tilt while rapidly changing direction and turning 180 degrees within three wing beats could have potential applications in the aviation industry. In fact, these little creatures are arguably more skilled than birds or insects at flying. The skeleton of a bat isn’t too dissimilar from our own and all the bones present in a human hand can be found in a bat’s wing, and then some. Humans have incredible dexterity and control over their hands, but combine this with the stretchy membrane of a bat’s wing and you are left with a shape-shifting structure able to provide more lift, finer precision, and less drag than other flying animals. Delving deeper into the mechanics of bat flight could help improve the manoeuvrability of airplanes in the future.
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The truth about bats
Speaking up for bats TV presenter and naturalist, Chris Packham, became the president of the Bat Conservation Trust in 2006 after a lifelong interest in bats “I like bats as much now as I did when I was six and used to paw over the pages of my Ladybird book dreaming nightly of glimpsing a pipistrelle flitting outside my window. And now these remarkable mammals do swoop and pirouette around my garden and I stand entranced, trying to imagine what it is like to be them, what it is really like to fly that fast, to ‘see’
with sound, to find tiny insects in the air and snatch enough of them for a meal. But I also worry, because in the 50 years of being fascinated by bats they have become much rarer and, although we have made progress, we haven’t learned enough about their lifestyles to guarantee their conservation. But of course of all the species to study, bats are among the hardest. They are nocturnal, fragile, sensitive and some are so endangered
Yin and yang Megabats and microbats used to be classed by their size but genetic testing revealed a new method Yin Yinpterochiroptera have larger eyes and fox-like faces. These are most oen fruit bats that do not echolocate and rely on their sense of smell and sight to find food. Yang Yangochiroptera use echolocation to find invertebrate prey and as such, they have smaller eyes and more complex facial structures. These bats use echolocation to find prey.
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they have become precious. And of course historically they have often had negative press, the ingredients of witches brews, vampires . . . and all the old wives’ tales. So I urge you to ‘get into’ bats, to learn a bit more about them, maybe try to get out to see some, maybe join the Bat Conservation Trust and help us to understand and protect these fascinating creatures, because our bats need us more than ever.”
ABOVE Vampire bats need to drink half their body weight in blood during each 30-minute feeding session
The truth about bats
ABOVE Bats hang upside down as this is the best position for them to take off into flight
“They are nocturnal, fragile, sensitive and some are so endangered they have become precious” Echolocation explained You may not be able to hear the bats around you but there is a secret world of high-pitched chatter Echolocation works in a similar way to sonar. Bats emit high frequency calls and listen to the returning echoes to build up a three-dimensional picture of their surroundings. Echolocation allows the bat to understand how far away an object is and how big it is. Different species of bat echolocate at varying frequencies, which is adapted to their prey type and habitat. These calls are above the range of human hearing but can be listened to using a bat detector, which transforms the calls into an audible sound.
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The truth about bats
Bats of the world We would need the whole magazine to tell you about the world’s 1,200 bat species, so here are eight of the most amazing
3
The ears of brown long-eared bats are nearly as long as their body and they can curl them back in a way that resembles rams’ horns.
1
The smallest bat in the world is also known as the bumblebee bat due to its tiny size. It weighs just two grams (0.1 ounces). weight.
5
2
The need to feed on blood is called ‘haematophagy’, and such bats are only found in Central and South America.
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4
1. Lesser horseshoe
Rhinolophus hipposideros 35-45mm This bat is a relatively rare sight in the UK and is mostly confined to caves and roof spaces in Wales and the southwest. The intricate flaps of skin surrounding its nose are called a noseleaf and act like a satellite dish.
2. Common vampire bat Desmodus rotundus
70-90mm Despite their reputation these bats are one of the most caring animals. In times of adversity, they will look aer one another and mothers will feed pups of no relation to them. They don’t ‘suck blood’ but rather lick the blood from a small wound created on the back of a sleeping horse or cow.
7
3. Spotted bat
Euderma maculatum
6
124-126mm Found in the remote and arid regions of western North America, during the day they snuggle up in small cracks and crevices of steep canyon walls and vertical cliff faces. They sometimes fly up to ten kilometres (six miles) when foraging at night, keeping their large ears erect to hunt for moths.
4. Common pipistrelle Pipistrellus pipistrellus
35-45mm You can usually tell a pipistrelle by their jerky and somewhat erratic flight pattern. They dart around at high speed, rapidly changing directions. They are a hardy species, adapting and thriving in a wide range of habitats, from forests to urban areas. They are one of the most common bats in the UK and also the smallest.
The golden crown flying fox is one of the largest bats in the world. Its wingspan can reach up to 1.7 metres (5.6 feet).
5. Golden crown flying fox Acerodon jubatus
178-290mm These large bats are endemic to the forests of the Philippines, where they are suffering from extensive deforestation and poaching. They are seen as agricultural pests, despite playing an important ecological role by dispersing the seeds of fruit they eat.
6. Kitti’s hog-nosed bat Craseonycteris thonglongyai
29-33mm There are just two populations in Myanmar and Thailand, totalling around 6,500 individuals. These tiny bats hide away in limestone caves, only leaving to migrate between sites and to forage for around 30 minutes at dusk and 20 minutes at dawn.
7. Brown long-eared bat Plecotus auritus
37-52mm It can be difficult to find a brown long-eared bat, because their calls are extremely quiet and aren’t always picked up with bat detectors. They are part of a group called ‘whispering bats’, which emit extremely so calls. They oen rely on hearing the sounds insects make when moving rather than echolocation.
The barbastelle is very rare across most of its range due to its preference for old deciduous forests, which are being cleared.
8. Barbastelle
Barbastella barbastellus
8
40-55mm Barbastelles usually hang out behind the loose bark of trees in ancient or deciduous woodland. They are so rare in the UK that their presence alone can designate a forest as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), awarding grants and protection to the area.
25
The truth about bats
Bats don’t like flying when it is raining. The Honduran white bat chews on leaves to shape them into ‘tents’ to hide beneath during the tropical rains
Bat myths busted Bats are blind Although some bats use echolocation to find prey, their eyesight is just as good as ours. Fruit bats are also able to see in colour.
Bats have rabies
Protecting bats
© The Art Agency/Sandra Doyle; Getty; NaturePL; Thinkstock
Dr Joe Nunez-Mino is the director of communications and fundraising for the Bat Conservation Trust, the UK’s leading NGO solely dedicated to bat conservation What is the Bat Conservation Trust and what does it do? We are a national charity devoted to the conservation of bats and the landscapes on which they rely. We are working to secure the future of bats in our ever-changing world by tackling the threats to bats, from persecution to loss of roosts and changing land use. Why is it important to protect bats? One in four mammal species on Earth are bats and yet they remain undervalued and misunderstood. About 70 per cent of bat species feed on insects, something which can be of great value to us in controlling insects that damage our crops and gardens. Bats play an essential part in the natural world and are indicators of a healthy environment. Their future is directly linked to our quality of life and the quality of our environment.
What are the main projects and priorities for the Trust at the moment? We work on a number of different fronts, ranging from educating more people so their perceptions of bats change, providing advice to householders who have bats living in their houses, monitoring bat populations in the UK and working with a number of partners to ensure the conservation of bats. What have the main successes been so far? Thanks to the National Bat Monitoring Programme volunteer citizen scientists, we are able to monitor 11 out of the 18 species found in the UK. The latest results show that all 11 are showing some signs of stable or increasing populations. This does not make up for the historical declines but it is very welcome news. How important is public perception in conserving bats and are perceptions changing? Bats are oen portrayed negatively so it really is very important that more people understand just how wonderful and useful bats are.
“Bats play an essential part in the natural world and are indicators of a healthy environment” 26
Bats are a vector species, but so are cats, dog, foxes, skunks, and many other animals you come into contact with. In reality, less than one per cent of bats are infected.
Bats will fly into your hair Insects are attracted to the heat emitted above your head and will congregate. This probably attracts bats to swoop nearby, but if their echolocation is sensitive enough to avoid a piece of thread, they can certainly avoid your head and will not fly into your hair. An experiment carried out by the Bat Conservation Trust couldn’t even get a bat to stay on someone’s head for seconds.
Bats are flying mice Aside from being as cute as mice, they have little else in common. Bats are not rodents and are in a separate family altogether: Chiroptera, meaning hand-wing.
Bats suck blood Only three of the world’s 1,200 bat species have a diet consisting of blood. All the others live on insects or fruit.
© KLEIN & HUBERT / WWF
ADOPTION
ADOPT HIM TODAY. OR LOSE HIM FOREVER. Will you help the snow leopard claw its way back from the brink?
Snow leopards have survived in the Himalayas for thousands of years. But right now, there are as few as 300 left in Nepal. The harsh reality is that they’re being slaughtered by poachers for their bones and precious fur – and they urgently need your help if they are to live on.
Your present. Their future. For as little as £3 a month, you or your loved one will receive an adoption pack, an adorable cuddly toy and regular updates from people on the ground working tirelessly to help save the beautiful snow leopard. What’s more, you’ll have the satisfaction of knowing you’re helping us to train and equip courageous anti-poaching rangers. And you’ll discover what it takes – and how it feels – to help save a species.
By adopting a snow leopard today, you’ll help protect this endangered big cat for future generations.
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Wildlife of the Gran Chaco
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Wildlife of the Gran Chaco The second largest forest in South America is rarely heard of but less attention has led to unregulated logging in an area that’s teeming with life Words Naomi Harding
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Wildlife of the Gran Chaco
The forgotten forest The Gran Chaco is often overshadowed by the neighbouring Amazon rainforest. But while it’s sometimes forgotten, it’s no less diverse Nanday parakeet
South American tapir The long prehensile nose of the tapir allows it to grab vegetation and scent out new food sources. When they feel threatened they enter bodies of water so that their footsteps will be masked by the sound of running water and their scent will be washed away, confusing any predators that may be lurking nearby.
Chestnut woodpecker
Wood stork
Common vampire bat This species of bat is the only mammal on the planet that feeds solely on blood. Fear not, they have little interest in humans; resting horses and cattle are their prime target. The bats creep up on their victims by landing on the ground close by and crawling on all fours to approach their prey. Jaguar
Marsh deer Giant armadillo Little is known about the giant armadillo in the wild as they are so secretive and elusive. Studies in Peru have shown that many other animals – small mammals, reptiles and birds – use their burrows to hide in during the day. Giant armadillos have therefore been described as habitat engineers.
Yellow anaconda
Giant wood rail
Red-legged seriema
Common moorhen
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Capybara The largest rodents in the world are semi-aquatic; although they live in areas of dense forest, they are never far from a body of water. Their feet are ever so slightly webbed and they have vestigial tails le over from their aquatic ancestors.
False water cobra Also known as the Brazilian smooth snake, the ‘false’ part comes from the snake’s ability to flatten its neck to imitate the well-known cobra’s hood in an attempt to appear more threatening in times of danger.
Knob-billed duck
Broad-snouted caiman The females of this species lay an incredible number of eggs. Nests usually have 18 to 50 eggs, although a record 129 eggs have been found in a single nest. The sex of newborn caimans will depend on the temperature the eggs are kept at, so females bury eggs at varying depths in order to maintain temperature difference and ensure a more equal ratio of males to females.
Southern crested caracara
In the dry west…
Jabiru
White quebracho
The quebracho is a commercially important tree. Its high level of tannins are used to tan leather.
Blue jacaranda
Because of its beautiful, long-lasting flowers, it has been cultivated all over the world.
Greater rhea Related to ostriches and emus, these big land-dwelling birds are the largest in South America. They particularly enjoy eating crops, which has led to them being considered as pests in many parts. As grassland is converted to agricultural land, this problem is likely to grow in the future.
Toothpick cactus
These plants are perfectly adapted to the drier soils found in the west.
Maned wolf The maned wolf’s long legs have earned it the title ‘fox on stilts’. These characteristic legs mean the wolf can run through the tall grass of the Gran Chaco and still be able to see what’s around and spot any potential danger. Their long ears, which they can rotate, are used to locate prey hiding among the foliage.
Giant anteater Specially adapted to feast on ants and termites all day long, these unusual creatures have unbelievably long tongues and sharp claws for tearing apart nests. Each adult can eat 30,000 insects a day, which they find using their strong sense of smell.
In the humid east…
Pink trumpet tree
In the Amazon rainforest, the harvest of this tree has become a huge problem.
Fulvous whistling duck
Water palm South American lungfish
Water palm is also known as wax palm. Candles were once made by scraping wax off the leaves.
Alnus tree
A water-loving species, it’s most commonly found along watercourses in North and South America.
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Wildlife of the Gran Chaco
The Gran Chaco under threat The Gran Chaco seems to be the world’s forgotten forest. It is tucked away covering corners of Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil, where it receives little media attention and charity fundraising. Large areas are relatively untouched – but not through lack of trying. The remote location of this area means the Chaco is one of the last frontiers of the logging industry. Much of the forest remains underdeveloped and difficult to access as the roads aren’t appropriate for heavy machinery and commercial vehicles to travel on in all weather. The east Chaco is characterised by savannahs dominated by palm trees, interspersed with patches of jungle and plantations of soya and sugar cane. In some parts, the rain can be relentless, causing large areas to flood during the wet season. As you move further west the landscape changes dramatically and becomes much drier. The rainfall reduces and the habitat is peppered with thornscrub, cotton crops and cattle. The area was once known as ‘The Impenetrable’ because of the lack of water that only the native indigenous population knew how to cope with. Although some areas have remained untouched, there has been an increase in the rate of deforestation in the areas that are accessible. This has mostly been attributed to the rising demand for soy for both food and feed for livestock. Large areas of accessible forest – particularly in the Argentinean Chaco – are being cleared to make way for soy plantations.
“The remote location of this area means the Chaco is one of the last frontiers of the logging industry”
Six critters dependent on the Chaco The diverse range of habitats across the region means a variety of species can take refuge here
Marsh deer
These deer live in the marsh areas of the Chaco. Their long legs allow them to gracefully walk and swim across waterlogged areas. The long grasses give the deer good cover from predators; to make full use of this, they follow the rain and migrate with the seasons.
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Jabiru
With extremely long legs and a large beak, this bird is part of the stork family. They are the tallest birds flying bird in Central and South America. Their diet mostly consists of fish, molluscs and amphibians, so they like to hang out by watercourses and ponds.
South American lungfish
Lungfish are known for their unusual ability to breathe air using their developed lungs. It means they are able to survive in poor quality water with low-oxygen levels, which has enabled them to colonise uninhabitable areas and avoid competition for resources from other species.
Where is the Gran Chaco? The Gran Chaco is divided between Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina and Brazil
Vital statistics
Quick facts you need to know about the Chaco
500 BIRD
Peru Brazil
SPECIES
Bolivia The Gran Chaco is twice the size of the UK
Chile
Argentina
Uruguay
12-15
%
Of land has been converted into agricultural land
2
YEARS
BELOW The green monkey tree frog is native to the Chaco of Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay
It took two years for 823,868 hectares to be cleared, three quarters of this was in Paraguay, giving it one of the world’s worst deforestation records
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REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN SPECIES
Yellow anaconda
The yellow anaconda is endemic to South America. It is one of the largest snakes in the world. Sticking to the wetter areas, they can be found in riparian vegetation or lurking in slow moving water on the hunt for large prey like deer or peccaries to constrict.
Blue-fronted parrot
These birds are currently considered as being of ‘Least Concern’ on the IUCN Red List, but widespread declines have been noted. Trapping for the pet trade is quite common throughout their range and they have been heavily traded for the last 30 years.
Jaguar
150 MAMMAL SPECIES
3,400 PLANT SPECIES
Unlike most other cats, jaguars are comfortable in the water and are very skilled swimmers. They often enter rivers in search of prey such as caimans. They are able to approach silently through the water, barely creating a splash in order to ambush their unsuspecting prey.
© Sol90; Thinsktock; Frank Vincentz; Rex Features; NaturePL; freevectormaps.com; Leandro Ciuffo
Paraguay
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Meet the family
Lemurs
Madagascar and its small neighbouring islands are home to over 100 of these diverse and endearing primate species RED-RUFFED LEMUR Varecia rubra
Class Mammalia
Territory Madagascar Diet: Fruit, leaves, nectar, seeds Lifespan 15-20 years Adult weight 3.5kg (7.7lb) Conservation status
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
Red-ruffed lemur These furry lemurs are rainforest daredevils
The raucous calls of red-ruffed lemurs fill the forests of northeastern Madagascar. They have as many as 12 different vocalisations, ranging from low grunts to loud shrieks, with each one having a different meaning. It is thought that some of these may help to keep a group together while foraging, or warn others of approaching predators, which include boa constrictors, eagles and hawks.
The red-ruffed lemurs rarely leave the top layer of the rainforest canopy, and are particularly daring jumpers, flinging themselves from tree to tree and landing with dramatic crashes. When they spot a piece of fruit nearby, they will hold on with their feet and lean precariously outwards.
Rufous mouse lemurs have an unusual courtship, which involves the male lashing the female with his tail and squeaking soly, in an attempt to persuade her to mate with him.
RUFOUS MOUSE LEMUR Microcebus rufus Class Mammalia
Territory Madagascar Diet Insects, fruit, flowers Lifespan 6-8 years Adult weight 50g (1.8oz) Conservation status
VULNERABLE
Ring-tailed lemur
The stripy primates that love to sit and soak up the sunshine
Their bold black-and-white striped tails make these primates easy to pick out from a lemur line-up. Unusually for lemurs, who mostly spend their lives in the trees, ringtailed lemurs spend around a third of their time foraging for food on the ground. They are particularly fond of snacking on the tamarind tree, which produces either fruit or leaves all year round. If their body temperature falls, ring-tailed lemurs will move into a bright spot to soak up the Sun’s warmth, an activity known as ‘sunning’. They sit upright with their legs spread-eagled and their hands resting on their knees, looking startlingly similar to a human meditating in the lotus position.
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When travelling in their troops, ring-tailed lemurs raise their tails high in the air, using them like flags to keep the group together.
A special claw on the red-ruffed lemur’s hind feet allows it to brush its thick, copper-coloured coat. Its bottom teeth also form a ‘toothcomb’, which it uses to groom itself.
Rufous mouse lemur
The lemur with a lover’s tail
Rufous mouse lemurs inhabit the tropical rainforests in the north and east of Madagascar. Like all mouse lemurs, they are strictly nocturnal, emerging at night to forage for fruit and insects. When food is scarce, they will enter a deep sleep known as torpor, which involves lowering their body temperature and slowing their metabolism. They can remain in this state for up to 24 weeks, and will lose a large amount of their body mass. When a female mouse lemur gives birth, she will barely leave the nest for several weeks, and her young are completely dependent on her for up to two months. She will help to develop their locomotion skills by playing with them.
RING-TAILED LEMUR Lemur catta
Class Mammalia
Territory Madagascar Diet Fruits, leaves, flowers, insects Lifespan 16-19 years Adult weight 2.2kg (4.9lb) Conservation status
ENDANGERED
Lemurs
Coquerel’s sifaka This lemur is a stand-up guy
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Unlike other lemurs, sifakas remain upright as they move, a technique COQUEREL’S SIFAKA Propithecus coquereli called ‘vertical clinging’. They use Class Mammalia their powerful back legs to leap from tree to tree, sometimes over distances as great as six metres (20 feet). They spend most of their time in the trees, but do occasionally Territory Madagascar Diet Leaves, flowers, fruit, descend to look for food. Here, bark sifakas will jump sideways along the Lifespan 27-30 years ground, with their arms flung in the Adult weight 4kg (8.8lb) Conservation status air for balance – a bizarre sight that looks a little like a celebratory dance. Named after their vocalisations, ENDANGERED which sound a little like ‘sifaka’, these lemurs also use facial expressions to communicate. For instance, jerking the head back signals an approaching predator, and holding the mouth open shows the sifaka wants to play.
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Aye-aye
An oddball with an unfortunate reputation
Daubentonia madagascariensis Class Mammalia
Territory Madagascar Diet Insect larvae, fruit, nuts Lifespan 20 years Adult weight 2kg (4.4lb) Conservation status
ENDANGERED
Aye-ayes are extremely good climbers. They are the only Old World primates to have true claws, which give them excellent grip as they move quickly and nimbly through the trees.
Often regarded as one of the strangest-looking primates, ayeayes have come under threat due to habitat loss. Many Malagasy villagers also see them as an evil omen, and this has led to large numbers being killed. Their bizarre appearance is down to several physical characteristics, including incisors that never stop growing, and huge ears that are each as wide as its face. Aye-ayes also have an unusually long, slender third finger, which is their primary sense organ. They walk along branches, tapping with their middle finger and listening out for the distinctive echo from an insect tunnel. They then use the flexible third finger to scoop out the insect larvae inside.
1. Smallest Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur
2. Loudest Indri
These miniature creatures have a body length of just 11cm (4.3in), making them the world’s smallest primates.
The calls of indris come from their enlarged laryngeal sacs. They can be heard over a kilometre (0.6 miles) away.
3. Smelliest Ring-tailed lemur
4. Rarest Sportive lemur
Male ring-tailed lemurs compete for dominance by having ‘stink fights’. They smear a pungent scent over their tails and then wave them at their opponent.
There are fewer than 50 left in the far north of Madagascar. Their numbers have plummeted in the last 20 years due to hunting and habitat loss.
Not a monkey Although they seem to have some traits in common with monkeys, apes and even humans, lemurs actually diverged from a common ancestor with other primates around 63 million years ago! Lemurs have lived in isolation on the island of Madagascar for 40 million years, which means they have many adaptations that are unique to their suborder, which is known as Strepsirrhini.
Golden bamboo lemur The lemur that isn’t afraid to snack on cyanide-filled bamboo shoots
Bamboo lemurs can be distinguished by their round heads, short muzzles and small ears, which are mostly hidden by their fur. The golden bamboo lemur’s favourite food is giant bamboo shoots, which contain high levels of cyanide. On an average day, the lemur will eat 12 times the lethal dose for other mammals of its size, yet experiences none of the negative effects. Researchers are unsure how it manages to avoid being poisoned. Sadly, less than 300 golden bamboo lemurs are left in the wild due to high levels of hunting. They have been protected to some extent by the establishment of national parks in the 1990s, but now slash-and-burn agriculture is encroaching on these areas.
© Dreamstime; Getty; Thinkstock; NaturePL
Coquerel’s sifakas will mark trees with their urine when looking for a mate. A male will also court a female by cowering in front of her or rolling his tail between his legs.
AYE-AYE
4
3
GOLDEN BAMBOO LEMUR Hapalemur aureus Class Mammalia
Territory Madagascar Diet Bamboo, leaves, fruit Lifespan Unknown Adult weight 1.5kg (3.3lb)) Conservation status
LEAST CONCERN
To help them munch through fibrous bamboo shoots, the golden bamboo lemur’s teeth have sharp, serrated edges, and their premolars have additional cusps for added force.
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TOCO TOUCAN Ramphastos toco Class Aves
Territory South America Diet Fruit, insects, eggs Lifespan 20 years Adult weight 550g (19oz) Conservation status
LEAST CONCERN
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Toucans
TOUCANS THE BIRDS BEHIND THE BEAKS Famed for their enormous bills decorated in vibrant colours, these instantly recognisable birds are noisy, playful and comically clumsy in the air Words Katy Sheen Throughout Central and South America, toucans fill tropical forests with their barks, calls and croaks. The family of birds consists of over 30 species, including the large toco toucan – the iconic star of Guinness advertising campaigns – as well as many smaller toucans, aracaris and toucanets. The birds live in gregarious groups, often rallying together with other species to look for good foraging sites and calling loudly to others when they find one. Larger species will accompany these vocalisations with repetitive movements of their heads and beaks. Each toucan
can identify its own species by its call, as well as the markings on its bill, which include spots, stripes and bands in a rainbow of colours. Toucans roost in the treetops, living in natural holes or woodpecker nests that seem impossibly small for birds with such big beaks. Females will lay a clutch of two to four eggs each year, and toucan parents will take it in turn to incubate them. The hatchlings are born without their famous appendages, but they will grow quickly and by the time the young toucans emerge from the nest, they have the enormous beaks we know and love.
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Toucans Toucans flick food upwards with their beak and then catch it in their mouths, with help from their long, thin, grey tongues
DID YOU KNOW? Toucans are named after the sound they make, which could easily be confused with the croaking of a large frog! Their loud calls are used to scare off predators or warn others of danger.
A beak with many uses
From grabbing fruit to keeping cool, this is a bill that pays for itself
The toucan’s appearance is completely dominated by its beak, which is four times the size of its head and makes up a third of its body length, so it might surprise you to know that experts have long been puzzled by its purpose. Some have suggested that its bright colours help the birds to attract a mate, while others believe it allows them to reach fruits hanging from branches that are too delicate to stand on. They are certainly useful tools for grasping slippery foods, and the serrated edges of the bill helps to break down food into bite-size pieces.
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Another important role for the toucan’s oversized appendage was revealed in 2009, when infrared imaging showed the bill heats up and cools down when the outside temperature changes. When the bird is hot, blood flow is directed to the beak. The surface of the beak is not very well insulated, so the heat is radiated and the bird cools down. On the other hand, when the toucan is cold, blood vessels in the beak constrict and heat is conserved. This clever temperature technique has not been observed in any other birds.
Toucans Reluctant to fly Toucans are not very good at flying as they have small wings. They prefer to hop through the trees Having evolved for life in thick forest, toucans have relatively small wings for their size, and their long tails and large beaks are cumbersome. They can only travel a short distance in flight, but that is usually enough to reach the nearby cluster of trees they have in their sights. The birds will take to the air with a flourish of their wings, flap a few times in quick succession and then allow themselves to glide and fall before flapping again to regain altitude. This clumsy, dipping motion may not look elegant, but it is sufficient to carry them between treetops in close proximity. Toucans will avoid flying when they can and rarely venture to the forest floor, spending most of their lives in the canopy. Instead, they prefer to hop along branches, as their curved toes and sharp claws give them a good grip even on narrow branches, allowing them to stretch out and grab food with their long bills. The birds eat a variety of fruits, as well as nuts, seeds, eggs and small frogs and reptiles, so food is rarely far away.
Top toucan facts Size but not strength The toucan’s beak is lightweight and hollow, so it is useless as a defence mechanism. The closest it comes to being used as a weapon is when the birds play fight with each other in the evenings. They can sometimes be seen billfencing with each other.
A chestnutmandibled toucan oen uses its sharp bill to break the thick skin of a papaya
Weren’t you taught not to play with your food? A toucan mating ritual will o en involve the birds throwing food at each other, in what looks like a slightly messy game. Once they have found a partner, toucans are usually monogamous and will breed in the spring. A tidy ball of toucan In order to fit into their tiny treetop hollows, toucans can make themselves more compact by tucking their bills into their feathers and folding up their tails . When they are in this position, they look like a ball of feathers, with just the tip of their tail sticking out.
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Toucans
Toco toucan
Keel-billed toucan
Collared aracari
© Francesco Veronesi; Ben Tavener; Charles J Sharp; Tobias Haase; Hans Hillewaert; Alamy; Dreamstime; FLPA; NaturePL; Thinkstock
Crimson-rumped toucanet
Toucans can sometimes be found passing fruit to each other from their bills as part of a mating ritual
Red-breasted toucan
No toucans are the same These beautiful birds come in every size and colour Plate-billed mountain toucan
Saffron toucanet
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The toucan family inhabits the tropical forests of South America and is found as far north as Mexico. Its members are incredibly diverse, varying in size, colour and behaviour. All toucans have the legendary large beak, but what they eat with it differs; while larger species feed on small lizards, frogs, birds and eggs, smaller species tend to stick to fruit and flowers. Their calls vary too, in terms of pitch, length and style, and the toucans will use these differences to pick out their own species from a cacophony of sound.
Thanks to these variations, most toucans are easy to tell apart, but a few species deliberately aim to confuse. The small yellow-ridged toucan is the same colour and looks very similar to the white-throated toucan, a much larger species, despite not being its closest relative. This is known as social mimicry, which benefits the smaller bird because it is less likely to be attacked and more likely to ward off others from a good feeding site, simply because it is confused for the larger model.
“The toucans will use these differences to pick out their own species from a cacophony of sound”
Bizarre! The eye-licking gecko that looks
like a decaying leaf There are few creatures quite as strange as the leaf-tailed gecko. With clever camouflage and light reflecting modifications, it’s so well disguised, it may as well be wearing a cloak of invisibility
SATANIC LEAF-TAILED GECKO Uroplatus phantasticus Class Reptilia
Territory Madagascar Diet Crickets, and moths Lifespan 2-9 years Adult weight 10-30g (0.41.1oz) Conservation Status
LEAST CONCERN
They have no eyelids Eyelids serve to protect the eyes and keep them moist but, like many other geckos, the leaftailed gecko doesn’t have any. Instead, they use their tongue to lick the surface of their eyes to remove any dust or debris that may be there.
Their sticky feet help them climb A life in the trees is very dangerous for an animal as small as a gecko and any fall could be fatal. To ensure they don’t accidentally slip, their feet have countless tiny hair-like structures seemingly providing the superpower to stick to almost any surface with ease.
Not quite content with looking exactly like the surrounding foliage, they spend most the their day motionless. Hiding away amongst a mass of dead leaves, they twist their tail around their bodies and flatten themselves completely against tree trunks. Looking like a leaf is extremely useful when your main predators rely on eyesight for hunting.
They are masters of camouflage Despite the name ‘leaf-tailed gecko’, it isn’t just their tails that mimic leaves. Their bodies even have parts missing and rough edges to look like decaying leaves and to help them disappear into their surroundings. Veins resembling those on leaves run down the tail and cover their leaf-coloured body.
They aren’t really satanic Where the name ‘satanic’ came from, we don’t really know. We do know that when the gecko feels threatened, it opens its jaws as wide as it can to show off its frightening bright red mouth. This along with bright red eyes can make it look a bit scary, which doesn’t help.
Their Latin name means imaginary Naturalist George Albert Boulenger first discovered these mysterious Malagasy geckos in 1888. He thought these creatures were incredibly intriguing. He described the reptiles as ‘mythical’ and subsequently gave them the Latin name phantasticus’ which is Latin for imaginary.
© NaturePL/Bernard Castelein
They don’t just look like a leaf, they act like one too
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Manta ray
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All about the
Manta ray
Meet the gentle giants of the ocean; leviathans so large that they could cover your car with their fins, but only to be feared if you’re plankton Words Ella Carter
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Manta ray
Wings of the ocean The genus Manta contains two species: M. birostris the giant oceanic manta ray, and M. alfredi the reef manta ray. Both species are truly supersized, with wide, flattened bodies, long slender tails and colossal undulating pectoral fins that glide through the water, looking like giant wings. The giant oceanic manta ray is a migratory species, and can travel vast oceans following ocean-current highways in search of choice feeding grounds. The resident reef manta is more of a homebody, preferring to stay closer to shallow waters. They are solitary creatures, and only really come together to breed. These interactions can often begin at feeding areas, or at ‘cleaning stations’ – areas of coral reefs where cleaner wrasse and shrimp feed on parasites on the manta’s skin. Mating seasons vary across the world, and after around 13 months’ incubation period, the young ray is born. Manta rays are
ovoviviparous, which means the eggs develop within the womb and the mother gives birth to one or two live young. The baby rays (often as big as over one metre across) will stay in shallow water for several years until they’re large enough to face the big wide ocean. Their brains are some of the largest relative to size in the ocean realm, and as larger brains are commonly related to higher function this indicates that the manta are the complete opposite of ‘simple giants’. These brainy beasts feed on plankton – tiny microscopic creatures suspended in the water. The rays will open their mouths wide, and let the water pass over their gills as they filter out tasty morsels. Mantas will eat around 13 per cent of their body weight each week. Feeding can get super dynamic, with the rays making loop-the-loops and corkscrew spirals in the water.
The giant oceanic manta ray Ocean habitat This species of manta is an open ocean wanderer. They cruise the tropics looking for plankton-rich waters to feed in, and can cover huge distances.
Gentle giants The giant oceanic ray is the largest of the two species. It has a ‘wingspan’ that, in the largest specimens, can reach over nine metres (30 feet) wide.
Manta markings The giant oceanic manta ray has grey/brown and white colouring, and oen has a T-shaped marking on its back (known as the ‘dorsal’ side).
The reef manta ray Body pattern The dorsal side of the reef manta rays are mottled brown and grey like the giant species, but they oen have Y-shaped markings and spots.
Smaller size The reef manta ray is the smaller of the two species, but is still a huge marine animal, with a wingspan of up to 4.5 metres (15 feet). Reef dwellers The reef manta can be found living in nearshore productive environments in the tropics, such as reefs, atolls and islands as well as continental coasts.
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“Their brains are some of the largest relative to size in the ocean realm…the complete opposite of simple giants”
BELOW Mantas can sense electric fields in the water, although this trait is less developed than in other species
Conservation projects Graham Hill is a science officer at The Deep ‘submarium’ in Hull. The team are gearing up for Phase 2 of the manta conservation project in Sudan. How are the manta populations in Sudan, and what threats do they face? The red sea area in Sudan is very remote, and there is a lot of fishing and illegal shark fishing. It has been illegal in Sudan for quite some time, but there’s a strange quirk in the legislation where you can still sell their meat at the market. The main threat in Sudan is the encroachment of large recreational diving operations from the north. Because there’s very little information about the manta population, the first thing to do is obtain baseline data where there has been relatively low impact by humans, which is a very rare situation. We can get that info and use it to manage the area. What was involved in phase 1 of the project? We are looking at the seasonal aggregations of manta ray into Dungonab Bay in Sudan. We had two techniques in our first phase – one is using acoustic tags implanted in the ray, alongside a seabed-monitoring network. Any tagged rays will give a ping when they comes within 500 metres of a monitor, logging information about the time, animal, direction, etc. We have 20 monitors in the bay, and 20 monitors situated on seamounts along the coastline. We tagged 22 manta rays in phase 1, but we’ve not been back to collect the monitor data yet. We also tagged three manta rays with satellite tags that can give us real-time info about where an animal is going.
When they come up to feed and the tag is exposed to air, they download info and we can analyse the data. We want to get as much info as we possibly can, so when we tag them we take measurements, and on the males we check their claspers to see if they’re sexually mature. The local dive operators are also really enthusiastic about our project. The divers take a survey of all the species they see and collect a huge amount of data for us.
Have you found anything significant from phase 1? At the moment we are still in the early stages as most of the monitors are still on the seabed! But we do have the tracks from the satellite tags. We know certainly that there’s very little change in their behaviour once they’ve been tagged, which is great. We have also taken tissue samples of 35 manta rays, but one of the ones we looked at looked slightly odd – and it seemed to have some characteristics of the reef manta but also of the giant oceanic manta. The two species of manta ray were thought to reproductively isolated but we found that this individual (which is backed up by genetic analysis) is actually a hybrid of the two species – the first time it’s ever been recorded in manta rays! When is phase 2 happening, and what’s involved? We are hoping to do two fieldwork sessions this year, one next month to get the seabed monitors back up and running – we need to locate them, bring them back up, clean them, download the data and then return them. The socioeconomic side involves doing workshops with the Sudanese authorities and universities to maintaining the monitors and using GPS to locate the mantas.
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Manta ray
Inside the manta ray With sandpaper-like skin and covered in a layer of protective mucus, manta rays have some fascinating physical properties. The slime helps them to keep parasites at bay and ward off infections, which is why you should never touch a manta if you’re lucky enough to come across one
Gills The gills are full of blood vessels that absorb the oxygen from the water as it passes over them, and let the water carry away carbon dioxide from the blood.
Basibranchial Part of the manta ray’s central skeleton that provides support to the gill bars and gills.
Oesophagus Seawater enters the mouth and is pushed over the gill plates – when the manta has filtered enough plankton it closes its mouth, coughs to dislodge the plankton and swallows it.
GIANT OCEANIC MANTA RAY
Heart
Manta birostris
Class Chondrichthyes
Gall bladder
Territory Tropical and subtropical waters worldwide Diet Zooplankton and phytoplankton Lifespan Unknown, estimated 40 years Adult weight Up to 2 tonnes (4,409lb) Conservation Status
Liver As well as their light cartilaginous skeleton, an extra oily liver helps to keep the manta rays buoyant.
VULNERABLE
JUVENILE
INFANCY Live birth 0 years Having developed in an egg case inside the womb, baby mantas (pups) are born in sheltered waters of a bay or lagoon.
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Infancy 1 year The infant’s pectoral fins are folded on its back when it’s born, and so it must learn to use them instantly.
Shallow living 1-5 years Manta rays show no parental care, so once the 1.5m (4.5 feet) long pup is born it fends for itself, living in the shallows.
MATURITY Growth spurt 2-15 years In its first year the pup doubles in size. The next few years are spent feeding and growing in the shallows before venturing into the open ocean.
Reproductive age 10-20 years Mantas become sexually mature at over ten years, when they will be able to reproduce. Males develop extended, calcified claspers.
Mating season 21 years Mating season happens at different times across the world. Males will chase females for long periods before mating.
Dorsal fin A small dorsal fin is located just above the base of the tail, thought to aid in stability and streamlining when the manta ray is swimming. Tail The mantas have long, tapering tails that extend behind them as they swim. Unlike their stingray cousins, manta rays do not have a poison barb at the end of their tails.
Cartilage skeleton Mantas have skeletons of flexible, fibrous and lightweight cartilage instead of the dense bone of other fish. Filter plates These feathery looking plates surround all ten of the manta rays’ gill slits. They are thin cartilage filaments that trap the plankton from the water as it passes over the gills.
Cephalic lobes Manta rays are sometimes called ‘devil rays’ because their cephalic lobes slightly resemble horns. The flexible lobes can move to work as a funnel, channelling planktonrich water into the mouth.
Intestine
Pectoral fins The colossal, super-flexible pectoral fins move almost like wings, to propel the ray at surprisingly fast speeds through the water. They can reach swi burst speeds of 35 kilometres per hour (21.7 miles per hour).
Manta dentition
Stomach
Rectal gland
Despite feeding by filtering plankton-laden water, manta rays do have teeth. In fact, they have around 300 of them – tiny little pinhead-like structures arranged on their lower jaw and oen indistinguishable from the ray’s rough skin. As they’re not used for eating, it’s thought that these teeth may play a role in reproduction, as the male will bite down on one of the female’s pectoral fins during mating.
Uterus Ovary
Senses Manta rays have good eyesight with a wide field of vision. They have tiny pores on their heads that allow sound waves to reach their inner ears, and they also have nostrils and are able to taste and detect chemical signatures in the water. Mantas are also able to sense electric fields in the water, although this trait is less developed in mantas than in other species.
Pregnancy 22 years Once pregnant, the female manta ray carries one pup, or sometimes twins, for a gestation period of 13 months.
Maturity 20-40+ years A female’s age can be guessed from her mating scars, where males bite down on her fins. Females can have one pup every two to five years.
Death 40+ years It’s not known exactly how old manta rays live, but it’s hoped that they live long lives and death is by natural causes and not human threats.
Closest family
Closely related to the manta ray are…
Mobula ray Mobula rays belong to the same family as mantas. There are nine species of mobula ray. They look very similar and feed the same way, but are much smaller in size. They come together in huge groups, and can be seen jumping high out of the water.
Whale shark Whale sharks are part of the same subclass, the elasmobranchii, which includes sharks, skates and rays. Like the giant oceanic manta they’re colossal open-water beasts, and they also feed by filtering plankton out of the water.
Eagle ray The eagle ray is closely related to the manta, as a member of the superorder ‘batoidea’ which includes rays, skates and sawfish. Eagle rays are much smaller than mantas, and can be found in shallow, tropical waters near coral reefs.
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Manta ray
Habitat and threats With numbers declining significantly, manta rays face an uphill struggle for survival The clear waters of tropical atolls and equatorial coastlines are home to the reef manta ray, where it cruises through the crystal blue shallows to find food. The giant oceanic manta ray frequents the deeper waters of the open ocean.There is plenty to be done to protect both species in their aquatic homes. Illegal and unsustainable fishing is one of the greatest threats to manta rays. They are incredibly slow growing and it takes a reef manta ray 10-15 years to reach maturity before it can even reproduce. To remove just one animal from the population can be BELOW Overfishing of manta rays has increased over the past decade because of the demand for gill rakers in China
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decimating. Unregulated, unreported and illegal fishing methods catch thousands of manta rays to satisfy the demand for some traditional Eastern medicines, and thousands of rays per year are also entangled in nets and caught as bycatch by other fisheries. This kind of human intervention can spell disaster for the longevity of the species. Destructive fishing techniques such as gill nets, drift nets and purse seine nets for tuna and other commercially-fished species can also spell disaster for mantas, because once they become trapped, escape is impossible. Entanglement in marine debris is also a
huge problem. As such huge animals, once they have become ensnared in litter and rogue fishing nets it is very difficult for them to get free. They can’t swim backwards, and rays need to have a constant stream of water flowing over their gills to survive. This means that severe entanglement can mean the ray will drown. If the manta can swim free, nets can get caught on their bodies, maiming them and making them vulnerable to infection. There are many stories from manta conservation charities about rays approaching divers who are able to cut them free of their entangled nets.
Manta ray
“Illegal and unsustainable fishing is one of the greatest threats to manta rays”
Nearest neighbours Check out the other critters that share the manta’s watery home
Suckerfish Wherever the manta ray goes, the suckerfish goes too. These fish, called remora, attach themselves using a suction plate on their heads. They hitch a ride, and take advantage of the protection and food that this offers.
Tiger shark Due to their huge size and passive hunting strategies, mantas have few natural predators. However, there are some large fish that will try to take them down, including the feisty tiger shark, great whites and killer whales.
Environmental factors
Challenges facing the manta ray’s habitat
Habitat destruction Without their habitat, mantas have nowhere to go. Coral reefs face many threats, including excess nutrient run-off and sedimentation from land, rising seawater temperatures and destructive fishing.
Marine debris Floating fishing nets and other garbage in the water spells out disaster for manta rays, and entanglement is responsible for the deaths of far too many rays worldwide, whether it is intentional or not.
Climate change Warming ocean temperatures and ocean acidification can cause coral reefs to undergo ‘bleaching events’, where the heat stress kills off the coral. In turn this causes a huge decline in the reef ecosystem.
Unregulated tourism If too many people visit and dive in the manta’s habitat without understanding its fragility, and even touch or ride the rays (which should never be attempted), it can have a severe impact.
Cleaner wrasse Reef cleaning stations are an important part of the manta’s life cycle, where they come into contact with other rays. Fish like the cleaner wrasse nibble away any parasites on the manta’s skin.
© Richard Ling; NaturePL; Getty; Dreamstime; Alamy; Thinkstock; The Art Agency/Peter Scott
Plankton These microscopic organisms are the manta ray’s favourite food. Plankton can reproduce quickly and result in large numbers known as ‘blooms.’ Rays suck in water and filter out the tiny creatures for a tasty meal.
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UNEXPECTED
COLOUR Whether it’s a genetic mutation or clever camouflage, these animals are popping with colour in a way you’ve never seen them before Words Naomi Harding
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Unexpected colour
A white peacock is possibly more stunning than its blue counterpart Albinism is more often the word used to describe the absence of the pigment melanin when animals appear unusually white. In this case, however, the peacock is a subspecies called Pavo cristatus mut. alba, and its colour is caused by a genetic mutation. It is exactly the same anatomically and structurally as a regular peacock, except for the colour of its feathers.
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Unexpected colour
The wonderfully colourful Nicobar pigeon has a rather famous relative The closest living relative to the dodo hails from the Nicobar Islands in Southeast Asia. While the Nicobar pigeon has a grey head like other pigeons, it also has a large, colourful plumage running around its neck and down its back. Juveniles are less colourful, but almost completely iridescent, shimmering in the sun.
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Unexpected colour This insect has shunned the standard green colour of other insects The orchid mantis is probably one of the most beautiful insects on the planet. Its striking colour perfectly matches the orchid on which it is adapted to living. Not only is it a master of colour coordination, but its body parts also resemble parts of the flower, allowing the mantis to patiently sit and hide in plain sight, and wait for unsuspecting prey to wander by.
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Unexpected colour
This chicken’s colouring is more than just skin deep Hyperpigmentation has caused this Indonesian chicken to have black feathers, and when the light catches them in the right way, they have a green tinge. The Ayam Cemani chicken is a curious creature, and the black colouring doesn’t just stop at its feathers; its toenails, tongue, meat, bones and organs all appear black too.
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Unexpected colour The katydid that looks like a jewel in the grass
© Alamy; Ardea; FLPA; NaturePL
Most people would think of a long-horned grasshopper, or bush cricket, and picture a camouflaged-green insect expertly hidden among the grass. While green is the most common colour, pink, yellow and orange colourings are also prevalent. The pink colouration is the result of what is known as erythrism, a genetic mutation leading to an excessive production of the pink pigment.
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THE BIG
STINK Bright colours and shrill calls are all well and good, but if you really want to make a statement in the wild, it’s good to smell bad Words Alex Dale Our sense of smell is one of the most reliable methods we have of gaining information about the world around us. If you don’t believe us, hold up a slice of meat that’s past its use by date and tell us what gives your brain the first clue that it isn’t safe for consumption. You’ll almost definitely pick up the rank smell before noticing any discolouration. Your eyes might deceive you and you might start hearing things, but your nose always knows. Smells are generated when a creature or object releases volatile chemicals that evaporate and reach our noses in the form of a gas. Many animals rely heavily on this sense, because it’s an extremely effective early warning system in a world where many
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predators are camouflaged and move silently in an attempt to avoid detection. Smell is as intimate as you can get with another creature without directly touching it, by which point, for the hunted, things would already be too late. The sense of smell is also linked to memory and emotion, and so many animals see the benefits in kicking up a stink. A timely unpleasant odour is often enough to put predators off, while other animals use smell to mark their territory, attract mates or communicate. Which animals, exactly, smell the worst is a matter of opinion – one beast’s stink is another beast’s perfume. But we’ve compiled a list of animals that are definitely in the running. Hold your nose, we’re going in...
The big stink
It’s not just skunks; a wide range of animals, from millipedes to kingsnakes, defend themselves by spewing out a vile-smelling substance.
The best defence is a good offensive smell Protection-wise, skunks don’t have an awful lot going for them; they’re slow-moving, and don’t have particularly good eyesight or hearing. It’s unlikely they’d survive long were it not for their famously pungent defence mechanism. When threatened, the skunk sprays its attacker with a noxious chemical compound from nipples either side of its anus. The rubbery smell can linger for weeks. Worse still for the unlikely recipient, the concoction chokes the lungs and causes temporary blindness by irritating the eyes. The skunk can target a predator’s face at distances of up to three metres (10 feet).
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The big stink
This North American marsupial has a nose for acting We’ve all heard of the phrase ‘playing possum’, right? It comes from the opossum’s bizarre yet effective, tactic of ‘playing dead’ when it’s cornered by a predator. This is actually an involuntary response – the opossum goes into shock and slips into a comatose state that can last for hours. Nonetheless, the performance – of
drooling mouths and balled-up feet - is convincing enough to fool predators, and the deception even extends to the nose. Upon falling limp, the opossum excretes a green mucus that mimics the stench of decay. It all adds to the illusion of a meal that is well past its best before date, convincing the assailant to move on.
LEFT If ‘playing dead’ doesn’t work opossums have sharp claws to defend themselves
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The big stink
‘Fulmar’ is Old Norse for ‘foul gull’, and here’s why If you lived on a diet that exclusively consisted of seafood and garbage, your breath wouldn’t exactly be minty-fresh, either. But the oceanfaring fulmar, a relative of the albatross family, uses its deathbreath to its advantage, projectilevomiting a disgusting stomach oil mix that reeks of rotten fish at anything it considers a threat. This is a deeply unpleasant experience for, say, a rock climber that happens upon a fulmar nest. But for other seabirds, it’s often fatal, as the oils cause their feathers to lose their insulating properties. This means that when they land on water, instead of floating they sink to their doom. The stomach oil used as a defence mechanism is also regurgitated by the bird as an energy source for chicks
Competing males hold ‘pong-offs’
If you bump into a male in musth, urine trouble It isn’t all about self-defence; some animals kick up a stink as a warning to others not to encroach on their territory. For a few weeks every year, elephant bulls enter a period known as ‘musth’. During musth, the elephant’s testosterone levels are 60 times over normal levels, and even the most placid individuals become wildly aggressive and unpredictable.
Researchers believe this condition isn’t related to mating; rather, it’s a period where the male elephants establish pecking orders. To do this, they dribble their strong-smelling urine down their hind legs, and accent the scent with an oily mucus secreted from glands on their cheeks. The resulting toxic cocktail can be smelled over half a mile away.
Like many mammals, these small primates from the island of Madagascar use scent to communicate with each other and mark their foraging territory. They’re even equipped with a horny spur on each wrist, where their scent gland is, which they use to pierce tree bark before they rub their smell in. Lemurs live in large social groups of about 20 to 30 individuals so during mating season there is a lot of competition amongst the males for the attention of the females. The male lemurs resort to chemical warfare, smothering their scent into their long tails and then flicking their appendage in their competition’s direction. These stands-offs can last for up to an hour before one of the lemurs is forced to back down.
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The big stink
What, you thought they flossed? Sloths are nature’s couch potatoes, and they have the hygiene routine to match. Sleeping for up to 20 hours a day, sloths move so little that an entire ecosystem of creepy-crawlies has seen fit to set-up home in their long, coarse fur. A single sloth can be home to thousands of beetles, hundreds of moths and, grossest of all, a thick coating of algae and mold that gives the sloth’s fur a green tinge. While the animal itself has no natural scent, its stowaways give the sloth a thick smell of vegetation, so perhaps it’s for the best that they spend almost their entire lives high in the treetops. But believe it or not, having a coat of algae, although whiffy, is actually useful, and scientists believe that the sloth’s skin and hair has evolved to create conditions that encourage its growth. So while the algae gets a sheltered, damp home, the sloth gets a nifty set of camouflage from predators, and its skin can also absorb extra nutrients from its lodger. This kind of mutually beneficial partnership is called a ‘symbiotic relationship’.
“While the animal itself has no natural scent, its stowaways give the sloth a thick smell of vegetation”
The parents that would never ask their offspring to tidy their room Beautiful, isn’t it? But admire from a distance; the hoopoe reeks of rotten meat. It does so by choice, spreading a foul liquid secreted by its preen gland all over its feathers to deter predators and attract insects. Bacteria in the goop also combats feather-eating microbes.
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The female hoopoe then spreads this same liquid over its eggs to make them less palatable to hungry intruders. Tiny pits in the eggshell allow the smell to stick, making this a nest that could rival any teenage boy’s in the odour stakes.
The big stink
5 aromatic animals
Not all animal give off foul odours. Some smell as sweet as our favourite scents
It’s the stink bombs that bring them together Like the wolverine, hyenas use their scent to mark their territory, except in their case they do so by rubbing a sticky, stinky paste called ‘hyena butter’ on grass stalks, rocks and even each other. Hyena butter also serves another purpose for this highly-social animal - communication. Grass stalks
coated in the stuff act as a notice board of sorts, allowing an individual to draw information about other hyenas nearby; young or old, pregnant or lactating. Each clan has its own distinctive scent, which researchers believe is generated by bacteria that lives in the hyena’s anal glands.
Beaver - French vanilla
Anal secretions are rarely pleasant, but there are exceptions. The beaver’s slime smells of vanilla, and we use it in everything from perfume to food flavouring.
“Hyenas use their scent to mark their territory... rubbing a sticky, stinky paste...on grass stalks”
Citronella ant - Lemon
This common American household pest gives people’s homes a pleasant lemon-y smell, due to the citric gas they expel when threatened.
Peppermint stick insect Peppermint
This stick insect sprays aggressors with a fragrant but irritating mist that smells of peppermint.
Koala - Cough drops
You are what you eat, they say: these lazy koalas live on a diet of eucalyptus leaves, and as such smell like a big, cute, teddy bear-shaped cough drop.
Crested auklet - Tangerine
Most birds have a poor sense of smell, but this sweetsmelling seabird preens its scent into its feathers like a perfume and greets its mate by smelling its neck.
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The big stink If their smell doesn’t put predators off, hoatzin chicks can hide underwater, but adult birds cannot swim
Introducing the ‘stinkbird’ This rather clumsy bird inhabits the Amazon rainforest and appears to have more in common with the dinosaurs than other avians – hoatzin chicks even have claws on their wings, leading to comparisons to various ancient ‘missing link’ species such as the archaeopteryx. It begs the question how such an ungainly species such as the hoatzin could survive into the present day. Well, one thing that likely puts predators off is that it stinks of fresh cow manure – which actually makes sense, because the hoatzin, which feeds almost exclusively on leaves, has evolved a digestive system similar to that found in cattle. Its crop serves as a fermentation chamber, where bacteria slowly (very slowly) breaks down the leaves until the bird can digest them. Because of its diet, the hoatzin spends much of its time lazing about – but then, there’s no rush. It’s not like the Amazon’s carnivores are queuing up for a sniff.
“One thing that likely puts predators off is that it stinks of fresh cow manure”
© Dreamstime; FLPA; NaturePL; Rex Features; Thinkstock
You won’t want to make yourself at home on the wolverine’s patch
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Named the ‘skunk bear’ by the Blackfoot Indians that roamed the north-western United States, this hulking member of the weasel family is highly territorial, and uses scent to draw the boundaries of its breeding and feeding range. Until recently, it was thought that the wolverine marked its territory with its oily musk, but we now know that it does so by scent-marking with its urine as it goes about its daily animal business. It’s unmistakably strong, even by urine standards, because of the pine needles that form part of the wolverine’s diet. But the wolverine has a final stinky trick up its unwashed sleeve. During lean times, this scavenger will store food in caches for later. They keep their bounty in cold, snowcovered crevices to keep bacteria at bay, and spray it with their aforementioned musk to put off anything else who might happen upon their larder.
The wolverine’s keen nose can sniff out a carcass underneath six metres (20 feet) of snow.
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Conserving the Amur leopard
AMUR LEOPARD
Panthera pardus orientalis Class Mammalia
Territory Southeast Russia and northeast China Diet Deer, boar, hares, badgers Lifespan 10-15 years Adult weight 32-48kg (71-106lb) Conservation Status
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
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CONSERVING THE
AMUR LEOPARD These elusive and secretive felines are one of the most threatened of all the big cats and are on the brink of extinction Words Naomi Harding Leopards can be split into nine distinct subspecies depending on their region. On the whole, they are rapidly decreasing around the world but few subspecies are quite as endangered as the Amur leopard. Only 100 years ago, they occupied the Russian Far East, northeastern China, and the whole of the Korean peninsula. Today, there are just 25-40 animals in the southern tip of the Russian Far East. They are the only leopards adapted to living in snowy cold climates (snow leopards aren’t true leopards). They have thick fur to insulate them from the biting winds, long limbs and wide paws to act as snowshoes in the cold snow, and a long bushy tail that is extremely useful, not only for balance, but as a scarf when they curl up and wrap it around themselves. The Amur leopard is just one stop short of being extinct in the wild. A survey in 2007 revealed just 14-20 adults and five-to-six cubs in the Primorye region of Russia. Since the listing increased to Critically Endangered in 1996, the population has been relatively stable but conservation efforts so far have failed to increase numbers.
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Conserving the Amur leopard
Lonely leopards
These big cats live a life alone in the harsh wilderness
Amur leopards are crepuscular, sleeping during the day and waking in the evening, spending the frosty nights roaming the land to stalk their prey. They are excellent hunters and once they have taken down a wild boar or a deer, they skulk off dragging their meal with them to eat in peace. Their tongues are covered with many small rasps or hooks, known as denticles,
which help them strip meat from bone when eating. They don’t share food. In fact, they share nothing with other animals, leading solitary lives like most other cats. The only time they have contact with other leopards is during the breeding season, when a mother is raising her cubs, or when they need to see other leopards off their territory.
Amur leopards live in the fiercely harsh and bitterly cold mountains. It would be easy to think such a remote environment would be left untouched by humans but you would be wrong. At most there are 40 individuals remaining, meaning every single leopard is important. In Russia, they have lost 80 per cent of their habitat and the fight to save them is ongoing.
BELOW During mating season, there may be several males fighting and following a female at any given time
3 things you should know about Amur leopards The Amur leopard’s cousin, the Amur tiger, had a population that fell to just 30 individuals in the 1930s, but it was recovered to around 360 living in the wild, giving conservationists hope for the Amur leopard. Depending on their size and sex, an adult Amur leopard can need up to 30,000 hectares (116 square miles) of territory. They are solitary and do not share their space with other cats. They are incredibly powerful and can run 60 kilometres per hour (37 miles per hour), jump six metres (20 feet) in the air horizontally, and three metres (ten feet) vertically.
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The struggle is real
Conservationists have not yet won the war against poaching Amur leopards face a number of threats, which have contributed to their endangered status. Poaching, as is the usual cause of many animal declines, is generally considered to be the main threat to their survival. The trade in Amur leopard products is illegal, which means it can be difficult to quantify, but we know it is happening as skins are sometimes confiscated in Russia and China. Shooting for pelts is largely carried out by unqualified hunters using unregistered guns, meaning that there is a greater chance of suffering to the animal and there is more likely to be an unsustainable harvest in the long-term. Deliberate fires and burning of habitat is also a key threat. Farmers habitually set fire to fields, a known practice to increase the quality of soil for crops, but over an extended period of time this has encouraged large expanses of land to transform into open savannah, with grasses and scrub that leopards tend to steer clear
of due to the low density of prey. Despite the bleak outlook, there are people working hard to prevent further losses; rangers are stationed in lodges scattered across the land and if they see a fire or hear gunshots they spring to action. In addition, there is an ever-looming threat of development in the Primorye area. A proposal to build an oil pipeline through the area has been shelved, for now. Another plan for the construction of an open pit coal mine was only abandoned after increasing publicity and pressure from environmentalists. Although these projects did not go ahead they have not been considered conservation successes. The desire to develop the leopard’s habitat for commercial gain still exists. It is now more important than ever for conservationists to stay on top of what is happening in the area and continue lobbying policy makers, company directors, and politicians to preserve the habitat, so that future Amur leopards have a chance of survival.
“Poaching, as is the usual cause of many animal declines, is generally considered to be the main threat to their survival” Researchers also fix radio collars to the leopards so they can track their movements and collect data
On the front line These three organisations are leading the way for Amur leopard conservation
Amur Leopard And Tiger Alliance (ALTA)
ALTA is a coalition comprised of 15 international and Russian NGOs working towards conserving the Amur leopard population. They plan to work with partner organisations to establish a second population of Amur leopards in their former range, where they are no longer found, by planning and creating a reserve. The European and Russian zoo conservation breeding programme now has over 200 captive Amur leopards acting as a safetynet population, which they are working towards releasing back into the wild at some point in the future.
WWF
Looking after Amur leopards is only half the battle. To ensure their long-term survival you also have to look after their depleting habitat and their prey. This is the strategy the WWF has adopted to conserve the big cats for the future. WWF has helped to significantly increase populations of wild boar and deer in the leopard’s range, and has worked with local communities to increase the area of protected land used as habitat. By working with TRAFFIC (the wildlife trade monitoring organisation) they are also helping to crack down on illegal Amur leopard products and reducing demand for such products through education.
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
Working with ALTA, the WCS have been monitoring Amur leopards in Russia using modern technology such as camera traps. The cameras are set up in various locations where leopards are suspected to travel through and are triggered whenever they sense any movement, capturing an image. Camera trapping allows the organisation to identify individual leopards by looking at their distinctive coat patterns, and it has allowed WCS to build up a data set to spot trends throughout the years and estimate the population density. In 2014 the project was extended to cover a wider area, and today WCS are carefully monitoring around 75 per cent of all Amur leopard habitat in Russia.
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Conserving the Amur leopard
Amur leopards are known for their incredibly shy nature, usually preferring to stay hidden
John Lewis is a vet for Wildlife Vets International (WVI) Can you tell me more about your work? WVI was invited to be part of a multidisciplinary team trapping and gathering biomedical data from the remaining wild Amur leopards. As there were only about 35 leopards in 20,000 square kilometres (7,722 square miles) of taiga forest, they were difficult to find. During six years of trapping, we only caught leopards on seven occasions, with one male being caught three times in consecutive years. As well as trapping, I was able to mentor a Russian wildlife vet and give lectures to both veterinary and biology students, as there is little knowledge of wildlife disease in the Russian Far East. With reintroduction into the wild in mind, our partners in Russia have collected health data from other wild and domestic carnivore species in the area, and from species that leopards would prey on. WVI has analysed the health of the captive Amur leopard population that would provide young leopards for the reintroduction project. Over a number of years we’ve built up a good working knowledge of the disease issues likely to affect a reintroduction project. The threat from disease to both the current and
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proposed reintroduced second population has been summarised in the Disease Risk Assessment for the Reintroduction of the Amur Leopard, and mitigation strategies have been identified to prevent disease having a major negative effect on the programme. This document is now incorporated into the government approved Reintroduction Plan for the species. What are they key threats facing the Amur leopard? Poaching of the leopards and their prey remains the most immediate threat to Amur leopards. In addition, leopard habitat is being altered by some development in the area and forest fires set for agricultural purposes. Disease can undermine even the best of conservation efforts. Fortunately, Amur leopards are present in the wild at very low densities, which tends to reduce the extent and rate of disease spread. Even so, emerging viral threats, such as that posed by Canine Distemper Virus (CDV), could affect the viability of the wild Amur leopard population, as it appears to be doing in the case of the Amur tiger. The first fatal case of CDV infection in a wild Amur leopard has already been reported and we must be extremely vigilant for others. Do they suffer any genetic problems due to the small number of animals le? The Amur leopard population remains very low at around
40 individuals, and therefore it would not be surprising to find problems arising from inbreeding. Certainly, the wild population has a narrower genetic base than captive Amur leopards in European zoos, but no obvious problems that can be related to inbreeding have yet been identified in the wild. Having said that, we do not know whether there are more subtle effects of inbreeding yet to be identified. Amur leopards have been camera-trapped on rare occasions on the Chinese side of the border, but whether they are breeding there has yet to be determined. Is it too late to save the species? Definitely not. The wild population has been stable and even increasing slightly for a number of years, and we think that some individuals are moving between Russia and adjacent areas of China. However, the numbers are still critically low. A reintroduced population could go a long way to securing this species. A successful reintroduction of the Amur leopard will take many years and no doubt suffer setbacks. It is an expensive process and in some ways a risky one, but in combination with habitat protection, it might just work! Support WVI and the ALTA partners by sharing our stories, inspiring others and by fund raising to help support our ongoing conservation work. For more information visit www.WildlifeVetsInternational.org and www.ALTAconservation.org.
© Getty; NaturePL
Amur leopard health
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Endangered
The Tuatara COOK STRAIT TUATARA Sphenodon punctatus Class Reptilia
Territory New Zealand Diet Beetles, lizards, bird eggs and chicks Lifespan 120 years Adult weight 1kg (2.2lb) Conservation status
LEAST CONCERN
Tuatara are the last surviving members of the order Rhynchocephalia, a group of ancient reptiles that lived as long as 225 million years ago. Although they are listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, the assessment was carried out in 1996 and it has been acknowledged that the record needs updating, as it does not
The causes of endangerment Introduced species
Polynesian settlers arrived around 1250-1300AD and introduced Pacific rats to many of the islands. These rats preyed on tuatara and by the 1840s, the reptile was mostly extinct on the mainland. Legislation soon followed and since 1895, they have been awarded protection from the New Zealand government. Today, tuatara are unable to live on any island where rats, cats or any other mammalian predator are present.
Loss of habitat
Because tuatara live on such small islands surrounding New Zealand, they are extremely vulnerable to environmental change. Seemingly small events, such as fire, can have a drastic impact on the survival of the species and easily wipe out large proportions of the population.
Harvesting
Before the government stepped in and protected the creature officially, many tuatara were poached from their habitat and harvested for trade. Hundreds were shipped overseas for museum exhibitions and private collections. People are still taking tuatara illegally from the wild, but in smaller quantities than they were before 1895.
What you can do… WWW.TUATARATOURS.CO.NZ
If you’re on holiday in the area, Tuatara Tours is actively involved in tuatara conservation. It offers a wide range of walking and cycling tours in Australia and New Zealand, all while raising money to save the reptiles.
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reflect the stark reality for these troubled reptiles. Around 70 million years ago the tuatara became extinct everywhere except for New Zealand, restricting their range considerably. Their slow pace of life and the numerous threats they face, such as loss of habitat, mean the tuatara are now living dangerously close to extinction.
Tuatara A restricted range The common tuatara is now limited to small islands due to introduced species. They are no longer able to survive on the mainland, and the surviving populations are highly fragmented. Current range
New Zealand
Tuatara breakthroughs
“The tuatara is a species believed to have been around long before dinosaurs walked the Earth”
Tuatara lived before the dinosaurs, they lived with the dinosaurs, and they survived aer dinosaurs had died out. They really are a living fossil and an evolutionary wonder. There is no other reptile like it on the planet. They have no external ear openings, they don’t possess normal teeth but instead have projected serrations from their jawbones, and they have a ‘third eye’ in the middle of their heads. These ‘eyes’ are equipped with a lens, retina, cornea and connective tissue leading to the brain, but have no visual function; instead, they are photoreceptors believed to utilise UV light. Breeding tuatara is an incredible achievement, as they are notoriously difficult to breed. It has taken me 38 years to get here, which has involved a lot of hard work, stressful moments and lots of tweaking of the conditions in which we keep the animals, but it has all been very much worth it. This animal has been on the planet for over a quarter of a billion years, and to be the first zoo to ever breed them outside of New Zealand is an amazing event. It’s one of the most momentous events for the reptile team since we discovered Komodo dragons are capable of virgin births in 2006. When you’ve worked with tuatara you come to realise that they don’t do anything in a hurry. Their metabolism is incredibly slow – they take only five breaths and just six to eight heart beats per minute, and they only reproduce every four years. We’ve waited 12 years with this particular pairing. The night before it hatched, I spotted two beads of sweat on the egg. I had a feeling something incredible was about to happen, so I raced in early the next day and there she was. Immediately I broke down in tears – I was completely overwhelmed by what we had achieved. Now that we have all of the key factors in place, the challenge is to repeat our success.
© Chester Zoo; freevectormaps.com
Keeper Isolde McGeorge has been attempting to breed the tuatara at Chester Zoo since 1977
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Explore the Earth
Enchanting ICELAND
Witness the animals that roam the land where tectonic plates meet, water boils beneath the ground and the northern lights paint the night sky Words Amy Grisdale
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Enchanting Iceland On top of the world With a total population of less than four per cent of the city of London’s, Iceland’s vast plains are almost untouched by human influence. That being said, the country’s wildlife has been shaped almost entirely by human activity as there are few native mammals on the island and many species that visitors go to see are either introduced or domesticated. As people began to settle on the previously uninhabited country in the late ninth century, more and more species were introduced. At least 32 invasive species found their way to Iceland over the years from American mink that escaped fur farms to the Chinese mitten crab that migrated from the Far East. Birds and marine mammals, however, have been visiting the country for thousands of years to enjoy its fish-filled ords and are still sighted to this day. The country is on the brink of the Arctic circle and its unique fauna live alongside breathtaking geographical landforms, making it an incredibly popular destination for wildlife watchers around the world
Arctic fox
Though found throughout most of the country, the west fjords are home to The Arctic Fox Centre with local guides that can help visitors spot the elusive creatures.
Humpback whale
Húsavík in Skjálfandi Bay is inundated with filter feeding humpbacks throughout the summer months, hungrily building up fat reserves to see them through winter.
3
Orca
As a cosmopolitan species the largest species of dolphin can be found in any body of water around the world, but have returned to Iceland’s Grundarfjörður year after year.
Iceland
1 4
Grey seal
Common around most of the country’s coast, these hardy marine mammals can be seen frolicking in shallow waters or resting on rocks. Map key 1 Þingvellir National Park 2 Vatnajökull National Park 3 Ásbyrgi Canyon 4 Skaafell National Park
Travel guide
2
Icelandic horse
Though they aren’t wild animals, the equines of Iceland are extremely popular with visitors to the Golden Circle. Strict laws prevent other horses being introduced, and exported horses are not allowed back into the country.
Puffin
Found along the coasts during the summer months, the largest population can be seen on the Westman islands, which is a short ferry ride from the mainland.
Reindeer
Though not native to Iceland, there are strongholds of feral reindeer in the higher elevations of the east as they were found difficult to domesticate by 18th century farmers.
When to go
Summer is the best time for wildlife, but the northern lights are most active in winter, so choose your season according to what you want to see.
How to get there
Reykjavik Keflavik airport accepts direct flights from all over the world, and nervous fliers can always take a cruise if they prefer not to fly.
What the weather will do
Despite the name Iceland isn’t very prone to snow. Instead, it is generally cold in the summer, but still sunny with clear, bright skies.
What to take
The country is geared up for walking so a good pair of boots are a must when visiting, along with a proper winter jacket to keep you warm.
What you’ll see
Even if you aren’t lucky enough to spot a single wild animal you’re guaranteed to see Icelandic horses and the country’s incredible landforms.
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Explore the Earth
Spy a colour-changing Arctic fox on the hunt Iceland is one of the southernmost points of the Arctic fox’s range, and it’s the only terrestrial mammal native to the country. In winter its fur is white to blend in with the intermittent snow, and throughout the summer it takes on a grey-brown colour. This shade is actually called blue, and the summer fur is much thinner than the thick white tufts that sprout in winter. The Icelandic population feeds mostly on birds and eggs, scouring cliffs for nests. They have no competing carnivores to contend with meaning they have a fairly stable population, though they thrive in areas with high bird populations. If food is scarce, foxes will turn to scavenging on carrion, picking out invertebrates or feasting on berries. Unfortunately, the Arctic fox has been hunted over centuries as Icelandic farmers viewed it as a threat to sheep. Its fur was once prized but the introduction of fur farms greatly decreased the hunting pressure and now many fox areas are protected. Family groups live in dens with up to eight entrances and a system of tunnels. They cover up to 30 square metres (320 square feet) and typically contain an adult male, two vixens and their cubs. Dens provide an ideal hiding place for surplus food collected in the summer and can be in use for hundreds of years, passing down through generations.
A flurry of feathers Seabirds thrive along the coasts of Iceland, both in the water and on land. Guillemots, razorbills and puffins nest on clifftops and are surprisingly tolerant of visitors. Ducks are a common sight in coastal waters, from eiders to harlequin ducks. They dive into the icy depths to find food such as sea urchins and can stay submerged for up to 60 seconds. Many birds in Iceland are migratory and leave for southern spots if the winters get too harsh. Whooper swans head to the British Isles around November to escape the approaching cold. Geese and wading birds like plovers often stop off in Iceland to break up the journey between northern Greenland and the southern hemisphere. Despite the lack of small mammals in the country, there are three species of owl. Long-eared, short-eared and snowy owls are an increasing sight, especially at dusk during late summer. In total, over 370 bird species have been spotted over the years, many of which are in such large numbers that Iceland holds a significant chunk of the world’s population.
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Enchanting Iceland More than wildlife
Geothermal springs
Hot water bubbles up from the ground to form hot springs, the most famous of which is Blue Lagoon. It’s situated in a northern lights hotspot so going at night is a good idea.
Hike on ice
Take a tour to see rivers of ice that have shaped the landscape. Tour operators offer snowmobile or 4X4 trips for those less willing to walk.
The Golden Circle
Take the popular trail to see where tectonic plates touch, geysers spurt and waterfalls crash. Take a tour or drive yourself.
Explore the capital
Get souvenirs, peruse museums and admire the city’s artwork while enjoying the view of Reykjavik’s spectacular harbour.
The northern lights
Not all visitors to Iceland are lucky enough to see the northern lights, so take a tour or check the online forecast before going to find the stunning display.
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Explore the Earth
Watch whales and dolphins Iceland is the whale watching capital of the world, and throughout the summer the entire island is surrounded. Arguably the best place in the country is Húsavík on the north coast where visitors can see humpbacks, orcas or more obscure animals like the northern bottlenose whale. The cold waters of the north Atlantic are rich in food and attract more than 20 different whale species. Large whales like blues and minkes filter feed on small marine organisms while toothed whales like white-beaked dolphins and sperm whales feed on larger fish and squid. Some species are migratory, like the humpback, and spend their summers gorging themselves on the fishy feast available. Whale watch guides help passengers spot marine mammals and companies offer eco-friendly tours, operating according to strict guidelines to prevent the animals suffering any distress.
Peek on a nesting puffin Despite generations of hunting and egg theft, Icelandic puffins are not afraid of humans and will allow tourists to get close to their nests. Trips like these should be taken with professional companies to ensure the environment does not get damaged and, most importantly, no birds are disturbed or injured. Over 60 per cent of the world’s Atlantic puffin population live in Iceland, though they only venture on to land during breeding season. They are fantastically adapted to live on the open ocean and can dive as deep as 60 metres (200 feet). This affinity for swimming doesn’t hinder the puffin’s aerial ability, however, these birds can flap their wings up to 400 times in 60 seconds. The brightly coloured feet and bills help puffins pick suitable mates. Birds with bright orange beaks are more likely to be selected as a partner as it indicates good health, and as puffins mate for life it’s important that they choose wisely.
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Animal tourists
Feel festive with real reindeer This is the only deer species in which both males and females have antlers. Males engage in gruesome battles, and the winners are awarded with groups of up to 15 females. During the rut males don’t eat and lose a large chunk of their body mass, though it’s worth it when their newborn calves arrive in late spring.
Polar bear
The largest terrestrial carnivore occasionally finds its way to Iceland by accident, floating over on ice sheets. Unfortunately, those that do appear don’t tend to survive and aren’t able to breed without another bear.
Narwhal
The bizarre sword-faced whale, also known as the unicorn of the sea, has been seen in Icelandic waters but is usually only found in the waters of the Arctic and between Greenland and Canada.
Feed hardy Icelandic horses Though a common sight around rural areas of the country, tour guides will often stop to show their guests roadside horses. In fact, visitors can go to ranches to ride or even take a horseback tour.
Introduced to Iceland over 1,100 years ago, they are the last remaining members of an otherwise extinct breed. They are sure-footed on any terrain and extremely well insulated to defend against snow and chilling winds.
See playful seals on the coast Almost all of the Icelandic coast is seal territory, and many calm inlets like fjords and sheltered beaches are swimming with both grey and common seals. They are opportunistic feeders, searching the sea bed for fish, crustaceans and molluscs. Recent research even suggests that grey seals will attack harbour porpoises when in need of a quick meal. Common seals use their whiskers to detect prey under water, and find their food even if they cannot hear or see. Seals have 1,500 nerve endings in each whisker, which is eight times the number in a single cat whisker. They are extremely sensitive and are differently shaped to those of other mammals, and their structure gives their whiskers a unique property. While the animal is swimming the whiskers are able to stay relatively still and only vibrate in response to moving prey in the surrounding water.
Common crane
Though this bird is found throughout mainland Europe and northern Africa it has been known to pop up in Iceland. The first confirmed sighting was in 1968 and they continue until this day.
Raccoon
In 1932 seven raccoons were kept in captivity in Reykjavik, but one escaped. In 1975, three more were brought to Hafnaörður Aquarium but again, one escaped. A third was found in 1998.
Booted eagle
Normally native to southern Europe and sub-Saharan Africa, these large eagles make rare appearances in Iceland though the lack of small mammals and reptiles means they don’t stay long.
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Explore the Earth
Peep at ringed plover parents Found on sandy or stony terrain close to water, these active wading birds are caring parents. Both the male and female incubate the eggs and if their nest is approached by a predator the plover will tear away to lure the threat from its precious eggs. Young plovers leave the nest almost immediately after hatching, but may shelter underneath their mother if they do not feel safe enough to make a break for it.
See salmon leap upstream Iceland has only five species of freshwater fish, three of which are in the salmon family. The Elliðaár river in eastern Reykjavik is the ideal spot to see these fish going against the flow to reach their spawning grounds in late July to early August. Once the fish reach their destination they release their reproductive matter into the water. Young fish spend their lives in the safety of streams but find their way to the ocean in adulthood.
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Enchanting Iceland
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Top tips Keep to a budget
Iceland has a reputation for being expensive, but there are ways to keep costs down. Avoid alcohol, which is heavily taxed and try to get self-catering accommodation like camping or staying in a hostel. Hire a car to avoid paying for expensive tours.
Boycott whale meat
Whaling is still legal in Iceland, and many restaurants serve minke meat. Don’t eat at establishments that have whale on the menu and be careful tasting samples at indoor markets if you aren’t sure what they are.
Choose your season carefully
As a country with a high latitude, Iceland has varying daylight hours throughout the year. Check the sunrise and sunset times online to ensure you book at the right time. Late August is a good time as there are still whales in the water but enough hours of darkness to see the northern lights.
Golden rules for Icelandic photography
Capture the aurora
Snapping the northern lights can be a challenge. Use a sturdy tripod and set your exposure time to 30 seconds or longer. Make sure your camera is on manual focus. Find a spot with minimal artificial light for pinsharp images.
Adjust to low light
Winter days are short in Iceland and if it’s getting dark you still want to be able to use your camera. Firstly, use a large aperture to let in as much light as possible and slow down your shutter speed. You can also increase the ISO, but your pictures may become grainy.
Freeze whales in frame
To capture whale photos keep your viewfinder to your eye and don’t zoom until you’ve spied your target. Take bursts of photos to ensure you capture the action, and keep your shutter speed high. Follow the lighter parts of its body until it surfaces to breathe.
Who to travel with
Create magical waterfalls
It’s hard to get that misty effect in images. The key is to show that the water is moving, so try a slow shutter speed to create motion blur. Use a tripod or rest your camera on a solid surface and experiment with exposure times starting with one to two seconds.
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Summer Iceland family adventure
Iceland – Land of fire and ice
Reykjavik and southern Iceland £399 excluding flights
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© Alamy: FLPA; Getty; Thinkstock; freevectormaps; Dreamstime
These guidelines will guarantee you take the best pictures on your trip
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Working for Wildlife
SOS: SNAILS IN DISTRESS If you thought that wildlife conservation stopped at big, cuddly mammals then London Zoo snail keeper Sam Aberdeen is here to set the story straight
© ZSL; Sam Aberdeen
What originally drew you to working with snails? As children, snails are some of the first wild animals we fully experience. Searching through the grass, that first encounter is like looking into an alien world: motion with no legs; fluid skeletons; eyes on tentacles; and covered in mucus. As adults, the constant presence of snails in our lives makes them oddly forgettable. I was fortunate enough to be reintroduced to the world of the snail in my teens, bringing these gastropods back from a peripheral interest into a genuine passion. Unfortunately, as with a large number of animals on our planet, many snail species are currently losing the battle for survival. Why do snails deserve our help as much as other endangered (and arguably more photogenic) animals? Who says snails aren’t photogenic? Personally I find their slightly quizzical expressions genuinely delightful – just look at Gary from SpongeBob SquarePants, or Turbo. Or, for real examples, have a look at the Polymita or British Cepaea. Wherever snails and slugs are found, they form a vital part of the ecosystem. As grazers, terrestrial molluscs can exert a far more efficient grazing pressure on plants than vertebrate grazers. When feeding on dead and decaying vegetation, they create the perfect media for bacteria and fungi to get in and release the base nutrients that create the soils we rely upon. These species are the basis of a number of food chains that support some of our most
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beloved wildlife, including hedgehogs, thrushes and badgers. Molluscs will be here long after all humans are gone – the question is, will we create a world where only the pests survive, killing off the benign and useful to leave only the aggressive invaders behind? Not if we can help it. What’s the backstory of the Partula snail conservation programme? Between 1970 and 2000, almost all 58 species of French Polynesian Partula were wiped out. The extinction was caused by a series of The 7 x 12m (22.9 x 39.3) reserve on Tahiti where the snails were reintroduced into the wild in 2015
introductions, including predatory species like the rosy wolf snail (Euglandina rosea). We are lucky to have had extraordinary people working on the project from the very beginning. Two pivotal figures are Bryan Clarke and James Murray. These scientists were following a long tradition in Partula research, studying speciation [the evolution of new species] in French Polynesia. While on the island of Moorea, they noticed that their study animals were disappearing, leaving behind thousands of shells scattered across the forest floor. We are now an international collaboration of
“…that first encounter is like looking into an alien world: motion with no legs; fluid skeletons; eyes on tentacles; and covered in mucus” 14 zoos (five in the UK and five in the US, plus others in Poland, France, the Netherlands and Latvia). The zoos work in conjunction with many other important partners, including the French Polynesian government and the IUCN. What sort of problems do you face in snail conservation that perhaps differ from that of other animals? Many of the problems that face a small species project are the same as for larger species: identifying the main factors causing a decline, securing a political will and encouraging local involvement are all essential. However, certain factors of invertebrate biology and public perception do set snail conservation apart: Smaller ranges: Most invertebrates have ranges of limited size. With Partula, one of our release sites is a man-made reserve that must be one of the smallest on the planet, at approximately 90m² [968ft2]. That said, protecting a small area can be difficult – it only takes one destructive event to wipe it out. Big numbers: The great thing is that we can breed a large number of animals in a limited area – eg 2,500 Partula snails in a space the size of a small bedroom. That said, when looking to reintroduce invertebrates, the mortality rate can be as high as 90 per cent. Being kept in captivity
can change a species’ behaviour, and issues like predation and variations in climate can have a big impact. Money: Invertebrate programmes often run on far smaller budgets than those for vertebrates. However, on the flip side, raising funds can be much harder. Politics and attitudes: Invertebrates inspire a number of reactions, including ambivalence and in some cases terror. Much of this is completely unfounded, but it makes our work much more difficult. Tell us what it felt like to be involved with the Partula release in 2015. The sense of pride was indescribable – the culmination of our team effort, starting with all of our collections that bred these snails over 25 years, to our field team on the ground at that moment seeing these amazing creatures [in their natural habitat]. What does the future hold for this project? The 2015 release was a huge step forward, and we have big plans to build on this success with a series of releases across the islands in the next three years. Hopefully by 2018 we will have the majority of the captive species represented in the wild once again.
Diary of a snail-keeper Much of zoo-keeping is doing the dirty work of looking after your animals’ basic needs. At ZSL London Zoo, the day starts at 8.00am with a morning meeting. As a keeper within the B.U.G.S. exhibit, for me this meeting includes a number of mammal, aquatic and invertebrate keepers, which can make for an interesting range of topics and daily jobs. Mondays and Fridays are Partula servicing days where I spend the majority of the day in the Partula room. The snails are kept in glass tanks with tissue across the bottom, a paste that often looks and smells like fermenting grass on food plates, and a plastic film top. During servicing days, I remove as much ‘snail poo’ as possible, and replace the old food and substrate with new, all while wearing a fetching lab coat and Crocs combo that is required for quarantine purposes. Understandably, many visitors tend to get confused when, looking into the Partula room, they see a keeper in a lab coat and Crocs, elbow deep in snails! Once a month I count every snail in the room, which at the moment is over 2,500, but during summer 2015 that rose to 3,500. On non-Partula days, I’m the ‘floating keeper’ of the department working with all the animals, which makes for a really varied week. One day I can be helping weigh an anteater – on another, I can be changing the water for the jellyfish.
Conservation in the slow lane
A rosy wolf snail, one of the predator y species threatening Par tula
The Partula release team heading to their valley release site
When it comes to wildlife conservation of any form, the main requirement is enthusiasm, but experience is key too. In zoos, many keepers have previously undertaken significant volunteering time within a zoological collection or another animal management field. Education is always highly valued, but there is no set route. I was a biology teacher in secondary schools before I came into keeping; others I have worked with were originally landscape gardeners, bankers and civil servants. Being a bit different can bring a new perspective to a problem. Several zoos are now closely involved in invertebrate conservation, both nationally and internationally. We want to do more, so any donation can make this work go further. There are a number of other organisations in this field, including Buglife, Butterfly Conservation and the British Arachnological Society. The best thing we can do is make a space in our gardens for these animals. Green spaces free from molluscicides and lawnmowers will provide a perfect habitat, Keep up to date with the Partula project at http://bit.ly/1UnlBPv
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Summer gifts
Bat notebook Creature Candy was founded by ecologist Lizzie Barker and sells all manner of animal-related goodies. Why not get out of the house and record all of your wildlife sightings in this adorable bat notebook?
creaturecandy.com, £8.50 (10% of profits go directly to the Bat Conservation Trust)
Summer pugging This hand-iced pug is holding flowers and he makes the perfect gi for yourself or anyone else.
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Cat lady A set of temporary tattoo designs to show everyone how much you really love cats. The tattoos are applied with water and can last up to one week.
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Narwhal on your case The narwhal iPhone case from Skinnydip features blue glitter for an underwater theme and comes with a free screen protector. Not only does it look cool but it also protects your phone from accidental bumps.
comforts
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Flamingo watering can As the warmer weather inspires more people to get outside and discover new hobbies, why not try your hand at gardening? This 1.5 litre flamingo watering can is fun and practical.
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Sneak a peek at our list of summer gifts, packed full of must-have items for animal lovers
The most complete guide to butterflies There’s no better time than summer, when the weather is good and the sun is shining, to get out and explore. This helpful book will guide you through identifying all the butterflies of Britain and northern Europe.
harpercollins.co.uk, £18.99
Fish tea Just place your loose leaf tea inside the fish and leave to steep for a few minutes for the perfect tea
kikkerlandeu.com, £7.82
Panda sandwiches Turn your summer picnic sandwich into an animal lover’s dream. These panda cutters are easy to use, safe for children, and can even be used as cookie cutters as well – brilliant!
firebox.com, £12.99
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Go wild for DIY With a llama-shaped file, a wolf-shaped wire stripper, and a rhino-shaped bottle opener, you can combine your love of animals with your enthusiasm for DIY.
gettingpersonal.co.uk, £26.99
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Wildlife photography
Take your photography underwater Capture underwater wildlife with our top hints and tricks. Learn how to solve colour problems, get the light right and much more Choose the right kit Top techniques Correct blue colour casts Whether you’re a regular diver or trying snorkelling for the first time while on holiday, going underwater is a really fun experience, and it can be incredibly rewarding when you spot some amazing species in the deep. Getting photos of those animals can also be very satisfying, especially when you manage to capture a unique shot, but doing so is not without its challenges. Luckily we are here with some key advice to help you get the best possible results. Remember, you don’t have to dive to great depths to get good shots, as some wildlife swim fairly close to the top, and sometimes playing with the sunbeams and reflections dancing off the surface can create fantastic photos. If you do want to dive down further or swim in more remote locations, make sure you have the right training and keep your personal safety in mind at all times.
Recommended kit Some top gear options for your underwater adventures
GoPro Hero Session This tiny camera (£160/$200, shop.gopro.com) has a built-in case that makes it waterproof to 10m (33) without extra housing. It shoots stills at 8MP and HD videos at 1080p60, and it’s easy to operate with only two controls.
Nikon 1 AW1 It’s not the cheapest waterproof camera (£579/$800 with 11-27.5mm lens, store.nikon. co.uk) but it affords you the option to change lenses. The small CSC allows you to go to depths of 15m (49) and shoots at 15 frames per second.
Aquapac waterproof DSLR camera case If you wish to take your DSLR underwater, this is an affordable option for beginners (£95/$140, store. aquapac.net). It features a tough acrylic area for your lens to go next to, and it’s submersible up to 10m (33) for 30 minutes.
Underwater photography allows you to capture some very unusual and interesting creatures, but make sure you always keep your safety and that of the animal in mind
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Tamron 10-24mm lens If using a DSLR, a wide-angle zoom will give you more composition opportunities if your subject is moving quickly. This Tamron lens (£350/approx. $500, www.tamron.eu) has a minimum focusing distance of 24cm (9.4in), letting you get closer.
Wildlife photography Tip 1
Pick the right kit
A quick-fire guide to your underwater options
You can’t take your normal camera underwater, that much is obvious, but luckily there are a variety of robust options open to you. If you’re just starting out, a dedicated underwater compact camera is a great affordable option, such as the Canon PowerShot D30 or Fujifilm FinePix XP80. Nikon also does an underwater CSC, the Nikon 1 AW1, which gives you more flexibility as you can change the lenses on it. You can buy dedicated underwater housing for your current camera, but do bear in mind that some can cost more than the actual camera. Some housing will only fit certain models, too, so check this before purchasing. Experiment with cheaper bag housing to start with, but if you want to take it seriously, try and get one with a hard casing that will still allow you to control the settings, such as those from Ikelite. Be sure to check the depth rating on the housing and make sure you clean it after each trip out. If you do opt to use an interchangeable lens camera in housing, wide-angle lenses will let you fit in more of your surroundings. You can’t shoot through lots of water anyway so it’s best to move as close as you can rather than zoom in with a telephoto lens. Make sure you check the depth tolerance of your housing or underwater camera before you take a dive
Tip 2
Learn the key settings
Work with the right modes to get the very best results Your camera may have a dedicated underwater preset mode, but if not, make sure you use a small aperture to keep everything sharp. Also, when the light reflects off your subject it then has to travel back through water before it reaches your meter, which drops the exposure. Because of this you will also likely need to set some positive exposure compensation. It’s important to focus on the eyes of the creature you are photographing, and a continuous focusing mode will help your camera keep moving subjects sharp.
© Alex Mustard
The most important area to keep sharp in your shot is the animal’s eyes
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Wildlife photography Tip 3
Light it up
Ensuring you eliminate colour casts means you’ll get a result that’s vibrant and true to life
Get the best results by considering the lighting in your shots Getting good light underwater is key to getting a clear and bright shot of your subject. In shallow water, shoot between 11am and 2pm, when the Sun will be high and directly hitting water, and shoot with the sun behind you. If the water is rough and choppy it can deflect more light so calm days are better too. Look for shafts of light, coming through the water and move to these areas. If you’re diving a bit deeper, the water absorbs a lot of the light, so you’ll need to add in flash. Using direct camera flash, however, will cause problems, as it will light up all the particles in the water between yourself and the animal. This is known as backscatter, and it can cause you hours of editing time trying to clone the particles out. The solution is to buy underwater strobes that sit on arms on the side of your camera and move the light away from the lens – have just the edge of the beam fall on your subject.
Tip 4
Remove the blues Correct colour casts for more lifelike hues
You will often find underwater photos will have a horrible blue colour cast to them. To solve this, use the underwater mode on your compact, if one is present, to filter out the blue hue. Otherwise, red filters that screw onto the front of your lens can filter some of the blue light out, adding more punch to the colours. It may decrease the amount of light coming in slightly, so you’ll have to compensate for this with your exposure settings. If you want real accuracy, take a manual white balance reading or shoot in RAW and correct white balance in editing software like Adobe Camera Raw. Simply move the temperature slider until you see the correct tones, and you may also need to boost the contrast and saturation overall.
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By filling in this shot with fl ash, Alex Mustard has lit up the shadows and created a lovely bright image
Wildlife photography Tip 5
Create stunning split-level images Shoot above and below at the same time for a look at both land and sea
By placing your wide-angle lens half in the water and half out of the water, you can capture a ‘half and half’ photo where you can simultaneously see above and below the waterline. You don’t need to dive for this shot and a simple point and shoot camera can yield great results. Use a narrow aperture (f8-11) for a large depth of field so you keep both above and below in focus – raise your ISO if you need to let more light in on duller days. Using continuous shooting will also help you capture the precise point, if the waves are choppy. Look for areas of interest above and below the waves and focus on the subject below the waterline. Split-level shots like Alex Mustard’s work best in calm, shallow waters
Top 5 pro tips Alex Mustard, author of Underwater Photography Masterclass, gives us his top advice
1. Get close, then get closer. Shooting through water robs images of colour, contrast and clarity. Luckily most marine life are not afraid of people, so you will be able to photograph them from within touching distance. 2. Close focusing lenses, such as wide-angles and macro lenses, are essential underwater. A wideangle lens lets you photograph a large creature like a hammerhead shark from as close as possible producing a clear image. 3. You don’t need to scuba dive to be an underwater photographer. Life in ponds, rivers and rock pools can be photographed without getting wet, while snorkelling is actually the best way to approach many of the oceans’ most charismatic creatures, like dolphins and seals.
5. Flashes are essential for underwater photography. Once you go deeper than snorkelling depths, colours are absorbed by water and you need a flash to restore them for the most eye-catching pictures. The better you can control strobes, the better your underwater photography.
© Alex Mustard
To learn more, check out Underwater Photography Masterclass by Alex Mustard, available from Amazon
4. You can’t change lenses underwater and the best images come when the equipment is optimised for the shot. Good underwater photographers learn not to just snap at anything, but to go underwater with a clear plan of what they want to shoot.
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Keeping in touch
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Star letter “@WorldAnimalsMag. He’s inspired me We asked you by portraying an for your favourite Attenborough animal as an under memory or how dog and to always David Attenborough has inspired back an under dog. you. #Attenborough90” @Jvarley1997 “I once met Sir David Attenborough at a book signing during my university years in Norwich. I cannot even express how it felt to be able to tell him in person how being exposed to his work from a young age had inspired me to study the environment and eventually become a conservationist. His response was that he was very glad to hear it, and hoped I would carry on the mantle. I left out the part about how his ‘Life in the Undergrowth’ series was basically used for the revision of an entire BSc module – it really was an extremely priceless moment!
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Happy 90th Birthday to Sir David Attenborough from World of Animals! On 8 May, Sir David Attenborough celebrated his 90th birthday and people around the world congratulated him and thanked him for the inspiration he has been to so many for so many decades.
Superpower Dogs update While Superpower Dogs pup Halo is busy with her urban search and rescue training with the Miami-Dade Fire Dept, here’s everything you need to know about the hero-in-the-making. Name: Halo Breed: Dutch Shepherd Occupation: Urban search and rescue recruit DOB: 6 October 2015 Sex: Female Place of birth: Detroit, USA Height: 53cm Weight: 20kg Favourite toy: Tennis balls Favourite game: Tennis-ball soccer (always with another ball in her mouth) Favourite food: Anything that is not dog food Likes: Using the couch as a trampoline, watching ducks on the lake, chewing sticks and ripping the fuzz off tennis balls, working for and tugging with her tug toys. Dislikes: Baths, clipping her nails, resting for more then three minutes and hates the sound of the air brakes on the large semi-trucks (understandable considering the size of her ears!). Handler: Cat Labrada Handler occupation: Miami Dade Fire Captain Handler years in service: 16
About the breed: The Dutch shepherd was originally bred as an all-purpose working dog, appearing in the Netherlands in the 1800s. Farmers and shepherds needed dogs that were quick and intelligent but also hardy, versatile and dependable. After World War II the breed almost became extinct and is still rare today, but their willingness to work and sharp reflexes meant that they soon became excellent working dogs. About the film: Superpower Dogs is an epic family adventure film about extraordinary real-life canines. Filmed in 3D and presented in association with the California Science Center, it will hit giant screen and IMAX theatres in Spring 2018. Find out more about the film at www.animalanswers.co.uk
Animal antics this month
Wildlife journeys
Whale geek Amy visited Iceland
Our favourite animal news and stories. Let us know yours at
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Iceland is one of those countries that’s great to visit all year round. I visited last November with a group of fellow whale geeks in hope of seeing some marine mammals. We saw the geysers and fed feral horses, and we were even lucky enough to see the northern lights from the naturally warm waters of Blue Lagoon, but the call of the sea was too strong to ignore. We took a whale tour and each of us was provided with a warm waterproof suit. The boat’s café served free hot chocolate to keep us all warm on deck as we watched white-beaked dolphins, harbour porpoises and minke whales slice through the crystal-clear water. Different animals are attracted to the country’s waters at different times of year, and I’ll be going back in the summer to see the humpbacks! We were lucky enough to see Iceland actually icy, and it was stunning to see whooper swans fly over the snow-topped field on their way south. They would have reached the UK before we’d even boarded the plane home. We kept our eyes peeled for wild mammals but alas saw none on land. The bird life was sensational however, and we were thoroughly entertained by milling eider ducks, soaring kittiwakes and diving cormorants.
In the news
Vaquita nearly extinct We were saddened to hear that the vaquita propoise is on the brink of extinction, with only 60 now le in the wild, according to a recent study.
Raising awareness Help tackle wildlife
The Wildlife Witness app, developed by Tarronga Conservation Society in partnership with Traffic will allow the public to help combat wildlife crime.
Reader photos
Helping wildlife Innovative conservation
Spring babies Katelyn Parfitt
Nutty squirrel Emma Furniss
I saw this mallard and went to get a closer look. I certainly wasn’t expecting to see the ducklings.
Saltwater Brewery has created fully biodegradable and completely digestible six-pack holders which will stop animals being entangled. © EUGENE ADEBARI/REX/Shutterstock/
Taken in a park in London, this squirrel was very tame with an old man feeding it nuts from his hand at first!
Chipmunk Kate Yeigh
A photo captured at Quarry Hill of a chipmunk sitting on a log.
Young heron
Susan Jenkins While out walking the dogs looking for wildlife I came across this young heron. Have you been inspired by a WOA cover or feature? Send us your best wildlife photos.
QUESTION OF THE MONTH Do you look like your ? pet dog, cat or hamster Send us a photo to photos@animal answers.co.uk
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Animal answers
Send your animal questions to us at:
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Why do seagulls dance on the grass? You may have seen seagulls dancing before, stamping their little legs on the grass and doing their best attempt at a Riverdance impersonation. However, rather than just showing off, the birds are using these moves to catch a sneaky meal. It’s a form of worm baiting and the rhythmic tapping of their feet on the grass is meant to imitate the sound of rain hitting the ground. Worms breathe by absorbing oxygen through their skin, which is kept moist by the
surrounding soil. During a torrential downpour ground soil can become waterlogged, making it difficult for the worms to breathe, so they come to the surface to wiggle around, migrate long distances faster than they would be able to underground, and bask in the plentiful supply of oxygen. But when tricksy seagulls are stomping away and unsuspecting worms come to the surface, rather than being met by fresh air, they are met with hungry open mouths.
Seagulls stomping their feet are doing more than just showing off their dance moves
What do I do if a bird keeps flying into my window? As the weather warms and the sun makes an appearance it can cause an unlikely problem for our garden bird species. As glass is so reflective, birds can see their own reflection on the surface and confuse this with another bird invading their territory. The average bird you would find in your garden isn’t self-aware and they lack the ability to recognise themselves in a mirror. Instead, they react by trying to attack the reflection, as they would an invading bird, until it disappears. Sometimes with the positioning of windows this problem is unavoidable but if you find that birds are flying into your windows oen, you can help by covering the glass with a non-reflective substance, such as brown paper.
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Can horseshoe crabs sting? Because of their menacing appearance, horseshoe crabs have gained a fearsome reputation. In reality, though they are pretty harmless. They are relatively peaceful creatures and their tails are never used as weapons. Although the long pointy tail does look very much like the stinger of a stingray, it is only ever used to flip the crab upright if it is accidentally overturned by a wave.
worldofanimalsmag
Animals answers What on Earth is pronking? When four legged animals, or more commonly antelope such as springbok, feel threatened by a predator, or are putting on a display during play or mating, they can be seen leaping high in the air with an arched back and stiffened legs. This is known as pronking.
The saber-toothed cat was around 1.5m (5 feet) long, 1m (3 feet) tall and had teeth around 28cm (11in) long
Foxes are also known for their pronking skills
Which was the last cat species to go extinct? The saber-toothed cat (Smildon) was the last feline to go extinct. The cat vanished from the planet around 10,000 years ago, which we know from fossil records. The bones that were found show many of the cats were living with fractures, painful arthristis, and many other degenerative diseases indicating that they may have been looked aer by other individuals, meaning they must have had a
Which animals will suffer most due to climate change? All animals fulfil very specific ecological niches and live in areas restricted by food availability, temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind, soil moisture etc.. As such, any change in these parameters of an area will impact the animals living there. Animals that are sensitive to temperature may move to cooler areas as the climate warms. As a general rule, animals in the Northern Hemisphere will begin to shi their range further northwards. Plants are also able to move their ranges, though not consciously. Those that can disperse seeds to a more favourable area will be more likely to survive and colonise in the new habitat. Animals are able to respond to changes in temperature more quickly than plants. This can mean there is less plant food and it may even harm the animals’ chances of survival or reproductive success, leading to a reduced population. So really, all animal species are at risk, however there is a real concern for species with no territory to move into. Polar bears, for example, are already living in the northernmost part of the planet and their population figures have already suffered significantly due to climate change.
similar social structure to modern day lions. We have successfully managed to go a long time without losing any feline species but the next to go could well be the Iberian lynx. In 2002 there was a shrinking population of around 100 cats but extensive conservation efforts throughout Portugal and Spain has seen this figure rise and there are now just over 300 living in the Iberian Peninsula. Many animals will suffer, but the polar bear is undergoing severe population declines now
Q.How do sloths give birth?
Find out at…
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L Western black rhino OST FOREV ER
The unbelievable story of how humans managed to drive a once-widespread species to extinction in just 100 years Desirable horns The rhino grew two large horns made of keratin, which was desirable in the Asian medicine trade.
Cameroon
Nearsighted It was thought western black rhinos were nearsighted and oen relied on the sounds of nearby birds to alert them to danger.
© freevectormaps.com; Alan Batley
Unique lips Black rhinos have small, hookshaped lips to help grasp prickly plants and woody shrubs.
At the beginning of the 20th century, there were four subspecies of black rhino and around 850,000 of the gentle giants were found across the savannahs of Africa. Just over 100 years later, in 2011, there were 4,880 individuals left, and just three sub species. Within one century we lost the western black rhino, a species now extinct and never to be seen again. The western black rhino was found in Cameroon, Chad, the Central African Republic, Sudan, and South Sudan. It had a relatively large range across North Africa and was successful for a long time, breeding and sustaining a healthy population for many centuries. Unfortunately developments in Africa led to deadly consequences for the rhino, and at the turn of the century it quickly became a victim of human greed and excessive hunting, mainly for sport. It wasn’t long before the number of rhinos was dramatically reduced. Following this initial dent in the population, the rhino then suffered from widespread change in land usage, as vast expanses of savannah were
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cleared to make way for settlements, crops and cattle ranches. Many rhinos were killed as they were thought, like many large herbivores at the time, to be dangerous and a nuisance. After years of persecution, the final blow for the already fragile population came when Mao Zedong promoted the use of traditional Chinese medicine. This included finely ground rhino horn, which was purported to cure almost anything from headaches and colds to cancer. By 1995 poachers had managed to kill 98 per cent of black rhinos and by 1989 the western black rhino was restricted to just two countries: Cameroon and Chad. It took only ten more years for Chad’s 25 rhinos to disappear, leaving just 50 in Cameroon. By 1997 there were just ten remaining, spread across 25,000 square kilometres (9,653 square miles) of parkland. There was an average of 60 kilometres (37.3 miles) between each animal, making it extremely difficult to protect all ten from poachers and leaving very little chance that they would find each other and begin breeding.
Last seen… Date: 2006 Location: Cameroon
A survey conducted by the WWF in 2001 found there to be a total of five rhinos remaining, with evidence of a further unconfirmed three rhinos living undetected. This was the last known sighting of a western black rhino; no live animals have been seen since. Extensive surveys and studies have been carried out in the north of Cameroon in the hope of finding one, but to no avail. In 2011 the IUCN finally admitted defeat and listed the western black rhino as extinct.
“It soon became a victim of human greed and excessive hunting”
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