The Day We Almost Bombed Moscow

A lso by the same authors: T H E C R U E L L E S T N I G H T (w ith R o n ald Payne)

B y C h ris to p h e r D o b s o n and R o n ald P ayne: TH E CARLOS COM PLEX

The D ay We Almost Bombed Moscow The Allied War in Russia 1918-1920

Christopher Dobson and John Miller

w HODDER AND STOUGHTON L O N D O N SY D N EY A U C K L A N D T O R O N T O

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Dobson, Christopher The day we almost bombed Moscow: the allied war in Russia, 1918-1920. 1. Soviet Union—History—Allied intervention, 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 0 I. Title II. Miller, John, 19329 4 7 *0 8 4 ' 1

DK2 6 5 4

ISBN O -3 4 O -3 3 7 2 3 -O

C opyright© 1986 by Christopher Dobson andJohn Miller. First printed 1986. A ll rights reserved. No part o f this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writingfrom the publisher. Printed in Great Britain forHodderand Stoughton Limited, Mill Road, Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk. Photoset by Rowland Phototypesetting Limited, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk. Hodder and Stoughton Editorial Office: 47 Bedford Square, London W C iB jD P .

Contents

F o rew o rd E x p la n a to ry N o te

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

“Permission to Bomb?” South Russia, December 1919 “ Treacherous Desertion’’ Russia, 1914-1918 Intervention by Invitation Murmansk, March— June 1918 The Fighting Starts Murmansk-Archangel, June-August 1918 Siberian Scenario Vladivostok, December 1917-July 1918 O il and the T w enty-Six Commissars Baku, January-September 1918 The Bolo Liquidation Club Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-August 1918 More Men, More Money, More Weapons Murmansk, August—December 1918 General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War Archangel, August—December 1918 Cattle Truck to Omsk Siberia, August-December 1918 The Lockhart Plots Moscow and Petrograd, August-December 1918 “ Too Much o f a Warlord” London, November 1918-March 1919 King George’s Secret Orders Murmansk—Archangel, January—March 1919 “Shameful, Illegitimate Little War” London—Archangel, A pril— June 1919

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Mutiny and a Victoria Cross Archangel, June—September 1919 16 The Last Battles Murmansk, April-O ctober 1919 17 Defeat and Betrayal Siberia, December 1918—February 1920 18 Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks The Baltic, November 1918—December 1919 19 The Bolsheviks Triumph South Russia and the Caspian, December 1919—M ay 1920 Selected Bibliography Index

209

221 232 247

267 277 279

Illustrations

Between pages 144 and 145

Tsar Nicholas II with his family at Ekaterinburg (photo: The Mary Evans Picture Library) Lenin and his sister in Moscow (photo: BBC Hulton Picture Library) Vic Clow on board “ Z ” Flight’s special train (photo: by courtesy o f Vic Clow) “ Z ” Flight’s RE8 bombers, soon to join General Denikin’s White Arm y (photo: by courtesy o f Vic Clow) A dual control RE8 used to train Russian pilots (photo: by courtesy o f Vic Clow) British soldiers marching through the streets o f Odessa (photo: by courtesy o f Major E. Ainger) Major-General Ironside inspects a White Russian regiment (photo: by courtesy o f the Imperial War Museum) British Tanks on their way to join General Denikin’s army (photo: Red Arm y Museum, Moscow) Major-General Maynard with American troops at Murmansk (photo: by courtesy o f the Imperial War Museum) Russian peasants bargaining with Allied troops on board a barge on the Dvina River (photo: BBC Hulton Picture Library) A hospital for Russian troops run by British nurses (photo: by courtesy o f the Imperial War Museum) Lev T rotsky at Petrograd Railway Station (photo: BBC Hulton Picture Library) Felix Dzerzhinsky, creator o f the Cheka (photo: the KGB) Captain Sidney Reilly, British Intelligence agent (photo: BBC Hulton Picture Library) Robert Bruce Lockhart, leader o f an official British mission to the Bolsheviks in 1918 (photo: by courtesy o f his son, Robin Bruce Lockhart

General Denikin’s cavalry in retreat across the Russian Steppes (photo: by courtesy o f Vic Clow) The victorious Red A rm y marches into Irkutsk, March 1920 (photo: by courtesy o fjo h n Massey Stewart)

Maps

N orthern Front 1918—1919 Siberia European Russia D enikin and Allies 1919-1920

40 71 196 268

Foreword

O n e S u n d ay m o rn in g fo u r years ago at H ig h w o o d s G o l f C lu b in Sussex, V ic C lo w , a big, h a n d s o m e chap w h o se b ea rin g belies his years, starte d talk in g in R ussian to C h ris to p h e r D o b s o n . D o b s o n , w h o h ad been a fo reig n c o rre s p o n d e n t in the Soviet U n io n , asked h im w h e re he h ad learnt th e lan g u a g e and C lo w th e n to ld th e s to ry o f h o w he h ad alm o st b o m b e d M o s c o w in 1919. T h is b o o k stem s fro m th at c o n v e rsatio n . L uckily, J o h n M iller, w h o h ad spen t so m e e ig h t years in M o s c o w as the D aily Telegraph's co rre s p o n d e n t, w as re tu rn in g to R ussia for o n e m o re year. H e u n d e r to o k to research the R ussian end o f th e b o o k w h ile D o b s o n w o rk e d o n the W estern archives. V e ry early o n in the w o r k it b ecam e ap p a ren t th at w h a t at first seem ed a sim p le p ro jec t w as in fact im m e n se ly co m p lica te d and th at a lm o st e v e ry received idea a b o u t th e A llies’ in te rv e n tio n in R ussia w as w ro n g . T h e first m y th to g o w as th at c o rn e rsto n e o f S oviet p ro p a g a n d a w h ic h teaches th at the in te rv e n tio n w as a carefully co n c erte d effo rt b y “ C a p italism and Im p e ria lism ” to strangle C o m m u n i s m at its b irth . W h a t e m e rg e d w as a s to ry o f an u n c o ­ o rd in a te d reactio n to a series o f events w h ic h actually started w ith th e B ritish A r m y fig h tin g alo ng side B olsh ev ik tro o p s and help in g to p ro te c t th e n e w C o m m u n is t state against G e rm a n -le d in cursio ns fro m F inland. A d m itte d ly , this phase did n o t last lo n g and th e Allies and the B olsh ev ik s w e re so o n at each o th e r s ’ th roats. E v en so the Allies w e re m o re co n c ern e d w ith en su rin g the defeat o f G e rm a n y and c o u n te ra c tin g w h a t th ey re g ard e d as the treach ery o f th e B olsheviks in m a k in g a h u m ilia tin g peace w ith th e G e rm an s th an in o v e r­ th r o w in g th e n e w rulers o f Russia. A m erica, in particular, w as m o s t re lu c tan t to in terfere in R u ssia’s affairs; the French, bled w h ite b y th e w a r o f a ttritio n o n th e W e ste rn F ro n t, w e re d esperate fo r the R ussians to d ra w o f f the G e rm a n s b y re o p en in g th e E astern F ront; even th e Japanese, cynically tak in g ad v a n tag e o f th eir allies’ p ro b ­ lem s to p u rsu e th eir o w n plans fo r o cc u p y in g th e m a ritim e p r o ­ vinces o f R ussia an d C h in a, h ad n o am b itio n s in R ussia b e y o n d th o se pro vin ces; an d the B ritish, m ain s u p p o rte rs o f the W h ite R ussian arm ies, so o n realised th e political and m ilitary d ang ers o f th e ir in v o lv e m e n t. It w as o n ly w h e n W in sto n C h u rc h ill b ecam e 9

Foreword M in iste r o f W a r i n j a n u a r y 1919 - nine m o n th s after the first B ritish tro o p s lan d ed at M u r m a n s k - th at the in te rv e n tio n to o k o n the a tm o s p h e re o f an a n ti-B o lsh e v ik crusade. B u t even his o ra to ry and d riv e c o u ld n o t p ersu ad e his C a b in e t colleagues to p u rsu e th at crusade. W h e re v e r w e d u g , especially in u n p u b lish e d papers and diaries and letters w e fo u n d n e w an d startlin g stories, m a n y o f w h ic h had been deliberately left o u t o f th e official accoun ts and the “ san itised ” m e m o irs o f the A llied a n d R ussian generals inv olv ed. T h e stories o f w h a t lay b e h in d the m u tin ie s o f th e Y o rk s h ire R e g im e n t an d th e R o yal M arin es, for ex a m p le , have n ev e r been told before; and, in th e case o f th e M a rin e s ’ m u tin y it is still difficult nearly sev en ty years later to get a n y b o d y to a d m it th at it ever to o k place. In these circu m stan ces w e cam e to rely v ery m u c h o n p riv ate ind ivid uals sen d in g us fam ily papers and it gives great pleasure to th a n k th e m fo r th eir help: M rs B e tty M c K e o w n for th e d iary an d p h o to g ra p h s o f h er father, C a p ta in P eter C ra w fo rd , M C , “ T h e K in g o f R e s tik e n t” ; M r D a v id C le g g fo r C o lo n el J o h n s o n ’s letters an d o th e r m aterial and his unfailing interest in th e project; M r R o y R u n d ell fo r his e x p e rt advice and c o n te m p o ra ry m aterial; M rs E d w a r d S u tro for h er h u s b a n d ’s s to ry - and h e r hospitality. W e also h ad th e g o o d fo rtu n e to find a n o th e r s u rv iv o r o f th e in te rv e n tio n , M r A r th u r W aide, w h o re m e m b e rs vivid ly w h a t it w as like to soldier in th e S iberian w in ter. H e lives o n ly a m ile fro m V ic C l o w b u t th e y h ad n ev e r m et. W e w o u ld n o t, o f course, have been able to c o n te m p la te w ritin g th e b o o k w ith o u t th e help o f th e P ublic R eco rd O ffice at K e w , and the sta ff o f th e Im p erial W a r M u s e u m w ere, as alw ays, unfailin gly k in d an d helpful. T h e m aterial th ey p ro d u c e d for us w as invaluable. W e m u s t also th a n k M a r y J o P u g h o f th e B en tley H istorical L ib rary o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f M ich ig an w h o sent us th e diaries o f the A m e ric a n soldiers o n the A rch an g el fro n t w h ic h th r o w so m u c h lig h t o n th at co nfused cam paig n. O u r th an k s are also d ue to the R o y al A ir Force M u s e u m at H e n d o n , the T a n k M u s e u m at B o v in g to n a n d the R o y al M arin es M u s e u m at E astney. C h a th a m H o u s e an d th e L o n d o n L ib ra ry p ro v id e d th eir usual excellent service, as did th e B ritish M u s e u m R ead ing R o o m . T h e p ro b le m s o f researching “ fro m th e o th e r side o f the h ill” w e re a n o th e r m atter. T h e policy g o v e rn in g archives in th e S oviet U n i o n is w ell k n o w n ; all foreigners are suspect, an d m o s t fo reig n histo rian s are c o nsidered to be b o u rg e o is falsifiers. All d o o rs are n o t closed, h o w e v e r, i f th ey are p u sh ed in th e rig h t w a y and so m e research facilities w e re m ad e available to th e a u th o rs b y th e C en tra l 10

Foreword M u s e u m o f th e A rm e d Forces, and th e R SFSR State H istorical L ib ra ry w h ic h J o h n M iller w as allo w ed to jo in . T h ese facilities have p ro v id e d so m e n e w m aterial a b o u t th e S oviet side o f the fig h tin g , b u t it m u s t be frankly said th a t the S oviet U n io n has a lo n g w a y to g o b efo re it can p resen t an o bjectiv e analysis o f th e historical b a c k g ro u n d to the In terv en tio n , o f th e R ed A r m y leaders in v o lv ed , an d o f th e events them selves. M u c h o f this results fro m L e n in ’s ideological im p o sitio n s o n S oviet h is to rio g ra p h y . M u c h m o re is d ue to S talin’s cult o f p er­ sonality, his re w ritin g o f his o w n role (and his w ritin g o u t o f T r o t s k y ’s), an d the alm o st total elim in atio n o f th e R ed A r m y leadership d u rin g th e G reat P u rg e o f the 1930s. W e disco v ered in M o s c o w , fo r ex am p le, th at a c o m m a n d e r w h o h ad fo u g h t against the B ritish A r m y o n the N o r t h e r n F ro n t had p u b lish ed a p o p u la r b o o k a b o u t his experiences. B u t after he w as arrested, and sh o t in the L u b y an k a , he becam e a “ n o n p e r s o n ” and his b o o k s w e re destro y e d . O n ly o n e co p y still exists, an d th at rem ain s u n d e r lock an d k ey in th e L enin L ibrary. E v e n w o rse , th e Soviets p u b lish ed falsified m aterial and d o c u ­ m e n ts w h ic h , fo r ex am p le, h ad Stalin o rg a n isin g th e fig h t against th e B ritish s o u th o f A rch an gel, in clu d in g th e successful S h en k u rsk offensive, w h e n he w as, in fact, b ein g defeated b y B a ro n W ran gel at T s a ritsy n in S o u th Russia. It is n o lo n g e r fashionable as it w as after K h ru s c h e v ’s d en u n c i­ atio n o f Stalin to declare in Soviet n ew sp a p ers an d b o o k s th at specific ind ividu als w e re killed u n d e r Stalin, b u t a recent p u b li­ catio n gives the g a m e aw ay . The Soviet Encyclopaedia o f the C ivil War and M ilitary Intervention in the U S S R , pub lish ed in M o s c o w at th e en d o f 1983, presents d ozens o f s h o rt b io graphies o f a rm y p e rso n ­ alities. W ith rare ex cep tio n s th e y are s h o w n to have died b e tw e e n 1936 and 1940; and it is m o re th an likely th at th ey finished u p in the cells o f th e L u b y a n k a o r th e G ulag. T h u s , b u t for S talin’s P u rg e, it is possible th at s o m e su rv iv o rs o f th e In te rv e n tio n still alive in th e S oviet U n io n w o u ld have been able to tell th eir stories. Alas, m o s t o f the p u b lish ed accounts hav e been so heavily coated w ith id eo lo g y th at the tru th o n ly occasionally shines th ro u g h . T h e re are n o Vic C lo w s in the S oviet U n io n . A m o n g th o se in the Soviet U n i o n w h o assisted in s o m e w a y in the w ritin g o f this b o o k - w ith o u t h a v in g any resp on sib ility fo r its op in io n s - the a u th o rs w o u ld p articu larly like to th a n k M r B oris O z h g ib e s o v , th e D ire c to r o f th e O r d e r o f th e R ed Star C en tra l M u s e u m o f the A rm e d Forces, M r T h e o d o r G lad k o v , a specialist 11

Foreword o n th e h is to ry o f the C h e k a , an d M rs V in o g ra d o v a for h er excellent and e x te n siv e tran slatio n s fro m official d o cu m e n ts. I f th ere is a n y o n e w e h av e fo rg o tte n , th e n please fo rg iv e us. It is a slip o f th e m in d an d n o t o f the heart.

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Explanatory Note

F o u r m ain socialist parties w e re in existence in Russia at the tim e o f th e 1917 R e v o lu tio n . T h ese w e re the B olsheviks, th e M en sh ev ik s, th e Socialist R e v o lu tio n aries and th e Left Socialist R evolu tion aries. T h e B olsh ev iks, led b y Lenin, w e re th o se o f th e radical faction o f th e R ussian Social D e m o c ra tic W orkers* P a rty w h e n it split in 1903. T h e M e n sh e v ik s w e re th e n o n -L e n in ist faction an d w e re estab­ lished as a political p a rty o n ly in A u g u s t 1917 at a con gress o f several Social D e m o c ra tic g ro u p s. T h e Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries w e re fo u n d e d in 1902 b y th e s u p p o rte rs o f re v o lu tio n a ry P o p u lism . A section o f th e p arty , the Left Socialist R ev olutionaries, su p p o rte d th e B o lsh ev ik s in 1917 and played a p a rt in th e g o v e r n m e n t until the T re a ty o f B rest-L ito v sk . B y A u g u s t 1918 there w e re a b o u t th irty differen t g o v e r n m e n ts fu n c tio n in g o n R ussian soil.

13

C H A PTER I

“Permission to Bomb?” South Russia, December l gi g

O n e b itte rly cold day in D e c e m b e r 1919 S q u a d ro n Leader J o e A rc h er, c o m m a n d in g “ Z ” Flight, an u n d e rc o v e r u n it o f the R oyal A ir Force fig h tin g o n th e v ery edge o f legality for G eneral D e n ik in ’s W h ite R u ssian A r m y against the B olsheviks, h alted the flig h t’s special train in th e h ea rt o f the R ussian stepp e n o rth -e a s t o f K h a r­ kov. P a rk e d alo n g sid e th e railw ay line w e re tw o w e ll-u se d R E8 reco nn aissance b o m b e rs w hile fo u r m o re, th eir w in g s strap p e d to th eir fuselages, ro d e o n flat cars to w e d b y the train. M echanics, b u n d le d u p in a w e ird a s s o rtm e n t o f u n ifo rm s against the cold, c la m b e red d o w n to refuel th e b o m b e rs - called “ H a rry T a te s ” in C o c k n e y r h y m in g slang after a m u sic-h all c o m e d ia n .* A rm o u re rs checked th e ir L ew is an d V ickers gun s. Signallers u n lo a d e d their e q u ip m e n t an d s tru n g th eir aerials. A rc h e r d ebriefed th e pilots an d ob serv ers o f th e w a itin g aircraft th e n e n c o d ed a m essage for tra n sm issio n to T a g a n ro g o n th e Sea o f A z o v w h e re th e B ritish M ilita ry M issio n to the W h ite R ussians h ad its h ea d q u arte rs. T h e m essag e w as sim ple. It read: “ In p o sitio n to b o m b M o s c o w . A w a it in s tru c tio n s .” H e m a y h av e been s o m e w h a t a m b itio u s in his estim ate o f th e distance to M o s c o w and th e v en erab le R E 8 ’s ability to fly to the capital o f th e h ard -p re sse d B olsheviks. T o h ave acco m p lish ed th e b o m b in g he w o u ld p ro b a b ly h av e needed to set u p a refuelling base a lo n g w a y b eh in d the R ed A r m y ’s p ositions. B u t th e c o u n try w as so o p e n an d the o p p o s in g forces so scattered it w as possible th at b y u sin g h a lf his planes to fly fuel to an isolated stagin g p o st, the rest c o u ld h ave m a d e th e attack. N a v ig a tio n w as n o p ro b le m ; th e pilots w o u ld sim p ly fo llo w the railw ay. T h e d a n g e r lay in b ein g su rp rise d b y R ed cavalry p atrols w h ile refuelling, o r o f an e n g in e “ c o n k in g o u t ” . T h e pilots o f “ Z ” * Harry Tate was a popular music-hall comedian. It was natural for the ARREEE (Harry) EIGHT (Tate) to becom e know n as the “ Harry Tate” .

15

“Permission to Bom b?” F lig ht h a d h ea rd to o m u c h o f B o lsh ev ik cru elty to relish falling in to th eir h an d s. T h e y th e re fo re a w aited th e an sw e r to A rc h e r’s req u est w ith th e m ix tu re o f e x c ite m e n t and tre p id a tio n c o m m o n to y o u n g m e n at w a r e n g a g ed in special o peration s. M o s c o w h ad n o t been attack ed since N a p o le o n h ad c a p tu re d it w ith all th e m ig h t and sp le n d o u r o f his G ra n d e A rm e e. N o w , j u s t o v e r a h u n d re d years later, a h an d fu l o f scruffily dressed y o u n g E n g lis h m e n w e re p la n n in g to s h o w e r the city w ith a co uple o f d o ze n 20 lb b o m b s fro m d ecrep it biplanes held to g e th e r b y glue, pian o w ire an d m u c h faith. L ieu ten a n t Vic C lo w w as o n e o f th o se y o u n g m e n and like all th o se w h o to o k p a rt in th e Allied in te rv e n tio n in R ussia he recalls e v e ry th in g a b o u t it w ith absolu te clarity. H is ex perien ce w as typical o f the m ix tu r e o f restless y o u n g m e n and the p rofessional “ aces” fr o m the W e ste rn F ro n t w h o n o w fo u n d them selv es fig h tin g o v e r R ussia d u rin g th a t m o m e n to u s year. C l o w h ad jo in e d th e A r m y at th e o u tb re a k o f W o rld W ar I at the age o f seventeen, and serv ed as a clerk o n G eneral S m u ts ’ sta ff in the E ast A frican c a m p a ig n b efo re tran sferrin g to the R oy al F lying C o rp s . T ra in e d at H elio p o lis in E g y p t, he en d e d th e w a r at A lex a n ­ dria flying o b so lete B E 2c aircraft o n esco rt d u ty for ships usin g the Suez C anal. H e w as th e n p o ste d to ferry duties in E n g lan d . A sk ed i f he w a n te d to g o to R ussia for “ a b it o f a s t u n t ” , C lo w j u m p e d at the chance - “ I w as y o u n g and foolish th en and th o u g h t it w o u ld be an a d v e n tu r e .” H e w as sent to the C aucasu s, th en th in ly o ccu p ied b y B ritish forces w h o s e o sten sible task w as to enforce the term s o f the 1918 A rm is tic e u n d e r w h ic h the T u rk s and th e G e rm a n s gave u p th e te rr ito r y th e y h ad occ u p ied th ere d u rin g th e w ar. B u t th e B ritish p resence w as also d e sig n ed to p re v e n t th e B olshevik s in terferin g w ith th e n e w states o f G eorg ia, A rm e n ia and A zerbaijan w h ic h h ad p ro c la im e d th eir in d ep e n d en ce fro m R ussian rule. A fte r an a d v e n tu ro u s jo u r n e y b y train and b o a t across E u ro p e an d th e B lack Sea C lo w eventu ally jo in e d 221 S q u a d ro n in J u n e 1919 at P e tro v sk , n o w k n o w n as M ak h a ch k ala , a b u sy p o rt o n the C asp ian , n o r th o f B aku . T h e S q u a d ro n ’s duties in clud ed s u p p o rt­ in g a W h ite R ussian n aval flotilla o n th e C asp ian an d k eepin g w a tc h fo r B o lsh e v ik ships fe rry in g ag itators s o u th in to B a k u an d Persia. A b risk little w a r w as g o in g o n b e tw e e n th e B o lshev iks an d th e B ritish a r o u n d th e C aspian. 221 S q u a d ro n flew patro ls in D H 9 a aircraft, th e n th e m o s t m o d e rn reconnaissance b o m b e rs o f th e n e w ly established R o y al A ir Force. T h e y also b o m b e d the B o lsh e­ viks in th eir A s tra k h a n s tro n g h o ld . C lo w to o k p a rt in tw o o f these 16

South Russia, December lg ig raids in w h ic h five sing le-en gin e aircraft travelled 250 m iles o v e r e n e m y te rrito ry , to d ro p tw o 240 lb b o m b s o n the city, ten in all, ‘‘q u ite an ac h ie v e m e n t in th o se d a y s .” P a rt o f th e p ilo ts ’ duties w as to take it in tu rn s to spend tw o w eeks at a tw o -p la n e o u tp o s t o n C h ech in Island, little m o re th an a san d b a n k , u n c o m fo rta b ly close to th e B o lsh ev ik p ositio n s and w ith in ra n g e o f th eir cavalry patrols. H o w e v e r, C l o w ’s C asp ian a d v e n tu re o nly lasted tw o m o n th s . T h e re w as g ro w in g o p p o s itio n in P arliam en t and t h r o u g h o u t the c o u n try to a fo reig n e n ta n g le m e n t w h ic h p ro m is e d o n ly h a rm and w h ic h B ritain w as fin d in g increasingly difficult to sustain. T h u s , o n th e g ro u n d s th a t T u rk e y w as abid ing b y the te rm s o f the arm istice an d th at B ritish tro o p s w e re needed elsew here, all B ritish forces w e re w ith d r a w n fro m the C aucasus b y A u g u s t 1919, except fo r the strategically im p o rta n t p o rt an d railhead o f B a tu m o n the B lack Sea. 221 S q u a d ro n re tu rn e d to E n g la n d w h e re th ey w e re re -fo rm e d and sent o u t to S om alilan d to deal w ith th e M a d M u llah . “ T h e y did it in six w eek s an d co v ered th em selves in g l o r y ,” says C lo w . B u t th at w as a n o th e r sto ry . T h e S q u a d ro n ’s circuitous ro u te h o m e to o k it b y train fr o m B ak u to R o s to v and th en to N o v o ro s siy sk . All this w as in te rr ito r y u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f G eneral D e n ik in an d his W h ite R ussian A rm y . O n th e w a y C lo w fell in w ith L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l A. C . “ C is s y ” M a u n d , c o m m a n d in g officer o f an R A F train in g m issio n based at T a g a n ro g w h o s e j o b w as to teach W h ite Russians to fly a fleet o f 130 R E8s giv en to th e m b y the B ritish. M a u n d , in need o f ex p erien ced pilots, asked C lo w to j o i n the m issio n. Still “ y o u n g and fo o lish ” an d te m p te d b y the equ ivalent o f a lie u te n a n t-c o lo n e l’s pay, he agreed and becam e a flying in stru c­ tor. T ra in in g w as b rie f in th o se days. “ T h e y gave y o u a b o u t fo ur h o u r s ’ dual flying, th e n the in s tru c to r said, ‘go on - go o u t and b lo o d y w ell try to kill y o u rs e lf ’ . . . ” T h e R ussians to o k s o m e w h a t lo n g e r to train. It tra n sp ire d th at th ey k n e w all a b o u t the faults o f th e R E 8, an d w e re d isa p p o in te d th a t th e B ritish h ad n o t sent th e m s o m e th in g b etter. It w as w ell k n o w n th at in 1914 w h e n th e R ussian A ir F orce h ad s o u g h t aircraft to take o n the G e rm an s, the B ritish and F rench h ad d o n a te d o n ly th o se planes u n su ited for use o n the W e ste rn F ro n t, in clu d in g th e n o to rio u s Spad A2 w h ic h h ad a so rt o f p u lp it fo r a g u n n e r m o u n te d in fro n t o f its propeller. N o t m a n y g u n n e rs su rv iv e d a crash in a Spad. N e ith e r w e re the R ussian w o u ld -b e pilots en c o u ra g e d b y the no tice stencilled o n the rear c o c k p it o f the RE8s: “ D o n o t fly w ith less th an 150 lb in th e g u n n e r ’s c o m p a rtm e n t w h e n g e ttin g o f f th e g r o u n d .” 17

“Permission to Bom b?” T o p ro v e th a t the R E 8s w e re a irw o rth y th e B ritish in stru c to rs flew in close fo rm a tio n o v e r R o s to v w ith th eir 1 5 0 -h o rse p o w er engines c h u rn in g fo u r-b la d e d prop ellers at full revs, th e cu rio u s c h im n e y -lik e ex h a u st b elc h in g fum es back a b o v e th e cockpit. T h e d e m o n s tra tio n , h o w e v e r, w as n o t a total success: th e citizens o f R o s to v m a d e an official c o m p la in t th at th e R E8s w e re flying to o close fo r safety. T h e R A F train in g p r o g r a m m e w as p art o f a s tro n g m ilitary m issio n c o m p risin g 356 officers and 1,102 o th e r ranks, sent to help D e n ik in b y B rita in ’s M in iste r o f W ar, W in sto n C h urch ill. C o m ­ m a n d e d b y a forceful M ajo r-G en eral, H e rb e rt H o lm a n , it in cluded a c o n tin g e n t fro m the T a n k C o rp s en g a g ed in train in g D e n ik in ’s m en to use six M a rk V h ea v y tank s an d six M e d iu m “ W h ip p e ts ” w h ich , like th e R E8s, w e re B ritish a r m y surp lu s left o v e r fro m the w ar. T h e m is s io n ’s role w as su p p o se d ly a p u re ly a d v iso ry one, b u t this w as a fiction d esig ned to placate B ritish pub lic o p in io n w h ic h w as b e c o m in g in creasing ly restive at w h a t the D aily Express described as “ M r C h u rc h ill’s o w n little w a r . ” B ritish officers w e re also allo w ed to serve w ith D e n ik in ’s forces o n a “ v o lu n ta ry basis” an d it w as u n d e r this p articular fiction th at N o . 47 S q u a d ro n w as d esp a tc h ed fro m Salonika, w h e re it h ad e n d e d th e G re at W a r flying against the B u lgarians, to N o v o r o s ­ siysk, th e B lack Sea p o rt th r o u g h w h ic h B ritain p o u re d supplies to D e n ik in . S o m e o f th e lo n g -s e rv in g S q u a d ro n m e m b e rs w e re n o n e to o h a p p y w ith this a rra n g e m e n t as the real w a r h ad en d ed and all th ey w a n te d w as to g o h o m e . T h e A ir M in istry picked a fo rm id a b le ch aracter to lead the s q u a d ro n - R a y m o n d C o llis h a w - w h o , w ith n o less th an sixty victories o v e r th e W e ste rn F ro n t, w as the th ird h ig h est sco ring B ritish fig h ter ace. A C an ad ian , he w as ev e n tu ally to be m a d e a C o m p a n io n o f th e B ath, an O fficer o f the O r d e r o f the B ritish E m p ire , and to be aw a rd e d th e D istin g u ish e d Service O rd e r, the D is tin g u is h e d Service C ro ss and the D istin g u ish e d Flying C ro ss. In W o rld W a r II he b ecam e an A ir V ice-M arshal. In his y o u n g e r days he h ad been a h ell-raiser w h o , it w as said, “ w o u ld w a lk o v e r the bodies o f his p ilo ts ” o n M ess nigh ts. In L o n d o n C o llish a w g ath e red to g e th e r a “ F lying C irc u s ” o f ace pilots to j o i n his n e w sq u ad ro n . A m o n g th e m w as the m u c h dec­ o ra te d S o u th A frican, F lig h t-L ie u te n an t S. M . “ K in k y ” K in k ead w h o h a d s h o t d o w n th irty e n e m y aircraft o v e r the D ardanelles and th e W e ste rn F ro n t d u rin g th e w ar. H e w as also to w in the D S O in S o u th R ussia for d e s tro y in g a R ed A r m y cavalry fo rm a tio n , th us b rin g in g his collection o f m edals to the D S O , th e D S C and b ar and 18

South Russia, December lg ig th e D F C a n d bar. H e achieved yet m o re fam e in peacetim e as a m e m b e r o f th e R A F ’s H ig h Speed Flight w h ic h w o n th e Schneider T r o p h y in 1927. B u t his luck ran o u t o n M arch 12th, 1928, w h e n he w as try in g to b re ak th e w o rld air speed reco rd in a S u p e rm a rin e N a p ie r S5, o n e o f the fast seaplanes fro m w h ich the Spitfire w as dev elo ped. F or so m e reason w h ic h still rem ains u n ex plain ed , he su d d e n ly n o s e -d iv e d in to th e S olent o f f th e Isle o f W ig h t and w as killed in stan tly . C o llis h a w ’s “ F lying C irc u s ” d ise m b a rk e d at N o v o ro s s iy s k o n J u n e 8th, 1919. A fte r trav ellin g cro s s-c o u n try b y train, it set u p its base at G n iloak aisk ay a a b o u t sixty m iles s o u th -w e s t o f T saritsy n , a city o n th e V o lg a w h ic h h ad b een re n a m e d the “ R ed V e rd u n ” b y its B o lsh e v ik garriso n . T h e y th e re b y signified their in ten tio n to de­ fend it ag ainst th e W h ite A r m y as th e F rench had d efend ed V e rd u n ag ainst the G e rm a n s. H o w e v e r, it w as n o t until tw e n ty -th r e e years later th at T s a rits y n w as to b e c o m e fa m o u s for the steadfastness o f its d efen ders w h e n it becam e the rock o n w h ic h H itle r’s in vasion o f R ussia fo u n d e re d - o n ly th en it w as called Stalingrad. H o w iro nic th a t it w as b o m b e d first n o t b y the L uftw affe b u t by th e R o y al A ir Force, a lth o u g h th e o bjectiv e w as the sam e - to drive o u t and defeat the B olsheviks. A lth o u g h C o llis h a w d id n o t get u p to the fro n t im m e d iately , K in k ea d and his colleagues w e re in action straig h t aw ay. T h e y flew D H 9S fo r reconnaissance and b o m b in g m issions and S o p w ith C am els to p ro te c t the b o m b e rs and strafe the B olsh ev ik positions. O n o n e raid a gainst T s a rits y n a D H 9 scored a direct hit w ith a 112 lb b o m b o n a b u ild in g in w h ic h the local S oviet w as m eetin g . O n ly t w o o f th e fo r ty - o n e R ed officers p re sen t survived. T h e “ R ed V e r d u n ” did n o t live up to its nam e, p artly because Stalin, th en a m e m b e r o f th e P o litb u ro w h o h ad been sent to help defen d T saritsy n , u n d e rm in e d th e a u th o rity o f the fo rm e r T sarist officers w h o w e re actually c o n d u c tin g th e defence. H e consid ered th e m all to be p o ten tial i f n o t actual traito rs to th e B olshevik cause. M o ra le in th e city collapsed an d b y th e evenin g o f J u n e 19th the W h ite R ussian C o ssack s o f B a ro n W ra n g e l’s arm y , s u p p o rte d by tan ks and a r m o u r e d cars, h ad fo u g h t th eir w a y in to th e streets. H o w e v e r th e R ed C a v a lry h o v e re d j u s t a few m iles to the n o rth and th e B olsh ev ik s o rg a n ise d a fleet o f g u n b o a ts o n the V olga in an a tte m p t to retak e th e city. T s a r its y n ’s im p o rta n c e lay in its p o sitio n b etw e en the W hite A rm ies o f D e n ik in in th e s o u th -w e s t and o f K o lch ak in the n o r th ­ east. O n ly i f th e W hites h eld th e city w o u ld it be possible for their t w o A rm ies to j o i n forces. It w as inevitable, therefore, th at the 19

“Permission to Bomb?” B olshev iks w o u ld m ak e ev ery effort to recapture it. It w as in fact al­ m o s t as im p o rta n t in the R ussian civil w a r as it w as in W o rld W a r II. T h is m e a n t th at th ere w as p len ty o f w o rk fo r th e pilots o f 47 S q u ad ro n . T h e y h ad tak e n possession o f fo u r special trains, o n e fo r each flight w ith the fo u rth b ein g used as a m o b ile h ea d q u arte rs. T h e y w e re thu s able to get th eir aircraft rig h t up to the battlefield and w e re so o n in the th ick o f the fighting. O n J u ly 30th th e y w e re in v o lv e d in an e x tra o rd in a ry exploit. T h re e DH9S to o k o f f to b o m b and strafe riv er barges and cavalry co n c en ­ tratio n s and to take p h o to g ra p h s for G eneral W ra n g e l’s intelligence officers. C a p ta in W alter A n d e rso n and his o b se rv e r L ie u te n a n tjo h n M itch ell w e re tak in g p h o to g ra p h s w h e n th ey w e re sh o t u p and b eg an to leak p etro l. M itchell clim b ed o u t o n the w in g and p lu g g e d the holes w ith his fingers. B u t th en the m ach in e flo w n b y C a p ta in W illiam Elliot an d L ieu ten a n t H . S. L aidlaw w as hit in the en g in e and E lliot h ad to force-land. R ed C a v a lry gallop ed up, s w in g in g th eir sabres, b u t L aidlaw fo u g h t th e m o f f w ith his Lew is g u n fro m the rear cockpit. A n d e rs o n lan ded alo ng sid e w ith M itch ell still p lu g g in g th e holes in th e p etro l tank. O n c e d o w n , M itchell m a n n e d his L ew is g u n w h ile E llio t set fire to his m achine. T h e n , w h e n E lliot and L aidlaw scram b led in to M itc h e ll’s cockpit, he re su m e d his place o n the w in g and stu ck his fingers back in the holes. A n d e rs o n o p e n e d u p his en gin e an d all fo u r flew o f f to safety th o u g h fo r M itch ell the flight w as a painful as well as a d an g e ro u s one: he w as w e a rin g sh o rts and w as b u rn e d b y th e h o t ex h a u st gases as he ro d e o n the w in g . H e and A n d e rso n w e re aw a rd e d th e D S O and, later, th e D F C . C o llish aw , w ritin g a b o u t this incid ent in his b o o k , A Fighter Pilot's Story, c o m m e n te d th at th ey sh o u ld h ave g o t the V icto ria C ro ss. C o llis h a w h im s e lf g o t in to actio n b y b o m b in g a R ed g u n b o a t o n the V o lg a w ith a pair o f 230 lb b o m b s and literally b lo w in g it o u t o f th e w a te r. Later he ad d ed to his score w h e n he sh o t d o w n an ad v e rsary he h ad faced befo re o n th e W e ste rn F ro n t, an A lb a tro s D V . K in k e a d w o n his D S O after leading fo u r C am els o f B F light in a d ev a sta tin g v ic to ry o v e r cavalry o f the fre e b o o tin g R ed C o m m a n ­ d er D u m e n k o w h e n th e y ca u g h t so m e 5,000 h o rs e m e n in th e o p en a b o u t fo rty m iles w e st o f T saritsy n . It w as a m assacre. U s in g b o m b s and m a c h in e -g u n s the C am els d e s tro y e d D u m e n k o ’s force. D e ad an d d y in g m e n an d horses w e re s tre w n across the killing g r o u n d and as th e su rv iv o rs fled th ey w e re cut d o w n b y th e W h ite C ossacks. Later the W hites claim ed to have co u n te d 1,600 casual­ ties. T h e pilots w o rk e d o u t o f a sy stem o f close co -o p e ra tio n w ith 20

South Russia, December lg ig the W h ite C o ssack G eneral U layai. T h e C am els w o u ld attack first; flying j u s t a b o v e the g ro u n d th ey w e re like h o rs e m e n them selves. T h e n th e cavalry w o u ld ch arge w ith th eir sabres flashing, w ith the M o s le m s a m o n g th e m ca rry in g green bann ers bearin g q u o ta tio n s fro m th e K o ra n . C o llis h a w ’s pilots scored a n o th e r im p o rta n t v ic to ry in S ep tem ­ b er w h e n th e y g a th e re d all th eir m ach in es at B ek eto v a o n ly a few m in u te s ’ flying tim e fro m D u b o v k a , a to w n o n a lo o p o f th e V olg a w h e re the R eds h ad assem b led a fleet o f so m e fo rty bo ats to b o m b a rd T s a rits y n w ith g un s as large as 9.2 ho w itze rs. T h e B ritish planes b o m b e d and m a c h in e -g u n n e d this fleet for tw o days w ith o u t respite. B y th e th ird day eleven o f th e m had been su n k and the rest forced to w ith d r a w u p the river. L ieuten an t H o w a r d M ercer, an o b s e rv e r w ith C Flight, w as a w a rd e d the D F C fo r his “ w o r k o n this o cc asio n ” . H e h ad already w o n the m ilitary C ro ss and been d ec o r­ ated w ith th e C ro ss o f St G e o rg e b y G eneral W rangel. N a tu ra lly , these exploits cou ld n o t be k ep t q uiet and w h ile the b ra v e ry an d exp ertise o f the pilots received a full m ea su re o f praise at h o m e th ere w as g reat p ressure fro m o p p o n e n ts o f th e in te rv e n ­ tio n for th e s q u a d ro n to be w ith d ra w n . T h u s, o n O c to b e r 1st, N o . 47 S q u a d ro n o f the R oyal A ir Force chang ed its n a m e to “ A ” S q u a d ro n an d officially b ecam e p art o f th e trainin g m ission. All its m e m b e rs , b o th officers and m en , w e re re q u ired to sign a fo rm explicitly v o lu n te e rin g for service in S o u th Russia w ith D enik in. A flim sy faqade, it nevertheless m e a n t th at those w h o had “ been v o lu n te e r e d ” b efo re w e re n o w able to go h o m e i f th ey so w ished. W hile all this action h ad been tak in g place a ro u n d T saritsy n, D e n ik in , strik in g n o r th th ro u g h K h a rk o v and K u rsk across the battlefield w h e re R ussian and G e rm a n tanks w e re later to fight the greatest tan k b attle the w o rld has yet seen, had s w e p t the R ed A rm y aside and, ad v a n cin g n o r th o f O re l, w as j u s t o v er tw o h u n d re d m iles fro m M o s c o w . H e p ro m is e d his m en th at th ey w o u ld be in th e capital fo r C h ris tm a s and L ieuten an t C h arles R o b erts, an artil­ lery in s tru c to r w ith th e B ritish M ission w h o w as attached to D e n ik in ’s staff, later ruefully rem in isced th at w h e n th ey to o k O re l o n O c to b e r 13th “ w e w e re d eciding w h ich h orse w e sh o u ld ride d u rin g the triu m p h a l e n try in to M o s c o w .” It really d id seem th at the B o lshevik s w e re on the p o in t o f defeat, b u t D e n ik in h ad o v e rs tre tc h e d him self. T h e A n a rch ist guerrilla leader, N e s to r M a k h n o , attack ed his lines o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , the reo rg an ised R ed A r m y inflicted a series o f reverses o n his forces and b y th e end o f 1919 he fo u n d h im s e lf tu m b lin g back in defeat. H a rrie d b y the 1st C a v a lry A rm y , c o m m a n d e d b y G eneral 21

“Permission to Bomb?” S e m y o n B u d e n n y , a fo rm e r serg ean t in th e Im perial cavalry, D e n ik in w as in desperate need o f aerial su p p o rt. B u t w ith certain sh inin g ex c ep tio n s th e n e w ly trained R ussian pilots s h o w e d a m a rk e d reluctance to fly; it w as as i f m erely acqu iring their w in g s w as th e e n d o f the affair. “ T h e y w e re co v e red w ith m e d a ls ,” says C lo w , “ b u t th ey refused to go up the lin e .” It w as in these circ u m sta n ces th at M a u n d g ath e red his in stru cto rs to g e th e r and said: “ W e w a n t s o m e o f y o u to go u p th e line and w o rk w ith the R u s s ia n s .” S centing a d v e n tu re , n o b o d y raised any ob jection s and, h id in g fro m P a rlia m e n ta ry displeasure b eh in d the n a m e o f “ Z ” Flight, th ey set o u t to give b attle to the R ed A rm y . T h e m e n w e re allocated o n e o f th e special trains. It w as m ad e u p o f flatcars fo r c a rry in g th e aircraft, living a c c o m m o d a tio n and w o rk s h o p s . It carried e v e ry th in g th e y needed; a sickbay, a bakery, a m m u n itio n w a g o n s for b o m b s and bullets, carriages filled w ith d ru m s o f fuel. T h e m e n h ad b u n k s in the th ird class w h ile the officers slept fo u r to a first class c o m p a rtm e n t and set u p th eir M ess in a s trip p e d -o u t th ird class carriage. T h e train also h ad a h o rs e -b o x c o m p le te w ith tw o horses, to give the officers exercise. So “ Z ” F light left the c o m fo rts o f T a g a n ro g w ith its Y ach t C lu b a nd th ea tre w h e re D e n ik in ’s o w n strin g o rc h estra p layed tw o o r th ree tim es a w eek, and steam ed n o r th to w a rd s the figh ting , estab lishing them selv es fo r s o m e days at V aluyki, n o rth -e a st o f K h a rk o v . T h e y w o u ld take o f f fro m flatland alongside th e train, carry o u t th eir m issio n and th en, i f the train w as m o v in g on, w o u ld sco u t o u t a n o th e r lan d in g g ro u n d b y a siding w h e re th e train cou ld pull in fo r a few days. T h e se sidings p ro v id e d centres o f activity o n the n e v e r-e n d in g o p en plains. T h e y w e re essential for trains to be able to pass o n e a n o th e r o n th e single track line. U su ally situated close to villages, th ey w e re also e q u ip p e d w ith telegraphs, and p ro v id e d w a te r and fuel for the trains. T h e F lig h t’s first task o n arriv in g at a siding w o u ld be to o rg an ise its c o m m u n ic a tio n s , setting u p the w ireless w ith its collapsible m ast. E q u ip m e n t w o u ld be u n load ed , c o o k in g fires built, fo rag in g parties sent in to the village to trade for eggs and m ilk and b u tte r. (O n e tablet o f Pears soap w o u ld b u y o n e p o u n d o f b u tte r.) A n d w o r k w o u ld start o n th e “ H a rry T a te s ” , tu n in g their engines, re strin g in g w ires and occasionally p atc h in g a b ullet hole. T h e d a y ’s w o r k over, the m en w o u ld chat o v e r a pipe after d in n e r - usually bully b e e f o r a tin o f M a c o n n a c h ie ’s m ea t and tw o veg. B ro n z e d b y the lo n g h o t days o f s u m m e r in S o u th e rn Russia, th ey w e re glad o f the ca m p fire ’s w a r m th as it g re w colder o n the steppes. O n e o f the pilots had a “ D e cca” and th e tu nes fro m L o n d o n 22

South Russia, December 1919 s h o w s such as C hu C hin C how and M aid o f the M ountains, w o u ld float th r o u g h th e R ussian n ig h t, until the record s b ecam e hopelessly scratched. S o m e o f th e pilots h ad tak en their s h o tg u n s and tro u t ro d s to w a r w ith th e m and w o u ld s u p p le m e n t th eir rations w ith gro u se , d u ck and hare and th e occasional fish a lth o u g h the tro u t w e re ca u g h t m o re readily b y being stu n n e d b y h a n d grenades. E x ce p t fo r railw ay tro o p s and passing patrols o f cavalry, the pilots h ad little co n tact w ith th e a rm y th ey w e re fig h tin g for a lth o u g h th e y so m e tim e s carried R ussian officers on reconnaissance flights. T h e y led a stran g ely isolated life, self-contained, a little piece o f E n g la n d c h u n te rin g th r o u g h the heart o f Russia. O n e o f “ Z ” F lig h t’s o p eratio n s w as against S e m y o n P etly u ra the U k ra in ia n natio n alist o p p o s e d to b o th the W hites and the Reds w h o , like M a k h n o , w as attac k in g D e n ik in ’s c o m m u n ica tio n s. T h e y ca u g h t P etly u ra an d his m e n d ra w n u p on a village g reen w ith his b ag g a g e train o f horses an d “ d ro z h k i” w a g o n s and sh o t th e m up. B u t C lo w , flying w ith a R ussian colonel as o b serv er, w as u n p lea sa n tly su rp rise d to find th eir fire w as b eing re tu rn ed . P et­ ly u ra h ad ac q u ired so m e G e rm a n m ac h in e -g u n s o n an ti-aircraft m o u n tin g s and w as usin g th e m enthusiastically. C l o w ’s aircraft w as p ep p e red b u t, despite a b u rs t tyre, re tu rn e d safely. P etlyura, n o to rio u s fo r his an ti-sem itic p o g ro m s , su rv iv ed th at e n c o u n te r an d m a n y oth ers, b u t w as ev en tu ally m u rd e re d in Paris by a J e w seek ing re v en g e for the U k ra in ia n ’s past cru elty to his people. T h is w as j u s t o n e o f the cross c u rren ts o f w h o se com p lex ities the y o u n g p ilots w e re in no cen t: as far as th ey w e re co ncerned P etly u ra w as a “ b a n d it” . A n d so th e b attle o f the steppes sw irled a b o u t th e m w ith R ed fig h tin g W h ite for th e possession o f M o th e r Russia, w ith C o ssacks c h a n g in g side as th e m o o d to o k th e m and w ith n ation al­ ists, anarchists and b an d it gang s fig h tin g their o w n w ars for land a nd lo o t and ideologies. T h e y o u n g B rito n s w e re physically p art o f it, riskin g th eir lives, flying an d b o m b in g and strafing, b u t at the sam e tim e this w as n o t th eir w ar. T h e y had b y n o w seen e n o u g h o f atrocities c o m m itte d b y b o th W h ites and R eds to w ish a p lague o n b o th th eir houses. T h e y w e re to tally o p p o se d to B o lsh e v ism b u t the b e h a v io u r o f D e n ik in ’s m en , especially the cruelties inflicted o n the J e w s , appalled th em . T h is th en w as th e situ atio n w h e n S q u a d ro n Leader J o e A rc h er set up his w ireless b y th e railw ay line s o m e w h e re n o rth o f V aluyk i and asked for p e rm issio n to b o m b M o s c o w . A rc h er and his pilots did n o t k n o w , h o w e v e r, th a t th eir re q u est h ad been an ticipated a m o n th before. O n S e p te m b e r 19th, C h u rch ill, then M in iste r o f W ar, 23

“Permission to Bomb?” tak in g eager n o te o f D e n ik in ’s adv ance o n M o s c o w , h ad tele­ g ra p h e d a w a rn in g to M a jo r-G e n e ra l H o lm a n : “ I th in k it in adv is­ able th a t B ritish airm e n sh o u ld be used in p resen t circu m stan ces to b o m b M o s c o w . ” T h e re w as, he ad ded “ n o m ilitary value in this o p e r a tio n .” T h a t m a y w ell hav e been so, b u t the real reason w as political ra th e r th a n m ilitary. C h u rc h ill w as u n d e r attack fro m alm o st e v ery q u a rte r in B ritain o v e r w h a t w as seen as his reckless d e te rm in a tio n to d ra g B ritain in to a n o th e r m a jo r w a r befo re th e w id o w s h ad s to p p e d cry in g o v e r the last one. I f J o e A rc h e r and his m e n h ad flog ged th eir decrepit “ H a r r y T a te s ” up the railw ay line to d ro p th eir tin y b o m b s o n M o s c o w it w o u ld have been seen as p r o o f th at C h u rc h ill w as in deed ru n n in g “ his o w n little w a r ” . T h e D aily Express, leading the c a m p a ig n against th e A llied in te rv e n tio n in Russia, h ad insisted th a t th e situ atio n w as intolerable. “ W e are startin g a n e w w a r the en d o f w h ic h ca n n o t be s e e n .” It w as an a rg u m e n t w h ic h h ad g reat p o p u la r appeal and o ne w ith w h ic h the P rim e M in iste r, D a v id L lo y d G eorg e, h ad c o m e to agree. M a jo r-G e n e ra l H o lm a n w as fo n d o f his pilots. H e called th e m “ m y b o y s ” and in d u lg e d th eir s o m e w h a t o v erp la y fu l id io sy n cra­ sies, m a k in g sure th ey h ad e n o u g h w h is k y an d ja rs o f s tro n g r u m and d e m a n d in g the d irtiest o f ditties at th eir w e ll-lu b ric ated sin g­ so ng s w h e n he visited th e m in th eir railw ay carriage M ess o n the “ Z ” F light Special. B u t even th e m o s t in d u lg e n t o f generals c ou ld n o t tu rn a b lin d eye to such specific indication s o f his political m a s te r’s w ishes as th o se w h ic h C h u rc h ill h ad teleg raph ed . A n d H o lm a n w as n o political novice. So th at w h e n th e m o rs e k ey ch attered its resp onse to A r c h e r ’s re q u est it w as s h o rt an d stark: “ P e rm issio n refused. W ith d ra w im m e d ia te ly .” C l o w recalled th e p ilo ts’ reactions: “ W e w e re v ery d isap p o in ted . W e h ad c o m e all this w a y to do a j o b and n o w w e w e re b eing o rd e re d to go back . . . B u t I m u s t a d m it there w as also an u n d e rly in g feeling o f re lief because the o ld H a rry T ates w o u ld have been flying at the v ery lim it o f th eir range, w e w o u ld o n ly j u s t hav e been able to m ak e it w ith a sm all b o m b load an d w e w e re v ery f rig h te n e d o f b eing forced d o w n an d c a p tu red b y the B o los [the B ritish n ic k n a m e fo r the B o lsh e v ik s].” So th ey g o t o n their train and steam e d so u th , n o t realising th at th e y w e re leaving a battlefield o n w h ic h th e fu tu re o f R ussia w as b ein g settled, n o r th at w h e n the b attle w as o v e r th e B o lshev iks w o u ld be the m asters an d C o m m u n is m w o u ld have acquired th e base to a tte m p t to realise its d re am o f w o rld re v o lu tio n . 24

CHAPTER 2

“ Treacherous Desertion” Russia, 1914—1918

It h ad started five years befo re o n A u g u s t 1st, 1914 w h e n , at seven o ’clock in th e ev en ing , C o u n t F riedrich v o n P ourtales, G e rm a n A m b a s s a d o r to R ussia, d ro v e u p to the M in istry o f F oreig n Affairs in St P e te rs b u r g ’s Palace Square. F o rm ally dressed, the p ictu re o f d ip lo m a tic nicety, b u t w ith his pale b lu e eyes b r im m in g w ith tears, he p resen ted G e r m a n y ’s dec­ lara tio n o f w a r to his friend, Sergei Sazonov, F o reig n M in iste r o f H is Im p erial M ajesty , T sa r N ich o la s II o f Russia. S azo n o v accepted th e d eclaration and then, as he later told the F ren ch A m b a ssa d o r, M au ric e P aleolog ue, said to Pourtales: “ T h e curses o f th e n atio n s w ill be u p o n y o u . ” “ W e are d efen d in g o u r h o n o u r , ” replied P ourtales. “ Y o u r h o n o u r w as n o t involvedi. B u t there is a d ivine ju s tic e ,” said S azonov. P o u rtales b eg a n to w eep. “ T h a t ’s t r u e ,” he quavered, “ a divine ju s t ic e .” T h e tw o m e n th en em b ra ce d , w ith S azonov c o m fo rtin g the d is tra u g h t P o u rtales as he u sh ered h im o u t in to th e w a rm s u m m e r evenin g. It w as in this m a n n e r th at the G re at W ar started, a w a r w h ic h w as to tear ap art em p ire s an d d e stro y k in g d o m s w h ic h h ad e n d u red n early a th o u s a n d years. T e n m illion m en w e re to be killed, d e s tro y e d b y th e p ro d u c ts o f the technological age w h ic h had p ro m is e d to free th e m fro m toil and m isery. A n d re v o lu tio n w o u ld lu rk in ev e ry E u ro p e a n capital, w a itin g to seize p o w e r in countries bled w h ite o f m e n an d resources and, it w as su ppo sed , the will to resist. W h e n it started th e R ussian generals told th eir W ar O ffice th a t th ere w as n o n eed to o rd e r n e w ty p e w rite rs because it w o u ld be o v e r b efo re th e existing ones w o u ld need replacing. B u t w h e n it en d e d the generals them selves h ad been replaced b y m e n w h o w o u ld n o t h av e d ared talk to th e m in A u g u s t 1914. T h e R ussia w h ic h m o b ilise d its b ra v e b u t ig n o ra n t a rm y and sent it in to b attle w as a curio us place. A land o f peasants, feudalism and 25

“ Treacherous Desertion” a g ric u ltu re, it w as also u n d e rg o in g rapid industrialisation, fuelled b y W e ste rn capital and te c h n o lo g y and the genius o f C o u n t Sergei W itte th e sta te sm a n an d b u ild er o f the T ra n s-S ib e rian R ailw ay. T h e p ictu re o ften p re sen ted o f a p ro fo u n d ly b a c k w a rd Russia is quite w ro n g . In m a n y cases the ships desig ned to replace th o se lost to the Jap a n ese in 1905 at th e B attle o f T su s h im a w e re ahead o f B ritish and G e rm a n eq uivalents. T h e R ussians w e re also ad vanced in m ilitary aviation. O n e o f th eir designs w h ic h p e rfo rm e d w ell d u rin g the w ar, th e Ilya M u ro m e tz , w as p o w e re d b y fo u r engines, cou ld carry sixteen p assengers o r h a lf a to n o f b o m b s and w as sim ilar in size to th e F lying F ortresses o f W o rld W a r II. T h is adv an ced aircraft w as d esig n ed b y Ig o r S ik o rsk y w h o later e m ig ra te d to th e U S and p erfected th e first practical helicopter. R ussia m a y hav e b een a land ru led b y d esp otic m o n a rc h y , b u t it w as also a n a tio n w h e re th e d esp o t w alk ed in fear o f his subjects. T h e re v o lu tio n o f 1905 h ad been b ru tally p u t d o w n b u t it had frig h te n e d th e T s a r an d b r o u g h t a b o u t th e fo rm a tio n o f the D u m a w h ic h , for all its faults, w as, nevertheless, a n atio nal p arliam en t. As the m e m o rie s o f 1905 receded, h o w e v e r, so the T s a r cam e to take less an d less n o tice o f the D u m a even th o u g h it w as m ain ly c o m p o s e d o f la n d o w n e rs and the n e w industrialists. B u t this serv ed o n ly to heat th e forces o f re v o lu tio n b u b b lin g b en e ath the cru st o f au tocracy . It is arg u ed th at so s tro n g w e re these re v o lu tio n a ry forces th at th e m o b ilisa tio n o f th e A r m y and w a r serv ed to delay ra th e r th an ad vance the R ev o lu tio n ; certainly there w as a great u p s u rg e o f p a trio tis m w h e n the w a r started, b u t w h e n the R e v o l­ u tio n did b a tte r at th e gates o f the T s a r ’s Palace it did so w ith th e force o f h u n g e r an d defeat an d tw o m illio n dead m e n b eh in d it. T h e A rm y , w h ic h w as ev en tu ally to n u m b e r nine m illion, fo u g h t w ith all the d o g g e d b ra v e ry fo r w h ic h th e o rd in a ry R ussian soldier is j u s tly re n o w n e d . F o r the m o s t part, the T s a r ’s soldiers w e re p o o rly e q u ip p e d and even m o re p o o rly led at the highest levels o f c o m m a n d . T h e y w e re o ften w ith o u t shells fo r th eir g un s and in the early days s o m e o f th e m - still w ith th eir p e a sa n t’s fo o t-c lo th s w ra p p e d ro u n d th eir legs - faced the b ru ta lly efficient G e rm a n m a c h in e -g u n n e rs a rm e d o n ly w ith a cross an d a p o rtra it o f th e T sar, w a itin g to in h erit a rifle fro m a fallen co m ra d e. B u t a lth o u g h the q u ality o f th eir c o m m a n d e rs d id n o t im p ro v e , b y 1916 the deficien­ cies in rifles, a m m u n itio n an d b o o ts h ad been m ad e u p despite th e crip p lin g effect o f m o b ilisa tio n and the sh o rta g e o f ra w m aterials on R u ssia ’s n e w ly established industries. E fforts h ad also been m a d e to en su re th at the peasant recruits w e re g iv en p ro p e r train in g befo re b ein g sent to th e fron t. 26

Russia, 1914-1918 T h e im p o rta n c e to B ritain and France o f this h u g e u n w ie ld y a r m y w as sim ple: it held eig h ty G e rm a n divisions o n th e E astern F ro n t. As th e m ilitary h isto rian B. H . Liddell H a rt w as to w rite: “ Let us n o t fo rg e t h o w m a n y tim es Russia had sacrificed h e rse lf to save h er allies, p re p a rin g the w a y for their u ltim a te v ic to ry as surely as fo r h er o w n do w n fall. ” T h e gre atest o f th o se sacrifices cam e in J u n e 1916. In a n sw e r to d esperate pleas fro m th e Allies to take th e pressure o f f th e F rench A r m y (w h ic h w as b leed in g to d eath in th e m a n -m in c in g m ach in e o f V e rd u n ), an d o f f the Italians after th eir defeat b y the A u strians at T re n tin i, G eneral A lexai B ru silo v lau n ch ed an offensive against the A u s tro -G e rm a n F ro n t in th e C arp ath ian s. Initially, it w as a su rp risin g success. B ru silo v defeated the A ustrians, fo rcin g th e m to halt th eir advance in to Italy, and rescu­ ing th e F rench b y m a k in g the G e rm a n s p u t an end to the b lo o d b a th at V e rd u n in o rd e r to ru sh th irty -fiv e divisions to th e E astern F ront. B ru silo v lacked th e s u p p o rt o f his fellow generals an d his success w as n o t fo llo w e d th ro u g h , b u t his offensive p ro b a b ly p re v e n te d the Allies fro m lo sin g the w ar. Later to b ec o m e o ne o f the professional soldiers w h o fo u g h t fo r the R ed A r m y against th e W h ite R ussians, he w as to arg u e th a t i f his v ic to ry h ad been p ro p e rly ex ploited he co u ld hav e k n o c k e d A u stria o u t o f the w a r and th e re b y forced G e rm a n y to sue fo r peace b y the end o f the year. A lth o u g h the R ussian A r m y p e rfo rm e d n o b ly , B ru s ilo v ’s vic­ to ry cost o v e r a m illio n m en, p ossib ly h a lf the total o f Russians lost d u rin g th e w a r as a w h o le (records w e re p o o rly k ep t - in so m e re g im e n ts n o t at all). T h e available figures s h o w th a t so m e tw o m illio n died, five m illio n w e re w o u n d e d and t w o and a h a lf m illion w e re tak en p riso ner; casualties far g re ater th an any o f th e o th e r w a rrin g n atio n s and as m a n y as th e rest o f the Allies p u t to g eth er. It is also estim ated th a t s o m e th in g like a n o th e r m illion m e n decided “ I w ill soldier n o m o r e ” and w a lk e d h o m e to reap th e harvest. T h e w a r h ad to be p aid fo r in m o n e y as w ell as in b lo o d and the R ussian e c o n o m y w as a sham bles. A n d so, in o rd e r to keep the a r m y in th e field in the h o p e th a t even i f th e R ussian “ s te a m -ro lle r” h ad sto p p e d ro llin g at least it w o u ld p re v e n t the G e rm an s concen ­ tra tin g all th eir s tre n g th o n the W e ste rn F ron t, the B ritish adv anced n early £600 m illion in loans an d th e F rench so m e £160 m illion. W ritin g a b o u t these su b v e n tio n s K o n s ta n tin N a b o k o v , R ussian C h a rg e d ’Affaires in L o n d o n , said in his b o o k , The Ordeal o f a D iplom at, “ Russia bec am e en tirely d e p e n d e n t o n G reat B ritain for th e p ro se c u tio n o f th e w ar. [She] w as un able to repay b y m aterial m ean s fo r th e sacrifices in w a r, m aterial, to nn age, and capital w h ich 27

“ Treacherous Desertion” G re at B ritain m a d e to s u p p ly o u r arm ies. Russia paid o n ly w ith the rivers o f b lo o d o f h er sons w h o died in battle. Russia w as alw ays asking. B ritain w as alw ay s giving . T h is co n d itio n o f affairs u n ­ d o u b te d ly h ad an o v e r w h e lm in g influence u p o n the p s y c h o lo g y o f B ritish pub lic o p in io n an d o f th e g o v e r n m e n t .” B u t b y th e b e g in n in g o f 1917 n eith er b lo o d n o r m o n e y co u ld keep R ussia in the w ar. T h e factories, starv ed o f m en and m aterial, w e re closing. F o o d sh o rtag e s and the so arin g cost o f living b r o u g h t u n re st and strikes to P e tro g ra d and M o s c o w . T h e soldiers an d the land h u n g r y p ea san try o f w h ic h th ey w e re p art had h ad e n o u g h . D is c o n te n t sp read t h r o u g h the m id d le classes an d into the T s a r ’s en to u ra g e . T h e m u r d e r o f R asp utin , th e T s a rin a ’s evil genius, b y P rince Y u su p o v , w o rk e d to g ive e n c o u ra g e m e n t to the m a lc o n ­ tents. E arly in M a rc h d iso rd ers b ro k e o u t in P e tro g ra d - re n a m e d fro m th e G e rm a n ic St P e te rs b u rg at th e b eg in n in g o f the w ar. O n e e y e -w itn ess, C a p ta in Francis C r o m ie (the B ritish naval officer w h o w as later to play a trag ic p art in this story) rep o rted : “ T h e lady tra m c o n d u c to rs s tru c k fo r b read, left th eir cars in the streets, and th re w th e startin g handles in to the canals. T h e g arriso n refused to fire o n th e d e m o n s tra to rs and b y S unday, M a rc h n t h , the tro o p s w e re j o in in g in th e protests. S o m e re g im e n ts sh o t th eir officers an d to o k to the streets w ith th eir rifles. T h e sailors o f the B altic Fleet m u tin ie d an d attack ed th eir offic ers.” C r o m ie re p o rte d th at at the K ro n s ta d t naval base, “ V iren, the C o m m a n d e r- in - C h ie f, w as cut up in sm all pieces and b u r n t in a w o o d e n b o x in the pub lic square. H is w ife died, th e d a u g h te r killed h e rse lf and the son, a lieutenant, w as sho t. O n e h u n d re d officers h ave been killed, tw o h u n d re d are in p riso n and o n ly eig h t re m a in at liberty . . . ” O n M a rc h 12th, th e D u m a elected a “ P ro v isio n a l C o m m i t t e e ” w h ic h assu m ed th e task o f re sto rin g o rd e r. O n M a rc h 15th, T s a r N ich o la s lost his n erv e and abdicated, th e re b y en d in g the rule o f the R o m a n o v d y n asty . T h e re w as a ripeness a b o u t its fall w h ich m ad e it seem alm o st inevitable. E ig h t m o n th s o f indecisive rule b y the P ro visional g o v e r n m e n t fo llo w ed . A leading role w as played b y th e C o n s titu tio n a l D e m o ­ crats, co n fu sin g ly k n o w n as the K adets. T h is g o v e r n m e n t (a coali­ tio n based o n e x istin g parties in th e D u m a ), u n d e r w e n t a n u m b e r o f chan ges d u rin g its s h o rt life, bein g led first b y P rince G e o rg e L v o v an d th en b y A lex a n d er K eren sk y . It su rv iv ed an a tte m p t b y the C h i e f o f Staff, G eneral L avr K o rn ilo v , to set u p a m ilitary dicta­ to rsh ip , and a p re m a tu re B olshevik a tte m p t at a co u p in J u ly w h ic h failed th ro u g h lack o f s u p p o rt and d ete rm in a tio n . T h e h ard m e n o f 28

Russia, 1914-1918 B o lsh e v ism h a d re tu rn e d to Russia fro m exile after th e M a rc h re v o lu tio n , L en in b y sealed train fro m S w itzerland , T ro ts k y by ship fro m N e w Y o rk , Stalin an d o th e r second ra n k leaders fro m exile in Siberia. T h e rev o lu tio n aries h ad all been ca u g h t b y surprise. T h e y had n o t ex p ected th e re v o lu tio n and th ey h ad certainly n o t expected the T s a r to abdicate. T h e M a rc h r e v o lu tio n w as n o t o f th eir d o ing. T h e B olshevik s d id n o t o v e r th r o w th e T sar. O n ly tw o m o n th s before, L enin had to ld a g ro u p o f stu d en ts in Z u rich : “ W e o ld er m en will n o t live to see th e in tern a tio n a l Socialist re v o lu tio n . . . ” T h e fabric o f B o lsh e v ism in R ussia had b e c o m e threadb are. B u t on ce the G e rm an s, p lo ttin g to get Russia o u t o f the w ar, had helped L enin and his p a rty o f B o lsh ev iks to re tu rn to Russia he b eg an to w e av e his o rato rical m agic an d the B o lsh ev ik p attern starte d to em e rg e. T h e P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t h ad to rule in uneasy co ncert w ith the P e tro g ra d S o viet o f W o r k e rs ’ an d S old iers’ D ep u ties, w h o w e re m ain ly M e n s h e v ik s * w h o h ad b ro k e n w ith the B o lshevik s to fo rm th eir o w n p a rty , and Socialist R evo lutio naries. N ev erth eless, de­ spite its less th an firm g rip o n the c o u n try , it w as reco gnised b y the Allies as th e g o v e r n m e n t o f Russia because B ritain and France desp erately n eed ed to keep th e c o u n t r y ’s 8,000,000 soldiers in the w ar. T h is need to m ain tain th e w a r o n the E astern F ro n t w as the o v e rrid in g m o tiv e b e h in d th e A llies’ dealings w ith Russia and their attitu d es to w a rd s th e re v o lu tio n . N o th in g else m attere d . F ro m th e m o m e n t th e P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t to o k over, the Allied rep resen tativ es in P e tro g ra d u rg e d o n the n ew rulers the ab solute necessity o f k ee p in g th e G e rm a n divisions o ccu pied so th at th ey c o u ld n o t be tran sferred to th e W estern F ront. T h e n e w g o v e rn ­ m e n t assured th e Allies th at R ussia w o u ld “ fight to th e last d ro p o f h er b lo o d ” and “ sac red ly ” s w o re b y the alliances b in d in g h er to the o th e r fig h tin g nations. K e re n sk y w as in d ire need o f m o n e y an d S o m erset M a u g h a m , an ex p e rien c ed B ritish intelligence ag e n t w h o s e Ashenden stories bear all the h allm ark s o f au to b io g ra p h ic a l au th en ticity , w as g iv en th e jo b o f g e ttin g it to h im . T h e n w o r k in g at the N e w Y o rk “ s ta tio n ” , M a u g h a m m a d e his w a y to V la d iv o sto c k and th en across Siberia to P e tro g ra d - a j o u r n e y n o t w ith o u t a d v e n tu re - w ith a large * The Mensheviks were a political party set up in August 1917 at a Congress of several Social Democratic groups. Before 1917 the w ord denoted the non-Leninist faction o f the Russian Social Democratic W orkers’ Party. 29

“ Treacherous Desertion” a m o u n t o f cash fo r th e R ussian leader. “ I w e n t as a p riv ate a g e n t,” M a u g h a m w ro te in his a u to b io g ra p h y , “ w h o cou ld be d is a v o w e d if necessary, w ith in stru c tio n s to get in to u c h w ith parties h ostile to the g o v e r n m e n t an d devise a sch em e th at w o u ld keep Russia in th e w a r an d p re v e n t th e B o lshevik s, s u p p o rte d b y th e C en tra l P o w e rs , fro m seizing p o w e r . ” H o w e v e r, th e Allies w a n te d m o re th an j u s t p ro te sta tio n s o f lo y alty in e x c h an g e fo r th eir m o n e y , and th eir am b assad o rs and m ilitary rep resen tativ es u rg e d K eren sk y to break th e s em i-tru c e w h ic h h ad settled o v e r th e fro n t line - G e rm a n y w as p re o ccu p ie d w ith th e W e ste rn F ro n t an d R ussia w ith h er o w n rev o lu tio n . So the u n w illin g soldiers, on ce subject to the discipline o f the k n o u t, th e h ea v y leath er w h ip s so freely w ielded b y T sarist N C O s , b u t w h o n o w d eb a ted ev e ry c o m m a n d , w e re o rd e re d in to a s u m m e r offen­ sive. It o p e n e d on J u ly i s t an d achieved so m e initial success. B u t the G e rm a n s c o u n te r-a tta c k e d and b y la te ju ly the offensive had tu rn e d in to a catastro p h e. T h e m e n o f the E lev e n th A rm y s h o t th eir officers and w e n t h o m e lo o tin g and b u rn in g villages in th eir path. S o m e loyal re g im e n ts held th e line b u t th e R ussian A r m y ’s role in the w a r w as finished, a fact w h ic h to o k the Allies a lo n g tim e to accept. O n c e again w ish fu l th in k in g prevailed o v e r reason. T h is final m ilitary disaster g ave rise to a w a v e o f violence w h ic h b ec am e k n o w n as “ T h e J u ly D a y s ” . A t first the d e m o n s tra tio n s seem ed to be sp o n ta n e o u s and sporadic b u t th ere w as o n e c o m m o n cry: “ D o w n w ith the G o v e rn m e n t - all p o w e r to the S o v ie ts.” T h e se Soviets - c o m m itte e s - w e re b y n o m eans all B o lshevik , b ein g c o m p o s e d o f m e m b e rs o f a n u m b e r o f different political g ro u p s. T h e B o lsh ev ik s h ad ind eed been active in stirrin g u p tro u b le b u t w h e n the tim e cam e the leadership o f the p a rty hesitated and failed to take the final step. E v en Lenin, w h o h ad re tu rn e d in h aste fro m Finland w h e re he h ad been p lo ttin g , advised caution. T h e d e m o n s tra tio n s fizzled o u t and w h e n the g o v e r n m e n t released evid en ce w h ic h ap p eared to s h o w th a t L enin had been w o rk in g for th e G e rm a n s the p e o p le ’s an g er tu rn e d against the B olsheviks. A g r o u p o f a rm e d m e n w re c k e d th e offices o f Pravda, th e p a rty n e w sp a p e r, and a n o th e r g ro u p b u rs t in to th e o rn a te palace o f the ballet d an c er M ath ild a K shesin skay a w h ic h the B olshevik s h ad tak e n o v e r fo r th eir h ea d q u arte rs. B u t the B o lsh ev ik leaders had g o n e u n d e r g ro u n d . K e ren sk y , w h o h ad been at th e fron t, re tu rn e d to P e tro g ra d and o n Ju ly 19th o rd e re d L e n in ’s arrest. T h e B o lsh e v ik leader w as o n th e ru n , h id in g in a h ay stac k in a forest a few m iles n o r th o f P e tro g ra d , b efore seeking refug e w ith sy m p ath isers in F inland. M a n y years later K eren sk y , in exile, w as asked w h y he h ad 30

Russia, i g i 4 - i g i 8 n o t o rd e re d L enin to be sh o t w hile he had h ad th e chance. H e replied th a t he h ad n o t, at the tim e, th o u g h t th at the B o lsh e v ik leader w as im p o rta n t e n o u g h for such a drastic act. B y the e n d o f J u ly the B o lsh ev ik s w e re in disarray. T r o ts k y w as in p riso n an d L enin w as forced to w rite letters an d p a m p h le ts fro m F inland d e n y in g he h ad w o rk e d for th e G e rm an s. It has b e c o m e an article o f faith in the S oviet U n io n th a t he w as in n o c e n t o f these charges, even th o u g h G e rm a n official reco rds o f th e tim e sh o w th at he w as in co n ta ct w ith the G e rm an s an d accepted help fro m th em . B u t th e n L enin w o u ld h av e s u p p ed w ith the devil h im s e lf to b rin g C o m m u n i s m to Russia. H o w e v e r, i f th e B olshevik s w e re in disarray so w as the g o v e r n ­ m e n t. K e re n s k y ’s e c o n o m ic policies h ad collapsed. T h e re w e re strikes, m ass u n e m p lo y m e n t and h u n g e r. All co nfidence in his ability to g o v e r n w as lost. T h e n o n S e p te m b e r 6th, 1917 G eneral K o rn ilo v , the c o m m a n d e r-in -c h ie f o f th e A rm y , m a rc h e d o n P e tro g ra d in an a tte m p t to take o v e r th e g o v e r n m e n t. H e failed, largely because his tro o p s had little sto m a c h fo r the enterprise. B u t he caused such alarm in th e city th a t th e g o v e r n m e n t issued w e a p o n s to any o rg a n isa tio n w illing to fig h t h im . A n d th a t in clu d ed the B olsheviks, m a n y o f w h o m w e re released fro m p riso n to fight K o rn ilo v . W h e n the scare w as o v er K e re n sk y asked th e m to re tu rn these w eapon s. T h e y lau g h e d at h im . T h e B olsh ev ik s w e re back in business. K o rn ilo v w as used b y th e B o lshevik s as a re actio nary b o g e y m a n to frig h te n th e people. T h e y ex p lo ited th e strikes and h u n g e r and general d isco n ten t. L enin w r o te fro m F inland o n S e p te m b e r 13 th u rg in g the B o lsh e v ik P a r ty ’s C e n tra l C o m m itte e to p re p are for an a rm e d u p risin g . Plans m u s t be m ade, he d em a n d ed , fo r the seizure o f P e tro g ra d . T h e C e n tra l C o m m itte e , appalled b y his violence and his ind iscretio n , b u r n t th e letter. B u t n o th in g w o u ld n o w sto p Lenin. H e h a ra n g u e d his colleagues fro m th e safety o f Finland, d e m a n d in g action. O n O c to b e r 22nd, L enin shav ed o f f his b eard and, w e a rin g a w ig, travelled fr o m Finland, and so disg uised slipped in to P etro g ra d . T h e n e x t d ay th e C e n tra l C o m m itte e c o n v e n ed a m ee tin g . In a n ig h t-lo n g d eb ate L enin co n v in c ed T ro ts k y , w h o had been released fro m priso n, Stalin and D z e rz h in sk y , th e m a n w h o w as to ru n the R ed T e r ro r, th a t “ an a rm e d u p risin g has b ec o m e inevitable and a c u te .” It seem ed th a t ev e ry o n e k n e w th e B o lsh ev ik s w e re a b o u t to a tte m p t a coup. T h e P e tro g ra d S oviet m e t co n tin u o u sly . T h e D elegates to th e A ll-R u ssian C o n g re ss o f Soviets assem bled. 3i

“ Treacherous Desertion” E v e r y w h e r e th ere w as s p ee ch -m ak in g and u p ro a r w ith T r o ts k y w h ip p in g the C o n g r e s s ’s m ee tin g s in to R e v o lu tio n a ry frenzy w ith the p o w e r o f his o ra to ry . T h e tim e w as u n q u e stio n a b ly ripe for an o th e r re v o lu tio n : even th e fact th at elections a rra n g e d b y the P rov ision al g o v e r n m e n t to fo rm a d e m o c ra tic C o n s titu e n t A ssem b ly w e re a b o u t to b e h eld did n o t p re v e n t it. B u t w h e n the u p risin g cam e, it w as a ra th e r w eak, b ad ly o rg a n ise d affair, despite all L e n in ’s ex h o rta tio n s. It cou ld have been p u t d o w n w ith re so lu tio n an d tw o re g im e n ts o f loyal tro o p s - for all th e B o lsh ev ik s h ad w e re th eir R ed G u ard s, a rm e d civilians w ith little discipline, and even m o re u n ru ly sailors fro m th e B altic Fleet. B u t w h e n K e ren sk y left the city to rally th e A r m y ’s s u p p o rt he cou ld find o n ly seven h u n d re d C ossacks w illin g to fight for h im . B y th e e v e n in g o f N o v e m b e r 7th, w ith K e ren sk y still o u t o f the city try in g to co n v in c e the A r m y to m arc h , his leaderless g o v e r n ­ m e n t had g a th e re d in th e T s a r ’s W in te r Palace (e v ery w h e re else w as in the h an d s o f th e B o lshevik s and the m o b ). As m o s t o f the W in te r P alace’s g arriso n h ad fled, d em o ra lise d b y B olshevik p ro p a g a n d a , th e M in iste rs w e re g u a rd e d o n ly b y a p a rty o f officer cadets an d 130 w o m e n soldiers fr o m a b a ttalio n o f w o m e n led b y a re d o u b ta b le w o m a n called M aria B o ch k arev a. T h e y h ad s w o rn to fig h t to the d ea th again st th e G e rm an s. B u t th a t w as a different w ar, an d w h e n the cruiser Aurora fired a b lan k sh o t at th e Palace an d field artillery o p e n e d u p a sp o rad ic b o m b a rd m e n t, th e w o m e n su rre n d ere d . T h e cadets, w h o w e re w illin g to fight, b u t w e re fo rb id d e n to o p e n fire b y th e fearful M in isters, fo llo w ed suit. T h u s w h e n the B olsh ev iks s to rm e d the Palace th ere w as v irtu ally n o resistance. T h e ir d e a th toll w as m in im al: six R ed G u a rd s w e re killed, fo u r o f th e m b y bullets fired b y th eir o w n com rades. T h e n e x t d ay the B ritish A m b a ssa d o r, Sir G e o rg e B u ch an an , m a d e the fo llo w in g e n try in his diary: I w a lk e d o u t this a fte rn o o n to see th e d a m a g e th at had been d o n e to the W in te r Palace b y th e p ro lo n g e d b o m b a rd m e n t o f the p re v io u s evening. In th e e v e n in g t w o officer in stru c to rs o f the w o m e n ’s b attalio n cam e to m y w ife an d beseeched h e r to try an d save th e w o m e n defenders o f the W in te r Palace, w h o , after th ey h ad su rre n d ere d , h ad been sent to o n e o f the barracks w h e re th e y w e re bein g m o s t b ru tally trea ted b y the soldiers. G en eral K n o x [M ilitary A ttache] at on ce d ro v e to the B o lsh ev ik h ea d q u arte rs at the S m o ln y Institute. H is d e m a n d s for th eir im m e d ia te release w e re at first 32

Russia, 1914-1918 refused o n th e g ro u n d th at th ey h ad resisted desperately, fig h tin g to th e last w ith b o m b s and revolvers. T h a n k s h o w e v e r, to his firm n ess an d persistence, the o rd e r for th eir release w as e v e n tu ­ ally signed, an d the w o m e n w e re saved fro m the fate th a t w o u ld hav e in ev itab ly befallen th e m h ad th e y spen t th e n ig h t at th e barracks. In th e ev e n in g L enin w as th u n d e ro u s ly cheered in to th e C o n g re s s o f S oviets, w h e re he read his Decree o f Peace p ro p o s in g “ to all bellig­ e ren t peoples an d th eir g o v e rn m e n ts th e im m e d ia te o p e n in g o f n e g o tia tio n s fo r a j u s t an d d em o c ratic p e a c e .” T h e re so lu tio n w as passed u n a n im o u s ly . J o h n R eed, th e A m eric an jo u rn a lis t, re co rd e d th e scene in his Ten D ays that Shook the World: “ ‘T h e w a r is ended, ’ said a y o u n g w o r k m a n near m e, his face shining. A n d w h e n it w as ov er, as w e s to o d th ere in a k in d o f a w k w a rd h u sh, so m e o n e in the back o f th e r o o m s h o u ted , ‘C o m ra d e s, let us re m e m b e r th o se w h o h av e died fo r lib e r ty .’ So w e b eg a n to sing the Funeral M arch , th a t slo w , m elan c h o ly , an d yet tr iu m p h a n t chant, so R ussian and so m o v in g .” H o w e v e r, th e tr iu m p h w as n o t yet co m p lete n o r w as the fig h tin g o ver. T h e B o lsh ev ik s w a ite d ap p reh en siv ely for K e ren sk y w h o w as m a rc h in g o n th e city w ith his C ossacks. In th e city th ere w as so m e fig h tin g an d a strike o f civil serv ants against the n e w m asters. R ed G u a rd s w e n t to m e e t th e C o ssacks. T h e battle, w h e n it w as jo in e d at T s arsk o e Selo, w as s h o rt and, o n ce again, little b lo o d w as spilt. T h e C ossacks q u ick ly g ave u p the fight, h av in g listened to the speeches o f B olsh ev ist ag itato rs w h o h ad c rep t in to th eir cam p . K e re n sk y fled in to exile. T h r o u g h lack o f re so lu tio n h e h ad lost P e tro g ra d , lost his g o v e r n m e n t and lost Russia. It h ad been a re v o lu tio n o f w o rd s. E v en the Aurora's historic o p e n in g shell h a d b een a blank. T h e b lo o d sh e d w as still to com e. T h e re h ad been n o o u tp o u rin g o f g r ie f in th e W est w h e n th e T s a r abdicated. C e rta in ly K in g G e o rg e V w as deeply sad d en ed b y the d o w n fa ll o f “ C o u s in N i c k y ” fo r w h o m he h ad a g reat affection and a rra n g e m e n ts w e re su g g ested w h e re b y the T sa r an d his fam ily w o u ld be p u t o n a B ritish cruiser an d taken to exile in B ritain. T h e P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t w as h a p p y to agree to this b u t political realities o b v io u s ly triu m p h e d o v e r R oyal sentim ents. A c c o rd in g to evid ence giv en later b y K e re n sk y the P rov ision al g o v e r n m e n t received a m essag e b y w a y o f A m b a s s a d o r B u ch an a n w h ic h said: “ T h e [British] g o v e r n m e n t does n o t consider it possible to ex te n d its h o sp itality to the fo rm e r T s a r w h ile the w a r c o n tin u e s .” 33

“ Treacherous Desertion” T h e T s a r ’s p resence w o u ld certainly hav e been an e m b a rra s s m e n t to th e g o v e r n m e n t at a tim e o f great d a n g e r o n th e W e ste rn F ro n t a nd th e th re a t o f civil d is o rd e r at h o m e , especially o n the C ly d e w h e re R ussian sailors m a rc h e d along side B ritish socialists in the M a y D a y p arad e o f 1917. T o m o s t E n g lis h m e n th e T sa r re p rese n te d a sy stem o f feudal ty ra n n y w h ic h w as an a th em a to th e B ritish s y s te m o f d em o c rac y . As for th e A m eric an s, m o s t o f th e m w e re d elig h ted b y the d o w n fa ll o f th e R o m a n o v s . T h e R ussian m o n a rc h y re p rese n te d e v e ry th in g to w h ic h th e A m erican s, aggressive in th eir trad itio n s o f in d iv id u a l lib erty , w e re o p p o sed . W h a t is m o re, sh iplo ad after s h ip lo ad o f refugees fr o m R ussia and its subject nation s, fleeing fro m th e p o g ro m s , th e k n o u t an d th e C o ssa c k s’ sabres h ad been a rriv in g in th e U n ite d States in a w a v e o f im m ig ra tio n since the 1890s. N o t o n e o f the im m ig ra n ts w o u ld shed a single tear fo r th e T sar. E v e n France, w h ic h h ad en te red in to an alliance w ith R ussia in 1892, exp ressed n o s o r r o w o v e r his fall.* T h e principles o f F ran c e’s o w n re v o lu tio n , L iberty , E q u ality and F ratern ity , re m a in e d th e v e ry antithesis o f T sarist au tocracy. In tern atio n ally th ere h a d b een in deed s o m e th in g o f a ru sh to re co g n ise th e P ro v isio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e U n ite d States did so o n M a rc h 22nd, j u s t o n e w e e k after the T s a r ’s abdication. B ritain an d F rance fo llo w e d tw o days later. T h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s an d th e F ren ch C h a m b e r o f D e p u tie s sent m essages o f s y m p a th y and e n c o u ra g e m e n t to the n e w g o v e rn m e n t. In a d espatch to P rin ce L v o v , D a v id L lo y d G e o rg e w e lc o m e d R ussia in to the rank s o f th o s e n atio n s “ w h ic h base th eir in stitu tio n s u p o n respo nsib le g o v e r n m e n t .” A n d w h e n P resid en t W ilson led the U n ite d States in to th e w a r o n A p ril 2nd, 1917, he w e lc o m e d “ the h e a rte n in g th in g s th at hav e b een h ap p e n in g w ith in the last few w eeks in R u ssia ” and he praised “ th e great, g en e ro u s R ussian people [w h o] h av e been ad d e d in all th eir n ativ e m ajesty and m ig h t to th e forces th a t are f ig h tin g fo r fre e d o m in th e w o rld , fo r ju s tic e an d fo r peace. H e re is a fit p a rtn e r fo r a L eague o f H o n o r . ” T h e se official m essages u n d o u b te d ly reflected the feeling o f the p eo p le o f B ritain, France an d th e U n ite d States. B u t, in tru th , the m ilita ry and political leaders o f th e co u n trie s w h o for nearly three years h ad been fig h tin g the m o s t d read fu l w a r w h ich th ey w e re * This alliance was designed to safeguard both countries against Prussia’s expansionist designs. The French Ambassador, Maurice Paleologue, was so deeply comm itted to the Tsar that he had to be recalled im mediately after the revolution.

34

Russia, 1914-1918 fearful o f lo sin g did n o t care w h o co n tro lled R ussia as lo n g as th ey fo u g h t the G e rm a n s. T h is p re o c c u p a tio n w ith k eep in g R ussia in the w a r b ec am e an ob sessio n w h ic h led to the w ild est o f m ilitary fantasies: th e re­ esta b lish m e n t o f an E astern F ro n t b y an A llied a r m y tra n s p o rte d seven th o u s a n d m iles across Siberia and th e n su pplied b y n o n ­ ex isten t ro ad s an d a railw ay in a ch aotic state o f disrepair. T h e F rench general, F erd in an d Foch, w h o , in 1918 b ec am e C o m m a n d e r - in - C h ie f o f th e A llied Forces in France, u rg e d this plan in an in te rv ie w w ith th e N e w York Times. “ G e rm a n y is w a lk in g th ro u g h Russia, ” he arg u ed . “ A m eric a and J a p a n w h o are in a p o sitio n to d o so s h o u ld g o to m e e t h e r in S ib e ria.” T h e need to p re v e n t the G e rm a n s - an d th e T u rk s - “ w a lk in g t h r o u g h R u ssia ” led to B ritain and France giv in g s u p p o rt to v ario us n atio n alist g ro u p s w h ic h sp ra n g u p in S o u th e rn Russia: C ossacks, U k ra in ia n s, G e o rg ian s an d o th e rs w h o saw th e b re ak u p o f the T sarist e m p ire as an ideal o p p o rtu n ity to assert th eir ind epend ence. T h is w as a d a n g e ro u s g a m e fo r th e P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t and, later, the B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t, w e re d e te rm in e d to m ain tain as m u c h o f th e e m p ire as possible and reacted stro n g ly to the B ritish and F rench s u p p o rt o f these g ro u p s, so m e o f w h o m w e re little b e tte r th an b andits. T h e B ritish A m b a s s a d o r, Sir G e o rg e B u ch an an , an d G eneral A lfred K n o x , th e M ilita ry A ttach e, b o th w a rn e d th at these bands w e re ineffectual and th at to s u p p o rt th e m w o u ld serve n o useful p u rp o se . F u rth e rm o re , as K n o x cabled to L o n d o n : “ to ask us to in trig u e w ith C ossack s w h ile w e are in the p o w e r o f the rebel g o v e r n m e n t is m ere ly to get o u r th ro a ts cut to n o p u r p o s e .” B u t even th at w a rn in g - an d B u ch an a n an d K n o x cam e close to bein g a rrested after the B o lsh e v ik ta k e o v e r — w as ig n o re d in the b elief th a t i f these forces in th e so u th w e re p ro v id e d w ith m o n e y and w e a p o n s th e y w o u ld c o n tin u e to fig h t th e G e rm a n s an d th e T u rk s. T h e re w e re o th e r factors in v o lv ed , too . T h e re w as also the need to p re v e n t w h e a t f ro m th e U k ra in e an d oil f ro m B ak u b ein g used to b re ak th e B ritish naval b lo ck a d e w h ic h w as stran g lin g G e rm a n y . A n d , w ith th e R ussian A r m y g iv in g u p th e fight, th ere w as a revival o f th e “ G re at G a m e ” fear o f an in v asio n o f India, B rita in ’s “je w e l in th e c r o w n ” , th r o u g h Persia an d A fghanistan; n o t n o w b y Russia b u t b y the G e rm a n s an d th eir T u rk is h allies w h o w e re try in g to raise the flag o f Islam th r o u g h o u t C e n tra l Asia. T h e B ritish, w h o h ad a n u m b e r o f intelligence officers o p eratin g in the so u th , and th e F rench, w h o h ad a m ilitary m ission established in R u m a n ia try in g to pre serv e the re m n a n ts o f th a t c o u n tr y ’s 35

“ Treacherous Desertion” d efeated a rm y , th e n m a d e a m o v e w h ic h the Russians claim w'as th e first in d icatio n th a t th e Allies in te n d e d to in terv e n e in Russia. O n D e c e m b e r 23 rd, 1917, th e y sign ed a c o n v e n tio n d iv id in g S o u th e rn Russia in to zones o f influence. T h e F rench assu m ed resp o n sib ility fo r B essarabia, th e U k ra in e an d the C rim ea, an d B ritain w as assign ed th e C o ssack territo rie s, C aucasus, A rm e n ia , G e o rg ia and K u rd ista n . W e shall later e x a m in e the results o f this c o n v e n tio n b u t w h a t sh o u ld be p o in te d o u t n o w is th at b y th e en d o f 1917 b o th B ritain an d France w e re v e ry heavily in v o lv e d in the c o n fu sio n o f ev en ts in S o u th Russia. It seem s asto n ish in g to d a y th at the Allies still h o p e d th at th ey co u ld p ersu ad e th e R ussians back in to th e w ar. A fter th e debacle o f th e s u m m e r offensive th e R ussian A r m y h ad ceased to exist as a coh esive b o d y ; acco rd in g to G eneral K n o x it h ad been “ irre triev ­ ably r u in e d ” . A n d o n ce L enin seized p o w e r th ere w as n ev e r any q u e s tio n b u t th a t he w o u ld sue fo r peace w ith th e G e rm a n s o n a lm o s t any term s, fo r he n eeded peace in o rd e r to co nsolid ate B o lsh e v ik c o n tro l o v e r Russia. L enin h a d spelt it o u t in his Decree o f Peace in w h ic h he d e m a n d e d an im m e d ia te en d to W o rld W a r I o n “j u s t an d d em o c ratic peace t e r m s ” ; and o n N o v e m b e r 22nd, th e B o lsh ev ik g o v e r n m e n t o rd e re d th e tro o p s in th e fro n t line to fraternise w ith the G e rm a n s an d start tru ce talks w h e re v e r th ey could. G eneral D u k h o n in , C o m m a n d e r - in - C h i e f o f th e A rm y , w as to ld to o p en im m e d ia te n e g o tia tio n s w ith the G e rm an s. P o o r D u k h o n in . H e w as in an im p o ssib le situation. K e re n sk y h ad vanished, and D u k h o n in w as o n his o w n th o u g h still n o m in a lly in c o m m a n d o f m illions o f soldiers. E v e n tu a lly he refused to o b e y the o rd e r, o n ly to be rep laced o n M o s c o w ’s d irec tio n b y an ensig n called K ry le n k o w h o tu rn e d u p at a r m y h e a d q u a rte rs at M o g ile v w ith a b o d y g u a r d o f fifty R ed sailors. D u k h o n in w as seized and th en ly n ch e d b y his o w n soldiers, b ein g th r o w n in to th e air to lan d o n th eir b ay o n ets. It w as th u s th a t the R ussian soldiers celebrated th e decision to m a k e peace w ith th e G e rm an s. O n N o v e m b e r 24th, T r o ts k y to ld th e A rm y : “ Y o u r Soviet g o v e r n m e n t w ill n o t a llo w th e fo reig n b o u rg e o isie to w ield a club o v e r y o u r head an d d riv e y o u in to th e slau g h ter a g a in .” O n N o v e m b e r 29th, th e A llied E m bassies received a m essage fro m the B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t in fo rm in g th e m th at m ilitary o p eratio n s o n th e R u ssian fro n t h ad en d e d an d th at n eg o tiatio n s w ith the G e rm a n s w o u ld start o n D e c e m b e r 2nd. T h e fo llo w in g d ay Lenin and Stalin c o m b in e d to issue an appeal to the peo ple o f India to liqu id ate 36

Russia, 1914-1918 B ritish rule, “ o v e r th r o w these ro b b e rs and en slav ers” , an d u rg e d th e m to “ stru g g le fo r th e freed o m th at th e c o m in g o f Soviet p o w e r h a d g iv en th e eastern peoples o f R u ssia .” It w as a call to action h a rd ly likely to please the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t and fu rth e r w o rk e d to m a k e B ritish m o v e s in S o u th e rn Russia to d efend In d ia’s fro n ­ tiers seem b o th tim e ly and apposite. T h e n , o n D e c e m b e r 22nd, the G e rm a n an d B o lsh e v ik em issaries m e t at B re st-L ito v sk in the first p len a ry session o f th e peace talks w h ic h w e re finally to take R ussia o u t o f the w a r. E v e r since the failure o f G eneral B ru s ilo v ’s s u m m e r offensive th e Allies h ad d isreg a rd ed R ussia as a fu n c tio n in g m e m b e r o f th e w a r effort. A d d itio n a lly B ritish and A m e ric a n n ew sp a p ers h ad b e g u n to snipe at the R u ssian leaders. A n d w h e n th e h u m ilia tin g peace term s w e re ev en tu ally accepted b y Lenin o n M a rc h 3rd, 1918, the B o lsh e­ viks w e re a ttac k ed as traito rs in th e pay o f th e G erm an s. The Times h ad already re sp o n d e d to delegates at the Soviet C o n g re s s w h o had sp o k en o f “ the c o m in g w o rld re v o lu tio n ” w ith an ed ito rial a rg u in g th at “ the re m e d y for B o lsh e v ism is b u llets” . N o w th e N e w York Times ran stories a b o u t B o lsh ev ik treach ery u n d e r headlines reading: “ R ussians Sell O u t to th e G e rm a n s ” and “ B o lsh e v ik i Y ield R u ssia’s Riches to B e rlin ” . W in s to n C h u rch ill later s u m m e d u p B ritish feelings: “ E v e ry B ritish and F rench soldier killed last y e a r ,” he said in a speech at the C o n n a u g h t R o o m s o n A p ril n t h , 1919, “ w as really d o n e to d eath b y Lenin an d T ro ts k y , n o t in fair w a r, b u t b y the trea ch e ro u s d esertio n o f an ally w ith o u t parallel in th e h is to ry o f the w o r l d . ” H e later re tu rn e d to this th e m e in his b o o k The World Crisis. T h e G e rm a n s, he w ro te , “ h ad e m p lo y e d p o iso n gas o n the largest scale an d h ad in v e n te d the ‘Flammenwerfer (fla m e-th ro w e r). N e v e rth e ­ less it w as w ith a sense o f aw e th a t th e y tu rn e d u p o n R ussia th e m o s t grisly o f all w eap o n s. T h e y tra n s p o rte d Lenin in a sealed tru c k like a p lagu e bacillus fro m S w itz erla n d in to R u ssia .” C h u rc h ill and the Allies, h o w e v e r, w e re n o t the o n ly critics o f the T re a ty o f B rest-L ito v sk . Its te rm s w e re harsh: Russia su rre n d e re d P o la n d -L ith u an ia, C o u rla n d , R iga an d p art o f B elorussia to G e r­ m a n y . In the C aucasus, K ars, B a tu m and A rd a h an w e re ceded to T u rk e y . Russia also a c k n o w le d g e d the in d ep en d en ce o f the G e r­ m a n -p r o te c te d g o v e r n m e n t o f the U k ra in e. T h e loss o f this terri­ to ry a m o u n te d to 27% o f the s o w n area o f R ussia, 26% o f the p o p u la tio n - 46 m illio n p eople - 26% o f the railw ays and 75% o f th e iro n an d steel. In a d d itio n th e B o lshev iks agreed to pay three th o u s a n d m illion ro u b les in g o ld as reparations. So b ru tal w e re 37

“ Treacherous Desertion” these d e m a n d s th a t m a n y B o lsh ev ik s w e re in fa v o u r o f ta k in g up th e fig h t against G e rm a n y again and w a g in g a “ re v o lu tio n a ry w ar” . It w as L enin w h o b u llied and cajoled an d m a n o e u v re d th e m in to acceptin g th e term s, n o t because he w as a G e rm a n agent b u t because he k n e w th a t i f R ussia w e n t to w a r again th e B o lsh ev ik R e v o lu tio n w o u ld be finished; th e G e rm a n s cou ld n o t be sto p p ed . A n d to h im n o th in g m a tte re d ex cep t th e surv ival o f B o lsh e v ism . H e w as sure th a t as lo n g as it did su rv iv e, th e n w o rld re v o lu tio n w o u ld e v e n tu ­ ally fo llo w as sure as n ig h t fo llow s day. B u t th ere w e re few w ith his vision an d his faith. R ussia ap p eared to be o n th e p o in t o f d isin te g ratio n . T h e T s a r ’s e m p ire w as c r u m b ­ lin g w ith its p erip h e ral states claim ing ind epend ence; th e G e rm a n A r m y still m en a ced P e tro g ra d and M o s c o w ; th e T s a r w as still alive an d his su p p o rte rs w e re b u ild in g th eir forces; th e B o lshevik s w e re b y n o m ean s the s tro n g e s t p a rty in Russia an d th ey w e re riv en w ith dissension. T h e re w as h u n g e r in th e land, u n re st in the factories, m u tin y in th e forces. E v e ry d ay w as full o f dan ger. It w as n o w in th e sp rin g o f 1918 th a t th e Allies decided to in terv en e.

38

CH A PTER 3

Intervention by Invitation Murmansk, March-June 1918

B y th e en d o f 1917 th ere w as an aston ish ing n u m b e r o f fo reig n soldiers o n R u ssian soil, m e n ca u g h t u p in the restless tides o f w ar. A n a r m y o f C zech s m a rc h e d a b o u t the U k ra in e , h av in g been re cru ited as p riso n ers o f w ar. T h e y n o w tu rn e d against their erstw h ile m asters, th e A u s tro -H u n g a ria n s . Serbs tru d g e d n o rth fro m O d e ssa w h e re th ey had been stran d e d w h e n th e R ussians gave u p th e fight. B ritish agents, p ro fessin g Islam, spied t h r o u g h o u t C e n tra l Asia. A R o y al N a v y a rm o u r e d car sq u ad ro n , c o m m a n d e d b y th e d ash in g C o m m a n d e r O liv e r L o cker L am p so n , a C o n s e rv a ­ tive M e m b e r o f P arliam en t, h ad b een o p e ra tin g w ith skill and p an ach e o n th e Galician fro n t. A F ren ch M ilita ry M issio n w as m a k in g its w a y n o r th fro m R u m an ia, fo llo w in g th e defeat o f the R u m a n ia n A r m y b y the G e rm an s, an d a B ritish M ilita ry M ission serv ed in P e tro g ra d w h e re th ere w as also an A n g lo -R u ssia n h o sp i­ tal. A t sea, a s q u a d ro n o f B ritish w a rsh ip s based o n M u rm a n s k and A rc h an g e l patro lled th e far n o rth , w ith B ritish, Jap an ese and A m e r­ ican w a rsh ip s far to th e east at V lad iv o sto k . A n d a flotilla o f B ritish s u b m a rin e s o p e ra te d o u t o f R ussian bases in Finland. All these forces w o u ld ev en tu ally play th eir p art in the Allied in te rv e n tio n , b u t th e d istin c tio n o f ca rry in g o u t w h a t is generally re co g n ised as th e first o v e rt m ilitary act fell to 130 m e n o f th e R oyal M arin es.

O n M a rc h 6th, 1918 th ey d is e m b a rk e d fro m th e old battleship, H M S G lory, flagship o f the B ritish sq u a d ro n in the far n o rth , and m a rc h e d t h r o u g h th e d an k, cold, re fu se-stre w n streets o f M u r ­ m a n s k to a v e rm in o u s lo g -h u t p re v io u sly o ccupied b y R ussian sailors. T h e re , th ey set u p th eir g u n s and re m a in ed for th e n e x t few w eek s d o in g little else b u t clean u p th eir m a lo d o ro u s living q u a r­ ters. T h e y w e re p art o f an e x tra -s tro n g d eta c h m e n t o f 176 m e n plus th eir officers e m b a rk e d o n th e Glory specifically to quell any distu rb an c es w h ic h th re a te n e d th e safety o f th e stores and h a rb o u r at M u rm a n s k . In fact th e Glory w as ca rry in g so m a n y m arines th at 39

Intervention by Invitation

she h a d to d is e m b a rk s o m e o f h er seam en to m a k e r o o m fo r the so ldier-sailors k n o w n in the n a v y as “ T h e T u r k e y s ” . T h e lan d in g w as c o n sid ered so r o u tin e b y th e R o y al M arin es th at it is o n ly briefly m e n tio n e d in th eir official reco rds. B u t it is seen in th e S o viet U n io n as th e initial act o f a w o r ld w id e con spiracy b y the forces o f capitalism an d im p erialism to stran g le th e n e w b o rn C o m ­ m u n is t state. T h e fact th a t th e m arin es lan d ed w ith th e full ag ree­ m e n t o f th e local soviet, o r council, acting u n d e r th e express in stru c tio n s o f T r o ts k y in o rd e r to save th e p o rt falling in to th e h a n d s o f th e G e rm a n s is sim p ly re g ard e d as a n o th e r ex a m p le o f T r o t s k y ’s p erfidy. It h a p p e n e d th a t th e leader o f th e M u r m a n s k Soviet, a fo rm e r sailor called Y u re v , c o n v in c ed like ev e ry o n e else in M u rm a n s k th at a fifty th o u s a n d stro n g a rm y o f G e rm a n s an d W h ite Finns w as 40

Murmansk, M arch-June lg iS a b o u t to attack, teleg rap h ed T r o ts k y in P e tro g ra d ask in g fo r p e r­ m issio n to accept Allied help. T h is teleg ram arriv ed w h e n it seem ed th a t the B re s t-L ito v sk peace talks w e re b re ak in g d o w n an d th at the G e rm a n s w o u ld re su m e their m a rc h in to Russia. In these c irc u m ­ stances T r o ts k y teleg rap h ed back: “ . . . Y o u m u s t accept any and all assistance fr o m th e A llied m issions an d use ev e ry m eans to o b s tru c t th e adv an ce o f th e p lu n d ere rs . . . ” Ind eed the lan d in g w as m a rk e d b y an u n u su al c o u rte sy fro m th e m u tin o u s R ussian sailors w h o had taken o v e r th eir 11,000 to n b attlesh ip Chesma. As th e R o y al M arin es m a rc h e d in to barracks, th e Glory fired a salute to th e R ed Flag an d it w as a n sw e red b y the g u n s o f the Chesma - n a m e d after a R ussian naval v ic to ry w o n , th a n k s to B ritish help, o v er th e T u rk s in 1769. T h a t th e W h ite Finns (w h o u n d e r M arsh al M a n n e rh e im h ad fo u g h t an d w o n a th r e e -m o n th -lo n g civil w a r against the R ed Finns), w e re e q u ip p e d w ith G e rm a n u n ifo rm s and w e re th ere fo re m ista k en fo r G e rm a n s th u s g iv in g an ex a g g era ted p ictu re o f G e r­ m a n s tre n g th in Finland, is o f n o co nsequ ence in th e a rg u m e n t because th e d a n g e r w as perceived to be real. W ith th e R ussians o b v io u s ly u n ab le to defend th e p o rt in the anarchic situ atio n w h ic h prev ailed - th e B o lsh ev ik s w e re clingin g to p o w e r b y th eir fin g er­ nails and th e G e rm a n s w e re th re a te n in g to re su m e th e ir m arc h ea stw ard s - it w as seen b y B ritain and h er allies as im p e ra tiv e that th ey sh o u ld in te rv e n e to beat o f f th e th rea t to M u rm a n s k . Ironically, M u rm a n s k , w h ic h to d a y is the m ain base o f the Soviet N o r t h e r n Fleet o f s o m e six h u n d re d ships in clu d in g nuclear p o w e re d an d a rm e d su b m arin e s (som e o f w h ic h are targ e ted o n B ritain) w as b u ilt at the insistence o f th e B ritish w ith B ritish financial an d technical help. T h e Allies h ad to h ave such an ice-free p o rt in o rd e r to land the supplies n ee d ed to m ain tain R u ssia’s w a r effort. A rchan gel, the o n ly estab lish ed p o rt in N o r th - W e s t Russia n o t b lo ck a d ed b y th e G e rm a n s, w as o p e n fo r o n ly five m o n th s o f the year. T h e figures s h o w th e im p o rta n c e o f this n o rth e r n route: in 1916 m o re th an 600 ships, m o s t o f th e m B ritish, lan d ed a m illion ton s o f coal an d a m illio n a nd a h a lf tons o f w e a p o n s and fo o d for th e loss o f th irty -six ships to G e rm a n U -b o a ts . N e a rly five m illio n to ns o f w a r supplies w e re d eliv ered to R ussia b y the A rctic ro u te in the First W o rld W ar, o n e m illio n to n s m o re th an in the Second. A rc h an g e l cou ld n o t cope w ith this flood o f supplies in the s h o rt tim e it w as o p e n each year. N e ith e r the m en , the h a n d lin g facilities n o r th e railw ays w e re available, an d b y th e en d o f 1917 so m e 12,000 to n s o f explosives and 200,000 to n s o f o th e r m ilitary supplies for 41

Intervention by Invitation w h ic h th e arm ies w e re c ry in g o u t in F rance w e re ru stin g and ro ttin g in th e o p e n a ro u n d this post. W o r k o n b u ild in g M u r m a n s k o n the R iv er K ola w as starte d in S e p te m b e r 1915 o n th e site o f a r u n - d o w n fishing village re d o le n t w ith th e stench o f r o ttin g codsheads. It h ad th e so o n to be e m b a r­ rassing n a m e o f R o m a n o v and lay o n th e east b an k o f th e K ola u n d e r the side o f a hill a b o u t 600 feet high. K o re an an d C h in ese lab o u re rs w e re b r o u g h t in to d o the h ea v y w o r k and, as th ere w e re n o m eans o f c o m m u n ic a tio n ex cep t alo ng th e rivers and th r o u g h forest paths, a single trac k railw ay w as started across the 600 m iles o f pine forest an d m a rs h w h ic h separated this p rim itiv e fishing village fr o m the glories o f P e tro g ra d . It w as a task o f th e u tm o s t difficulty. N e ith e r the p o rt n o r railw ay w as finished u ntil th e e n d o f 1916, j u s t a few m o n th s b efore th e T sa r abd icated. T h e b u ild in g o f th e railw ay w as a d esp erate affair, the First W o rld W a r’s eq u iv a le n t o f th e B u r m a - S i a m R ailw ay in the second. T h e R ussians used G e rm a n priso n ers o f w a r to g o u g e th e railbed o u t o f the w ilderness and these half-starved m en, living in app alling c o n d itio n s, frozen in w in te r and p lagued b y clouds o f m o s q u ito e s in s u m m e r, w e re stru ck d o w n b y m a ln u tritio n , ty p h u s and cholera. So m a n y died th a t G e rm a n A r m y lore says th at th ere is a m a n b u rie d u n d e r each sleeper o f the line. O n c o m p le tio n it w as so c ru d e th at trains s w a y e d ala rm in g ly in the s u m m e r as the rails sank in to th e th a w in g m arsh . H u n d re d s o f w o o d e n b ridges sp an n e d s w ift rivers an d the trac k ro ller-co asted u p and d o w n steep inclines, b u t th e line w as effective and p ro v id e d the vital link fro m M u r ­ m a n s k to P e tro g ra d , fro m th e A rctic to th e th en capital o f Russia. A t the g ra n d o p e n in g c e re m o n y trains load ed w ith officials ste a m e d t h r o u g h triu m p h a n t arches. Allied officers w e re s h o w n the w o r k m e n ’s d w ellin g s, th e h osp ital an d th e n e w statio n b u ild in g s and th e y re m a rk e d h o w th e y w e re m o s tly b uilt o f logs w ith m oss r a m m e d in to the crevices to keep o u t th e w in d . B u t th o u g h th ere w as m u c h sp ee c h m a k in g n o b o d y referred to th e G e rm a n p riso n ers w h o h ad d ied d u rin g its co n stru c tio n . W ith its fine h a r b o u r M u rm a n s k served a n o th e r pu rp o se . It w as used as the base fo r a B ritish s q u a d ro n o f ships u n d e r the c o m m a n d o f R e a r-A d m ira l T h o m a s K e m p w h o s e task w as to k eep the sealanes free fro m G e rm a n U -b o a ts an d m inelayers. T h is w as p ro p e rly the R u ssia n s’ resp o n sib ility b u t th e y w e re either un ab le o r u n w illin g to d o th e j o b and so it fell to th e B ritish to u n d e rta k e m o s t o f th e a n ti-s u b m a rin e and m in e sw e e p in g patrols. K e m p u sed the K ola inlet w h e re th e riv er ran in to the B aren ts Sea in th e w in te rs b efo re M u rm a n s k w as built, leaving a large s ta ff 42

M urm ansk, M arch-]une 1918 frozen in at A rc h an g e l to h an d le th e stores lan d ed d u rin g th e s u m m e r. H o w e v e r, sim p ly b y b u ild in g M u rm a n s k th e Allies h ad created a n e w , even g ra v e r p ro b le m fo r them selves: i f th e G e rm a n s c o u ld succeed in ca p tu rin g the p o rt, th ey w o u ld h av e a ready m ad e U - b o a t base fr o m w h ic h th ey w o u ld h av e a free ru n o u t in to th e N o r t h A tlan tic p ast Iceland w ith o u t h av in g to ru n th e g a u n tle t in th e d ensely m in e d an d closely p a tro lled N o r t h Sea. T h e A m eric an s, helped b y the B ritish, h ad laid a b arrag e o f 70,000 m ines across the N o r t h Sea to b o ttle u p the U -b o a ts an d p re v e n t th e m fro m g ettin g a m o n g the tro o p s h ip s c a rry in g the fresh, eag er arm ies o f A m eric a o n w h ic h B ritain an d France, d ra in e d o f m e n and w e a ry o f w ar, w e re relyin g to defeat th e G e rm an s. B y c a p tu rin g M u rm a n s k th e G e rm a n s w o u ld h ave stretc h ed A llied naval resources to b re ak in g p oin t. A n d it w as th e naval b lo ck a d e w h ic h w as b rin g in g G e rm a n y to h er knees. T h e political and m ilitary con sequ ences o f th e K a ise r’s U -b o a ts sin k in g tro o p s h ip s full o f y o u n g A m eric an s h ea d in g fo r the b attle­ fields o f F rance w o u ld hav e been d isastrous an d it w as m ain ly for this reason th a t th e R oy al M arin es land ed at M u rm a n s k . E v en so, it w as o n ly a to k e n gesture, for in late F eb ru a ry A d m ira l K e m p had asked for 6,000 m e n to d efen d th e p o r t against th e th re a t o f attack fro m Finland. H is re q u est w as refused because ev ery m an w as n ee d ed fo r the W e ste rn F ro n t w h e re G eneral E rich L u d en d o rff, the G e rm a n q u a rte rm a s te r-g e n e ra l, w as p re p a rin g his critical series o f attacks d esig n ed to defeat B ritain an d France before the A m eric an s co u ld b rin g th eir full s tre n g th to bear. H e h ad m assed 62 divisions, 35 o f w h ic h he h a d been able to s w itc h fro m the E astern F ro n t w h e n R ussia o p te d o u t o f th e w ar. A t th e sam e tim e B ritain w as so s h o rt o f in fa n try m e n th at its a rm y divisions h ad been cut fro m 12 to 9 b attalio n s and th e tan k an d aircraft factories w e re b ein g raid ed for able b o d ie d m en . A n o th e r factor in B ritish th in k in g w as the k n o w le d g e th a t A d m ira l K e m p w as an excitable m an: p o ssibly his su p erio rs th o u g h t he w as g e ttin g a to u c h o v er-an x io u s. H o w e v e r, th e u n fo u n d e d re p o rts o f th o u san d s o f G e rm a n s p o u r­ in g across th e Finnish b o rd e r an d h ea d in g for M u rm a n s k caused su ch co n c ern a m o n g th e Allies th at plans w e re m a d e to use the C zec h forces re m a in in g in E u ro p e a n R ussia to defend th e n o rth e r n po rts. T h e A d m ira lty also d eta ch ed the cruiser Cochrane fro m the G ra n d Fleet, the F rench sent th e h ea v y cruiser Am iral A ube and the A m eric an s, w ith the reluctance w h ic h w as th e h a llm a rk o f th eir b e h a v io u r t h r o u g h o u t th e in te rv e n tio n , sent the cruiser O lym pia 43

Intervention by Invitation b u t n o t u n til A pril. T h e s e ships p ro v id e d m u c h needed s u p p o rt fo r K e m p w h o s e S q u a d ro n h a d s h ru n k to th e Glory an d eig h t traw le rs a rm e d w ith 1 2 -p o u n d e r g u n s an d c o n v e rte d in to m in esw ee p ers. K e m p also h ad his p erso n al steam yach t w h ic h had been giv en to th e Im p erial R ussian N a v y b y Sir G o rd o n B en n ett, the w e a lth y racing d riv er, an d w h ic h w as still m a n n e d b y R ussian sailors. M o o r e d n ear his ships w e re the Chesma, w h ic h w as n o w a g r o u n d an d u n s e a w o rth y , an d th e cruiser A skold w h ich , because o f h e r five tall slim funnels, w as k n o w n to th e B ritish N a v y as th e “ p acket o f W o o d b in e s ” . T h e A sko ld h ad led a cu rious existence. She h ad n a r r o w ly escaped th e Jap a n ese d e stru c tio n o f the R ussian fleet in 1905 an d th e n in 1915 th e T s a r sent h er to Gallipoli to take p a rt in w h a t he anticip ated w o u ld be a great Allied v icto ry . W h e n th at v ic to ry tu rn e d to ashes she sp en t nearly a year refitting in T o u lo n b efo re sailing to D e v o n p o r t in F eb ru a ry 1917 to co m p lete h er refit. T h e crew , su b v e rte d b y R ussian c o m m u n is ts living in exile in France, w e re ripe fo r m u tin y . W h e n the R e v o lu tio n b ro k e o u t th ey fo rm e d a s h ip ’s c o m m itte e and sent tw o delegates to call o n Ivan M aisk y , th e n o n e o f th e e m ig re leaders in L o n d o n . M aisk y , later S ov iet A m b a s s a d o r to B ritain , w as to recall his feelings in his b o o k Journey into the Past: “ I h a d been read ing and th in k in g so m u c h o f th e R u ssian R e v o lu tio n an d w as so p assion ately y ea rn in g to take m y p a rt in th e d istant, splendid events u n ro llin g in P e tro g ra d , in M o s c o w . . . so far aw a y . . . A n d n o w the R e v o lu tio n h ad s u d d e n ly c o m e to m e o n m y o w n d o o rste p , here in L o n d o n , and calling m e to service u n d e r the R ed flag. It w as so m e th in g o u t o f a fairy s t o r y . ” M a is k y to ld R a m sa y M a c D o n a ld a b o u t his callers and th e L ab o u r leader insisted o n g iv in g th e m lu n ch in th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s w h e re , p o sin g beside th e fram ed sentence o f death passed o n K in g C h arles, he declaim ed: “ W e h av e been a re v o lu tio n a ry n a tio n b efo re an d w e will be a re v o lu tio n a ry n a tio n again. ” M a is k y th en w e n t to D e v o n p o rt and sp en t th ree days o n the A skold w ith th e c rew endlessly d eb a tin g w h a t to do w ith th eir officers. M aisk y , fearful o f B ritish reactio n i f the crew m u tin ie d in a B ritish p o rt, p ersu ad ed th e m to sail fo r M u rm a n s k . O n c e there, th e captain w as tak en o n sh o re and shot. T h e o th e r officers w e re arrested. T h e Chesma's c rew m u tin ie d at the sam e tim e alo ng w ith th o se o f fo u r d estro y e rs and a n u m b e r o f m in esw ee p ers an d steam yachts. T h e b re a k d o w n in discipline w as co m p lete. O n c e th ey g o t rid o f th eir officers th e sailors sp en t th eir tim e h o ld in g political m ee tin g s. 44

M urm ansk, M arch-June 1918 L ie u ten a n t A u g u s tu s A g a r (w h o is to figu re fu rth e r in events) w as in M u r m a n s k o n H M S Iphigenia w h e n th e m u tin y b ro k e o ut. H e w as especially affected b y it because the A skold h ad been “ c h u m m y s h ip ” to H M S Hibernia w h e n he served in h e r at G alli­ poli. “ W e n e v e r ,” he w ro te “ saw any o f o u r o fficer friends a g a in .” B u t a lth o u g h ru st b lo o m e d o n th e R ussian w arsh ip s, as th e m u tin e e rs n eg le cted th eir up k eep , th e g un s - th e Chesma m o u n te d fo u r 12 -in ch an d tw e lv e 6-in ch an d th e Askold tw e lv e 6-in ch - co uld still be b r o u g h t in to action. A d d itio n ally th ere w e re nearly 2,000 sailors in M u rm a n s k , all o f th e m c o m m itte d to re v o lu tio n . O b v io u s ly th e y p re sen ted a th rea t to K e m p ’s m ea g re sq u ad ro n . G iv en this b a c k g ro u n d to th e lan d in g o f th e R oyal M arines it can h a rd ly be seen as th e o p e n in g m o v e o f a g reat conspiracy. B u t as the s to ry o f th e in te rv e n tio n u n fo ld s w e shall see h o w its ch aracter ch ang ed. W h a t began as a series o f self-con tain ed ex p e d itio n s th o u sa n d s o f m iles apart, each w ith its o w n aim s and d y n am ics, co n n e c te d o n ly b y th e o v e r-rid in g need to defeat G e rm a n y w o u ld tu rn in e x o ra b ly in to a cru sade again st B o lsh ev ism . Lenin, d riv en b y fear an d a m b itio n , m ad e th at cru sade inevitable. H is fear s te m m e d fro m G e rm a n th reats to re su m e th e w a r in R ussia i f he did n o t get rid o f th e A llied forces o p e ra tin g o n R ussian soil; and his a m b itio n lay in his d re a m o f w o rld re v o lu tio n an d th e d o w n fa ll o f capitalism . T h a t w as still to com e, h o w e v e r, and in the w eeks fo llo w in g the lan d in g o f th e m arin es th e M u rm a n s k Soviet, the R ed G u a rd s and A d m ira l K e m p ’s m e n c o n tin u e d to co-operate. In the m id d le o f A pril th e B ritish u n d e r to o k th eir first o p e ra tio n o f the in terv e n tio n . Far fro m b ein g an a ttack o n the B olsheviks, they w e n t in to action at th e re q u est o f th e M u rm a n s k Soviet, g o in g to the aid o f a p a rty o f R ed Finns w h o h ad been chased o v e r th e b o rd e r b y the W h ite Finns a nd w e re b ein g h arried alon g th e line o f the n o w c o m p le te d M u r m a n s k to P e tro g ra d railw ay. H M S Cochrane, w h ic h had sailed in to M u rm a n s k th e d ay after G lory's m arin es had m a rc h e d ashore, landed a p a rty o f its o w n m arin es w h o , rein fo rced b y m e m b e rs o f the F rench M ilita ry M is­ sion to R u m a n ia w h o h ad at last arriv ed at M u rm a n s k , set o u t by a rm o u r e d train fo r th e village o f K andalaksha. T h e ir w o o d -b u r n in g train puffed e ig h ty m iles th r o u g h th e pine forests w ith 3 -p o u n d e r can n o n s an d m a c h in e -g u n s p o k in g o u t o f the sides o f flat cars crenellated w ith sandb ag s like a castle o n w heels. B u t th o se a m o n g th e m w h o w e re sp oiling for a fig ht w e re disap p o in ted . H a v in g frig h te n ed o f f th e W h ite Finns w ith o u t any serious altercation, they g o t o n the train an d steam e d back to M u rm a n s k m arv e llin g at this vast, stran g e land and its even s tra n g e r people. F u rth er so u th d o w n 45

Intervention by Invitation th e ra ilw a y line th e W h ite Finns did cap tu re the to w n o f K e m b u t th e y w e re d riv e n o u t b y R ussian R ed G u ards. A co u p le o f w eeks later Cochrane's m arines w e re sent in to action again and this tim e th e y fired th eir g u n s in anger. T h ese shots w e re o f s o m e h isto rical im p o rta n c e because th e y w e re th e first fired in th e in te rv e n tio n and th e y w e re fired b y the B ritish in aid o f th e B o lshevik s. O n M a y 2nd, 1918, th e M u rm a n s k S oviet to ld A d m ira l K e m p th a t it h ad received re p o rts th at th e W h ite Finns, th en allied w ith the G e rm a n s, h ad reach ed P ech e n g a (the F innish P etsam o) w h ic h in th o se days w as a tin y fishing village re m a rk ab le o n ly fo r an im p o s in g m o n a s te ry . T h e re w e re n o w h a rv es, n o c o m m u n i­ cations, n o facilities, j u s t acres and acres o f m u d at lo w tide, b u t it w as feared th a t its lan d lo ck e d h a r b o u r could p ro v id e a base fro m w h ic h G e rm a n U -b o a ts c o u ld sail to attack Allied sh ip p in g in th e N o r t h A tlantic. In th o se terrib le days w h e n L u d e n d o r f f ’s arm ies w e re rain ing b lo w after b lo w o n th e reeling, ex hausted , B ritish and F ren ch arm ies o n th e W e ste rn F ro n t any n e w th re a t to th e allies, especially to th e tro o p s h ip s ta k in g fresh, eager A m e ric a n soldiers to France, a d d e d to th e m o u n tin g panic in Paris and L o n d o n . So A d m ira l K e m p readily agreed to send a force to tackle the W h ite Finns. H M S Cochrane re -e m b a rk e d h er m arin es and steam ed o f f to P ech en g a, th irty sea m iles aw ay. She lan ded fo rty m arin es u n d e r the c o m m a n d o f C a p ta in V. B r o w n o f th e R oy al M a rin e A rtillery , fo rty R ed G u a rd s, an d a h u n d re d B ritish seam en. T h e y re cru ited fifteen sy m p a th e tic locals w h o k n e w th e g ro u n d and e n g a g ed in a series o f brisk ru n n in g fights w ith th e W h ite Finns. Like m o s t Finns th e y p ro v e d to be skilful an d c o u rag eo u s sol­ diers. D re ssed in w h ite, th ey w e re a d m ira b ly cam o uflag ed and used skis to m o v e sw iftly o v e r the deep s n o w . In th e initial en c o u n ters th e y fo rced th e m arines to retreat. B u t o n M a y 6th a n o th e r th irty five m arines fr o m H M S Glory arriv ed w ith five L ew is guns; a n aval 12 -p o u n d e r w as also d ra g g e d o v er th e ice fro m th e Cochrane. B u t w h a t really g ave th e m arin es an a d v a n tag e w as th e F in n s’ use o f th e o n ly tele p h o n e line in th e district. T h e m arines p lu g g e d in and usin g o n e o f th eir local recruits as a tra n sla to r w e re able to learn the details o f th e ir o p p o n e n ts ’ plans. W h e n th e m arines w e n t in to actio n again o n M a y 8th, th ey w e re able to give a m u c h b e tte r acco u n t o f th em selv es and after m o re fig h tin g o n M a y 10th established th em selves w ith th eir h ea d ­ q u a rte rs in the m o n a s te ry fro m w h ic h th e y co n tro lled th e village and th e h a rb o u r, such as it w as. T w o days later th ey w e re able to 46

M urm ansk, M arch-June 1918 head o f f a d e te rm in e d attack b y o v e r 150 W h ite Finns. T h a t w as the last o f th e fig h tin g at P echenga. A m o n g the few B ritish casualties w as C a p ta in B ro w n , w h o w as w o u n d e d in th e sh o u ld e r and su b se q u e n tly a w a rd e d th e D S O . T h e im p o rta n c e o f these skirm ishes w as em p h a sise d b y the app earance o f a U - b o a t o f f th e coast n ear P ech en ga w h ic h p r o ­ ceeded to sink a n u m b e r o f sm all R ussian steam ers and N o rw e g ia n fishing boats. H o w e v e r, the U - b o a t d isapp eared an d the F innish th re a t to P ech e n g a w as re m o v e d b y the c o m in g th a w and the esta b lish m e n t o f a su bstantial g arriso n w h ic h in clu d ed s o m e 200 Serbs w h o h a d finally s tru g g le d th ro u g h to M u rm a n s k . M a n y o f th e m w e re u n fit b u t th e ad d itio n o f 200 riflem en w h o w e re g o o d soldiers w as a g reat b o n u s fo r K e m p . T h e y w ere, said o n e o f the m arin es, “ m o s t excellent fe llo w s” . In fact, th e th re a t fro m P ech en g a d id n o t m aterialise u n til tw e n ty th ree years later w h e n the G e rm a n s used it as th e base fo r th eir un successful d riv e o n M u rm a n s k d u rin g W o rld W a r II. T h e ir ob jectiv e th e n w as still w h a t h ad been feared in 1918: the c u ttin g o f the su p p ly lines b y w h ic h th e Allies w e re su stain ing R ussia an d the esta b lish m e n t o f a U - b o a t d en f ro m w h ic h the w o l f packs co uld sail against th e A llied c o n v o y s. All th e sam e this stran g e passage o f arm s in M a y 1918, co n d u c ted a r o u n d a m o n a s te ry in the re m o te sno w field s o f the n o rth e r n m o s t tip o f E u ro p e saw th e first shots, th e first m ed al and the first b lo o d s h e d in a p ro c essio n o f events w h ic h has still n o t been resolved to d ay . W hile C a p ta in B r o w n and his m e n w e re co n d u c tin g th eir sm all b u t significant battles, th e business o f rein fo rcin g M u rm a n s k had m o v e d in to to p gear. A R o y al M a rin e Field Force w as h u rrie d ly p u t to g e th e r u n d e r L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l R. C . P aterson , co nsistin g o f a field b a tte ry , a c o m p a n y o f th e R o y al M arin e L ight In fan try and a m a c h in e -g u n section. F o rm e d o n M a y 5th, it left E astn ey B arracks o n M a y 20th, e m b a rk e d o n the SS Porto at N e w c a stle an d arriv ed at M u r m a n s k o n M a y 29th. T h e field force to o k o v e r th e w o o d e n barracks p re v io u sly o cc u p ied b y th e m arines fro m Glory and w e re deep ly th a n k fu l th at th e y h ad d o n e such a th o ro u g h j o b o f attack ing th e lice a n d fleas. A d e ta c h m e n t o f R o yal E n gin eers h ad also arrived fo r “ d e m o litio n p u rp o s e s ” , p re s u m a b ly to b lo w u p th e p o rt i f the G e rm a n s arrived. O n M a y 23 rd the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t o rd e red the d espatch o f a sm all e x p e d itio n a ry force an d tra in in g m issio n to N o r t h Russia. T h e fo llo w in g d ay M a jo r-G e n e ra l Frederick P oole arriv ed in M u r 47

Intervention by Invitation m a n s k o n b o a rd th e A m e ric a n cruiser O lym pia w h ich h ad been A d m ira l D e w e y ’s flagship in the A m eric an -S p an ish w ar. P o o le h ad been sen t o u t u n d e r th e g uise o f “ B ritish M ilita ry R ep re sen tativ e in R u ssia” ; in fact he w as C o m m a n d e r - in - C h ie f o f Allied forces. A g u n n e r, a fine soldier w ith an enviable fig h tin g re co rd w h o h ad been c h ie f o f th e B ritish A rtillery M issio n w ith the R ussian A rm y , he k n e w A rc h an g e l - B ritish g u n s had been lan ded th ere - and he k n e w a b o u t th e R u ssian w in te r. H e seem ed in all respects to be ideal fo r th e j o b . B u t, alas, he w as a so ld ie r’s soldier, b lu ff an d fo rth rig h t, an d w h a t w as n ee d ed in N o r t h R ussia w as a politician w ith the m in d o f a M achiavelli. T h e m a n cho sen to lead th e ex p e d itio n a ry force w as a m u c h m o re su b tle character, M a jo r-G e n e ra l Sir C h arles M a y n a rd w h o h ad serv ed in B u rm a , S o u th A frica an d t h r o u g h o u t the G reat W ar. As he re c o u n ts in his b o o k , The M urmansk Venture, he w as re cru ited for th e j o b in ty pically B ritish style, bein g accosted b y an o ld frien d serv in g in the W a r O ffice w h ile he w as lu n ch in g at his club. H a v in g accepted th e j o b , M a y n a rd fo u n d h im s e lf in so m e diffi­ cu lty because he h ad been invalid ed h o m e fro m Salonika and a m ed ical b o a rd refused to pass h im as fit fo r active service. H e h a d to w a n g le his w a y past th e b o a rd w ith the aid o f a senior officer w h o insisted th a t he cou ld n o t d iv u lg e th e n a tu re o f his n e w a p p o in tm e n t b u t g u a ra n te e d th at it w o u ld be o f a p u re ly sed e n ta ry n ature. T h e b o a rd need n o t h ave been so fussy: w h e n M a y n a rd cam e to e x a m in e the m e n he w as to c o m m a n d he fo u n d th at n e a ily all o f th e m w e re un fit fo r active service. T h e y w e re either B2 (Base d u ty ab road ) o r B3 (S eden tary d u ty ab ro ad) and m o st h ad been w o u n d e d at least once. E v e ry fit m a n w as needed fo r the trenches in F rance to w ith s ta n d the G e rm a n offensive. M a y n a rd g o t o n ly th e rejects. H e w as to ld th at th e re w o u ld be 600 o f th e m and th at th e 400 R o y al M arin es, an d th e R o y al E n gin eers, Serbs an d French artillery alread y in M u rm a n s k w o u ld also co m e u n d e r his c o m m a n d . In ad d itio n th ere w o u ld be a m ilitary m issio n o f 570, m ain ly officers an d n o n -c o m m is s io n e d officers, w h o s e task w o u ld be to re -eq u ip and train th e 25,000 C zechs w h o w e re su p p o s e d ly m a k in g th eir w a y n o rth . M a y n a r d ’s e x p e d itio n a ry force set sail fro m N e w c a stle o n J u n e 16 th o n b o a rd th e heav ily cam ou flaged C ity o f Marseilles. It w as a re m a rk a b le vo yag e. A m o n g th e m e n w h o sailed th at d ay w as L ieutenant P eter C r a w fo rd , a re g u la r soldier in th e R oy al Scots w h o h ad been c o m m is s io n e d in th e field in France an d w as attached to the 48

M urm ansk, M arch-June 1918 M a c h in e G u n C o rp s . In his gra p h ic diary he tells h o w th ey set o u t o n J u n e 15th fro m th eir train in g cam p: A le x a n d ra D a y , w h ic h the tro o p s h ad been celebrating in g o o d style, left C o lc h e ste r a b o u t 9 p .m . M e n h ad alm o st w ith o u t e x c e p tio n flags attached to the en d o f th eir rifles. T h e b an d o f th e Q u e e n s R e g im e n t p layed us to the station via A b b e y Fields. H a d a g lo rio u s send off. C o lo n e l ‘T w o N o T r u m p s ’ in a v ery m e rry m o o d o r p erh ap s ‘j u s t nicely th a n k y o u ’. T h e train m o v e d o f f a b o u t an h o u r later, the b a n d p layed ‘A u ld Lang S y n e ’ and ‘Will Y e N o C o m e B ack A g a in ’ and a lth o u g h w e hav e at this tim e ex p e rien c ed nearly fo u r years o f w a r and th o u san d s o f m en m u st h av e left this station fo r v ario u s parts o f the E m p ire , the e n th u ­ siastic send o f f w h ic h w as g iven to these m en w as indeed w o r th y o f th e in h ab itan ts o f the C ity . . . T h e o n ly p ro b le m w as th at n o b o d y k n e w w h e re th ey w e re going . O n th e train to N e w c a s tle bets w e re stru ck o n their d estin atio n. T h e fav o u rites w e re V lad iv o sto k , A rch an g el and E g y p t. (V ladivo sto k an d E g y p t are o f co urse a b o u t eq u id istan t fro m A rchangel.) It was n o t u n til th e C ity o f Marseilles w as u n d e r w a y th at M a y n a rd called th e officers to g e th e r an d to ld th e m w h e re th ey w e re g o in g and w h y . C r a w f o r d w ro te : “ A t a b o u t 8.30 all officers atten d e d a lecture b y th e G O C o n the object and p art w e w e re to play in the E x p e d itio n , i.e. to p re v e n t th e B o sche fro m fo rm in g a su b m a rin e base at M u rm a n s k , to m ak e h im w ith d ra w tro o p s f ro m th e W estern F ro n t (w h e re w e w e re b ein g b ad ly hit) and send th e m to Finland. As m o s t p eo p le o n b o a rd h ad been to, and co m e back fro m a co n sid er­ able a m o u n t o f service in France, th e E x p e d itio n w as lo o k ed u p o n as b ein g a p ic n ic .” B u t th e fact th at it w as n o t g o in g to be so soo n b ec am e evident. T h e sto k ers o n th e C ity o f Marseilles, all Lascars, w e re s w e p t b y a fever w h ic h killed tw e n t y - t w o and left th e rest to o w e ak to stoke. V o lu n te e rs w e re called for fro m th e soldiers w h o w e re so taken w ith the n o v e lty o f the idea an d th e desire n o t to lo iter a ro u n d the N o r t h Sea as an easy targ e t fo r U -b o a ts th at th ere w e re m o re than e n o u g h v o lu n teers. T w o o f th e officers sharing C r a w f o r d ’s cabin w e re a m o n g th em : “ M ac k ie an d B est arran g e d to go d o w n and s to k e the fo llo w in g m o r n i n g , ” said C ra w fo rd , a d d in g cynically, “ guess o n e m o rn in g will be su ffic ie n t.” A n o th e r officer o n b o a rd , M a jo r A m b ro s e S tu rd y , later su g ­ gested th at b ecause th e Lascars w e re all M o sle m an d it w as the tim e o f an Islam ic p e rio d o f fasting b e tw e e n sunrise and sunset - R a m a ­ 49

Intervention by Invitation dan - the sto k ers su c c u m b e d because in th e h ig h n o rth e r n latitudes at th a t tim e o f year th e su n n e v e r set and th ere fo re th ey w e re u n ab le to eat o r d rin k . T h e t r u th w as th at th e Lascars w ere suffering fro m th at g re at killer o f 1918, th e Spanish Flu, w h ic h w as even tually to d o as m u c h d a m a g e to th e E x p e d itio n a ry Force as th e B o lsheviks. A lth o u g h it w o u ld in ev itab ly h ave reached Russia b y o th e r ro u tes, it w as th e tro o p s h ip s fro m B ritain w h ich first carried th e flu to the n o rth . C r a w f o r d played n o p a rt in th e sto k in g . H e had o th e r duties. B ecause several o f his V ickers g u ns h ad R ussian barrels he h ad to stretch the p ockets o f th e a m m u n itio n belts to take R ussian a m m u n itio n , a ted io u s j o b “ d a m n e d h a rd o n th e h a n d s ” . H e also h ad to set u p and m a n fo u r m a c h in e -g u n s in case o f s u b m a rin e attack. T w o d estro y e rs fussed a b o u t th e tro o p s h ip and the b o o m o f d e p th charges w as h ea rd in th e distance ind icatin g the presence o f at least o n e U -b o a t. M a jo r S tu rd y re p o rte d in his diary: “ T u e sd a y 18, 12 n o o n . S aw an d h ea rd s u b m a rin e su n k b y d e p th b o m b s o n p o rt b o w h o r i z o n .” T h e y sailed n o rth o n a calm sea in to th e A rctic C ircle w ith w hales p lay in g a b o u t th e m t h r o u g h o u t the endless day. T h e m e n stu d ied th e little R ussian phrase b o o k s th ey h ad been given, w ro te and ce n so red letters and atten d e d lectures an d concerts at w h ic h th ey listened to a R ussian officer, “ th e p ro u d p ossessor o f m a n y d e c o r­ a tio n s ” w h o sang R u ssian song s and a c co m p an ied h im s e lf o n th e piano. C r a w f o r d re m a in e d san g u in e a b o u t the expedition : “ I p e r­ so nally lo o k e d u p o n th e s tu n t as a g o o d chance c o m p a re d w ith w h a t w e h ad at th at tim e o n th e W e ste rn F r o n t .” H e w as u n d o u b te d ly co rrect. In th e fo u r m o n th s fo llo w in g the o p e n in g o f L u d e n d o r f f ’s ca m p aig n , th e Allies w e re to suffer n early o n e m illion casualties o n th e W e ste rn F ro n t. N e v erth ele ss, th ere w as h ard fig h tin g to be d o n e and C r a w f o r d h im s e lf w as to be aw a rd e d th e M ilita ry C ro ss fo r his p a rt in it. T h e y arriv ed o f f th e M u r m a n C o a st o n J u n e 22nd, “ an u g ly b a rre n surface, rising to several h u n d re d s o f feet w ith n o sign o f h a b ita tio n to b reak th e m o n o to n y o f the scene” , and pulled in to the h a r b o u r at m id n ig h t. “ A b o u t t w o h o u rs later, the alarm w as given and o n e n q u irin g th e cause it w as d isco v ered th at th ere w as a large b o d y o f R ussian civilians m a rc h in g to w a rd s th e q u ay an d s u p p o se d to be u n d e r arm s. T h is h o w e v e r p ro v e d to be incorrect. E v e r y b o d y w as im ­ m ed iate ly o rd e re d to stan d by. S ta ff officers ru sh e d o n deck w ith field glasses in all sorts o f dress, pyjam as, tro u sers, g u m b o o ts, s ta ff caps. M o u n te d an ex tra m a c h in e -g u n at b arrier o n q u ay b u t so o n 50

Murmansk, M arch-June 1918 a fte rw a rd s this p ro v e d to be a false alarm . It w as o n ly m e n re tu rn in g fro m a m e e tin g o f th e railw ay em p lo y ee s w h o I afte rw a rd s fo u n d o u t w o r k fo r th e Allies. T h in g s g rad u ally becam e n o rm a l . .

5i

C H A PTER 4

The Fighting Starts M urmansk-Archangel, June-A ugust 1918

N o r m a l w o u ld n o t be th e w o r d m o s t peop le w o u ld h av e chosen to describe the situ atio n at M u rm a n s k . B y th e tim e th e ex p e d itio n a ry force h ad lan d ed it h ad b e c o m e o b v io u s that, a lth o u g h the Allies m ig h t be locally w e lc o m e as in suran ce against attack b y the G e r­ m an s an d Finns, the B o lsh e v ik g o v e rn m e n t, u n d e r p ressure fro m th e G e rm a n s, w as d e te rm in e d to force th e m to leave. C o n s e q u e n tly M a jo r-G e n e ra l M a y n a rd h a d to face the p ro sp e ct o f attack b y th e B o lsh e v ik s as w ell as the G e rm a n s an d th e Finns. W ith the sm all force at his c o m m a n d - m a n y o f th e m sick - he h ad to co ver the rig h t flank o f the force fro m G e rm a n an d F inn infiltration fro m F inland an d sto p B o lsh e v ik re in fo rce m en ts c o m in g u p fro m the so u th . T o do this he h ad to p u sh sm all g ro u p s d o w n the railw ay line to K a n d alak sh a and K e m o n the W h ite Sea, at th e sam e tim e losing p art o f his force to G eneral P o o le ’s seab o rn e ex p e d itio n fro m M u r m a n s k to A rch ang el. T h e re the B o lshevik s h ad been b u sy re m o v in g the w a r stores su pplied b y the Allies, sendin g th e m s o u th w h e re, it w as feared, th ey w o u ld fall in to th e h and s o f the G e rm an s. A rc h an g e l h ad also been ch osen as the base for th e m ilitary m issio n to re train and re -eq u ip the C zechs to carry o n th e fig ht against G e rm a n y . H e k n e w th a t m o re tro o p s w o u ld be a rriv in g for, th ree w eeks p re v io u sly o n J u n e 2nd, the Allied S u p rem e W a r C o u n cil m ee tin g at V ersailles h ad decided o n a j o i n t in te rv e n tio n at th e n o rth e r n p o rts. T h e case for in te rv e n tio n w as arg u ed b y th e B ritish o n the g ro u n d s g iv en b y G eneral Sir H e n ry W ilson, C h ie f o f the Im perial G eneral Staff, th at it w as necessary to p re v e n t the transference o f fu rth e r e n e m y tro o p s fro m E ast to W est and to d en y the resources o f R ussia a n d Siberia to th e enem y . H is sub sid iary reasons w ere: the desire to retain access to all a n ti-G e rm a n elem ents in Russia; the c o u n te r-a c tio n o f G e rm a n a tte m p ts to reach possible su b m a rin e bases in th e N o r t h Sea; the p ro te c tio n o f Allied stores at the n o r th e r n p o rts and at V lad iv o sto k ; the utilisatio n an d p ro te c tio n o f th e C z e c h o -S lo v a k forces in Russia and Siberia; and finally the r e s to ra tio n o f Russia b y ec o n o m ic m easures. 52

M urm ansk-Archangel, J u n e -A u g u s t 1918 T h ese a rg u m e n ts w o n o v e r the re lu c tan t A m erican s w ith G eneral T a s k e r Bliss, th e U n ite d States re p resen tativ e telling the W ar C ou n cil: “ T h e P resid en t is in s y m p a th y w ith any practical m ilitary effo rt w h ic h can be m ad e at an d fro m M u rm a n s k an d A rch ang el, b u t such e fforts sh o u ld pro ceed , i f at all, u p o n th e sure sy m p a th y o f th e R ussian p eo p le and sh o u ld n o t have as the u ltim a te objects any re s to ra tio n o f th e ancient re g im e o r an y in terferen ce w ith the political lib e rty o f the R ussian p e o p le .” T his w as h a rd ly th e lan­ g u ag e o f an im p erialist p o w e r d e te rm in e d o n the o v e r th r o w o f th e B olsheviks. T h e W a r C o u n c il decided th at th e to tal force in th e n o rth sh o u ld be six to eig h t battalion s and th a t th e Inter-A llied S u p re m e C o m ­ m a n d w o u ld be e n tru s te d to th e B ritish w h o w e re also to be resp o n sib le fo r co -o rd in a tio n . “ N e g o tia tio n s w e re im m e d ia te ly set o n f o o t , ” re p o rte d W ilson, “ as a result o f w h ic h the A m ericans e v e n tu ally sup p lied th ree battalion s an d th ree co m p a n ie s o f en­ gineers. ” T h e F ren ch an d Italians agreed to send a b attalio n each and th e S erbian g o v e r n m e n t said th at its b attalio n w h ic h h ad m ad e its w a y to M u r m a n s k fro m O d e ssa co uld be retained as lo n g as it w as req uired . H o w e v e r, as W ilso n p o in te d o u t in his W ar O ffice re p o rt, “ S h o rt H is to ry o f E v en ts in Russia fro m N o v e m b e r 1917 - F eb ru a ry 1919” , the arrival o f these tro o p s w as m u c h delayed, and he c o m m e n te d bitterly: “ T h is tard iness c ra m p e d the w h o le ca m p aig n and h elp ed ro b it o f the ex p ected re s u lts .” F o r th e m o m e n t, M a y n a rd h a d to m ak e do w ith w h a t he had, and th a t w as n o t e n o u g h to be co m fo rtab le. In his diary P eter C r a w fo rd reco rd s his d isg u st at n o t b ein g n o m in a te d for th e A rch an g el ex p e d itio n . H e w as detailed to ov ersee the u n lo a d in g o f the cargo ship Asturian w h ic h h ad arriv ed w ith the fo rce’s supplies. H is o n ly co n so latio n w as the p ro m is e o f p ro m o tio n . T h e Asturian h ad sailed fro m E n g la n d in such a h u r r y th at she had n o t been load ed p ro p e rly an d the q u ay sid e so o n re sem b led a m ilitary ju n k - y a r d w ith e v e ry ­ th in g c o m in g o f f th e ship o u t o f o rd e r. T h e situ atio n w as n o t helped b y th e fact th a t o n ly C r a w f o r d an d o n e o th e r officer in th e M achine G u n sections re m a in ed o n th e ir feet. E v e ry b o d y else w as d o w n w ith the flu. A n o th e r Lascar h ad died and C r a w fo rd w as h im s e lf ru n n in g a fever. T h e sick m e n ad d e d to yet an o th e r o f the p ro b lem s, th e lack o f a c c o m m o d a tio n . M u rm a n s k w ith its lim ited su p p ly o f log h u ts and its su d d e n influx o f soldiers and refugees co uld n o t cope. T h e sick m e n w e re p u t in to tents o n the quay side and in disused b o x cars o n th e d o ck sid e railw ay. M a y n a rd had to use a ra ilw a y carriage as his h ea d q u arte rs. 53

T he Fighting Starts O n J u n e 27th C r a w f o r d received o rd ers to m o v e his m e n o u t o f the to w n : D a m n e d u n fo rtu n a te m o v e . M ean s sick will h ave a ro tte n tim e travellin g in o p e n tru ck s, q u ite w a rm . B ag g ag e to be lo aded up. Sick m e n m a d e h a lf c o m fo rta b le a m o n g s t kitbags. Left a b o u t 2 p .m ., arriv ed at th e ca m p at 4.30 p .m . (reckless speed, 3 versts, 2 m iles, in 23A ho u rs). T h e c a m p in g g r o u n d w as j u s t like so m a n y sand hills c o v e red w ith s h o rt h ea th er and abso lutely infested w ith m o s q u ito e s an d flies. U n lo a d e d all b agg age, m ain stores and placed b y the railw ay, sim p ly th r o w n o f f a n y h o w , as the E x p ress h ad to re tu rn im m e d iately . W ith the few fit m e n w e c o m m e n c e d to pitch tents, w h ic h a m o u n te d to o n e b ein g p u t u p o n each m o u n d . B y 8.30 w e h ad 50 tents up. H a d a m eal w h ic h consisted o f pressed m eat, tea, biscuits. Q u a rte rm a s te r-S e rg e a n t m u s t have m a d e a b lu n d e r for w h ic h he w as d u ly “ b lessed ” . M o s q u ito nets issued b y the R A M C b u t no m eans o f fixing th e m inside th e tents, so m o s t peo p le p eg g e d th e ir tents d o w n an d fixed th e n et o v e r th e d o o r, w h ic h ev e n tu ally p ro v e d v ery successful. C a p ta in H a rris o n R A M C w o rk e d a m o n g s t the sick m e n d ay an d n ig h t, w ith h a rd ly an y food. R eally w o n d e rfu l. Fixed u p a stretc h er o n tw o a m m u n itio n b ox es and tu rn e d in a b o u t m id n ig h t. O n th e n e x t d ay he reco rded : M o v e d s o m e o f th e tents to a b etter tactical p ositio n, as in fo r­ m a tio n h ad been received th at the B olos [the B ritish n ic k n a m e for th e B olsheviks] m a y a tte m p t to ru sh th e cam p. O n e section to q u a y for ad ditio nal p recautio ns. H o p e to give the B o lo a h e a rty recep tio n i f he does co m e along. All g u n s in beautiful w o rk in g o rd e r. A n o th e r day o n biscuits and bully, w h a t a ch ang e after th e excellent fo o d o n b o ard . N e v e r m in d , it is n o t to o b ad w h e n y o u k n o w y o u can get n o th in g better. All the officers collected in C r e g a n ’s ten t in th e ev en in g an d passed a w a y a few h o u rs assisted b y his Decca. T h a t sam e d ay G eneral M a y n a rd set o u t b y train to visit the isolated g arriso n s established to th e so u th at K an dalaksha and K e m . H o w e v e r, he fo u n d his train bein g m y s te rio u s ly held u p at Im ­ andra, s o m e fifty m iles n o rth o f K andalak sha, b y a station m aster w h o refused to g iv e th e m p erm issio n to go on. M a y n a rd solved th at p ro b le m b y p u ttin g a re v o lv e r to the statio n m a s te r’s head, fo rcin g 54

M urm ansk-Archangel, J u n e -A u g u s t 1918 h im to clear th e line an d th en setting o u t at full steam fo r K a n d alak ­ sha. H e arriv e d th ere to find a n o th e r train filled w ith R ed G u a rd s o n th eir w a y n o r th to t h r o w h im an d his m e n o u t o f M u rm a n s k . T h e B o lsh e v ik leaders in P e tro g ra d h ad learnt h o w w o e fu lly w e ak w e re th e forces lan d e d at M u rm a n s k - th e y h ad ex p ected several div i­ sions - an d g a th e re d to g e th e r a force to attack th e B ritish p ositions. L argely b y bluff, M a y n a rd co n v in c ed th e R ed G u a rd c o m m a n d e r th a t he s h o u ld stay in K an dalaksha u n d e r the n o n e to o friend ly care o f th e Serbs an d steam e d o f f to K e m w h ic h he fo u n d filled w ith tw o train lo ad s o f R ed G uard s. H o w e v e r, he h ad a g a rriso n o f so m e 500 m e n sta tio n e d th ere alo ng w ith an a rm o u re d train and a naval 12 -p o u n d e r w h ic h c o m m a n d e d th e railw ay b rid g e o v e r the river. T h u s he c o n v in c ed the R ussians th at th ey sh o u ld stay w h e re th ey w ere. M a y n a rd sp en t s o m e days in K e m stu d y in g th e lie o f the land and g e ttin g the feel o f th e political situation. H o w e v e r, o n his re tu rn to K an d alak sh a fro m K e m he received n ew s th at the R ed G u a rd s he h ad s to p p e d w e re o n ly the v a n g u a rd o f a sizeable force. H e th ere­ u p o n o rd e re d his tro o p s to d isa rm th e m , p u t th e m back o n their trains, a d e q u ately su p p ly th e m w ith ratio ns and send th e m o f f s o u th again, w ith th a t single 1 2 -p o u n d e r g u n p o in tin g d o w n the line to m a k e su re th e y did n o t re tu rn . So far his ex p lo its h ad read like s o m e th in g o u t o f a b o y ’s a d v e n tu re c o m ic and, as he p o in te d o u t w ith s o m e pride: “ W ith o u t a single life h a v in g b een lost, s o m e 700 to 800 o f th e advanced tro o p s o f w h a t w as in te n d e d to be an attackin g force h ad been t u rn e d b ack to th eir base m in u s m ac h in e -g u n s, rifles an d a m m u n i­ tion; an d an ad d itio n al 300 to 400 w h o had been q u a rte re d o n the railw ay , a lo n g m y line o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , h ad jo in e d t h e m . ” All v e ry satisfactory; b u t this o p e ra tio n d id m a rk th e tu rn in g p o in t in th e in te rv e n tio n . F ro m this m o m e n t o n R ussia w as n o lo n g e r an ally. She w as an en e m y . M a y n a rd realised th e im p li­ cations o f his action an d to o k th e n e x t step, on e w h ic h seem ed n o t o n ly sensible b u t w as also dictated b y m ilitary necessity: he o rd e re d th e co nfiscation o f all arm s a lo n g th e line to K e m . T h e cruiser Attentive sailed to K e m ’s p o rt to lend th e persu asion o f h er gu n s to th e action. T h e searches o f confiscation w e n t s m o o th ly in m o s t places. S ixty m ac h in e -g u n s, n early ten th o u s a n d rifles and a large a m o u n t o f a m m u n itio n w e re seized. B u t o n J u ly 5th th e local S oviet at K e m refused to co -o p erate. T h e S oviet w as d isb an d ed . S even o f its m e m b e rs w e re arrested an d its lead in g m e m b e rs , P resid en t M assorin , V ice-P resid en t K a m e n e v an d S ecretary Y e z h o v w e re sh o t dead. T h e exact cir55

The Fighting Starts cu m stan c es o f their d eaths h av e since been clo uded b y a m ix tu re o f p ro p a g a n d a and m ilitary secrecy. M a y n a rd h im s e lf has g iven th ree versions. In his b o o k he w as dism issive: “ A t K e m so m e sligh t o p p o s itio n w as o ffered and fig h tin g resulted in w h ic h o n e o r t w o R ed officials lost th eir liv e s .” B u t in a cable to the W ar O ffice he gave m o re detail: “ W hile th e B olsh evik s at K e m w e re bein g disarm e d , th ree p ro m in e n t citizens offered arm e d resistance w ith b o m b s and rev olv er, and d u rin g the stru g g le [they] w e re u n f o r tu ­ nately killed. W e h o ld a b o u t 100 B olsh ev iks w h o p lo tte d against the Allies o r the (M u rm a n s k ) Soviet d etained u n d e r g u a r d .” H e g ave yet m o re detail in a re p o rt to Poole: “ I o rd e re d the d isarm in g o f the R ed G u a rd s at K e m o n J u ly 2 and a search fo r arm s. D u rin g the search a h o u se w as en te red in w h ic h the local Soviet w as sitting. T h e m e m b e rs leapt to th eir feet. T w o o f th e m d re w o u t th eir re v o lv e rs and o n e fired o n th e Serbians w h o w e re ca rry in g o u t the search. A n o th e r th re w a b o m b w h ic h d id n o t explode. D u rin g the stru g g le w h ic h ensu ed th ree m e m b e rs w e re s h o t .” T h e B o lsh e v ik v ersio n w as s o m e w h a t different. T h e Archangel Pravda o f J u ly 17th accused th e Serbs o f leading th e three m e n o u t o f the t o w n w h e re “ a v olley w as fired at t h e m . ” Later, a Serb deserter w as p ro d u c e d w h o said th at after th ey h ad been arrested he h ad seen th e m bein g tak en to the beach and shot. T h e sh o o tin g s caused c o n stern atio n in A rch an g el w h e re th ere w as still an Allied presence, in clu d in g a train lo ad o f d ip lo m a tic refugees. A d m ira l K e m p w as in th e city w h e n the n ew s b ro k e . A c c o rd in g to the u n p u b lish e d m e m o ir o f D o u g la s Y o u n g , the B ritish C o n s u l in A rch an g el, as revealed b y A n d re w R o th ste in in his b o o k , When Britain Invaded Russia: The Consul who Rebelled, “ T h e S en ior N a v a l O fficer [K em p] seem ed to be as taken aback as I w as. H e im m e d ia te ly offered to take representativ es o f the A rc h an g e l S oviet across to K e m o n his y ac h t in o rd e r to m a k e an in v estig atio n . T h e in v ita tio n w as declined, th e S oviet re p rese n ta­ tives p re fe rrin g to g o o n th eir o w n ship. T h e tw o vessels left the fo llo w in g day . . . ” Y o u n g , w h o w as totally o p p o se d to the in te rv e n tio n , later w ro te h o w he had “ to ld the E x ec u tiv e C o m m itte e o f the Soviet th a t he en tire ly agreed w ith th eir d esc rip tio n o f it as an u n w a rra n ta b le o u t r a g e .” T h e A rc h an g e l rep resentativ es w e re trea ted w ith suspi­ cion w h e n th ey arrived in K e m , being k e p t o n b o a rd a train an d g u a rd e d b y Serbian soldiers. N o t u n n a tu ra lly th eir re p o rt, p u b ­ lished in A rch an g el o n Ju ly 24th, s u p p o rte d the charges levelled ag ain st M a y n a rd and his m en. It is unlik ely th a t the w h o le tru th o f th e in cid en t w ill ever be k n o w n n o w . 56

M urmansk-Archangel, J u n e -A u g u s t 1918 In the m e a n tim e M a y n a rd , still w ith Attentive g u a rd in g his sea flank, h ad p ressed o n d o w n the line and th ro w n th e B olsheviks o u t o f S o rok a, n early h alfw ay to P e tro g ra d fro m M u rm a n s k . Leaving b e h in d a g a rris o n o f Serbs, he steam e d back to M u rm a n s k well satisfied w ith his w o rk . M a y n a r d ’s actions w e re g o v e rn e d b y th e belief th at th e G e rm an s w e re b e c o m in g in creasin gly p o w e rfu l in Russia. U n d e r the term s o f th e “ B rea d T r e a t y ” , G e r m a n y ’s separate treaty w ith the U k ra in e , at least o n e m illion bushels o f grain w e re to go to G e rm a n y , in o rd e r to b reak th e A llied blockade; a forceful G e rm a n A m b a s s a d o r, C o u n t W ilh elm V o n M irb ac k , w as b eh av in g like a v ice ro y in M o s c o w , th re a te n in g m ilitary action i f th e R ussians did n o t t h r o w o u t th e Allies; an d th e G e rm a n A rm y w as consolidating th e te rrito ry it h ad o ccu p ied u n d e r th e T re a ty o f B rest-L ito v sk . Russia, v o w e d L u d en d o rff, w as to be bled until she w as “ forced to b in d h e rs e lf to G e r m a n y ” . M a y n a rd , h o w e v e r, did n o t in ten d to allo w th at to take place w h e re he w as in c o m m a n d . In th e face o f su ch m o m e n to u s events and w ith so m e tw o m illion R ussians already dead, th e killing o f th ree m e n in a m in o r inciden t in th e n o rth e r n w ild erness o f R ussia w o u ld seem to be o f little im p o rta n c e . M a y b e so. B u t it m a rk e d th e p o in t at w h ich the erstw h ile Allies b eg a n to s h o o t at o n e an o th e r, and it w as fro m such sm all, b itte r seeds th a t th e susp icio n an d h atred g re w in to th e great s tru g g le w h ic h so deeply rules o u r lives to day. In M u rm a n s k , th e Allies h ad celebrated A m e ric a ’s In dependence D a y , th e F o u rth o f Ju ly . T h e ships in the h a rb o u r had “ dressed o v e ra ll” w ith th eir flags m a k in g a b rav e sh o w against the dism al b a c k g ro u n d o f th e h a rb o u r. C r a w f o r d w as in vited to d in n er b y th e A m e ric a n m a rin e officers fro m the U S S Olympia. H e w as tired, h a v in g w o rk e d in th e h o ld o f the Asturian since five in th e m o rn in g . T h e d in n e r con sisted o f b u lly and biscuits and it w as served in a ra ilw a y w a g o n . N e v erth ele ss, he fo u n d the A m ericans “ quite a nice lo t o f fe llo w s” and h a d “ a jo lly e v e n in g ” . T h e y m e t again o n J u ly 12th w h e n fifty R o yal M arin es fro m H M S G lory, fifty A m e ric a n m arin es fro m th e O lym pia and fifty F ren ch m arines fro m th e Am iral Aube, s u p p o rte d b y C r a w f o r d ’s m a c h in e -g u n s, c a p tu re d th e R ussian cruiser Askold w h o se m u ti­ n o u s sailors h ad b e c o m e a cen tre o f resistance to the alliance b e tw e e n the M u rm a n s k Soviet and the e x p e d itio n a ry force. A c c o rd in g to the R o y al M a rin e s ’ records a m a jo r part o f the A skold's c re w w as inv eigled asho re - tantalisingly, th e records d o n o t say h o w - an d a b o a rd in g p a rty p u t the rest o f the s h ip ’s 57

T he Fighting Starts c o m p a n y u n d e r lock an d key. T h e b reech -b lo ck s and th e sights o f the c ru is e r’s tw e lv e six -in ch g u ns w e re re m o v e d . It w as all o v e r in tw o an d a h a lf h o u rs and after b ein g cleaned the ship w as c o m m is ­ sion ed as H M S Glory IV . C ra w fo rd , h o w e v e r, w ro te a s o m e w h a t d ifferen t ac co u n t o f the incident: A la rm s o u n d e d at 5 a.m . T u rn e d o u t v ery h u rrie d ly . W e t an d cold. M o u n te d o n e g u n o n th e sh o re an d o n e h alfw ay u p th e hill an d laid o n the Askold. T w o g uns to g o w ith the in fan try . [Lieutenant] G h e ik e to o k o v e r th e 2 g un s o n shore. D a m n e d d isap p o in ted , w e n t w ith th e in fan try an d to o k o v e r the 12 sto re h u ts an d c a p tu red t w o sentries o n the w a y , v ery a m u sin g . D u rin g th e raid w e collected 700 rifles, 12 B o ch e m ac h in e gun s, 15 s w o rd s and a colossal a m o u n t o f a m m u n itio n and fo o d supplies . . . In th e m e a n tim e th e g u n s u n d e r G h eike d id s o m e excellent sh o o tin g at s o m e o f the crew o f th e A sk o ld w h o w e re try in g to land. Sgt. B o w e n re p o rte d th a t th e team s w o rk e d sp lend idly , each m a n tak in g a tu rn as N o . 1. Felt fearfully d is a p p o in te d at m issin g such a splendid o p p o rtu n ity . O w i n g to th e rain and m ist, o n e o f th e g un s fixed o n a sm all m o to r b o a t w h ic h h ad been sent fr o m H M S Glory in w h ic h w as the A id e -d e C a m p to th e G eneral. I saw th e A D C later w h o said he h ad a v ery ex c itin g tim e, th e m o t o r b o a t b eing rid d led w ith bullets. T h e fo llo w in g d ay C r a w f o r d to o k tw o g un s to co v er the pier o n w h ic h th e crew o f the A skold w e re lined u p to be addressed b y G en eral Poole. H e sp o k e to th e m in his usual b lu ff m an n e r, offering th e m th e choice, eith er to stay and j o i n his forces o r to be p u t o n a train an d sent so u th . T h e sailors u n a n im o u s ly chose to j o i n th eir B o lsh e v ik co m rad es. O n J u ly 18th, th ey w e re g iv en tw o d a y s ’ ra tio n s an d sent o n th eir w ay. T h e d e p a rtu re o f th e A skold's crew eased th e secu rity p ro b le m in M u r m a n s k b u t it d id little to im p ro v e th e a c c o m m o d a tio n s h o rt­ age. U n til hostilities b ro k e o u t o n the railw ay B ritish an d o th e r refugees h ad been steadily m a k in g th eir w a y fro m all o v er R ussia in to this bleak arctic to w n . T h e y w e re business people, saw -m ill o w n e rs , in dustrialists, facto ry m an ag ers, a few “ aristo s” and a n u m b e r o f nannies. C r a w f o r d visited th e m an d w as appalled b y w h a t h e d iscov ered. O n th eir j o u r n e y n o rth M e n and w o m e n , m a rrie d an d single an d children all travelled in th e sam e tru ck , n o sanitary a rra n g e m e n ts m a d e o f any d escrip ­ tio n. T h e y slept o n b o ard s placed across th e tru ck , j u s t like

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M urm ansk-Archangel, J u n e -A u g u s t 1918 n a r r o w shelves, piling th e m u p in a c o rn er d u rin g the day, so th at th e y co u ld h ave as m u c h r o o m as possible. N o arra n g e m e n ts m a d e a b o u t h altin g stations w h e re o ne m ig h t get o u t fo r h o t w a t e r . . . T h e ir appearance w as pitiful to beho ld. T o m m ie s gave th e m a sh are o f th eir B ully B e e f and B iscuits fo r w h ic h th ey w e re ex tre m e ly grateful . . . T h e refugees w e re a c c o m m o d a te d in the ro u g h e s t p art o f the to w n . C r a w f o r d fo u n d ab o u t 150 p eop le o f b o th sexes and all ages in a h u t a b o u t 25 yards lo n g and 8 yards w id e, a p a rtitio n a b o u t 7 feet h ig h ru n n in g d o w n th e centre an d t w o ro w s o f w o o d e n shelves for beds, o n e ro w a b o u t 2 feet fro m th e g ro u n d an d a n o th e r ro w a b o u t 3 feet ab ov e that. F u rth e r efforts h ad been m ad e to su b d iv id e the beds t w o ’s and fo u r ’s and th e re b y afford a little privacy. T h is w as d o n e in so m e case b y piling u p box es, suitcases etc., b u t m o s tly a w o m a n ’s u n d e rs k irt an d coat o r perhaps a piece o f c o tto n m aterial sus­ p en d e d fro m a piece o f strin g. T h e sigh t o n e m et o n e n te rin g this h u t w as sim p ly a s to u n d in g an d y et I w as assured th at it w as lu x u ry c o m p a re d w ith w h a t th e y h ad experienced in M o s c o w an d o n the jo u r n e y . I v ery re lu c tan tly agreed to g o a few yards alo n g th e h u t th a t I m ig h t fully realise their conditions. H e re I w as c o n fro n te d w ith peo p le o f b o th sexes in the act o f u n d re ssin g in th e m o s t casual w a y , absolu tely indifferen t to the presence o f strang ers, let alone th e o th e r occup ants, yet in spite o f this u np leasantn ess ev e ry o n e ap p eared to be qu ite h a p p y in th eir n e w abo de, an d feeling co n fid en t th a t w h ilst th ey w e re in a place w h e re B ritish tro o p s w e re q u arte red , their trials an d difficulties m u s t su rely be at an en d . . . C r a w f o r d re co rd e d th a t o n e o f th e refugees w as the sister o f Sir E ric G ed des, the First L o rd o f th e A d m ira lty . G eddes h im s e lf h ad tu rn e d u p at M u r m a n s k o n a cruiser to insp ect the situation, b u t it seem s th a t he sailed fo r h o m e b efo re his sister arrived. W h a t an e x tra o rd in a ry place M u rm a n s k w as at th at time! T h is sm all t o w n o f 350 bu ild in g s, b u ilt o f fresh cut logs cu n n in g ly m o rtic e d b y skilful R ussian w o o d s m e n using o n ly axes, h ad been plan n e d in districts each o n e w ith its o w n function. B u t the R e v o lu tio n h ad o v e rta k e n the plann ers and it w as rapidly b e c o m in g an o v e r c ro w d e d slu m w ith n o p av ed streets an d little sanitation. O n e B ritish officer described it as h av in g the ap pearance “ o f a te m p o ra ry to w n , erected b y a c in e m a to g ra p h c o m p a n y for so m e 59

The Fighting Starts W ild W e ste rn d ra m a c o m p le te w ith its c o w b o y s and In d ia n s .” T h e actors w e re in fact soldiers fro m B ritain, A m erica, France, Serbia and P o lan d. T h e ships o f h a lf a d o zen navies s w u n g at an c h o r in the h a r b o u r w h e re supplies w e re being u n lo ad e d ro u n d the clock in the 24 h o u rs o f d ay lig h t. Finns a n d Karelians fro m the F in n is h -R u s s ia n b o rd e r ru b b e d sh o u ld ers w ith K o re an and C hin ese lab ourers. T h e re w e re refugees o f m a n y nation s, R ussians w h o h ad fled fro m th eir estates to escape th e B o lshev iks, T sarist officers h a p p y to serve as p riv a te soldiers u n d e r th e B ritish to strike back at the m u tin e e rs w h o h ad killed th eir fello w officers. T h e re w e re B ritish and F rench families w h o h ad en jo y e d th e re w ard s o f R ussia’s indu strial re v o l­ u tio n an d th o se w h o h ad k n o w n th e T s a r ’s c o u rt at its m o s t g litte rin g . A n d th ere w e re th e m e n w h o h ad c o m e to ru n th e to w n after the R e v o lu tio n and, because o f th eir alliance w ith the Allies, w e re n o w b ra n d e d as traito rs b y the B olsheviks, m en w h o k n e w th e y h ad to prevail o r die. T h e y w e re all t h r o w n to g e th e r in a great to w n o f B abel, w ith d ifferen t to n g u es, differen t objectives, different roles, b u t all sh ared th e sam e g ro w in g fear o f B olsh ev ism . N o d o u b t the n ew s o f the m u r d e r o f the T s a r and his fam ily at E k a te rin b u rg c o n firm ed th e m in th eir h o r r o r o f th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t. B u t the killing o f th e T s a r seem s to hav e m ad e little im p a c t o n the m e n o f th e e x p e d itio n a ry force. N e ith e r M a y n a rd n o r C ra w fo rd m e n tio n s it. P erhaps th e n ew s did n o t filter th r o u g h to th em . O r p erh aps th ey w e re to o bu sy. C r a w f o r d w as m a d e “ K in g o f R e s tik e n t” a village o n th e R iv er T u lo m a th irty m iles s o u th -w e s t o f M u rm a n s k so sm all th a t it did n o t ap pear o n th e m ap . H is task w as to act as a trip w ire i f the Finns m o v e d o n M u rm a n s k along th e riv er ro u te w h ic h led fro m the F innish b o rd e r. T o d o so he w as allo w ed to take o n e N C O and six m en . “ T h e task o f selecting these m e n ,” he w ro te , “ w as n o t an easy o n e fo r the c o m p a n y w as, w ith th e ex c ep tio n o f th e officers, o f lo w m edical ca teg ory, o n ly consid ered fit fo r h o m e duties. H a lf o f the sectio n h ad already b een used to replace th e sick m e n o f a n o th e r section and this left a b o u t 12 m e n to ch o o se fro m . T h e m en selected w o u ld in all p ro b a b ility hav e m a n y difficulties to o v erco m e, as th e riv er w as re p o rte d to be e x tre m e ly difficult to navigate. O u t o f the m e n selected, o n e had been w o u n d e d th ree tim es, th ree h ad been w o u n d e d tw ice and tw o , once. O n e o f these m e n had a son, a S ergean t, serv in g the R A F .” M a y n a rd w as b u sy securin g th e to w n and th e so u th and w e ste rn ap p ro ach e s to M u rm a n s k . H e w as also e n g a g ed in p lan n in g an aud aciou s d iv ersio n a ry attack to w a rd s A rc h an g e l w h o s e o cc u 60

M urm ansk-Archangel, J u n e -A u g u s t 1918 p a tio n h ad b e c o m e G eneral P o o le ’s first p rio rity . A rc h an g e l w as im p o r ta n t fo r a n u m b e r o f reasons. T h e Allied w a r m aterial w h ich h ad been s to re d th ere w as bein g sh ipp ed s o u th at th e rate o f 3,000 to n s a w e ek b y th e B olsheviks. It w as a lo n g -esta b lish ed seat o f reg ion al g o v e r n m e n t th a t h ad been fo u n d e d in 1583 after a p a rty o f E n g lish m e rc h a n ts h ad landed to trad e in tim b e r and furs. A n d its c o m m u n ic a tio n s b y railw ay to V o lo g d a and b y the R iv er D v in a to K otlas m a d e it a vital base for c o n n e ctin g w ith th e C zechs w h o w e re su p p o se d to be m a k in g th eir w a y n o rth , an d for reachin g s o u th into th e h ea rt o f Russia. B u t A rc h an g e l w as n o t like M u rm a n s k . It w as ru n b y a p ro B o lsh e v ik S oviet and heavily d efen d ed by R ed G u ard s. It w as also a difficult place to attack, lyin g tw e n ty -fiv e m iles up a n a r ro w channel th r o u g h th ick pine forest fro m w h ich h id d e n defenders c o u ld rake an y ships try in g to force a passage. In ad d itio n th ere w e re p e rm a n e n t b atteries m o u n te d o n M o d y u g s k i, an island fo rt g u a rd ­ in g th e e n tra n ce to the channel. P o o le w as n o t p re p are d to m o u n t an attack u n til he h ad sufficient forces. H e w as p erh ap s lu ck y th at the ice did n o t b re ak un til late this year and w as able to w a it fo r the arrival o f th e 21st F rench C o lo n ia l In fan try B attalio n co nsisting o f t w e n t y - t w o officers and 849 o th e r ranks w h ich lan ded at M u r ­ m a n s k o n J u ly 26th. It w as n o secret th at P o o le w as a b o u t to u n d e rta k e th e o c c u p atio n o f A rch an g el. It w as sim p ly a q u estio n o f w h e n he w o u ld arrive and i f th e B o lsh ev ik s w o u ld stan d an d fight. T h e city w as full o f his agents. S o m e w e re arrested and a few w e re shot. A C o m m a n d e r T h o m s o n o f the B ritish N a v a l M issio n arriv ed fro m P e tro g ra d and revealed h im s e lf to D o u g la s Y o u n g as a fo rm e r captain in the Im p erial N a v y w h o s e real n a m e w as G e o rg i C h ap lin . H e had served w ith the B ritish N a v y , ad m ire d the B ritish an d h ad been g iv en th e task o f o rg a n isin g a co u p d ’etat in A rch an g el to coincide w ith P o o le ’s lan ding . H e o u tra g e d Y o u n g w h e n he applied for a n e w p assp o rt to replace th e false o n e issued to h im b y the E m b a ssy in P e tro g ra d w h ic h he h ad lost. “ T h e am azing ind iscretio ns o f the a m a te u r R u ssian an d Allied c o n s p ira to rs ,” w ro te Y o u n g , “ p ro ­ claim ed a lm o st fro m th e h o u s e to p s w h a t w as in th e w i n d . ” C h a p lin h ad the B o lsh e v ik police sniffing at his heels b u t had p re p a re d his c o u p w ell e n o u g h . H o w e v e r, he n eed ed the m ilitary m u scle o f th e Allies to en su re his success and P o o le seem ed to be ta k in g a lto g e th e r to o lo n g to get his in vasio n force to g eth er. T h e re n o w to o k place th e cu riou s episode o f th e d ip lo m a ts. A t th e en d o f F eb ru ary , w ith th e G e rm a n s a p p a ren tly m a rc h in g on P e tro g ra d , the vario u s A llied em bassies had sh u t u p sh o p and left 61

T he Fighting Starts first fo r V o lo g d a, d u e east o f P e tro g ra d , and th en for the Finnish fro ntier. B u t o nce in F inland th e d ip lo m a ts, fro m th irteen assorted n atio n s, fo u n d them selv es ca u g h t up in the civil w a r b e tw e e n the R ed a n d W h ite Finns. M u c h to e v e ry b o d y else’s chagrin o n ly the B ritish g o t t h r o u g h an d ev e n tu ally arriv ed h o m e . T h e rest h ad to go back to V o lo g d a w h e re th ey stayed u n til J u ly 25th, living an u n c o m fo rta b le existence o n b o a rd th eir train p ark ed in a siding and q u arrellin g a m o n g th em selv es. T h e y th en g o t steam u p and c h u g ­ ged n o r th to A rc h an g e l, ap p a ren tly fearing th at th e B olsh ev iks w o u ld eith er h a n d th e m o v e r to the G e rm an s o r lock th e m u p in retaliatio n fo r the killings at K e m and the fo rth c o m in g invasio n at A rch an g el. T h e re w e re 132 d ip lo m a ts and a b o u t sev en ty B ritish and F rench citizens w h o had tacked them selv es o n to th e d ip lo m a tic party . O n c e in A rc h an g e l th ey im m e d ia te ly o p en e d n eg o tiatio n s w ith th e local S oviet to be sh ip p ed across th e W h ite Sea to K a n d a ­ laksha w h ic h w as n o w g a rriso n ed b y F rench artillerym en, Serbian in fan try , an d a few Finns all u n d e r B ritish c o m m a n d . T h e U n ite d States A m b a s s a d o r, D a v id Francis, a p o k e r p layin g b u sin e ssm a n w h o h ad arriv ed in P e tro g ra d w ith a n e g ro valet a n d a p o rta b le cu sp id o r, w as a leading m e m b e r o f th e party. H e later ex p lain ed to a Senate C o m m itte e w h y th ey w e re in such a h u r r y to leave th e c o m p a ra tiv e c o m fo r t o f A rchangel: “ W e h ad d e te rm in e d to leave for K an d alak sh a because th ere w as an a n ti-B o lsh ev ik r e v o lu tio n to be pu lled o f f at A rch an gel, and w e k n e w it, and w e d id n o t w a n t to be th ere w h e n it o ccu rred , an d th ey k n e w i t . ” T h e A rc h an g e l S oviet ag reed to let th e d ip lo m a ts have t w o sm all steam ers. It seem s th at th e y w e re j u s t as eager for the d ip lo m a ts to d e p a rt as th e d ip lo m a ts w e re to go. A m o n g the passengers w as Francis L indley w h o h ad been C o u n s e llo r at th e B ritish E m b a s s y in P e tro g ra d . It w as he w h o h a d sp irited the B ritish E m b assy g ro u p o u t o f Finland b u t he h ad re tu rn e d to Russia w ith the in te rv e n tio n forces as B rita in ’s “ C o -o rd in a tin g D ip lo m a tic A u th o r ity ” and h ad m a d e his w a y to V o lo g d a w ith the in te n tio n o f re su m in g d ip lo ­ m atic w o r k in M o s c o w . O n c e in V o lo g d a he realised th at the situ atio n h ad ch a n g ed so m u c h th at it w as pointless fo r h im to press o n to M o s c o w . T h u s he arriv ed in K an dalaksh a w ith the o th ers o n J u ly 30th. O n c e there, he h u rrie d to the telep h o n e to b ully G eneral P o o le in to ad v a n cin g the date for his invasion. In a re p o rt to the F o reig n S ecretary he claim ed to h av e told P o o le th at “ a rising h ad been a rra n g e d at A rc h an g e l to take place at 3 a.m . o n J u ly 31 and the A llied m ilitary officers acquainted w ith th e plan w e re ab solu tely c o n fid e n t th a t the t o w n w o u ld be in the h an d s o f o u r friend? 62

M urm ansk-Archangel, J u n e -A u g u s t 1918 w ith o u t b lo o d s h e d , and in the cou rse o f a few h o u rs after the first m o v e h ad b een m ad e. T h is m o v e h ad already been p o s tp o n e d several tim es; a n d th e result w as th a t m a n y p eople c o n n e cted w ith it h a d been arrested b y th e B o lsh eviks, and n o t a few shot. It w as im p o ssib le fo r this to c o n tin u e .” P o o le at first d e m u rre d , saying th at e v e ry th in g h ad been arra n g e d fo r th e o p e ra tio n to take place o n A u g u s t 6th, and it w as a b so lu tely im p o ssib le fo r h im to ad vance it. L indley th e n co n su lted w ith th e sen io r A llied d ip lo m a ts an d th ey felt th e m a tte r could tu rn o u t so d isastro u sly th e y agreed to leave fo r M u rm a n s k th at n ig h t to b rin g th eir c o m b in e d p ressure to b ear o n Poole. H o w e v e r, later that a fte rn o o n P o o le sent a n o th e r m essage, saying th at in the lig h t o f L in d le y ’s in fo rm a tio n he h ad re co n sid ered the situ atio n an d w as p ro p o s in g to set o u t fo r A rc h an g e l im m e d ia te ly w ith all the m e n he c o u ld m u ste r. P o o le w as e v e n tu ally able to scrape to g e th e r a force o f j u s t u n d e r 1, $00 m en , c o m p ris e d o f the officers and m e n o f his m i s s i o n m a n y o f th e m specialists ra th e r th an in fa n try m e n - th e F rench battalio n , s o m e Poles w h o h ad been recru ited in M u rm a n s k , a d e ta c h m e n t o f U n ite d States M arin e s fro m the O lym pia, a b o u t on e h u n d re d R o y al M arin e s and a section o f the m a c h in e -g u n co m p a n y . T h e m arin e s an d m a c h in e -g u n n e rs w e re p art o f M a y n a r d ’s little a r m y and he re sen ted h a v in g to give th e m up to Poole. T h e y all set sail fr o m M u r m a n s k in th e e v e r-b u sy Attentive w h ich had b een sc o u tin g th e entra n ce to th e channel leading to A rch ang el, th e seaplane carrier H M S Nairana, th e F rench cruiser Am iral A u b e, an d th e fleet o f m in e sw e e p e r-tra w le rs . A d m ira l K e m p ’s yacht and t w o fo r m e r R ussian d estro y e rs n o w m a n n e d b y R oy al N a v y crew s w e re also in v o lv ed . F o g an d skilful n a v ig a tio n b y Attentive u n d e r C a p ta in A lth a m saw th e fleet safely in to th e m o u th o f th e D v in a o n the m o rn in g o f A u g u s t 1st. T h e y w e re th en seen b y the batteries o n M o d y u g s k i w h ic h o p e n e d fire, h ittin g th e Attentive in the f o rw a rd funnel. I f the shell h a d b een a few feet lo w e r it w o u ld have w re c k e d th e c ru ise r’s b rid g e. B u t th a t w as th e B o lsh e v ik s ’ o n ly success. U n d e r the w e ig h t o f fire fro m the a rm a d a th e y fled fro m their gu n s an d in w h a t w as p o ssib ly th e w o r l d ’s first fully c o m b in e d o p eratio n , the ships, Fairey C a m p a n ia seaplanes fr o m the Nairana, an d B ritish and F rench soldiers jo in e d to g e th e r to clear the island o f B olsheviks. T h e o n ly casualties w e re tw o w o u n d e d F rench soldiers. T h e fleet th e n sailed o n u p th e channel w ith o n e o f Nairana's seaplanes sc o u tin g fo r o p p o sitio n . A c co rd in g to Y o u n g it w as w h e n this aircraft flew o v e r A rc h an g e l th at panic set in a m o n g the 63

T he Fighting Starts B o lsh e v ik leaders. In th e w o rd s o f P o o le ’s su b seq u e n t desp a tc h to the W a r O ffice: “ D u rin g the n ig h t the B o lshev ik g o v e r n m e n t decided to ev acu ate th e to w n , after h av in g o rd e re d tw o icebreakers to be su n k in the fa irw ay to blo ck th e passage u p the channel. O n A u g u s t 2 nd th e re v o lu tio n p lan n ed b y o u r s u p p o rte rs b ro k e o u t at 4 a .m ., an d w as co m p le te ly successful. T h e B olsh ev ik G o v e rn m e n t w as o v e r th r o w n . T h e n e w G o v e rn m e n t cordially in v ited o u r aid, and declared itself p ro -A lly , a n ti-G e rm a n and d e te rm in e d n o t to recog nise the B re s t-L ito v s k treaty. A fte r so m e delay caused b y e x p lo rin g a passage b e tw e e n the su n k en icebreakers, w e w e re fo rtu n a te e n o u g h to find th at th ere w as j u s t sufficient r o o m to allo w a passage fo r th e ships. W e th en m ad e a triu m p h a l procession u p th e channel to A rc h an g e l b ein g g re eted e v e ry w h e re w ith e n o r m o u s e n th u s ia s m .” N o t e v e ry b o d y w as as pleased as Poole. It w as n o te d th a t the ch eerin g c ro w d s con sisted en tirely o f the b o u rg e o isie and th at th ere w as n o t a w o r k m a n to be seen. A n d b o th Y o u n g and L indley p o in te d o u t fro m th eir o p p o s in g sides o f the fence th at C h a p lin ’s c o u p d id n o t take place u n til after P o o le ’s s h o w o f force h ad frig h te n e d o f f th e B olsheviks. Y o u n g , w h o had a rg u ed so v eh e­ m e n tly against in te rv e n tio n , re tu rn e d to E n g la n d w ith in a fo rt­ n ig h t, his health an d career in tatters. L indley b ec am e B ritish H ig h C o m m is s io n e r in A rchan gel. C h a p lin assu m ed the title o f C o m ­ m a n d e r o f th e A rm e d Forces o f the S u p re m e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e N o r t h e r n R egio n. Political p o w e r w as giv en to a R ig h t SocialR e v o lu tio n a ry g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r N ik o lai T c h a ik o v s k y , a re­ sp ected fo r m e r m e m b e r o f the C o n s titu e n t A ssem bly . P o o le p ro c la im e d m artial law , re in tro d u c e d c o u rts m artial and the d eath p en a lty fo r sedition, a b ro g a te d v ario us B olshevik edicts g iv in g p o w e r to th e w o rk e rs , and pro c eed e d to ru n A rch an g el as an o cc u p ied city. W h ile all this h ad been tak in g place at A rc h an g e l itself, C o lo n e l C . J. M . T h o rn h ill, a fluent R ussian speaker w h o had been B rita in ’s c h ie f o f m ilitary intelligence in T sarist R ussia u n d e r th e guise o f A ssistan t M ilita ry A ttache, led a raid fro m K e m w ith th e aim o f c u ttin g th e A r c h a n g e l- V o lo g d a R ailw ay at O b o z e rs k a y a an d cap­ tu rin g leading B olshevik s fleeing fro m A rchan gel. H e g a th e re d e ig h ty -n in e officers an d m en , a m o n g th e m fo rty seven o f th e u b iq u ito u s Serbs, six T sarist officers n o w serv in g as priv ates in th e S lav o -B ritish Legion, tw o peasants w h o jo in e d as recru its and several B ritish officers and N C O s . J u s t w h e n the ra id in g p a rty w as a b o u t to m o v e o f f a sca rec ro w o f a m an appeared. H e w as C a p ta in D e n y s G arstin o f the io th H u ssars w h o in M arch , 64

M urm ansk-A rchangel, J u n e -A u g u s t 1918 w h e n it w as still t h o u g h t th at the n e w Russia w o u ld figh t alongside the Allies, w as B rita in ’s rep resentativ e o n a c o m m itte e o f Allied officers adv isin g T r o ts k y o n the train in g o f the n e w R ed A rm y . H e th e n w o rk e d w ith R o b e rt B ru ce L o ck h a rt, B ritish re p resen tativ e and ag en t in M o s c o w , at variou s nefarious exercises before being o rd e re d to j o i n G eneral Poole. L o ck h a rt w ro te o f h im : “ H e h ad to leave clan destinely o w in g to th e difficulty in securin g a B olsh ev ik pass fo r h im . H e w e n t w ith a sad heart . . . ” G a rstin p ro c eed e d to w alk m o st o f the w a y to K e m fro m P e tro g ra d an d arriv ed th ere fam ished, w ith his u n ifo rm in tatters. B u t he insisted o n jo in in g the raid. T h e Times Special C o r re s p o n ­ d e n t d esc rib in g the events w h ic h fo llo w ed w rote: T h e p a rty e m b a rk e d o n the Michael Archangel, a b o a t b elo n g in g to th e m o n k s o f S olo vetsky , and w e re a c co m p an ied b y the tra w le r Sarpedon. In the b ay the flag w as taken d o w n and the red o n e o f re v o lu tio n hoisted. O n b o a rd th e m o n k s ’ b o a t th ere w as su spicion o f the R ussian pilot. C o lo n e l T h o rn h ill, w h o speaks R ussian like a native, n ev e r left the m a n ’s side; i f th ere w as to be trea ch e ry th e pilo t w o u ld be th e first to pay th e price. O n e g a w as reached, and h ere th e real d ra m a began. T h e to w n w as in th e h an d s o f th e B olshevists. T h e b o at m ad e fast to the pier; o n sh ore, a B o lsh ev ist g u a rd o f three o r fo u r m e n aw aited her. T h e C o lo n el, disgu ised as a R ussian soldier, o rd e re d th e w h o le o f his p a rty to stay b elo w , and, leaning carelessly o v e r the rail, a n s w e re d th e qu estio n s o f th e gu ard. W as this the M o n k s ’ b o a t b rin g in g food? It w as. T h e y lau g h e d and je ste d , the C o lo n el step p ed back in to th e alley w ay, d ro p p e d his disguise, and, in the u n ifo rm o f a B ritish S ta ff O fficer, leaped ashore. T h e attack w as so s u d d en th a t th e g u a rd lost its head. O n e lu n g e d at T h o rn h ill w ith his b a y o n e t, b u t th e C o lo n e l p arried the b lo w w ith his arm and sh o t th e m a n t h r o u g h the head. A ro u s e d b y the firing, th e p a rty b e lo w deck d iso b ey ed o rd e rs and cam e up. T h e C o lo n e l w as en gag ed, sin g le-hand ed, w ith th ree B olshevists. O n e o f th e m raised his rifle and fired, b u t an ex -R u ssian O fficer, O lu c h a k o v leaped b e tw e e n T h o rn h ill and th e rifle; he to o k the b ullet in th e arm . Q u ick ly , th e gallant little p a rty fo rm e d its plan o f cam p aig n ; o ne o r tw o o f th e g u a rd h ad escaped to give th e alarm , an d b y six a.m . street fig h tin g w as in p ro g ress an d m a c h in e -g u n s w e re rattling. F o u r cardinal p oin ts w e re selected b y T h o rn h ill an d b y 11 a.m . resistance w as over. T h e re h ad b een a force o f 90 B olsh ev ists in the to w n u n d e r the lead ership o f P o poff, an ex-sailor. O u r losses w e re o ne killed and 65

T he Fighting Starts o n e w o u n d e d ; th e B o lshevists lost o n e killed and tw o w o u n d e d . T h o r n h i l l ’s p a rty to o k 60 p rison ers, th ree m ac h in e -g u n s, 300 rifles an d a large q u a n tity o f a m m u n itio n . P o p o f f escaped. In th e to w n th ere w as m u c h ju b ila tio n a m o n g the inh ab itants. S eventeen Poles w e re released fro m p riso n w h e re th e y w e re a w a itin g ex e c u tio n an d th ey jo in e d the exp ed ition . A t 2 p .m . th e in h ab itan ts g a th e re d in th e square and C o lo n el T h o rn h ill ex ­ plained the situ atio n an d reassured th em . T h a t w as the w a y T he Times re p o rte d in th o se days. T h e p a rty pressed on. T e n m o re Poles jo in e d . T h e y raised six ty h orses and carts w ith p easant w o m e n as drivers. T h e y s h o t a B o lsh e v ik w h o h ad confessed to killing a Polish lieuten an t o n his w a y to j o i n Poole. A t K o relskay a th ey w e re able to te lep h o n e A rc h an g e l to learn th at the ex p e d itio n h ad n o t yet landed. T h e y fo u g h t th eir w a y o u t o f an a m b u s h in a forest, th en after m a rc h in g all n ig h t clashed w ith a force o f 3 50 B olsheviks and f o u g h t th e m for six h o u rs. T h e y killed ten and lost five o f th eir o w n n u m b e r. S o on after this fig h t th e scou ts learnt th a t a force o f so m e 2,000 B o lsh e­ viks w ith field artillery h ad en tre n ch e d th em selv es across the ra id in g p a r ty ’s ro u te. T h o rn h ill decided th at e n o u g h w as e n o u g h . T h e y n o w h ad n o chance o f cu ttin g th e railw ay line, b u t th e y h ad succeeded in d iv e rtin g a m a jo r force o f B o lsh e v ik soldiers fro m the defence o f A rch an g el. So th ey re tu rn e d to O n e g a , b u rn in g brid ges as th e y w e n t, b o a rd e d th e ship Kolo and a rriv ed back at K e m safely. T h o r n h i l l ’s ex p e d itio n h ad lasted fo r tw e n ty days an d b e tw e e n A u g u s t 1st an d A u g u s t 6th th ey h ad m a rc h e d so m e 140 miles. T h o rn h ill w o n a b a r to his D S O and G a rstin w as a w a rd e d th e M C . B u t he n e v e r lived to receive it. H e m a d e his w a y to A rc h an g e l an d o n A u g u s t 20th to o k p a rt in a n o th e r action, o n ly to be killed after c a p tu rin g an a rm o u r e d car single h and ed . P h o to g ra p h s s h o w h im as a big, la u g h in g y o u n g m a n m o u n te d o n a s h ag g y p o n y . H e w as o n e o f the v e ry first B ritish soldiers to fall in th e in terv e n tio n . B ru ce L o c k h a rt w ro te o f him : “ P o o r D e n y s G arstin , w h o h ad w o rk e d w ith all his b o y ish en th u siasm fo r an u n d e rs ta n d in g w ith th e B o lsh ev ik s w as tak e n fro m m e b y the W a r O ffice and sent to A rc h an g e l w h e re he fell v ictim to a B o lsh e v ik bullet. ” T h e iro n y o f G a rs tin ’s d eath is th a t w h ile he w as w o rk in g w ith B ruce L o ck h a rt it w as he w h o h ad p ro p o s e d th e plan fo r B ritain to land tro o p s at A rc h an g e l to link u p w ith o th e r forces ad v a n cin g fro m Siberia and so fo r m a n e w E aste rn F ro n t against th e G e rm an s. B u t his plan had called for t w o divisions o f fig h tin g tro o p s, n o t a m ere 1,500 m e n o f d o u b tfu l quality. 66

CH A PTER 5

Siberian Scenario Vladivostok, December igi7~July 1918

V lad iv o sto k , th e “ L o rd o f th e E a s t” , w as n o t settled until i86 0 and o n ly C h a rte re d tw e n ty years later, b u t in 1905 the loss o f ice-free P o rt A r th u r in R u ssia’s w a r w ith Jap a n and th e c o m p le tio n o f the T ra n s -S ib e ria n R ailw ay c o m b in e d to tra n sfo rm it in to R u ssia’s m ain m ilita ry and naval base in th e East. So, w h e n W o rld W ar I starte d it b ec am e th e n atural d e stin atio n for supplies c o m in g across the Pacific fro m V a n co u v er, San Francisco and Los A ngeles. T h is tim e th e R ussians and th e Jap an ese w e re o n th e sam e side and once th e Jap a n ese h ad m o p p e d u p th e G e rm a n base at T s in g ta o in C h in a an d the A u stra lia n cruiser Sydney h ad ac co u n ted for th e G e rm a n c o m m e rc e raider Emden th e w a y w as o p en for th e su p p ly ships. Like A rc h an g e l and, later, M u rm a n s k V lad iv o sto k b ec am e a funnel fo r the arm s an d ra w m aterials destin ed fo r R u ssia’s factories and soldiers. Ship after ship steam e d in to th e natu ral a m p h ith e a tre o f its h a r b o u r o n the p eninsula b e tw e e n the B ay o f A m u r an d the B ay o f th e G o ld e n H o rn . T h e re , th e y q u eu e d to u n lo a d th eir cargoes o f g u n s an d a m m u n itio n , chem icals, m etals, fo od , and, m o s t crucial, th e e q u ip m e n t to keep th e railw ays ru n n in g . T h e T ra n s-S ib e rian , the lo n g est railw ay in th e w o rld , w as a m o m e n to u s ac h iev em en t. It to o k ten years fro m the tim e that N ich o la s, th en T sarev ich , d ro v e in th e first spike at V la d iv o sto k in 1891 un til th e link w as m a d e b e tw e e n E ast and W est, th u s lin k in g the Baltic an d th e Pacific coasts. E v en th en th ere w as a section at Lake B aikal w h e re ferries h ad to be used, a p ro b le m w h ic h w as n o t solv ed u n til 1905 w h e n a n e w section o f line w as o p e n e d r o u n d the s o u th e rn sh o re o f th e lake. T h e geniu s b e h in d the c o n s tru c tio n o f th e railw ay w as C o u n t Sergei W itte, th e m a n w h o d id so m u c h to b rin g a b o u t the industrial re v o lu tio n in Russia. B u t he w as bedevilled b y th e intrig ues o f je a lo u s rivals and w as fo rced to build his great en terp rise o n a sh o estrin g . H e co u ld o n ly affo rd to b u ild a lig h t ro a d bed for the track w h ic h w o u ld o n ly a llo w th ree trains a day to be run. F arm 67

Siberian Scenario p ro d u c e ro tte d in th e sidings because the railw ay co uld n o t carry it a w a y - a situ atio n still n o t u n k n o w n in Russia to day . S o m e im p ro v e m e n ts h ad been m ad e after R u ssia’s disasters in th e 1905 w a r w ith Jap a n , b u t th e T s a r ’s officials, in the panic o f co m b a t, o rd e re d vast q uan tities o f m ateriel and w h e n the flood o f freigh ters starte d to b u ild up in the early s u m m e r o f 1916, the railw ay sim p ly c o u ld n o t han d le th e traffic. T h e “ g o d o w n s ” (w arehouses) in th e p o rt w e re filled. Piers and e m p ty spaces in th e city w e re c o m m a n ­ d eered an d w h e n these o v e rflo w e d d u m p s w e re established in the o p e n c o u n try ro u n d th e G o ld e n H o rn . Like the fa rm e rs ’ p ro d u c e, the supplies w e n t bad, ro ttin g and ru stin g in the o pen . T h is does n o t m e a n to say th at n o th in g g o t th ro u g h , h o w e v e r. S o m e e x tra o rd in ­ ary feats w e re p e rfo rm e d in clu d in g the tra n s p o rta tio n o f tw e lv e s u b m a rin e s each w e ig h in g 350 to n s w h ic h w e re disassem bled and carried o n flat cars all th e w a y across Siberia, five to the B altic and seven to th e B lack Sea. B u t as th e w a r p ro g re sse d th e political situ atio n in Siberia d e­ terio rated . R o v in g b an d s o f o u tla w s and deserters m ad e life d a n g e r­ ous fo r th e railw ay eng in eers, th e railbed c ru m b le d u n d e r th e h eav y traffic and th e d u m p s o f m ateriel g re w even h ig her. It w as n o t o n ly th e T ra n s-S ib e ria n w h ic h w as in tro u b le. R ail­ w a y s t h r o u g h o u t R ussia w e re g rin d in g to a halt. E v en at the b e g in n in g o f 1916, b efo re th e full w e ig h t o f the w a r sh ip m en ts h ad m a d e itself felt, th ere w e re 150,000 railw ay tru ck s filled w ith supplies s tra n d e d o n v ario u s lines. So m a n y tru ck s b locked the lines th at s o m e w e re tip p ed d o w n e m b a n k m e n ts to m ak e w a y for th o se still arriv in g . T h e re w e re 575 railw ay stations in such an ad vanced state o f d isrep air th at th ey co u ld n o lo n g e r han d le an y goo d s. A t A rc h a n g e l as th e sh ip m e n ts arriv ed and w e re piled o n to p o f the d u m p s , so th e crates at th e b o tto m sank in to the g ro u n d . A n d the ro ttin g piles o f grain, m e a t and b u tte r at the stations alon g the T ra n s-S ib e ria n n o w a m o u n te d to th o u san d s o f to n s w h ile people in the to w n s w e n t h u n g ry . O n J a n u a ry 1st, 1918, in a teleg ram to th e B ritish E m b a ssy in W a sh in g to n , L o rd R o b e rt Cecil, B rita in ’s M in iste r o f B lockade, e stim a te d th a t th ere w e re 648,000 ton s o f supplies in d u m p s at V lad iv o sto k . As w ith the supplies in M u rm a n s k an d A rch ang el th e y w e re so rely need ed b y the Allies w h o h ad spared th e m at great sacrifice to th em selv es. T h e y feared, m o re o v e r, th at i f the R ussians m a d e a separate peace w ith the G e rm an s, th e G e rm a n and A u s tro H u n g a ria n priso n ers o f w a r held in cam p s across Siberia - 250,000 near V la d iv o s to k alone - w o u ld be o rg a n ise d to shift the stores w e st to be used b y G e rm a n y . 68

Vladivostok, December 1917-July 1918 T h e U n ite d States had reco gn ised the difficulties in m o v in g the supplies early o n and had sent a R ailw ay A d v is o ry C o m m is s io n to R ussia u n d e r th e ch a irm an sh ip o f J o h n F. Stevens. H e stay ed on after th e re v o lu tio n to help th e P ro v isio n al g o v e r n m e n t so rt o u t its railw ay p ro b le m s . T h e A m ericans, w h o had adv an ced so m e 325 m illio n d ollars in credits to th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t, arran g e d to send 1,500 railw ay engines and 30,000 carriages o f v ario us kinds to replace th e w o r n - o u t and d a m a g e d rollin g stock. Stevens also asked for team s o f ra ilw a y m en , m echanics, w o rk s fo rem en , and sh u n ters to be sent o ut. T h e U S W a r D e p a rtm e n t w as giv en re sp o n sib ility fo r re cru itin g these m e n and so o n the m essage w as b ein g ta p p e d o u t o n the railw ay telegrap h across the U n ite d States. T h e p ro sp e ct o f g o o d pay and a d v e n tu re appealed: there w e re s e v e n ty -fo u r v o lu n teers fro m the B ald w in L o c o m o tiv e C o ., 215 fro m the G re at N o r th e r n and W e ste rn lines at St Paul an d o th ers fro m th e St P aul and Pacific R ailroad. In the a u tu m n o f 1917 th ey w e re fo rm e d in to the R ussian R ailw ay Service C o rp s , and w ere c o m m a n d e d b y C o lo n e l H . E m e rso n , G eneral M a n a g e r o f the G re at N o r t h e r n R ailroad. T h e v o lu n te e rs travelled, a p p ro p ria te ly e n o u g h , b y special trains to San Francisco w h e re th ey b o a rd e d th e a rm y tra n s p o rt ship Thomas. W ith the ad d itio n o f s o m e in terp reters and R ussian m ec h a­ nics th ere w e re 329 o f th em . I f e v e ry th in g had g o n e ac co rd in g to plan th ey w o u ld h ave been the first org an ised u n it o f A m eric an soldiers to land in Russia. It m a y be th at th ey w e re civilians in m ilitary clo th in g b u t th ey w e re a u n it o f the A m eric an A rm y , and h ad been sent to Russia n o t to try to o v e r th r o w the B olsheviks b u t to help the P ro v isio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. H o w e v e r, w h e n th ey steam e d in to V lad iv o sto k h a r b o u r o n D e c e m b e r 14th, 1917, the u n it fo u n d th at B o lsh e v ism had been carried along the 7,000 m iles o f th e T ra n s-S ib e rian faster th a n the w a r supplies. T h e soldiers o f th e g arriso n and the sailors o f the Pacific Fleet had been as ripe fo r re v o lu tio n as their co m ra d es in the W est. N o w the city w as d e g e n e ra tin g in to anarchy. Ice w as fo r m ­ ing in the h a r b o u r and n o b o d y h a d t h o u g h t to p ro v id e a c c o m m o d a ­ tio n for the ra ilw a y m en -so ld iers. So th e Thomas tu rn e d r o u n d and sailed o f f to Japan. N e v erth ele ss, th e v ery fact th at th ey h ad to sail a w a y w ith o u t settin g fo o t o n R ussian soil played its p a rt in b rin g in g a b o u t the in te rv e n tio n . J o h n S tevens advised W a s h in g to n th at his c o m m is s io n w o u ld be u n ab le to ca rry o u t any w o rk o n the railw ay unless his team w as p ro te c te d b y re g u la r units o f the U n ite d States A rm y . Stevens w as u n d o u b te d ly rig h t in his assessm ent, as Siberia w as

69

Siberian Scenario in tu rm o il t h r o u g h o u t its vast expanse. A place o f political exile since th e early sev e n te en th ce n tu ry , it h ad its o w n re v o lu tio n a ry tra d itio n established b y th e m a n y intellectual, m iddle-class dissen­ ters w h o lived o u t th eir lives and raised families in its rig o ro u s clim ate. T h e Socialist R e v o lu tio n aries w e re particularly s tro n g in cities su ch as Irk u tsk w h ic h h ad a b u b b lin g social, political an d cu ltural life and w as re n o w n e d for its red -h ead ed , g re en -e y ed w o m e n ; th e d escen dan ts o f aristocratic rebels sent in to exile b y the T sars. T h e B o lsh e v ik s w e re also w ell-estab lished th ro u g h la tte r-d a y exiles su ch as Stalin and L enin w h o had spread th eir gospel d u rin g th eir fo rced s o jo u rn s in th e villages assigned to th e m as places o f exile. A n d th ere w e re o th e r g ro u p s each w ith th eir o w n aim s ad d in g to the tu rb u len c e; th e C o ssack s w h o had w o n the E ast fo r the T sar, and w h o trea ted th e S iberian peoples in the sam e spirit o f r u th ­ less co lo n isatio n as th e U S C a v a lry h ad treated the S ib erian s’ cousins, th e R ed Indian tribes; th e b and s o f deserters and o u tlaw s; an d the h u n d re d s o f th o u sa n d s o f G e rm a n an d A u s tro -H u n g a ria n p riso n ers o f w a r k e p t in cam p s stru n g o u t alo n g the railw ay line, a m o n g w h o m th e B o lsh ev ik s w e re b u sy p rosely tising . T h e C o s ­ sacks w e re scen tin g in d ep e n d en ce fro m the Russians; the o u tla w s w e re after lo o t, th e P O W s w a n te d to g o h o m e , m o s t o f th e m to re tu r n to th eir families, b u t som e, crucially, to sp read the B o lsh ev ik m essag e o f revolt. T h e j o k e r in this pack w as the C zech Legion. It w as th e m a n i­ festatio n o f a c o u n try w h ic h did n o t exist b u t a p eop le w h o did. T h e C zechs, ruled b y th e h ate d A u s tro -H u n g a ria n s , h ad been c o n sc rip ted to serve o n th e R ussian and Italian fronts. T h o u s a n d s to o k t h e ‘o p p o r tu n ity to desert and offer th eir services to fig h t ag ain st the A u strian s an d the G e rm an s. T h e y w e re jo in e d b y th o u s a n d s m o re w h o ch a n g ed sides after th e y h ad been captured. T h e ir in sp iratio n w as T h o m a s M asa ry k , leader o f the C zech n a tio n al m o v e m e n t w h o w e n t o v e r to th e A llied side in 1914 to w o r k fo r C zec h independence. T h e basis o f th e L eg ion w as a B rigade, fo rm e d o f C zechs and S lovaks w h o h ad fled to R ussia fro m A u s tro -H u n g a ria n rule b efore th e w a r. T h e y w e re in c o rp o ra te d in to th e R ussian A r m y and p e r fo rm e d well, re ta in in g th eir discipline w h e n th e A r m y b eg a n to collapse. T h e T s a r ’s generals w e re re lu c tan t to increase the size o f th e ir force an d it w as n o t u n til after th e R e v o lu tio n th a t th e P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t allow ed the p riso n ers o f w ar, m o s t o f w h o m h a d b ee n c a p tu red o n th e A u strian fro n t in 1915, to f o rm th e L egion. 70

Vladivostok, December 1917-July 1918

S o o n th e re w e re so m e 60,000 serv ing in the Legion; to u g h , skilled soldiers dedicated to w in n in g th eir in d ep e n d en ce b y w a y o f th e battlefield. T h e y fo u g h t w ell alo ng side the R ussians and w o n a brilliant v ic to ry at Z b o r o v in Galicia in J u ly 1917. As w e shall see, it w as co n c ern fo r th e fate o f the C zech L egion w h ic h finally b ro u g h t P resid en t W o o d r o w W ilso n to agree to the Allied in te rv e n tio n in Siberia. In te rv e n tio n h ad b een discussed a m o n g the Allies in the sp rin g o f 1917 as s o o n as it b ec am e clear th a t the R ussians h ad sh o t th eir bo lt and co u ld n o lo n g e r m ak e an effective c o n trib u tio n to th e w ar. T h e discussions c e n tred ro u n d th e po ssibility o f Ja p a n sen d in g an ex­ p e d itio n a ry force to V la d iv o sto k to p ro te c t the stores. T h e re w as ev en th e far-fetched n o tio n , especially in F rench m in d s, th at the Jap a n ese A r m y cou ld s o m e h o w be tra n s p o rte d seven th o u sa n d m iles across R ussia to o p e n u p a n e w fro n t against th e G e rm a n s in th e C arp a th ia n s. O n ly Ja p a n a m o n g th e Allies co u ld u n d e rta k e a Siberian ex pedi­ tion. A p a rt fro m m o p p in g u p th e G e rm a n colonies in th e Pacific, h er large an d w e ll-train ed arm ies h ad n o t been en gag ed. B ritain an d France n ee d ed ev e ry o n e o f th e ir m e n o n the W e ste rn F ro n t, and A m e ric a ’s u n tra in e d , ill-eq u ip p ed , n e w a rm y w as destin ed for France. B u t th ere w e re serious o bjection s to th e Jap an ese being g iv en a free h a n d in Siberia, n o t least fro m th e Russians. All factions re m e m b e re d th e h u m ilia tio n o f 1905 w h e n the Im perial R ussian Fleet sailed ro u n d th e w o rld to be su n k b y the Jap a n ese at the B attle o f T s u s h im a , an d th ey feared J a p a n ’s ex p a n ­ sionist a m b itio n s. It w as felt a m o n g the Allies th at R ussian d istru st o fja p a n e s e m o tiv e s w as so g reat th a t a Japan ese lan d in g w o u ld lead 7i

Siberian Scenario to the B o lsh ev ik s ask ing fo r G e rm a n help to d riv e th e m o u t - w ith d isastro u s consequences fo r the Allied cause. A m erica too , w as susp icio us o f J a p a n ’s in te n tio n s to w a rd s the m a ritim e p ro v in ce s o f Siberia an d M a n c h u ria w h ile Jap a n h e rse lf refused to u n d e rta k e any actio n w ith o u t first b ein g g iv en a free hand. It fell to th e French, c lu tch in g at any stra w th at w o u ld help defeat G e rm a n y , to m a k e th e first official p ro p o sa l fo r a m u lti-n a tio n in te rv e n tio n in Siberia. It g o t n o w h e re . T h e Japan ese w a n te d to d o it o n th eir o w n w h ile th e A m eric an s reasoned it w o u ld do m o re h a rm th an g o o d . T h e B ritish , m ea n w h ile , played th eir cards close to th e ir chest. In the end the B ritish re so rted to the action w h ic h h ad serv ed th e m so w ell t h r o u g h o u t th e ir histo ry; th ey sent a w arsh ip . T h e six -in ch g u n cruiser H M S Suffolk w as desp atch ed fro m H o n g K o n g to V la d iv o sto k to p ro te c t the stores and B ritish nationals in th e increasin gly anarchic streets o f th e p o rt. T h e Suffolk arriv ed o n J a n u a ry 15th, 1918. T h e Jap an ese did n o t take to o k in d ly to w h a t th e y saw as B ritish p o ac h in g o n th eir preserves and w h e n th ey h ea rd o f th e Suffolk's m ission, th ey sent tw o cruisers, the Iwami an d th e A sa h i, the Iwami arriv in g o n Ja n u a ry 12th an d the Asahi six days later. E ach ship carried a c o m p le m e n t o f m arines w h o w e re to be lan d e d in case o f tro u b le. O n F eb ru a ry 13 th the U n ite d States d esp a tc h ed th e cruiser Brooklyn fro m Y o k o h a m a , principally as a w a rn in g to the Jap an ese g o v e r n m e n t th at A m eric an interests w e re in v o lv ed . A n d th a t fo r th e m o m e n t w as that. T h e ships re m a in ed in p o rt a n d th e m arines stayed o n b oard . M a rc h cam e w ith its m o m e n to u s h ap p e n in g s. H M S Glory land ed h e r m arines at M u rm a n s k . T h e B olsh ev iks signed th e T re a ty o f B re s t-L ito v s k an d a b a n d o n e d th e w ar. A n d L u d en d o rff, b o lstere d by the divisions he w as able to w ith d ra w fro m Russia, laun ch ed his attacks o n the W e ste rn F ront. B u t th e Allies still bick ered o v e r Siberia. T h e Jap a n ese w e re n o w pressing h ard for ap p ro v al to take in d e p e n d e n t action. T h e B ritish, F rench and Italians w e re in ag ree­ m e n t th a t because o f th e dangers im p o s e d b y R u ssia’s w ith d ra w a l fro m th e w a r it h ad b e c o m e essential fo r th e Allies to o cc u p y th e w h o le le n g th o f th e T ra n s-S ib e rian R ailw ay. It w as n o w reco gn ised th a t th ere w as little d a n g e r o f th e G e rm a n s b ein g able to get th eir h an d s o n th e supplies at V lad iv o sto k b u t action w as need ed to p re v e n t th e m ad v a n cin g th ro u g h th e U k ra in e and m ak in g use o f R u ssia ’s w heatfields and oil wells. P resid en t W ilso n vacillated, at o n e tim e bein g a b o u t to sanction a unilateral Japanese landin g b u t ch a n g in g his m in d at the last m o m e n t. 72

Vladivostok, December lg iy - J u ly 1918 T h e B ritish , m ea n w h ile , w e re try in g th eir o w n h a n d at unilateral in te rv e n tio n , b u t b y su rro g a te. T h e y h ad agreed to s u p p o rt a y o u n g C ap tain , G re g o ri S em en o v , p art C o ssack and p art M o n g o l, w h o , at th e head o f s o m e 750 freebo oters, had set o u t to carve an in d e p e n ­ d e n t fiefd o m fo r h im s e lf in th e T rans-B aikal re g io n in so u th -e a ste rn Siberia b y k ick in g o u t th e B olsheviks. As the B ritish n o w re g ard e d th e B o lsh ev ik s as traito rs because o f the B rest-L ito v sk T re a ty th ey ag reed to s u p p ly S em en o v and his h o rs e m e n w ith arm s and m o n e y in th e h o p e th a t he could raise a p ro p e r a rm y and achieve the aim s o f in te rv e n tio n w ith o u t the Allies h av in g to intervene. It w as a m ista k e w h o s e effects are still felt in A n g lo -S o v ie t relations to d ay . It w as also an e x a m p le o f su rro g a te w a rfare w h o se lessons hav e n e v e r been fo rg o tte n b y the R ussians.

V lad iv o sto k , because o f th e fo u r Allied cruisers s w in g in g at an c h o r in th e bay, re m a in e d the o n ly large S iberian city n o t n o w c o n tro lled b y the B olsh ev iks. B u t a process o f gradual su b v ersio n in place o f the usual a rm e d co u p h ad p u t th e m in th e p o sitio n o f bein g able to take o v e r w h e n e v e r th ey chose to b ra v e th e gu ns o f the w arships. T h e y w ere, m o re o v e r, m o v in g o u t the w a r supplies fo r th eir o w n use in con siderable quantities. T h e re w as violence in th e air, w ith political scores b ein g settled w ith the re v o lv e r an d a rm e d m en tak in g w h a t th e y w a n te d at p isto l-p o in t. It cam e to a head o n A pril 4 th w h e n a g an g o f m e n in B o lsh ev ik u n ifo rm s b ra n d is h in g re v o lv e rs b u rs t in to a Japanese sh o p and d e m a n d e d m o n e y . T h e sh o p k e e p e r refused, w h e re u p o n th e ban dits o p e n e d fire and sh o t th ree o f th e Japanese. T h e n e x t m o rn in g , th e Jap an ese c o m m a n d e r, A d m ira l K ato, m a rc h e d 500 o f his m arines asho re “ to p ro tec t Jap an ese lives and p r o p e r t y ” . N o t to be o u td o n e , C a p ta in P ay ne o f the Suffolk th re w a c o rd o n o f fifty R o yal M arin es ro u n d th e B ritish consulate. A d m ira l A. K n ig h t, c o m m a n d in g the U S Asiatic Fleet, w as m o re circum spect; he k e p t his m arines on b o a rd because he saw n o d an g e r to A m e ric a n lives o r p ro p e rty . It w as A d m ira l K n ig h t w h o h ad backed the rig h t horse. T h e B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t lau n c h ed a s w in g e in g p ro p a g a n d a attack o n the B ritish and Japanese g o v e rn m e n ts , and they, tak en b y su rprise b y th e lan d in g s and n o t yet read y to in terv ene, o rd e re d their m arin es back to their ships. T h e B ritish w e n t first, fo llo w ed o n A p ril 25th b y th e Japanese. T h e effect o f this w ith d ra w a l, ap p a ren tly at M o s c o w ’s behest, co n v in c ed th e local B olshevik s th a t th ey co uld n o w take o v e r the 73

Siberian Scenario city w ith o u t o p p o s itio n fro m the Allies. A n d b y M a y 2nd, V lad i­ v o s to k w as B o lshevik . It w as at this j u n c tu r e th a t the C zech j o k e r cam e in to play. T h re e factors h ad c o m b in e d to p u t th e C zechs in to th e p o sitio n w h e re they, u n w ittin g ly , w e re to play a vital role in th e Siberian gam e. First, the F rench w e re d esperate for fig h tin g m e n to b o o s t th eir d epleted an d m u tin o u s ranks. Second, th e C zechs re m a in ed an x io u s to d e m o n s tra te th at th ey w e re w o r th y o f n a tio n h o o d . A n d finally the B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t h ad n o w ish to have a large, w e ll-a rm e d and disciplined m ilitary force in R ussia w h ic h o w e d allegiance to n e ith e r the c o u n try n o r to B o lsh ev ism , a force m o re o v e r larg ely led b y fo rm e r T sarist officers. A deal w as s tru c k w ith the B olsh ev iks u n d e r w h ich the C zechs w o u ld take th e T ra n s-S ib e ria n R ailw ay fro m their base at K iev to V la d iv o s to k w h e re th e y w o u ld e m b a rk o n B ritish and A m e ric a n ships an d be carried all th e w a y ro u n d th e w o rld to fight w ith th e F ren ch A r m y o n the W e ste rn F ro nt. T h e ir first task w as to figh t th eir w a y past th e G e rm a n s w h o w e re ad v a n cin g into th e U k ra in e . T h is th e y did alon gside a force o f U k ra in ia n B olsheviks, b u t so m e w h o w e re ca u g h t b y the A u strian s w e re h an g e d as traitors. N e w s o f th e h an g in g s o n ly stre n g th e n e d the resolve o f th e C zechs to g o east. T h e y m a d e th eir w a y to Penza o n th e T ra n s-S ib e rian w h e re th ey starte d to b o a rd w h a te v e r trains w e re available. It w as a lab o rio u s process. T h e re w e re 60,000 o f th e m an d so o n th ey w e re stru n g o u t all a lo n g th e line, an a r m y snak ing its w a y across 6,000 m iles to n a tio n h o o d . T h e ir j o u r n e y east h ad h a rd ly started, h o w e v e r, b efo re the B o lsh e v ik s b eg a n to h ave seco nd th o u g h ts a b o u t th e w is d o m o f a llo w in g such a p o te n t force to en te r th e volatile situation w h ic h n o w ex isted in Siberia. T h e y b eg an to m a k e co ndition s: th e C zechs w o u ld hav e to give u p th eir T sarist officers and w o u ld o n ly be allo w e d 168 rifles an d o n e m a c h in e -g u n to g u a rd each train. T h e B o lsh e v ik s ju s tifie d th eir claim for th e C zechs to su rre n d e r their arm s b y p o in tin g o u t th a t th ey h ad b een su pp lied b y the R ussians w h o n o w n ee d ed th e m back. A t the sam e tim e th e B olsheviks tried to s u b v e rt s o m e o f th e C zec h soldiers to C o m m u n is m . In this a tm o s p h e re o f m o u n tin g d istru st th e C zechs held a secret m e e tin g at K irsa n o v an d decided th at th e y cou ld p u t n o faith in th e B o lshevik s. T h e y h id a considerable n u m b e r o f w eap o n s o n th eir trains an d set o u t, d e te rm in e d n o t to be sto p p ed . H o w e v e r, w h ile th e F rench w e re still anx io u s fo r the C zechs to reach th e W e ste rn F ro n t as so o n as possible, th e B ritish h ad o th e r ideas. T h e y arg u e d th at w hile the C zechs w e re n u m e ro u s e n o u g h to 74

Vladivostok, December 1917-July 1918 severely strain B ritish m a ritim e resources in b rin g in g th e m all th e w a y to France, th ere w e re n o t e n o u g h o f th e m to m ak e any significant im p a c t o n th e fig h tin g o n th e W e ste rn F ro nt. Instead, said th e B ritish , tho se already in Siberia p ro p e r sh o u ld link u p w ith S em e n o v and create the basis o f a n e w R ussian a r m y to re su m e the fig h t against the G e rm a n s in th e East, w hile th o se still w e st o f the U ra ls s h o u ld m a k e th eir w a y to A rc h an g e l w h e re a B ritish train in g m issio n w o u ld a rm and o rg an ise th e m to p ro te c t th e n o rth e r n po rts. W hile th e C zech leader, E d u a rd Benes, agreed to the latter pro p o sal, the F rench insisted th at w h e re v e r the C zechs w e n t in R ussia th eir u ltim a te d estin atio n h ad to be the W e ste rn F ro nt. E v en tu a lly , o n M a y 2nd, the day th e B o lsh ev ik s to o k c o n tro l o f V lad iv o sto k , th e S u p re m e W a r C o u n c il agreed that: (a) th e B ritish g o v e r n m e n t sh o u ld u n d e rta k e to do their best to arran g e the tra n s p o rta tio n o f th o se C zech tro o p s at V lad iv o sto k o r o n th eir w a y to th at p o rt; (b) the F rench g o v e r n m e n t sh o u ld u n d e rta k e the re sp o n sib ility for th o se tro o p s u ntil e m b a rk atio n ; (c) th e B ritish g o v e r n m e n t sh o u ld u n d e rta k e to a p p ro ach T ro ts k y , th e B o lsh ev ik w a r c o m m issa r, w ith a v iew to th e co n c en tra tio n at M u rm a n s k and A rc h an g e l o f th o se C zech tro o p s n o t b e lo n g in g to th e A r m y C o rp s w h ic h h ad left O m s k fo r V lad iv o sto k . T h u s th e F rench th o u g h t th ey h ad w o n their p o in t an d believed th at th e B ritish w e re c o m m itte d to sh ip p in g th e C zechs to France. B u t th e B ritish t h o u g h t the a g re e m e n t sufficiently lo osely w o rd e d fo r th e m to p u rs u e th eir o w n plans, and o n M a y 23rd th ey o rd e re d th e d esp atch o f G eneral P o o le ’s train in g m issio n to A rch an g el, to arm , cloth e an d train the C zechs for th eir n e w m ission. T h e B ritish h o p e d th a t s o m e 60,000 C zechs w o u ld eventu ally jo i n th e m in the n o rth . As is so o ften th e case in w a r a m in o r ev en t a lo n g w a y aw ay d e s tro y e d a w ell-laid plan; n o t a single C zech reached A rchan gel because o f a fracas in a ra ilw a y siding at C h ely ab in sk , th e so u th e rn g a te w a y th r o u g h th e U ra ls to Siberia. T h ere, o n M a y 14th, a train lo ad o f C zechs g o in g east e n c o u n te re d a train lo ad o f H u n ­ garian p riso n ers o f w a r w h o w e re b ein g re p atriated u n d e r the B re st-L ito v sk ag re e m e n t. H istorically, th ere h ad n e v e r been any lo v e lost b e tw e e n th e C zechs an d th e H u n g a ria n s and an a rg u m e n t b ro k e out: the H u n g a ria n s called the C zechs traitors, the C zechs re ferred in so ld ie r’s lan g u a g e to th e H u n g a ria n s ’ p arentag e. O n e o f th e p riso n ers o f w a r picked u p a piece o f iro n, th re w it an d killed a C zech soldier, w h e re u p o n the C zechs, ro a rin g w ith rage, th re a te n e d to s h o o t ev e ry o n e o n th e train i f the m u rd e r e r w as n o t 75

Siberian Scenario h a n d e d o ver. C o n v in c e d th at the C zechs m ea n t business, th e H u n g a ria n s gav e h im up. A C zech ren eg ade called M alik, he w as ly n ch e d b y his c o u n try m e n o n th e spot. E v e n ts b eg a n to ru n o u t o f co n tro l. T h e B olsh evik au th o rities decided to try to enfo rce o rd e r an d detain ed several C zechs so th at th e y c o u ld give e v id en ce a b o u t th e incidents. T h e C zechs th en to o k u p th e ir rifles, d isa rm e d th e local R ed G u a rd s and set the p riso n ers free. S tran g ely e n o u g h , th e affair w as th en settled by th e local B o lsh e­ viks and th e C zechs w h o saw n o reason to quarrel. B u t th e n ew s had already reached M o s c o w an d the B o lsh ev ik g o v e r n m e n t reacted fiercely. T w o leading m e m b e rs o f the C zech N a tio n a l C o u n c il w e re arrested in the capital and forced to sign a m essage to the L egio n o rd e rin g th e m to lay d o w n all th eir w eap o n s. T ro ts k y sent o u t o rd e rs fo r th e C zech s to be d isarm ed : th ey w e re to be sto p p e d fro m c o n tin u in g th eir j o u r n e y east and w o u ld be fo rm e d in to la b o u r battalio n s o r in c o rp o ra te d in to the n e w R ed A rm y . D u rin g these events represen tatives o f all th e C zech u nits h ad m e t at C h e ly a b in sk as th e “ C o n g re s s o f the C z ec h o slo v ak R e v o lu tio n ­ ary A r m y ” and h a d decid ed th at w h a te v e r the Allies plan ned o r the B o lsh e v ik s o rd e re d th e y w e re g o in g to V la d iv o sto k , s h o o tin g th eir w a y th ere “ i f w e h ave t o ” . T h e y m ad e the decision o n the sam e day th a t th e B ritish decided to send th eir train in g m issio n to A rchangel. T r o ts k y re s p o n d e d b y teleg rap h in g to the Soviets alo ng the T ra n s S iberian in fo rm in g th e m th at “ ev ery arm e d C z e c h o slo v ak fo u n d o n th e ra ilw a y is to be sh o t o n the s p o t” . F ig h tin g im m e d ia te ly b ro k e ou t. B ecause the C zechs w e re stru n g o u t like a snake w ith its head already in V la d iv o sto k b u t the tail still in Penza, the fig h tin g w as localised in the railw ay to w n s. S o on th e C zechs, b e tte r disciplined th an the R ed G u a rd s and o u tn u m b e rin g th e m at the crucial po ints, h ad gained c o n tro l o f large sections o f the T ra n s-S ib e rian , and several o f the largest to w n s. O n J u n e 29th, th e y o ccu p ied V lad iv o sto k , arrestin g the B o lsh e­ vik leaders, p ulling d o w n the R ed Flag fro m the Soviet h ea d ­ q u a rte rs and ru n n in g u p the blue and w h ite flag o f th e T sar. A lb ert R h y s W illiam s, an A m e ric a n P resb y teria n m in iste r w ith a radical tu rn o f politics, w h o w as th e N e w York Evening Post's c o rre sp o n ­ d e n t in Russia, re c o rd e d the scene: th e C zechs h ad m o v e d sw iftly an d q uietly. T h e first W illiam s k n e w o f the ta k e o v e r w as w h e n he m e t a Soviet C o m m is s a r h av in g his shoes cleaned near th e R ed Fleet b u ild in g . “ In a few m in u te s I m a y be d an g lin g fro m a l a m p - p o s t,” said th e co m m issar, “ an d I w a n t to be as nice lo o k in g a corpse as possib le . . . o u r days are d o n e for. T h e C zechs are tak in g o v e r th e 76

Vladivostok, December 1917-July 1918 c ity .” W h e n th e R ed Flag w as pulled d o w n s o m e o n e s h o u te d “ T h e S oviet has fallen” an d it rang ro u n d the city. P eo ple ru sh e d in to the streets, flinging th eir hats into th e air. T h e first Soviet o cc u p atio n o f V la d iv o sto k h ad lasted 58 days. T h e m arin e s cam e ash ore again fro m th e B ritish an d Jap an ese cruisers and this tim e the A m eric an s jo in e d th e m . T h e B ritish o cc u p ied th e ra ilw a y station, the Japanese seized th e arsenal and the A m eric an s g u a rd e d th eir consulate. A w eek later a n o tice sign ed b y the C zechs and th e B ritish, A m erican , Japanese, F rench and C h in ese re p rese n ta tiv e s in the p o rt pro c la im e d th at the V lad iv o sto k area had been tak en “ u n d e r th e te m p o ra ry p ro te c tio n o f the Allied P o w e rs . . . fo r its defense against dan gers b o th ex ternal and in te rn a l.” T h e C zechs h o w e v e r, w e re still n o t safe. T h e y w e re y et to gain c o n tro l o f Irk u tsk , the im p o rta n t railw ay centre 2,570 m iles fro m V la d iv o sto k , th r o u g h w h ic h so m e fo rty th o u s a n d o f th eir c o m ­ rades still h ad to pass. T h e y feared attack n o t o n ly by th e B olsheviks b u t b y G e rm a n and A u s tro -H u n g a ria n priso ners o f w a r w h o had been a rm e d b y th e B olshevik s an d enlisted in the R ed A rm y . It later b ec am e a p p a re n t th a t these a rm e d prisoners n u m b e re d o n ly a few th o u s a n d b u t at th e tim e w e re t h o u g h t to a m o u n t to a fo rm id a b le fig h tin g force w h ich , p o sitio n e d alo n g th e strategic b arrier o f Lake Baikal, c o u ld cu t o f f the m ain b o d y o f th e L egion, co nfined as it w as to its trains and the railw ay to w n s . T h e C zech s in V la d iv o sto k th ere fo re p ro p o s e d to tu rn a b o u t and deal w ith Irk u tsk , b u t th ey need ed help fro m th e Allies. A c co rd in g to the despatches o f C a p ta in P ay n e o f the Suffolk th ey asked for a 100,000 s tro n g ex p e d itio n a ry force and e n o u g h w e a p o n s to equip th e m as a p ro p e r a rm y . “ Save th e C z e c h s ” n o w b ec am e th e cry a m o n g th e Allies w h ile the B ritish ad d e d “ and keep th e m in R u ssia .” In his b io g ra p h y o f W in s to n C h u rch ill, M a rtin G ilb ert records th a t C h u rch ill, th e n M in iste r o f M u n itio n s , h ad w ritte n to the P rim e M in iste r, L lo y d G eo rg e, o n J u n e 17th arg u in g th at “ It is certainly against y o u r in stinct an d co nv ictio n s to shift the C z e c h o ­ s lo v a k C o rp s fro m R ussia to F ra n c e .” T h e n , o n J u n e 22nd he w a rn e d his C a b in e t colleagues: I f w e ca n n o t re c o n stitu te th e fig h tin g fro n t against G e rm a n y in th e East, n o en d can be discerned to the w ar. V ain will be all o u r sacrifices o f the peoples an d the arm ies. T h e y will o n ly ten d to p ro lo n g th e conflict in to d ep th s w h ic h ca n n o t be p lu m b e d . W e m u s t n o t take “ N o ” fo r an a n s w e r w h e th e r fro m A m eric a o r

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Siberian Scenario fro m Jap a n . W e m u s t co m p e l events instead o f acquiescing in th e ir drift. S urely n o w w h e n C zech divisions are in p ossession o f large sections o f the S iberian R ailw ay an d in d an g e r o f b eing d o n e to d ea th b y th e trea ch e ro u s B o lsheviks, so m e effort to rescue th e m can be m ade? E v e ry m a n sh o u ld ask h im s e lf each day w h e th e r he is n o t to o readily accepting n eg ativ e solutions. L lo y d G e o rg e n ee d ed n o co n v in cin g . N e ith e r did the F ren ch leader G e o rg es C lem en ce au . O n J u n e 2nd th ey appealed jo in tly to P re sid e n t W ilson to in te rv e n e in Siberia because failure to d o so im m e d ia te ly “ m u s t in ev itab ly cause effects w h ich can o n ly be d escrib ed as disastro us to th e Allied cause” . T h e y also pleaded w ith h im to c o m e to the aid o f th e C zechs w h o w o u ld be placed in dire peril unless the Allies acted im m e d iately . T h e r e w as w id e sp re a d s y m p a th y fo r th e C zechs in A m erica, and W ilson, w h o h ad resisted in te rv e n tio n for so long, finally gav e in to B ritish and F rench p re ssu re because he w as co n v in ced th at th e C zech s w e re in dan g er. O n j u n e 6th he called a m ee tin g at the W h ite H o u s e and a n n o u n c e d th a t A m eric a w as g o in g to th eir aid. S even th o u s a n d A m e ric a n tro o p s w o u ld be sent along w ith an equal n u m b e r o fja p a n e s e to g u a rd th e C z e c h s ’ lines o f c o m m u n ic a tio n as th e y p ro c eed e d to w a rd s Irk u tsk . Since A m erica, fully stretc h ed to p ro v id e m e n fo r th e W e ste rn F ro n t, co uld n o t p ro v id e such a force fo r s o m e tim e, th e ja p a n e s e w o u ld su p p ly th e C zechs w ith arm s and a m m u n itio n w ith the A m eric an s sh arin g th e cost and send ing h e r o w n supplies w h e n th e y b ec am e available. All this, said W ilson, w as b ein g u n d e rta k e n solely to p ro te c t the C zechs against the G e rm a n and A u s tria n p riso n ers o f w a r an d th ere w as “ n o p u rp o se to in terfere w ith in tern al affairs o f R u ssia” o r to infrin ge o n R u ssia’s territo ria l so v ereig n ty . T h e r e w as criticism , especially fro m L lo y d G eorg e, th at the A m e ric a n m ilitary c o m m itm e n t w o u ld be insufficient to ac c o m ­ p lish a n y th in g useful in Siberia, so P resid en t W ilso n sent a fo rm a l n o te to his allies m a k in g his po sitio n clear. M ilita ry in terv e n tio n , he insisted, “ w o u ld ad d to th e present sad co n fu sio n in Russia ra th e r th a n cure it, in ju re h e r ra th e r th an help h e r . ” M o re o v e r, he added, th a t in te rv e n tio n w o u ld be “ o f n o use in th e w a r against G e r m a n y ” . T h e U n ite d States th erefo re, cou ld n o t “ take p art in such in te rv e n ­ tio n o r san c tio n it in p rin cip le” . H e re ite rated th at A m eric a w o u ld o n ly send tro o p s to Siberia in o rd e r to p ro te c t the C zech s and stipulated th at the o n ly leg itim ate o b jec t for w h ic h A m e ric a n o r Allied tro o p s cou ld be e m p lo y e d w as to “ g u a rd m ilitary stores w h ic h m a y su b seq u e n tly be need ed b y

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Vladivostok, December 1917-July 1918 R ussian forces and to re n d er such aid as m ay be acceptable to the R ussians in th e o rg a n isa tio n o f th eir o w n self defen ce” . T h is w as n o t at all w h a t W ils o n ’s allies h ad in m in d . B u t th ey to o k c o m fo rt in o th e r p a ra g ra p h s in his a id e -m e m o ire w h e re he ex plained th at his conclusio ns app lied o n ly to the A m eric an forces and w e re n o t “ m e a n t to w e a r th e least co lo r o f criticism o f w h a t o th e r g o v e r n ­ m e n ts associated against G e rm a n y m a y th in k it w ise to u n d e r­ ta k e ” . . . T h e U n ite d States g o v e r n m e n t w ish ed “ in n o w a y to em b a rrass th e ir choices o f p o lic y ” and did “ n o t w ish it to be u n d e r s to o d th a t in so restrictin g its o w n activities it w as see­ k in g , even b y im p licatio n , to set lim its to th e action o r to define the policies o f its asso ciates.” It w as d u rin g th e early h o u rs o f th a t sam e day, J u ly 17th, th at T s a r N ich o la s an d his fam ily w e re m u rd e re d b y th e C h e k a (E x­ tra o rd in a ry C o m m is s io n for th e S tru g g le against C o u n te r R e v o lu tio n , S peculatio n an d S abotage), at E k a te rin b u rg . T h is is n o t the place to tell the s to ry o f th e m u rd e rs in the h o u se o f Ipatiev th e eng ineer, o r r e c o u n t th e su b se q u e n t disposal o f the bodies at the m in e o f th e F o u r B ro th e rs b u t w e m u s t in passing re co rd o u r c o n v ic tio n th a t ev e ry m e m b e r o f the T s a r ’s fam ily died th at d re a d ­ ful n ig h t. T h o s e w h o w a n t to believe o th e rw ise sh o u ld read th e re p o rt o f N ic h o la s S o k o lo v , th e legal in v estig ato r a p p o in te d by the W h ite R ussian leader A d m ira l K o lch a k to clarify th e circum stances o f th e deaths. D u rin g th e y e a r-lo n g o cc u p a tio n o f E k a te rin b u rg b y K o lc h a k ’s forces after it fell to th e C zechs in J u ly 1918, S o k o lo v to o k state­ m e n ts fro m w itnesses, re co v ered a m ass o f evidence fro m the m in e shaft and p ro v e d b e y o n d reaso nable d o u b t th at all the T s a r ’s im m e d ia te fam ily, in clu d in g th e G ra n d D uchess A nastasia, had been m u rd e re d . A c co u n ts o f L e n in ’s b eh a v io u r d u rin g th e m ee tin g o f the C e n tra l E x ec u tiv e C o m m itte e at w h ic h the T s a r ’s death w as a n n o u n c e d su g g est th a t he k n e w th a t the killings h ad b een o rdered. H e certainly gave n o in d icatio n th a t he d isa p p ro v e d o f th em . T e le g ra m s left b e h in d b y th e local B o lsh ev ik s w h e n th ey fled fro m E k a te rin b u rg indicate th a t L e n in ’s close c o llab o rato r Ja c o b S v erd lov, C h a irm a n o f th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e , w as th e m a n w h o gave the ord ers. It m u s t h av e been s o m e b o d y w ith a m ac ab re sense o f h u m o u r w h o in 1924 gav e the ancient city o f E k a te rin b u rg its n e w n a m e o f S v erd lo v sk . T h e re w as o n e s u rv iv o r o f th e m assacre. It w as th e T s a re v ic h ’s spaniel, J o y , w h o s e s to ry w as to ld b y th e late Pail C h a v c h a v a d z e as a n o te in his n o v el Because the N ig h t was Dark. H e w ro te :

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Siberian Scenario A few days after th e m u r d e r in E k a te rin b u rg the to w n w as tak en b y an ti-B o lsh ev ist forces. W ith th e m , attached as Liaison O fficer to a B ritish M ilita ry M issio n , cam e on e o f m y m o t h e r ’s b ro th e rs, C o lo n e l Paul R o d zian k o . A t a co rn er o f the street n o t far fro m th e Ipatiev H o u s e he saw th e T s a re v ic h ’s spaniel ru n n in g in circles. R eco g n isin g h im , he called h im b y n am e. T h e spaniel cam e, w a g g in g his tail u n ce rtain ly , s tu m b lin g a little, finally b u m p in g in to R o d z ia n k o ’s leg. H e w as to tally blind. E v en tu a lly m y uncle b r o u g h t h im to E n g la n d w h e r e j o y lived o n for a n u m b e r o f years on th e R o d z ia n k o fa rm near W in d so r. T h e re in the early tw en ties I o fte n saw the T s a r e v itc h ’s little blind d og. T h e T s a r h a d been m a rk e d fo r d eath fro m th e m o m e n t the B o lsh e ­ viks cam e to p o w e r - n o t o n ly in re v en g e for the past b u t in fear for the fu tu re, as Lenin k n e w th a t he w as th e o n e m a n u n d e r w h o m the B o lsh e v ik s ’ q u arrellin g enem ies co uld unite. A n d , to m ak e sure th at n o o th e r R o m a n o v co u ld take his place, th e w h o le fam ily w as co ld -b lo o d e d ly w ip e d o u t. It w as the first o f th e d eliberate political killings b y th e B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h ev en tu ally c u lm in ated in S ta lin ’s purges. W h a t, in the end, m a d e the m u rd e r o f the royal fam ily a m a tte r o f b o th u rg e n c y an d secrecy w as th e sw ift advance o f the C zechs fro m C h e ly a b in sk to E k a te rin b u rg , sw ee p in g the B o lsh ev ik tro o p s be­ fore th e m , and th re a te n in g to free the T sar. T h e s e w e re th o se sam e C zechs w h o s e “ d ire p eril” h ad led P resid en t W ilson, despite all his m isg iv in g s, to agree to th e in ­ te rv e n tio n . T h e B ritish w e re u n h a p p y at the political an d m ilitary lim its W ilso n h a d set to the U n ite d S tates’ role b u t decided to p ro te s t no fu rth e r, co n fid e n t th at o n ce the A m eric an s arriv ed in Siberia, the p ressu res o f w a r w o u ld lead in evitably to the w id e n in g o f th eir role a nd th e escalation o f th eir c o m m itm e n t. W ilson h ad lim ited his orig in al in v o lv e m e n t to an arb itra ry 7,000 m en. W ith its c o m m it­ m e n ts to th e W e ste rn F ro n t th e U n ite d States h ad n o m o re to spare b u t W ilso n also h o p e d th at b y restrictin g the size o f the A m eric an force he co uld secure th e ag re e m e n t o f the Japanese to lim it th eir force to a sim ilar n u m b e r. In fact th e Japanese g o v e r n m e n t w as b itte rly div id ed b e tw e e n th e liberals w h o w a n te d to w o r k w ith the U n ite d States and the h a w k is h generals w h o saw W ilso n ’s refusal to “ set lim its to the ac tio n o r to define th e policies o f its associates” , as th e green lig h t fo r th eir o w n o c c u p a tio n o f th e m a ritim e pro v in ces o f Russia and C h in a. T h e generals w a n te d to send 150,000 m e n im m e d iately , a 80

Vladivostok, December 1917-July 1918 force w h ic h w o u ld h ave led to P resid en t W ilson b ack in g o u t o f the e x p e d itio n . So th e ja p a n e s e c o m p ro m is e d and s u b m itte d a p ro p o sa l th at th ey s h o u ld send a full div ision o f 12,000 m e n and p ro m is e d th at n o m o re tro o p s w o u ld be sent th an w as necessary “ to p re v en t th e s la u g h te r o f the C z e c h s” . R elu ctan tly W ilson agreed and his w o rs t fears w e re realised w ith in w eeks as tro o p sh ip s crossed the Sea o f J a p a n to lan d 70,000 Jap an ese soldiers, fresh, w e ll-train ed and w e ll-a rm e d ; n o t e n o u g h to carry to the w a r w ith G e rm a n y b u t sufficient fo r th e o cc u p atio n o f R u ssia’s eastern seaboard. B ritain h a d already tak en its o w n steps to en sure a presence in Siberia. It w as o n ly a presence, for as a m ilitary force it w as laughable: o n e b attalio n o f C3 m edical class garriso n soldiers fro m H o n g K o n g , th e 25th B attalio n o f the M idd lesex R eg im en t. T h e y sailed for V la d iv o sto k o n J u ly 27th, 1918 o n b o a rd the SS Ping S u e y , c o m m a n d e d b y a M e m b e r o f P arliam en t, L ieu ten a n t-C o lo n e l J o h n W ard , k n o w n as the “ N a v v ie s ’ M P ” , a re m a rk ab le m an w h o h ad started his w o rk in g life as a n a v v y at the age o f tw elve. W ard jo in e d the A r m y and, at the age o f tw e n ty , fo u g h t in the a tte m p t to relieve G o r d o n at K h a rto u m . H e re tu rn e d to E n g lan d and politics and fo u n d e d th e N a v v ie s ’ U n io n before en te rin g Parlia­ m e n t for th e L a b o u r P a rty in 1906. W h en the G reat W ar b ro k e o u t he raised n o fe w er th an five la b o u r battalions, th en served o n the W e ste rn F ro n t w ith the M id d lesex R eg im en t. N o w he w as to be c o m m a n d e r o f B ritish forces in th e field in Siberia, all o n e th o u sa n d o f th em . T h e B ritish also sent a m ilitary m issio n u n d e r M ajo r-G en e ral A lfred K n o x to V lad iv o sto k . P rev io u sly M ilita ry A ttach e in P e tro g ra d , he sp o k e fluent R ussian and had played a vital p art in sh ap in g B rita in ’s policy to w a rd s Russia. T h e F rench also sent a m ilitary m ission - b u t n o fig h tin g tro o p s - headed b y G e n ­ eral M au ric e Ja n in w h o had been F rance’s rep resen tativ e w ith the R ussian H ig h C o m m a n d befo re the R ev o lu tio n , had c o m ­ m a n d e d C zec h tro o p s fig h tin g in France and w as to assum e c o m m a n d o f th e C zech L egion. In ad d itio n there w e re 4,186 u n w ill­ in g C an ad ia n s sent to Siberia o n ly after intense pressu re fro m th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t. T h e ir m ain fu nctio n w as to equ ip the M id d lesex b attalio n w ith A rctic clo th in g and m ain tain the supp ly sy stem ; th e y w e re so o n w ith d ra w n . A n d, because th ey w e re Allies, th ere w e re sm all co n tin g e n ts o f Italians and Poles attached to th e m ission. So th e stage w as set. T h e players g ath e red in the h u g e th eatre o f Siberia, sh elterin g b e h in d the am biguities o f the lines o f P residen t W ils o n ’s script. E ach n a tio n h a d its o w n m otiv es for bein g there, 81

Siberian Scenario m o tiv e s w h ic h w e re o ften c o n tra d icto ry . A n d it is n o t su rp risin g th at je a lo u s y and m is u n d e rs ta n d in g flourished in the m id st o f political an d m ilitary d an g e rs w h ic h w e re o n ly d im ly c o m p re ­ h e n d e d b y th o se ta k in g p a rt in this tragic farce.

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CHAPTER 6

O il and the T w en ty-Six Commissars Baku, January-September 1918

A t B aku, o il-to w n o n th e C aspian , the G reat W a r m e t the G reat G am e. T h e re w as v ery m u c h a N o r th - W e s t F ro n tier ex p e d itio n feel a b o u t the first B ritish in te rv e n tio n - a th o u sa n d m e n w e arin g solar topees and sh o rts sent u p fro m Persia to try to sto p th e T u rk is h G e rm a n forces ca p tu rin g th e oil-w ells and to b lock their advance to w a r d s A fg h a n ista n an d India. Like the o th e r in te rv e n tio n p o rts, A rch ang el, M u rm a n s k and V lad iv o sto k , B a k u ’s d u sty streets w e re filled w ith an e x tra o rd in a ry m ix tu re o f h u m a n ity : G eorg ians, A zerbaijanis, A rm e n ia n s, C o s ­ sacks, T a rta rs, Je w s , P ersians and E u ro p e a n R ussians - a r o u g h lot, m o s t o f th e m lo o k in g fo r an o p p o rtu n ity to cut the th ro ats o f the o thers. B u t u n lik e A rchangel, M u rm a n s k and V la d iv o sto k , B aku c o u ld lay claim to an ancient existence, in d e p e n d e n t o f Russia. First m e n tio n e d in the fifth c e n tu ry a d , it becam e a place o f ven eration a m o n g th e Z o ro a s tria n s w h o w o rs h ip p e d at shrines bu ilt w h e re fire sp ra n g sp o n ta n e o u s ly fro m th e g r o u n d as oil and gas b u rst fro m its h u g e u n d e r g ro u n d reservoirs. W h e n th e oil b o o m started in the late n in etee n th ce n tu ry - for lam p s an d lu b rica tio n befo re the internal c o m b u s tio n engine w as in v e n te d - B a k u ’s in h ab itan ts revived th eir w o rs h ip o f the “ eternal fires” , o n ly n o w its shrines w e re w o o d e n derricks. B a k u b ec am e a rich, v u lg ar, b ra w lin g place w h e re o v e rn ig h t m illionaires bu ilt ta w d r y Italianate palaces a m o n g the m inarets an d im p o rte d h arem s o f beautiful w o m e n fro m all o v e r th e w o rld . P o o r peasants w e re b r o u g h t in fro m Persia to w o r k in the oilfields. B u t w h ile th eir m asters g a m b le d fo rtu n e s o n the tu rn o f a card, th e y slept in m iserable barracks, an d w e re to o p o o r to afford w ives. T h e m ix tu r e o f nationalities, religions an d rich and p o o r m ad e it a tu rb u le n t place. R iots, fights and m u rd e r w e re c o m m o n p lac e. E v e ry o n e w as a rm e d w ith knife o r g u n , and usually b o th . T h e m illionaires h ad fu n k -h o le s b u ilt in to their palaces, cellars p ro tec ted b eh in d steel d o o rs and p ro v is io n e d w ith w in e and fo o d and w o m e n in w h ic h th e y c ou ld sit o u t the riots w h ile their b o d y g u a rd s , usually 83

O il and the T w e n ty -S ix Commissars C ircassian m ercenaries o r G e o rg ian s w ith faces as sharp as th eir lo n g k nives, b attled it o u t w ith th e rioters. T h e richest o f th e m all, a h u g e A rm e n ia n called M an tash e v , co n so lid ated his fo rtu n e b y d o in g a deal w ith the N o b e ls, w h o w e re d ev e lo p in g the fields, an d th e R oth child s, w h o w e re m a rk e tin g th e oil, b u ild in g a ra ilw a y fro m B ak u to B a tu m i o n the B lack Sea to e x p o rt it. In su ch a clim ate tro u b le w as inevitable; p o w e rfu l capitalist co n c ern s in league w ith hell-raisin g local en tre p ren e u rs m a k in g th eir fo rtu n e s o f f th e sw ea t o f a h alf-starv ed la b o u r force in the m id s t o f w a rrin g c o m m u n a l and religious factions. T h e re co uld h a rd ly hav e been a b e tte r b re e d in g g ro u n d for re v o lu tio n . N o t su rp risin g ly , M a rx is m flourished. O n e o f its u n d e r g ro u n d m o les w as a “ spoilt p rie s t” called D z h ug ash vili, son o f a Tiflis cob bler, w h o later a d o p te d the nom de guerre o f Stalin, “ m a n o f steel” . H e ran an u n d e r g r o u n d n ew sp a p er, T he Proletarian o f Baku, w as re p o rte d to have ro b b e d a b an k in Tiflis to p ro v id e funds fo r the p a rty an d w as arrested five tim es b y the T sarist police before b ein g sent to exile in Siberia. T ro u b le b ro k e o u t w ith the m in i-re v o lu tio n o f 1905. O ld scores w e re settled. Several th o u s a n d died and the oilfields w e re set o n fire. B u t b y n o w E u r o p e ’s indu stries d ep e n d ed o n B ak u oil. T h e m o to r car h ad arrived. T h e R o y al N a v y w as m o v in g to w a rd s th e a d o p tio n o f oil-fired engines to m e e t the th rea t o f G e rm a n naval r e a rm a m e n t. T h e 1905 riots th ere fo re ala rm ed the fo reig n in v esto rs and E u r o ­ pean g o v e rn m e n ts so m u c h th at th ey d e m a n d e d th at th e T s a r statio n a m ilitary force at B ak u to keep o rd e r and p ro te c t th eir in v e stm e n ts. T w e lv e years later, B a k u w as even m o re im p o rta n t. W h e n the R ussian A r m y gave u p fig h tin g after the N o v e m b e r R ev o lu tio n , the R u ssian c o m m a n d e r in th e C aucasus m ad e his o w n arm istice w ith th e T u rk s w h o , o f course, re g ard e d th e arm istice as sim p ly an in v ita tio n to keep m a rc h in g fo rw a rd . T h e y h ad t w o objectives: the ca p tu re o f the oilfields, th u s enabling G e rm a n y to b reak the ec o n o ­ m ic s tra n g le h o ld o f th e B ritish N a v y , and to g a th e r th e M o sle m s o f th e C aucasu s, T ran scaspia an d T u rk e s ta n in to its “ A rm y o f Isla m ” an d m a rc h o n India. A t th at tim e B ak u w as said to be a B o lsh ev ik island in a n o n -B o lsh e v ik sea. It w as to foil these plans, n o t to o v e r th r o w B o lsh e v ism , th at th e B ritish sent “ D u n s te rfo rc e ” to B aku . T h e B ritish force w as n o t at first envisaged as a fig h tin g unit, b u t as a m issio n c o m p o s e d o f a g ro u p o f officers an d a section o f a r m o u r e d cars fro m w h a t had been C o m m a n d e r O liv e r L ocker 84

B a ku , January-Septem ber 1918 L a m p s o n ’s R N A rm o u r e d C a r S q u ad ro n . T h is h ad been w ith ­ d ra w n t h r o u g h A rch ang el, tran sferred to the A rm y , re -eq u ip p ed w ith A u stin a r m o u r e d cars and th en sent back to R ussia th ro u g h the P ersian G ulf. C o m m a n d e d b y o ne o f th e a r m y ’s “ m o d e rn M a jo r-G e n e ra ls ” , L. C . D u n sterv ille, the m issio n ’s o rd e rs w e re to c o -o p era te w ith C o lo n e l Lazar B ich erak h o v , a T sarist officer w h o w as d ete rm in e d to keep fig h tin g , w ith the o bjective “ to p re v e n t th e passage th ro u g h th e C au casus o f T u rk is h a rm ie s ” . It set o u t fro m B ag h d ad , w h ic h had been c a p tu red b y the B ritish in 1917, in a c o n v o y o f 41 F o rd M o d e l T cars at the end o f j a n u a r y 1918. B u t w ith ro ad s v irtu ally n o n -e x is te n t and w h o le areas o f their ro u te in th e h an d s o f b rig an d s it w as unable to reach th e C asp ian u ntil Ju n e. In the m e a n tim e events h ad galloped ahead. T h e T u r k s h ad d e m a n d e d great ch u n k s o f A rm e n ia fro m Russia, in clu d in g th e strategic fortified city o f Kars u n d e r th e term s o f the T re a ty o f B rest-L ito v sk . A rm e n ia , G eorg ia and A zerbaijan, the th ree states s o u th o f the C au casu s m o u n tain s, and o u tsid e Russia p ro p e r, h a d fo rm e d th e single state o f Transcaucasia. D esp ite the h a tre d th e y felt fo r o n e a n o th e r, th ey tried to m ain tain a u n ited b u t in d e p e n d e n t existence. T ranscaucasia lasted o n ly a few m o n th s, h o w e v e r, collapsing u n d e r G e rm a n pressure, the advance o f the T u rk is h A r m y and its o w n in b u ilt stresses. T h e A rm e n ia n s gained b re a th in g space in late M a y b y defeating the T u rk s at the battle o f S ardarab b u t at th at v ery m o m e n t the G eorg ians b ro k e aw ay fro m th e T ran scau casian republic, declared in d ep en d en ce and signed a trea ty w ith the G e rm an s. T h e A zerbaijanis sw iftly fo llo w ed their ex a m p le an d allied them selv es w ith the T u rk s. O n J u n e 4th the A rm e n ia n s w e re forced to m a k e peace w ith th e T u rk s w h o for m a n y years h ad c o m m itte d th e vilest o f atrocities against the A rm e n ia n in h ab itan ts o f E aste rn T u rk e y . T h e T u rk s th e n pressed o n to w a rd s B aku , its oil and the d re am o f a n e w T u rk ic E m p ire stretc h in g to A fgh an istan d ra w in g th e m fo rw a rd . T h e re h ad already been violence in B ak u in M a rc h o f 1919 w h ic h h ad starte d as a s tru g g le fo r p o w e r b etw e en the B olsheviks an d th eir left w in g allies and th e b o u rg e o is M u sav a t p a rty b u t w h ich h ad d e g e n era ted in to a race rio t w ith the C h ristia n A rm e n ia n s and M o s le m A zerbaijanis m u rd e r in g each o th e r as th ey h ad d o n e for centuries. T h e B olshevik s, s u p p o rte d b y th e Socialist D e m o c ra ts, held on to p o w e r u n d e r th e g u id an c e o f S tepan S haum ian. T h is charism atic m an , b o rn in Tiflis in 1878, h a d been expelled fro m the Riga P o ly te ch n ic In stitu te in Latvia in 1900 for re v o lu tio n a ry activity. 85

O il and the T w e n ty -S ix Commissars H e h ad w o r k e d fo r th e cause in G e rm a n y and France, led an oil strike in B a k u in 1914, been exiled, an d in D e c e m b e r 1917 h ad b een a p p o in te d b y Lenin as E x tra o rd in a ry C o m m is s a r fo r C aucasian affairs. H e w as a ded icated B olsh ev ik, d e te rm in e d to carry o u t the p a r ty ’s o rd e rs despite the p recariou s p o sitio n in w h ic h he fo u n d him self. B y n o w it w as a p p a re n t th at D u n s te rv ille ’s m ilitary m issio n w o u ld n o t be s tro n g e n o u g h to d ete r the T u rk s . D u n sterv ille asked for B ritish in fa n try m e n fro m M e s o p o ta m ia as rein fo rcem en ts. H e p lan n e d to use this a u g m e n te d force as a nucleus ro u n d w h ic h the v ario u s local units - in clu d in g the B o lsh eviks - co uld build an a rm y to h o ld B aku. L o n d o n , h o w e v e r, felt th a t the plan h ad little chance o f success and w o u ld be a w a ste o f m e n so rely needed to defend n o r th Persia against th e th re a t o f a c o m b in e d T u rk is h -G e rm a n incu rsion . L lo y d G e o rg e, at a C a b in e t m e e tin g o n J u n e 24th, w e n t as far as to su g g est th at it m ig h t be b e tte r fo r th e T u rk s to h o ld B ak u as it w as un likely th ey w o u ld ever be d a n g e ro u s to B ritish interests in th e East. T h is, h o w e v e r, w as n o t tru e o f Russia, i f in the fu tu re she becam e re generated . A t th e sam e tim e S tepan S h au m ian to ld th e B ritish V ic e -C o n su l in B ak u , R o n ald M c D o n e ll, th at he h ad received o rd e rs fro m M o s c o w telling h im th a t he w as n o t to allo w a single B ritish soldier to set fo o t o n R ussian soil. D u n sterv ille w as sty m ie d o n b o th sides and sp en t J u n e a n d j u l y k ick in g his heels in the d u st an d u n fo rg iv in g s u m m e r heat o f n o rth Persia. A n d all the tim e the T u rk s d re w closer and closer to B aku. T h e A rm e n ia n m a jo rity in the city b eg an to panic: th ey h ad n o illusions a b o u t their fate i f th e T u rk s ca p tu red B aku. S u p p o rt fo r th e B olsh ev iks beg an to slip aw ay. It h ad re m a in ed s tro n g n o t because the A rm e n ia n s believed in C o m m u n is m b u t because th e B olsh ev iks k e p t th e A zerbaijanis m o re o r less u n d e r c o n tro l and th e A rm e n ia n s k n e w th at on ce th at c o n tro l was lifted th e A zerbaijanis w o u ld carry o f f th eir w o m e n , b u rn th eir houses and slit th e ir th ro ats. It w as n o t a q u estio n o f politics, b u t a m a tte r o f survival. As th e B o lsh e v ik forces ten d e d to be s tro n g o n ly in d ebate and n o t in fig h tin g the T u rk s , the A rm e n ia n s b eg a n to lo o k for s o m e o n e else to save th e m . T h e y h ad o n ly o n e choice - th e B ritish. A t th e sam e tim e, th e au tho rities in L o n d o n , ala rm ed b y the T u rk is h ad vance and the G e rm a n o cc u p atio n o f G eorg ia, also h ad a change o f h e a rt an d D u n sterv ille w as given p erm issio n to g o ahead w ith his ex p e d itio n , albeit o n a strictly lim ited basis. 86

Baku, January-Septem ber 1918 O n J u ly 16th, th e A rm e n ia n s and the Socialist R e v o lu tio n a ry m e m b e rs o f th e B a k u S oviet p ro p o s e d in v itin g the B ritish to defend th e m - j u s t as th e M u rm a n s k Soviet h ad d o n e fo u r m o n th s before. B u t th e y w e re n a r ro w ly defeated. N e v erth ele ss th e v o te w as so close th at S h au m ian felt o b lig ated to h ave his o rd ers restated by the B o lsh e v ik leaders. H e g o t th e m in n o uncertain te rm s fro m Stalin w h o h ad his h e a d q u a rte rs in T saritsy n , later to b e c o m e S talingrad, an d w h o refu sed to allow the S oviet to ask for help fro m the “ A n g lo -F re n c h Im p erialists” . T h e n e x t day Lenin cabled fro m M o s c o w o rd e rin g S h au m ian to fo llo w S talin’s in stru ctio n s. S hau­ m ian, h o w e v e r, w as in n o p o sitio n to d o so. Stalin and Lenin m ay h av e h ad th eir o w n tro u b les b u t th ey w e re n o t s u rro u n d e d b y an a r m y o f T u rk is h regulars su p p o rte d b y b lo o d th irs ty Azerbaijanis. N e ith e r d id th e y hav e th e co sm o p o litan , frig h te n ed p o p u la tio n o f B ak u to deal w ith . S h au m ian spelt it all o u t to L enin in an o th e r te le g ra m o n J u ly 27th, and th en fo u r days later, w ith th e g rey figures o f th e T u rk s ap p earin g o n the hills s u rro u n d in g the city, he an d th e o th e r B o lsh e v ik leaders steam ed o u t o f B ak u h a rb o u r o n a ship h ea d in g fo r the R ed s tro n g h o ld o f A stra k h an w h ic h c o m m a n ­ d ed the C a s p ia n ’s V o lg a delta. T h e y had o n ly g o n e a few m iles w h e n th ey w e re tu rn e d back b y g u n b o a ts m a n n e d b y sailors sy m p a th e tic to the M en sh ev ik s. In th e m e a n tim e the g o v e rn m e n t o f B a k u h ad been tak en o v e r b y Socialist R e v o lu tio n a ry A rm e n ia n s and M e n sh e v ik s u n d e r the n a m e o f th e C e n tra l-C a sp ia n D icta­ to rsh ip . T h e “ D ic ta to r s ” im m e d ia te ly did tw o things. T h e y arrested S h au m ian an d his c o m m issars. A n d in a form al n o te to V ice -C o n su l M c D o n e ll th e y in v ite d th e B ritish to take part in the defence o f B aku . It seem ed at first th at the in v ita tio n h ad co m e to o late. B u t the A rm e n ia n s, fig h tin g w ith a co u rag e th at com es fro m desperation, s to p p e d th e T u rk s in th eir tracks w ith a fierce c o u n te r-attac k . It forced th e T u rk s to a b a n d o n th eir plans for sim p ly w a lk in g in to B ak u , an d in stead to b rin g u p supplies and p rep are a p ro p e r siege o f th e city. D u n sterv ille, his force a u g m e n te d b y in fan try and g u n s released b y th e W ar O ffice, h ad n o w received p erm issio n b o th fro m the n e w B a k u g o v e r n m e n t an d the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t to u n d e rta k e his ex p e d itio n . H is task, as spelled o u t b y th e W ar O ffice, w as n o t to try to o c c u p y B a k u o n a p e rm a n e n t basis, b u t to close the C asp ian to th e T u rk s an d to sab o tag e th e oilfields to the ex te n t th at the T u rk s an d G e rm a n s w o u ld g et n o oil. F o r D u n sterv ille to fig h t his w a y in to B ak u b y land w as im p o ssi­ ble, as the T u rk s h ad alread y reached th e C aspian at A lyat, s o u th o f 87

O il and the T w e n ty -S ix Commissars th e city. Instead he m o u n te d a naval o p eratio n , c o m m a n d e e rin g th ree ships a n d tra n s p o rtin g his force, m en, horses, guns, a r m o u r e d cars, his F ords, an d so m e M a rtin s y d e S cout aircraft fro m th e p o rt o f Enzeli in N o r t h e r n Persia directly to the B ak u peninsula. H is o w n ship w as th e President Kruger, n a m e d after th e B o er leader w h o se p o rtra it, c o m p le te w ith to p hat, d o m in a te d the m e s s ro o m . T h e Kruger, w h ic h n o rm a lly tra d e d along th e C asp ian coastline, h ad b e c o m e a “ re v o lu tio n a ry s h ip ” and w as flying the R ed Flag. D u n ste rv ille h ad it h au led d o w n and replaced b y the T sarist flag: he w as im m e d ia te ly in tro u b le w ith th e s h ip ’s re v o lu tio n a ry c o m m it­ tee. B u t after m u c h a rg u m e n t th ey reached a co m p ro m ise: th e flag w o u ld be flo w n up side d o w n . In this w a y it resem bled th e flag o f Serbia. D u n ste rv ille th en set sail for B ak u re m a rk in g o n the “ g lo rio u s tang le o f it all. A B ritish general o n the C aspian, th e o n ly sea u n p lo u g h e d b efore b y B ritish keels, o n b o a rd a ship n a m e d after a S o u th A frican D u tc h p re sid e n t and fo rm e r en e m y , sailing fro m a P ersian p o rt u n d e r a S erbian flag, to relieve fro m the T u rk s a b o d y o f A rm e n ia n s in a re v o lu tio n a ry R ussian t o w n . ” T h e arrival o n A u g u s t 4th, 1918 o f the B ritish T o m m ie s at the w h a r f b e lo n g in g to the C a u c a s u s -M e rc u ry Steam S hipp ing C o m ­ p an y caused a great deal o f ex c ite m en t a m o n g s t the c ity ’s 300,000 in h ab itan ts w h o w a tc h e d th e m d ise m b a rk and m a rc h th ro u g h th e streets to a cerem o nial w e lc o m e b y the n e w g o v e rn m e n t. T h e soldiers o f the M id la n d B rig ad e fo u n d th em selv es in a cu riou s place, d irty and ru b b is h -s tre w n w ith cam els w a n d e rin g th e streets. E v e r y th in g w as co v e red in a fine layer o f sa n d -d u st carried o n s tro n g n o r th w in ds. H o r s e -d ra w n tram s p ro v id e d th e m ain m eans o f tra n s p o rt and w h e n th e horses, starv ed o f fodd er, could n o t get u p th e hills th e passengers w e re h arnessed to th e traces. T h e re w e re m o sq u e s and m in are ts an d an o b v io u sly p ro s p e ro u s business q u a r­ ter. A n d o v e r it all h u n g th e sm ell o f oil fro m th e derricks stan d in g in th e sh allo w w aters o f the C aspian. T h e soldiers them selv es, w ith their lo n g sh o rts an d rifles m a k in g th e m lo o k like d a n g e ro u s sch o o lb o y s, w e re equally objects o f cu rio sity to th e vario us nationalities w h o w a tc h e d th e m m a rc h past. T h e y h o p e d th at these y o u n g m e n w e re g o in g to save th e m fro m th e T u rk s w h ile th ey p u rsu e d their ag e-o ld feuds ov erlaid w ith the n e w o n e w h ic h cut across th e old divisions, th at o f being fo r o r a gain st B o lshevism . A m o n g th o se tak in g a keen and h ig h ly critical interest in the B ritish soldiers w as a sm all, d ark ly h a n d s o m e A rm e n ia n , tw e n ty th re e -y e a r-o ld A nastas M ik o y a n . F o rm e rly C o m m is s a r o f the 3rd 88

Baku, January-Septem ber 1918 B rig ad e o f th e R ed A rm y , th en w o rk in g u n d e r g ro u n d in B aku, he w as later to b e c o m e o n e o f the great pillars o f S talin’s Russia. W h a t his real th o u g h ts w e re w e shall n ev e r k n o w b u t later he w ro te a sanitised v e rsio n o f th e events: O n th e first d ay s o m e 200 tro o p s arrived. B u t in o rd e r to m ak e an im p re ssio n o n th e local peop le th ey w e re m arc h ed d o w n th e sam e street tw ice. M o re arriv ed o v e r th e n ex t few days, b u t o n ly a few. In the e n d th ere w e re o n ly a b o u t 1,000 o f the 16,000 th at the an ti-B o lsh e v ik Social R ev o lu tio n aries h ad p ro m is e d w o u ld be th ere to h o ld o f f the G e rm an s and the T u rk s . A n d even th en the B ritish d id n o t send all their m en u p in to the fro n t line. A large n u m b e r w e re held back in B ak u itself. C learly th ey w a n te d to keep co n tro l o v e r the local g o v e rn m e n t, as w ell as av oid losses at th e front. M ik o y a n w as bein g less th an g enerou s. In fact the B ritish tro o p s w e re ru sh e d u p to th e fro n t line as th e y arrived and th o se left in the city w e re n eed ed fo r o rg an isatio n al p urp o ses and to m ak e sure they w e re n o t stab b ed in th e back b y local m alco ntents. H e w as correct a b o u t the n u m b e rs h o w e v e r - “ D u n s te rfo rc e ” co m p rise d o n ly 900 m en . It w as th e sam e sto ry as A rch ang el, b u t in reverse. T h e re the B olsh ev ik s feared a m a jo r in vasio n w h ic h cou ld hav e o v e rw h e lm e d th e m , b u t w h ic h failed to m aterialise. In B aku, th e C en tra l C aspian D ic ta to rs h ip had h o p e d the B ritish w o u ld send a large force and k n e w th ey w e re d o o m e d w h e n D u n sterv ille arriv ed w ith o nly tw o battalions. T h e situ atio n w as n o t h elped b y the B olshevik agitato rs like M ik o y a n w h o circulated a n e w s-sh e e t attacking the arrival o f the B ritish. A d d re ssed to co m rad es, w o rk e rs, sailors, R ed A rm y and all B ak u citizens, it said: T h e agents o f th e E n g lish Im perialists are ca rry in g o n c o u n te r­ re v o lu tio n a ry w o rk ; th e y s o w d isco rd a m o n g y o u , th ey in ten d to p u t u p the sailors against th e w o rk m a n , the w o rk m a n against the re v o lu tio n a ry g o v e rn m e n t. W e h av e n e w s th a t the E ng lish C apitalists h ave co nclud ed a close a g re e m e n t w ith o u r local co u n te r-re v o lu tio n a ries. T h e y w ish to d e s tro y o u r p o w e r and p u t u p in its place th e p o w e r o f the E n g lish and the B o u rg eo is. T h e B o u rg e o is and th eir despicable d ep e n d en ts are in fa v o u r o f the E nglish. T h e W o r k m e n an d Sailors are in fa v o u r o f the R ussian R ev o lu tio n . T h e B o u rg e o is an d th eir d ep e n d en ts are in fa v o u r o f cu ttin g 89

O il and the T w e n ty -S ix Commissars ad rift fro m Russia. T h e W o r k m e n and Sailors are in fa v o u r o f th e u n ity o f th e R ussian Socialist Federalist R epublic. T h e B o u rg e o is p led g e d to th e E nglish, b arte red souls, pitiful c o w a rd s, an d all c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n a rie s, are in fa v o u r o f cu ttin g ad rift fro m Russia, fo r E n g lish m ig h t, for a n e w w a r w ith G e rm a n y . T h e y are against th e in d ep e n d en ce o f Russia: A w a y w ith th e E n g lish Im perialists; A w a y w ith th eir paid agents; A w a y w ith the B o u rg e o is C o u n te r-R e v o lu tio n a rie s; H u r r a h fo r the P e o p le ’s C o m m itte e s; H u r r a h for in d e p e n d e n t Russia; H u r r a h fo r th e R ussian Social R ev o lu tio n ; W h a t can the E n g lish give you? N o th in g ; W h a t can th ey take fro m you? E v ery th in g ; A w a y w ith th e E n glish Im perialists; All to the fron t; to arm s; All to th e saving o f B aku. D u n sterv ille, a n o -n o n s e n se soldier, w as n o t p u t o f f b y such p ro p a g a n d a : he said he h ad n ev e r su p p o sed th at local reaction to th e B ritish w o u ld be “ en tirely frie n d ly ” . Far m o re w o rr y in g to h im w e re th e signs th at the T u rk s w e re p re p a rin g th eir lo n g -a w a ite d offensive against the city, and th e p o o r m o ra le o f the A rm e n ia n and R ussian soldiers w h o p ro v id e d the b u lk o f his defensive forces. H e tried to bo lster th e m w ith u n ifo rm s and rifles and q uick train in g courses b u t th e T sarist loyalist C o lo n e l B ic h e ra k h o v an d his disciplined soldiers h ad g o n e o f f to fig h t in the n o r th an d D u n sterv ille h ad little to w o rk w ith . H e w as fast ru n n in g o u t o f tim e. S h o rtly after he arriv ed D u n sterv ille w a tc h e d a T u rk is h attack o n a hill o u tsid e th e city and saw the R u ssian soldiers w a lk in g a w a y fro m the fight. T h e B ritish detach ­ m e n t o f sev e n ty officers and m e n left h o ld in g th e p o sitio n called for a co u n te r-a tta c k . N o th in g hap pened . E stab lish ed in t w o o f B a k u ’s best hotels, all c rim so n p lush curtain s and gilt fu rn itu re , D u n sterv ille and his staff w o rk e d o u t a plan o f ca m p aig n w ith B ritish units h o ld in g strategic hills, back ed b y th e field g u n s w h ic h h ad been sh ip p ed fro m Enzeli an d the A u stin A rm o u r e d cars w ith their m a c h in e -g u n s in tw in tu rre ts actin g as m o b ile reserve to p lug the gaps. T h e w elfare o f his m e n caused h im g reat co n c ern because this w as h ig h s u m m e r and B ak u w as strick en b y disease. In o rd e r to im p ro v e his soldiers’ diet he b o u g h t a c o n s ig n m e n t o f fresh C aspian caviare. It w as n o t a success. H e c o n c lu d ed th at caviare re q u ired “ a train e d palate, the m e n called it h e rrin g paste an d h ad n o great liking fo r it. ” 90

Baku, January-Septem ber 1918 N o n e o f th e m , h o w e v e r, h ad any tim e to train th eir palates. B y th e end o f th e first w e ek in S ep tem b er, the T u rk s h ad set them selv es u p for th eir final assault o n th e city, shelling th e streets, pick ing o f f o u tp o s ts a n d sp re ad in g fear a m o n g the A rm e n ia n s w h o n o w s h o w e d little s to m a c h for th e fight. Inside the city the “ D icta­ to r s h ip ” w h ic h refused to place its m e n u n d e r B ritish c o m m a n d arg u e d tactics in lo n g v o lu b le m ee tin g s w h ich achieved n o th in g . D u n sterv ille, en rag ed at o n e such m eetin g , to ld th e m th at his m en had c o m e to B a k u to help figh t th e T u rk s , n o t to “ d o all the figh ting w ith y o u r m e n as o n lo o k ers. In n o case have I seen y o u r tro o p s w h e n o rd e re d to attack do a n y th in g b u t retire, an d it is hopeless c o n tin u in g to fig h t alongside such m en . Y o u w o u ld be best advised to send o u t a p a rty at on ce w ith a flag o f truce to th e e n e m y and see w h a t te rm s y o u m a d e w ith h im . . . to enable y o u r w o m e n fo lk to get aw ay. I b eg y o u w ill fo reg o y o u r usual cu sto m o f sp e e ch m ak in g an d th e passing o f resolutions. ” T h e end cam e o n S ep te m b e r 14th w h e n the T u rk s b ro k e t h ro u g h the c ity ’s last line o f defence. D u n sterv ille had p re p are d for this and m o v e d his m e n d o w n to th e w h a rv es by n ig h t so th at the local po pulace, en ra g e d b y w h a t th ey re g ard e d as d esertio n b y the B ritish, c o u ld n o t interfere w ith the e m b a rk a tio n o f th e B ritish tro o p s o n th e President Kruger. It h ad been a costly o p e ra tio n fo r B ritain. T h e su rv iv in g A ustin a rm o u r e d cars and th irty F o rd T in Lizzies w ere incapacitated and p u sh e d o f f th e end o f the pier - a practice later fo llo w ed at N o v o ­ rossiy sk an d A rchangel. T w o aircraft w h ich had been sh o t up w ere d estro y e d . A n d n o less th an 180 m e n o f D u n ste rfo rc e w e re listed as killed, w o u n d e d o r m issing. O f those, 71 w ere killed and 21 o f the 85 w o u n d e d died later. It w as a h ig h price to pay, b u t in D u n s te rv ille ’s o p in io n th e y o u n g m e n o f th e n e w b attalion s, th e H a m p sh ire s, N o r t h Staffs, G lou cestershires, W o rcestersh ires an d th e in co m p arab le G u rk h a s, had c o v e red them selv es w ith g lo ry . T h e y h ad been in the firing line for six w eeks an d k e p t at b ay a T u rk is h a rm y o f ten tim es th eir stre n g th o v e r a tw e n ty -m ile fro nt. T h e T u rk s later ac k n o w le d g e d th at they h ad suffered 2,000 casualties. D u n ste rv ille re g re tte d th at he w as o n ly able to p ro v id e his m en w ith bread, biscuits an d cups o f tea as th ey sailed safely to Enzeli because “ ev e ry m a n deserv ed a L o rd M a y o r ’s b anq uet. ” In fact, the loss o f B a k u n o lo n g e r m a tte re d to the o u tc o m e o f the w ar. T h e G e rm a n s h a d suffered th eir “ B lack D a y ” o n the W estern F ro n t and th eir defeat w as n o w inevitable. B u t inside B ak u dread ful thin gs w e re h ap p e n in g . T h e T u rk s stayed outsid e the city fo r three days 9i

O il and the T w e n ty -S ix Commissars w h ile th eir A zerbaijani irregulars lo o te d and pillaged in m edieval style. E v e ry A rm e n ia n fear b o rn o f lo n g experience o f m assacre w as realised. T h e ir w o m e n w e re raped, their h o m e s d e stro y e d an d 9,000 m e n w e re m u rd e re d . T h e stench o f the dead b lo tte d o u t th e u sually p erv asiv e sm ell o f th e oil. T h e effects o f the B ak u m assacre, like so m a n y o th e r incidents in this sto ry , ru m b le o n to d ay . It w as o ne o f th e atrocities w h ic h has s p a w n e d the m o d e rn - d a y A rm e n ia n terro rist g ro u p s w h o m u rd e r T u rk is h d ip lo m a ts in th e n a m e o f their dead, d e m a n d in g an a d m is­ sion o f g u ilt fro m the T u r k s and th e re sto ratio n o f th eir n ation. W hile D u n sterv ille w as fig h tin g o n the w e ste rn sh ore o f th e C asp ian , a n o th e r B ritish M ajo r-G en e ral, W ilfred M alleson, w as fig h tin g inlan d fro m th e C a s p ia n ’s eastern coast, in C en tra l Asia p ro p e r. U n d e r the c o m m a n d o f th e Indian A rm y , he h ad a m ix e d force o f B ritish and Indian soldiers w h o se task w as to p re v e n t the T u rk s and G e rm a n s lan d in g an ex p e d itio n o n the east coast and fo llo w in g th e railw ay line th ro u g h T ran scaspia fro m th e p o rt o f K ra s n o v o d s k to M e rv an d th en d o w n to the A fg h a n b o rd e r. M alleso n, an Indian A r m y Intelligence officer, had origin ally been sent to M esh e d in N o r t h Persia in J u n e 1918, to keep an eye o n w h a t w as g o in g o n across th e b o rd e r w h e re the B o lsheviks w e re in alm o st c o m p lete co n tro l. H e w as also o rd e re d to sab otag e the T ra n s -C a s p ia n R ailw ay i f the T u rk s b ro k e th ro u g h and to m ak e sure th e y did n o t ca p tu re large stocks o f c o tto n sto red at d ep o ts alo n g the line. B ut, as w ith m o s t m ilitary affairs, the situ atio n ch a n g ed rapidly. B efore he h ad started his w o r k at M esh e d dissatis­ faction w ith B o lsh e v ik rule in the T ran scasp ian area had boiled o v er and b y th e m id d le o f Ju ly , a coalition o f M en sh e v ik s and Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries h ad established a g o v e r n m e n t o f sorts called th e A s h k h a b a d C o m m itte e . T h e y w e re in a p recariou s p o sitio n because the vengeful B o lsh e­ viks h ad a rm e d so m e G e rm a n and A u s tro -H u n g a ria n priso ners o f w a r an d w e re a d v a n cin g alo ng th e railw ay fro m the R iver O x u s to M e r v and A sh k h ab a d . T h e y fo u g h t o f f the first attacks east o f M e rv , b u t d o u b te d i f th ey cou ld h o ld the p o sitio n m u c h lo n g e r and so, like th eir c o m p a trio ts at M u rm a n s k and B aku, th ey asked the B ritish fo r help, send ing a d elegation to M alleson in M esh e d to ask for m en , m o n e y an d w eap o n s. M alleson , an ticip atin g this plea, h ad re q u ested in stru ction s. H is rep ly cam e n o t fro m L o n d o n b u t fro m G eneral Sir C . C. M u n ro , C o m m a n d e r - in - C h i e f o f the Indian A rm y , w h o gave M alleso n th e soldierly advice to get o n w ith it since he w as th e m a n o n the sp o t a nd p re s u m a b ly k n e w w h a t he w as d o in g . M alleson th en m ad e an 92

Baku, January-Septem ber 1918 a g re e m e n t w ith th e A sh k h a b a d C o m m itte e in w h ich he c o m m itte d h im s e lf o n b e h a lf o f the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t to “ g u aran tee the co n tin u an c e o f m ilitary and financial help so lo n g as the T ra n s ­ caspian g o v e r n m e n t rem ain s in p o w e r and co ntin ues to place at the head o f its political p ro g r a m m e the re sto ratio n o f o rd e r and the su p p re ssio n o f B o lsh e v ik and T u r k - G e r m a n in trig u e an d plans for in v a s io n .” M alleson b ac k ed his w o rd s w ith actions. H is Indian m ac h in e g u n n e rs saved th e day in a brisk action w h e n B o lsh ev ik rein force­ m en ts defeated th e A sh k h a b a d C o m m i t t e e ’s ra w tro o p s at the M e rv O asis. H e th en sent in 300 m en o f the 19th P u njabi R e g im e n t w h o sto p p e d the ad v a n cin g B o lsh ev iks in fig h tin g at K aakh a o n A u g u s t 28th. Later, rein fo rced by tw o sq u ad ro n s o f the S eventh L ight C a v a lry (the secon d oldest re g im e n t in the Indian A rm y ), a b attery o f B ritish field artillery and a c o m p a n y o f in fan try fro m D u n s te rville’s base at Enzeli, he w as able to m u s te r a force o f so m e th o u s a n d m en . It could h ard ly be called a m a jo r force o f in ter­ v e n tio n b u t, as the official h is to ry o f the M e s o p o ta m ia C a m p a ig n record s, o n N o v e m b e r 1st it w as able to d rive the B o lsh ev iks o u t o f M e rv , th at ancien t seat o f Islam ic learning on ce c o n q u e re d by A lex a n d er th e G reat. T h is h a r d -fo u g h t v icto ry , and th e establish­ m e n t o n th e C asp ian o f a flotilla o f five sm all ships arm e d w ith gu ns d ra g g e d o v erla n d th r o u g h Persia, c o m b in e d w ith the pro gress o f the w a r in th e W est to re m o v e the th reat to A fghanistan fro m th e T u rk is h A r m y and, fo r the tim e being, the B o lshevik forces. T h ese sm all battles fo u g h t in fa raw a y places, m o re like K ip lin g esque c a m p aig n s against rebellious trib esm en th an part o f th e m o st im p o rta n t political up heaval o f th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry , are largely fo rg o tte n n o w b u t th ey in clu d ed an inciden t w h ich still co lo urs the S oviet U n i o n ’s attitu d e to w a rd s B ritain: the ex e cu tio n o f the tw e n ty -s ix C o m m is s a rs o f B aku. W h e n D u n sterv ille sailed a w a y fro m B ak u th e D ic ta to rsh ip still h ad S h au m ian and his B o lsh e v ik colleagues u n d e r arrest. A c co rd ­ ing to M ik o y a n th ere w e re th irty -fiv e o f th em , o f w h o m he w as one. W h a t h a p p e n e d n e x t rem ains vague, perhaps deliberately so. B u t M ik o y a n asserts th a t d u e to his efforts th ey w e re all released. T h e y th en set o u t for A stra k h a n , the o n ly C aspian p o rt still in B o lsh e v ik h and s, o n b o a rd th e steam e r Turkm an. T h e M ik o y a n v ersio n says th a t th ere w e re tw o B ritish officers o n b o a rd and th ey o rd e re d th e Turkman to sail east instead o f n o rth and p u t into K ra s n o v o d s k w h ic h w as u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f the A sh k h ab a d C o m m itte e . It is a lm o st certain th a t this v ersion is n o t true. T h e re is 93

O il and the T w e n ty -S ix Commissars n o re c o rd o f an y B ritish officers bein g o n b o a rd th e Turkman and th e real v ersio n sh o rn o f B o lsh e v ik p ro p a g a n d a w o u ld seem to be th a t re c o u n te d b y Firuz K azem zad eh , in his b o o k The Struggle fo r Transcaucasia. A c c o rd in g to K a zem za d eh it w as the c rew o f the Turkman w h o decided to c hange cou rse fo r K ra s n o v o d s k fo r the telling reason th at th ey feared arrest b y the B o lsh ev iks in A strak h an . O n S e p te m b e r 15th, th e y sailed in to K ra s n o v o d s k w h e re all th irty -fiv e c o m m is ­ sars w e re im m e d ia te ly arrested and held o n a n o th e r b o a t b y a C o ssack called K u h n w h o h ad b een a p p o in te d c o m m a n d a n t b y th e A sh k h a b a d C o m m itte e . A w a re o f the im p o rta n c e o f his captives, he asked the C o m m itte e in A sh k h ab a d , so m e 350 m iles a w ay w h a t he s h o u ld d o w ith th e m . It w as n o t u ntil th ree days later th at M alleson , still at M e sh e d in Persia, w as to ld a b o u t th eir c a p tu re by th e C o m m i t t e e ’s re p rese n ta tiv e at his h ead q u arters. A t this tim e n e g o tia tio n s w e re g o in g o n b e tw e e n the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t an d the S oviet au th o rities o v e r th e ex ch an g e o f d ip lo m a ts an d o th ers b ein g h eld as h ostages in b o th countries. M alleson saw im m e d ia te ly th a t th e ca p tu re o f co m m issars w o u ld be a g o o d card to ad d to th e B ritish h a n d an d asked fo r th e m to be h a n d e d o v e r to h im , offering to send a d e ta c h m e n t o f B ritish tro o p s to escort th e m to India, w h e re a p riso n ca m p w as later established to h o ld B o lsh e v ik p riso n ers taken in C e n tra l Asia. T h r o u g h o u t the affair n o B ritish officer laid eyes o n th e c o m m is ­ sars. M alleson, n ee d in g all his m e n to fig h t his battles fu rth e r east, h ad n o b o d y in K ra s n o v o d s k and the o n ly B rito n in the area, o n e o f D u n s te rv ille ’s officers, w as k ep t in the d ark b y the local autho rities. H o w e v e r, o n e B ritish officer, C a p ta in R egin ald T eag ue-Jo nes, M a lle s o n ’s liaison officer w ith th e C o m m itte e in A sh k h ab a d , w as in a p o sitio n in w h ic h he m ig h t h ave affected th e fate o f th e c o m m issars. M alleso n w irelessed T eag u e-Jo n es to u rg e the C o m ­ m itte e to h a n d th eir captives to the B ritish. O n the sam e day, S e p te m b e r 18th, F y o d o r F u n tik o v , th e Socialist R e v o lu tio n a ry P resid en t o f the C o m m itte e asked T eagu e-Jon es, a fluent R ussian speaker, to go to a m e e tin g o f the C o m m itte e to decide w h a t to do. T h e d ra m a o f th at m e e tin g com es th ro u g h T e a g u e -Jo n e s’ a c co u n t o f it in his letter o f ex p la n atio n to th e F o reig n O ffice. F u n tik o v w as, as usual, d ru n k . T h e C o m m itte e w as frig h te n ed th at B o lsh ev ik sy m p a th ise rs in K ra s n o v o d s k w o u ld free th e com m issars. T h e c o m m a n d a n t w a n te d th e m o f f his hands; his jails w e re full. T h e jails at A s h k h a b a d w e re also full. F u n tik o v a rg u ed th at the co m m iss a rs sh o u ld be sh o t and re p o rte d th at M alleso n had refused to tak e respon sibility fo r th em . F or so m e reason T eague-Jon es d id 94

Baku, January-Septem ber 1918 n o t tell th e C o m m itte e th at M alleso n w as n o t o n ly w illing b u t a n x io u s to tak e ch arg e o f the com m issars. T h e a rg u m e n t ra m b le d o n in co n c lu siv ely in to th e n ig h t. T eag ue-Jones left, d isg u sted b y F u n tik o v ’s alcoholic ra m b lin g s and, p re su m a b ly , assu m in g that n o th in g w o u ld be settled. T h e f o llo w in g day he w e n t to see F u n tik o v , w h o w as still d ru n k , and w h o , after bein g pressed b y th e B rito n , said it h ad been decided to s h o o t th e c o m m issars. A ppalled, T eag ue-Jo nes cabled M alleson w h o s u m m o n e d th e C o m m i t t e e ’s representative, and he co n firm ed th a t tw e n ty -s ix o f th e co m m issars h ad been sh o t because o f the “ seriousness o f th e situ a tio n ” and th e difficulties in v o lv e d in m ee t­ ing the B ritish re q u est th at th ey s h o u ld be h an d e d o v e r to be used as ho stages. M alleso n th en m ad e the disg u sted c o m m e n t w h ich m u s t hav e been u tte re d b y m a n y o th e r B rito n s d u rin g the in terv e n tio n : “ In m y o p in io n y o u are all alike. R ed o r W h ite .” H e th en asked T eag u e-Jo n es for c o n firm a tio n o f th e killings and w as to ld th a t F u n tik o v h ad tak en the m a tte r into his o w n hands. H e h ad g iven th e o rd e r for the e x e cu tio n to K u h n an d o n th e n ig h t o f S e p te m b e r I 9 t h - 2 0 t h , the d o o m e d m e n w e re p u t o n a train, taken sev e n ty -fiv e m iles in to the d esert to a place w h ich is n o w k n o w n as “ 26 B a k in sk ik h K o m m is s a ro v ” and shot. M ik o y a n ’s v e rsio n o f w h a t h a p p e n e d is qu ite different. A c co rd ­ ing to h im th e w h o le affair w as th e respo nsibility o f the B ritish “ in te rv e n tio n is ts ” . T h e co m m issars w ere su p p o sed to have been p u t o n trial in B aku , b u t this d id n o t h ap p e n because o f th e fall o f the city. T h e n th e m e n w e re tak en o n B ritish o rd ers to K ra sn o v o d sk and F u n tik o v o rd e re d th eir deaths, “ acting u n d e r pressure fro m B ritish b o sse s” . M ik o y a n an d e ig h t o th ers w e re released, he claim ed, because th e ir n am es w e re n o t o n a list w h ic h had been sent fro m B ak u to K ra s n o v o d s k . T h e y w e re tu rn e d loose, he w ro te , o n S ep tem b er 19th, the d ay th eir co m ra d es m e t th eir deaths. T h e re is so m e c o r ro b o ra tio n o f this p a rt o f the s to ry because o n S e p te m b e r 25th, t w o days after M alleso n w as to ld o f the execution s he re p o rte d o n th e affair to th e W a r O ffice in L o n d o n . In his teleg ram he said that th e B o lsh e v ik co m m issars fro m B ak u had been sh o t “ w ith the e x c e p tio n o f five o r six u n im p o r ta n t o n e s ” . M alleson, still at M esh e d , also fired o f f a fu rio u s teleg ram to th e A sh k h a b a d C o m ­ m itte e p ro te stin g a b o u t th e ex e cu tio n o f m en the B ritish w a n te d as hostages. N e w s o f th e ex ecu tio n s d id n o t b e c o m e general k n o w le d g e until th e fo llo w in g M a rc h w h e n a B a k u n e w sp a p e r p rin te d a s to ry b y a Socialist R e v o lu tio n a ry jo u rn a lis t called V a d im C h a ik in w h o had 95

O il and the T w e n ty -S ix Commissars in te rv ie w e d F u n tik o v , th en being held in p riso n in A sh k h ab a d . F u n tik o v heap ed the b la m e fo r th e affair o n th e B ritish. T h e B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t accepted this line and p ro teste d to L o n d o n w h ile Stalin w ro te an article w h ic h arg u e d th at th e execu tion s “ s h o u te d o f the law lessness and savage d e b a u ch ery w ith w h ic h th e E n g lish agents settled acco un ts w ith th e ‘n a tiv e s’ o f B ak u and T ra n s c a s p ia ju s t as th ey h ad w ith th e blacks o f C en tra l A fric a .” F ro m th at m o m e n t o n th e B ritish becam e the villains o f the affair. O n th e first an n iv e rsary o f the d eath o f the co m m issars th eir re m a in s w e re cre m a te d in B ak u and at th e m e m o ria l service o n e o f th eir c o m ra d e s said, “ T h e se stalw art, h o n est heroes fell at the h an ds o f the B ritish, th o se fro m a c o u n try w h ic h to u ts its h u m a n ita ria n attitu des, th ere lies th e result o f this h u m a n ita ria n ism - 26 coffins. B u t the h o u r o f re trib u tio n d ra w s n e a r .” T h e local n e w sp a p e r eu lo g ised “ o u r 26 co m ra d es w h o w e re savagely sh o t to d eath b y B ritish ex e cu tio n ers and W h ite G u a rd s .” P ain tin g s o f the ex e c u tio n alw ays s h o w tw o B ritish officers in atten d a n ce a lth o u g h n o n e w e re w ith in a h u n d re d m iles o f the scene. M ik o y a n g o t ro u n d th a t p ro b le m b y insisting th at the tw o officers he claim s o rd e re d the Turkm an to ch an ge co urse w e n t asho re at K ra s n o v o d s k w h e re th ey w e re g reeted b y tw o co lu m n s o f B ritish soldiers, a b a tte ry o f B ritish artillery an d a g ro u p o f local officials. C o u ld he hav e been referrin g to M a lle so n ’s rein fo rce m en ts w h o w e re later to fight at M erv ? T h e o th e r g reat p ro ta g o n is t o f B ritish guilt w as F u n tik o v h im ­ self. U n d e rs ta n d a b ly because he w as o n trial for his life, he tried to p u t all the b lam e o n T ea g u e-Jo n e s w h o , he said, o rd e re d h im to hav e th e c o m m issars shot, ex pressed satisfaction th at his o rd e rs had been carried o u t, and p ro m is e d to help co v e r u p the crim e. T h e dead m e n h av e en te red th e p a n th e o n o f B o lshevik heroes. Streets and factories t h r o u g h o u t the Soviet U n io n are n a m e d after th e m . T h e ir statues stan d in B ak u an d o th e r cities. M ee tin g s and rallies c o m m e m o ra te th e an n iv e rsary o f th eir deaths. A nd , ac co rd ­ ing to M ik o y a n , it w as all the fault o f the “ B ritish Im perialists. T h e y w ill n e v e r be able to w a sh a w ay th e sh am e o f th eir c o m p licity in th e deaths o f th e tw e n ty -s ix B ak u C o m m is s a r s .” B u t M ik o y a n , th e g reat s u rv iv o r, w as n o t u n to u c h e d b y the affair. Y ears later his enem ies w ith in th e P o litb u ro m o u n te d a w h is p e rin g ca m p aig n against h im , su g g estin g , u n tru th fu lly , th at he w as released w h e n th e o th ers w e n t to th eir d eaths because he h ad b e tra y e d th em . S im ilar accusations o f w o rk in g for th e B ritish in B ak u w e re m ad e ag ain st Beria, th e m o n s tro u s head o f th e Soviet secret police w h o 96

Baku, January-Septem ber lg iS tried to succeed Stalin, and th e y helped to ju s tify B e ria ’s disgrace and ex ecutio n. So M ik o y a n m a y be th o u g h t lu ck y to have died in 1978 in his bed. A n o th e r v ictim w as C ap tain T eag ue-Jo nes. C o u ld he h ave p re ­ v e n te d th e ex e c u tio n o f the com m issars? H e m ig h t h av e a tte m p te d to sto p th e d ru n k e n F u n tik o v b y th rea ten in g to cu t o f f B ritish financial an d m ilita ry aid. B u t did he h ave th e au th o rity ? O r , m o re p ertin e n t, d id h e th in k it w as necessary? It n o w seem s p ro b a b le th at T ea g u e-Jo n e s to o k n o action because he th o u g h t the Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries h ad e m b a rk e d o n an a rg u m e n t w h ich , typically, w o u ld last fo r days an d end inconclusively. T h e fact th a t it en d e d s h o rtly after he left the m e e tin g and th e ex ecu tio n s w e re carried o u t so sw iftly shattered th e y o u n g B ritish officer. W h e n he re tu rn e d to B ritain he sank in to silent a n o n y m ity , refu sing to discuss the affair. B y a stran g e q u irk o f coincidence w e learn t a little m o re a b o u t T eag u e-Jo n es fro m Vic C lo w , w h o , d e m o n s tra tin g his fo rm id a b le m e m o ry , w as telling us a b o u t the first leg o f his jo u r n e y h o m e o n b o a rd th e T u rk is h refugee ship Kapul Thala fro m N o v o ro s s iy s k to C o n sta n tin o p le . C lo w h ad n e v e r h ea rd o f T ea g u e-Jo n e s o r th e B ak u co m m issars b ut, talking a b o u t th e o th e r p eo ple o n b o ard , he m e n tio n e d m ee tin g a R ussian w o m a n trav ellin g in the n a m e o f M iller. It w as n o t h er real n am e, she explained; she w as m a rrie d to a B ritish m a jo r called T e a g u e J o n e s w h o h ad been forced to ch an ge his n a m e because he w as in d a n g e r fro m th e B olsh ev iks and w as still w o rk in g u n d e rc o v e r in S o u th Russia. It is e x tra o rd in a ry th a t w ith so m a n y m illions o f peop le killed in th e C ivil W ar, in S talin’s p o g ro m s and H itle r’s w ar, th e affair o f th e B ak u C o m m is s a rs sh o u ld have retained its e m o tio n al im p a c t o n the Soviet people; b u t it does an d to this day it p ro v id es a p ro p a g a n d a w e a p o n fo r th e Soviets to b e la b o u r the W est, p r o o f th at the in te rv e n tio n ists - an d th a t includes the U n ite d States - w e re r u th ­ less m u rd e re rs o f Soviet heroes.

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CH A PTER 7

The Bolo Liquidation Club Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-August 1918

W hile th e B ritish A r m y w as a b o u t its business at the m ilitary ex tre m ities o f Russia a n o th e r c a m p aig n w as bein g w a g e d b y a b an d o f B ritish ad v e n tu re rs in th e political centres o f M o s c o w and P e tro g ra d . T h e leading m e m b e rs o f this b a n d w e re R o b e rt B ruce L o ck h a rt, Francis C ro m ie , S id ney Reilly, G e o rg e Hill, S tep h en A lley, E rn e s t B oyce, D e n y s G a rstin an d W . L. H icks. E ach o n e o f th e m w as an ac co m p lish e d ag e n t and each o n e o f th e m co uld hav e step p ed stra ig h t o u t o f th e pages o f a J o h n B u ch an story. A n in d icatio n o f th e ty p e o f m e n th ey w e re m a y be g ath e red fro m th e m e m b e rs h ip o f th o se w h o su rv iv ed this ca m p aig n in an exclu­ sive lu n c h e o n club fo rm e d b y A lley, head o f th e B ritish Secret Service in R ussia u n til A p ril 1918. T h is club, w h ic h m e t at L o n d o n ’s C afe R oyal, w as restricted to m e m b e rs o f the Secret Intelligence Service and M I 5, th e S ecurity Service, w h o h ad been in v o lv e d in the stru g g le against th e B olsheviks. A n d w ith th at sc h o o lb o y sense o f h u m o u r to w h ic h th e Secret Service is p ro n e th e y called it “ T h e B o lo L iq u id atio n C l u b ” . S c h o o lb o y ish o r n o t, the m e m b e rs to o k p ro p e r p recau tio n s because a n u m b e r o f th e m h ad been senten ced to death b y th e B o lsh e v ik s an d th e y h a d a p ro p e r respect fo r th e lo n g an d ruthless a rm o f the C h ek a, fo re ru n n e r o f th e K G B . O n lu n c h e o n days th ey w o u ld sto p th e ir taxis t w o o r th ree streets aw a y a n d w a lk discreetly to th e C afe R oyal. B u t it w as still a far cry f ro m th o se desperate days in M o s c o w and P e tro g ra d w h e n ev e ry m o m e n t and every action carried the risk o f arrest and execu tio n. T h e s to ry centres ro u n d B ru ce L o ck h a rt, a “ Scot o f th e S co ts” w h o j o in e d H is B ritan n ic M a je s ty ’s C o n s u la r Service in 1911 after ru b b e r p lan tin g in M alay a w h e re he caused a scandal by tak in g a S u lta n ’s w a rd as his m istress. P o ste d to the M o s c o w consulate a year later, he to o k to R u ssia’s g litte rin g social life w ith the en th u siasm o f a b o y set loose in a sw eet sh op. N ig h ts at the ballet and the o p era fo llo w ed b y parties at fashionable re sta u ran ts an d the h ouses o f rich R ussian friends, o n a d iet o f c h a m p ag n e, v o d k a and caviare, laid th e basis for a n ig h t club 98

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-A ugust 1918 pallor w h ic h w as to stay w ith h im for the rest o f his life. B u t he w as far fro m b ein g a m e re p lay b o y . H e becam e fluent in R ussian and cu ltiv ated a n u m b e r o f influential R ussians especially a m o n g th e m o d e ra te o p p o s itio n to the T sar. B o th P rince L v o v an d A lex a n d er K eren sk y , successive leaders o f th e P ro v isio n al g o v e r n m e n t before th e B o lsh e v ik s seized p o w e r, w e re a m o n g his friends. H e w o rk e d h a rd and rose fro m th e lo w e st ra n k o f V ice -C o n su l to b e c o m e actin g C o n s u l-G e n e ra l in 1915, dealing w ith all the com p lexities o f C o n s u la r w o r k b r o u g h t a b o u t b y th e w ar. H e d id n o t, h o w e v e r, co nfine h im s e lf to co p in g w ith this w o rk . B ecause th e E m b a s s y w as in P e tro g ra d he h ad th e o p p o rtu n ity to re p o rt o n political d ev e lo p ­ m e n ts in M o s c o w an d his frien dship w ith P rince L v o v and A lexan­ d e r K e re n s k y paid h a n d s o m e d ividends. H is k n o w le d g e a b le despatches w e re eagerly read in the g o v e r n m e n t offices in W hitehall w h e re th e politicians, officials and soldiers w e re all h u n g ry for n ew s fro m Russia, especially a b o u t th e n e w g o v e r n m e n t’s attitu d e to ­ w a rd s c o n tin u in g th e w a r against G e rm a n y . H o w e v e r, as he h ad s h o w n earlier in M alaya, he w as s o m e w h a t ind iscreet in his choice o f w o m e n . H e started an affair w ith a F rench J ew e ss an d w as re p o rte d to the A m b a ssa d o r, Sir G e o rg e B u ch an a n b y his colleague, th e n o velist H u g h W alpole. As L o ck h a rt h ad a w ife his affair w o u ld hav e been d isa p p ro v e d o f o n th ree counts: his m a rria g e an d th e fact th a t his m istress w as b o th F ren ch an d Jew ish . W h a t seem ed like a brilliant career in the m a k in g w as n o w th re a te n e d and Sir G e o rg e, w h o m u c h a d m ire d th e y o u n g Scot, p o ste d h im h o m e fo r “ reasons o f h e a lth ” . T h u s , j u s t o v e r a m o n th b efo re L enin seized p o w e r, L ockhart, s o m e w h a t ch ag rin ed , fo u n d h im s e lf k ick in g his heels back in L o n d o n w h ile g reat events w e re tak in g shape in Russia. Like an y o th e r large e n te rp rise th e F o reign O ffice is a great gossip sh o p an d th e n ew s o f his peccadillos spread th ro u g h th e service. B u t he w as saved b y Sir G e o rg e ’s h ealth g a m b it - ironically, as it tu rn e d o u t, for Sir G e o rg e w as h im s e lf to be b ro u g h t h o m e o n gen u in e h ealth g ro u n d s - and b y th e in tere st sh o w n in h im b y L o rd M ilner, a m e m b e r o f th e W a r C ab in et. T h e re w as also a n o th e r figure g u id in g L o c k h a rt’s destiny , th at o f C o m m a n d e r M an sfield S m ith C u m m in g , C h i e f o f the Secret Service. A flam b o y a n t character w ith , like L o ck h a rt and Reilly, a taste fo r w o m e n , he becam e k n o w n as “ C ” and the head o f th e Secret Service, M I6, has been called “ C ” ever since. T h e e x te n t o f his in v o lv e m e n t w ith L o ck­ h art, w h o w as alw ays coy a b o u t this side o f his w o rk , will o n ly be k n o w n w h e n - i f e v er - the a p p ro p ria te papers are released. B u t th ere is little d o u b t th at w h e n L o c k h a rt re tu rn e d to M o s c o w he 99

The Bolo Liquidation Club ( w e n t u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f th e Secret Service as w ell as the F o reig n O ffice. O n D e c e m b e r 19th, 1917, L o ck h a rt w as s u m m o n e d to d ine w ith L o rd M iln e r w h o w as s h o rtly to b e c o m e th e M in iste r for W ar. T w o days later M iln e r to o k h im to N o . 10 D o w n in g Street w h e re he in tro d u c e d th e y o u n g d ip lo m a t to the P rim e M in iste r - L lo y d G e o rg e h ad already b een briefed o n L o c k h a rt’s v iew s o f the situ­ a tio n in R ussia. H e lo o k e d L o ck h a rt u p and d o w n th en said: “ M r L o ck h a rt, fro m the w is d o m o f y o u r re p o rts I expected to see an elderly g e n tle m a n w ith a g re y b e a r d .” H e asked a few q uestion s a b o u t L enin and T ro ts k y , referred briefly to th e chaotic co n d itio n s in Russia, em p h a sise d th e need for tact, k n o w le d g e and u n d e rs ta n d ­ ing and, tu rn in g to his C a b in e t colleagues w h o w e re listening to the co n v e rsatio n , said th a t L o ck h a rt w as a m a n w h o s e place w as o b v io u s ly in P e tro g ra d and n o t in L o n d o n . A n d so it w as arran g e d . L o ck h a rt w as to re tu rn to Russia “ to keep unofficially in t o u c h ” w ith th e B olsheviks. W ith three assis­ tants, C a p ta in H icks, a R ussian speaker fo rm e rly attached to th e B ritish M ilita ry M issio n in Russia, E d w a rd Birse, a civilian w h o h ad b een in business in M o s c o w fo r a n u m b e r o f years, and E d w a rd P helan, a y o u n g m a n fro m the M in istry o f L abo ur, he w o u ld o p e ra te u n d e r the co v e r o f a C o m m e rc ia l M ission. H is salary w o u ld be £2,000 a y ear an d he cou ld sp en d u p to £5,000 w ith o u t reference to L o n d o n - b u t he h ad to keep careful accounts. N o reference w as m a d e to his e x tra -m a rita l activities. A n d the reco rds o f his b riefin g b y C u m m i n g are closed p ro b a b ly fo r ever - even su p ­ p o sin g th ey h ave escaped the atten tio n s o f B ritish Secret Service w eeders. B efo re settin g o u t he h ad a n u m b e r o f co n v ersatio n s w ith the R u ssian e m ig re M a x im L itv in o v o v e r cups o f tea at the L y ons C o r n e r H o u s e in the S trand. L itv in o v h ad settled in L o n d o n , m a rrie d in to a B ritish literary fam ily and h ad w o rk e d for th e T sarist d e le g a tio n ’s p u rc h asin g c o m m itte e , b u y in g arm s and m ateriel for th e R ussian forces. A t th e sam e tim e he w as also leader o f the B o lsh ev ik s in L o n d o n an d in J a n u a ry 1918 w as a p p o in te d th e S oviet re p rese n ta tiv e in L o n d o n . T h e F oreig n O ffice refused to accept his a p p o in tm e n t officially b u t it w as agreed th a t he an d L o ck h a rt w o u ld be accepted as unofficial representatives w ith certain d ip lo m a tic privileges, n o t least bein g allo w ed to send m essages in cypher. (T h ese d ispo sitio n s w e re im p o rta n t to b o th co u n tries because the c o n v e n tio n a l d ip lo m a tic a rra n g e m e n ts w e re b re ak in g d o w n u n d e r th e im p a c t o f th e B o lsh e v ik R e v o lu tio n an d th e g ro w in g th rea t o f in te rv e n tio n .) 100

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-August 1918 L o c k h a rt arriv e d in P e tro g ra d early in F eb ruary . Sir G e o rg e B u c h a n a n h ad already g o n e h o m e . Sir G e o rg e w as a d ip lo m a t o f the old sch oo l a n d a lth o u g h o p p o se d to th e absolute m o n a rc h y o f the T s a r he h ad b u ilt u p a personal frien dsh ip and m u c h tru s t w ith the R ussian R o y al F am ily. H e h ad even tak en it u p o n h im s e lf to w a rn th e T s a r th a t unless he m a d e sw ee p in g changes in his g o v e r n m e n t to b rin g in m e n w h o u n d e rs to o d th e aspirations and th e sufferings o f th e p eople th e n a r e v o lu tio n w as inevitable. T h e T s a r h ea rd h im o u t po litely b u t to o k n o action. B u ch an a n co n tin u ed his g o o d w o r k w ith the P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t b u t o nce the B olshevik s cam e to p o w e r he fo u n d he w as dealing w ith m e n he n eith er k n e w n o r u n d e rs to o d . H e re tu rn e d to L o n d o n , his health b r o k e n .i n th e service o f his c o u n try , after a final C h ristm a s N i g h t celeb ration in th e great hall o f th e E m b assy , a palace bu ilt b y C a th e rin e the G reat fo r o n e o f h e r favourites. T h e d ip lo m a ts, soldiers, sailors an d spies sang th eir C h ris tm a s carols o f peace and h o p e b u t each o n e h ad a re v o lv e r in his po cket. B u ch an a n left th e E m b a s s y in charge o f Francis Lindley, the C o u n se llo r, b u t th ere w as no lo n g e r any useful co n ta ct b e tw e e n th e A llied em bassies and the B olsheviks. Six w eek s later, o n F eb ru a ry 18th, th e G e rm a n A r m y re su m e d its m a rc h in to R ussia to force the R ussians to capitulate to th e harsh te rm s o f th e T re a ty o f B rest-L ito v sk . W ith P e tro g ra d in d a n g e r o f b ein g c a p tu red , the A llied em bassies fled, h eadin g fo r Finland. As w e h av e seen, L indley w as able to talk his p a rty across th e F innish b o rd e r to safety w h ile th e o th e r nationalities end ed u p in V o lo gd a. T w o o f L o c k h a rt’s assistants, P helan and Birse, m a d e a rapid exit w ith the d ip lo m a ts, b u t th e th ird , C ap tain H icks, stay ed and L o c k h a rt re cru ited G a rstin fro m th e m ilitary m ission. T h e y did n o t m o v e in to th e E m b a s s y w h ic h w as n o w u n d e r D u tc h p ro te c tio n b u t to o k o v e r an elegant a p a rtm e n t o n th e Palace Q u a y . L o c k h a rt fo u n d h im s e lf in a curio us p ositio n. H e h ad n o real d ip lo m a tic s ta n d in g and a lth o u g h B ritish consuls still o p erated in M o s c o w , P e tro g ra d and several o th e r m a jo r cities, he re m a in ed resp o n sib le for a n u m b e r o f B ritish officers and officials w h o se activities d id n o t stan d to o close an ex a m in a tio n . H e later c o m ­ plained th at he w as co m p lete ly in th e d ark a b o u t th e w o r k o f these m e n “ for w h o s e presence in R ussia and for w h o s e p ro te c tio n m y p o sitio n w ith th e B o lsh ev ik s w as th e o n ly g u a ra n te e ” . T h e re w ere, o f course, professionals a ro u n d w h o did n o t need L o c k h a rt’s p ro te c tio n . O n e w as M a jo r S tephen A lley M C , head o f SIS in Russia. H e stayed o n un til A p ril 1918, but, like his successor, C o m m a n d e r E rn e st B oyce, he w as m o re co n cerned w ith intelli­ gence o p e ratio n s against G e rm a n y th an sp y in g o n th e B olsheviks. 101

T he Bolo Liquidation Club T h e ir o b jec tiv e at th a t tim e w as the defeat o f G e rm a n y ra th e r th an th e o v e r th r o w o f B o lsh e v ism . T h e r e w as also C a p ta in Francis C ro m ie , the d ev astatin g ly h a n d ­ so m e s u b m a rin e r w h o , m u c h against his will, had been m ad e N a v a l A tta c h e an d h ad stayed o n in P e tro g ra d as th e senior B ritish official th ere w h e n th e d ip lo m a ts left. H e w as th e g en u in e all-B ritish h ero. In S e p te m b e r 1915 he b ro k e th e G e rm a n naval b lock ad e o f P e tro ­ g ra d a n d its naval base o f K ro n s ta d t, sailing H M su b m a rin e E ig th r o u g h th e m inefields an d d e s tro y e r p atrols o f the Baltic. H e sank a G e rm a n d e s tro y e r th a t sam e m o n th and in N o v e m b e r to rp e d o e d and b ad ly d a m a g e d the lig h t cruiser Undine. T h e n , in D e cem b er, he fo rced th e G e rm a n s to halt th eir traffic to S w ed en b y sin k in g o r c a p tu rin g ten steam ers sailing u n d e r the G e rm a n flag. In M a y 1916 he w as a w a rd e d th e D S O fo llo w e d b y a chestful o f R ussian and F ren ch d eco ratio n s an d to o k c o m m a n d o f a jo i n t R ussian and B ritish s u b m a rin e fleet. T h e r e w e re seven B ritish su b m arin es, so m e o f w h ic h h ad been tran sferred fro m A rch an g el o n grain lig hters t h r o u g h th e in land w a te rw a y s, o p e ra tin g in the B altic w ith th eir c rew s based o n th e d e p o t ship D vina. T h is ship, u n d e r the n a m e o f Pamiat A z o v a , h ad played a b lo o d y role in the 1905 u p risin g an d w as c re w e d b y sailors alw ays o n th e v erg e o f m u tin y . In a letter to A d m ira l P h illim o re, affectionately k n o w n as Filthy Phil, w h o h ad been liaison officer to the T s a r ’s naval h e a d q u arte rs b efo re ta k in g c o m m a n d o f th e A r k Royal in the A egean, C ro m ie d escrib ed w h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n the T sa r w as o v e r th r o w n . All the fo reig n officers g a th e re d in th e v estibule o f th e A sto ria (still L enin­ g r a d ’s best hotel) w h ic h w as th en a m ilitary h o tel w ith a retired gen eral in ch arg e o f each floor. G eneral Poole, c h ie f o f the B ritish A rtillery M issio n to th e R ussian A rm y , s o o n to be c o m m a n d e r o f the B ritish e x p e d itio n a ry force in A rchangel, to o k c o m m a n d an d sent th e R ussian officers u p stairs o u t o f th e w a y so th at w h e n th e yelling m o b cam e in th e y w e re q u ite p u t o f f th eir stro k e o n b ein g calm ly m e t b y sm iling faces. I th in k th ey w e re quite d isa p p o in te d and so su rp rised th ey listened to reason and after searchin g o n e o r tw o ro o m s th ey re tu rn e d peacefully. T h e effect o f this w as to p u t us w a y u p to p w ith the c r o w d and w ith the (Russian) officers. Ladies w e re seven deep ro u n d each E n g lish ­ m a n , c la m o u rin g fo r p ro tec tio n . N e ith e r G ilb ert n o r S ullivan d re a m e d o f such situations.

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Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-A ugust 1918 B u t th e lig h t op eratic a tm o s p h e re so o n faded. C ro m ie w e n t o n to describe the fate o f A d m ira l V iren, th e h arsh C o m m a n d e r - in - C h ie f w h o w as seized b y m u tin o u s sailors, “ cut u p in sm all pieces and b u r n t in a w o o d e n b o x in th e pub lic s q u a re ” . O t h e r u n p o p u la r officers w e re p u sh e d th ro u g h holes in th e ice and d ro w n e d . T h is ca n ’t pass w ith o u t m a rk in g the m e n [his B ritish crew s]. A q u arrel m a y start an in tern a tio n a l ru m p u s . . . I find b ein g in d irec tly u n d e r the o rd ers o f m u tin o u s foreign seam en an in­ tolerable p o sitio n for any p o rtio n o f th e E n glish fleet . . . T h e R ussians refuse to assist in d e p o t w o r k and d e m a n d the cu rtailing o f s o m e o f o u r privileges. I f th ey succeed in s to p p in g o u r spirit ra tio n I c a n n o t be respo nsible fo r collisions b e tw e e n th e E n glish and R ussian crew s. H e sp en t th e early m o n th s o f th e R e v o lu tio n try in g to keep his flotilla in o p eratio n al o rd e r and to p re p are for a n e w ca m p aig n again st G e rm a n sh ip p in g o nce the ice had b ro k e n . T h e re w e re all sorts o f p ro b le m s , ap art f ro m the b lo o d y m in d e d n e s s o f the R ussian sailors o n b o a rd th e d e p o t ship. T h e re w e re n o spare p arts fo r faulty engines, an d th e B ritish crew s h ad to d o all their o w n m ainten an ce. T h e re w as th e c o n tin u in g sh o rta g e o f fo o d - “ o u r sailors g o t their pleasure fo r ten lu m p s o f s u g a r” . A n d th ere w ere co n stan t a tte m p ts b y th e B o lsh ev ik s to s u b v e rt th e B ritish sailors. N e v erth ele ss, w h e n the ice b ro k e in the sp rin g o f 1917 he w as able to m o u n t a n u m b e r o f p atro ls w h ic h m e t w ith so m e success. B u t th ey w e re B ritish successes, n o t R ussian for, as he record ed , “ e ig h t o u t o f seventeen R ussian su b m arin e s are read y to p u t to sea b u t th ey generally b re ak d o w n w h e n asked to g o . ” H e m o v e d his bo ats to H e lsin g fo rs (H elsinki) in an a tte m p t to get a w ay fro m the re v o lu tio n a ry h o tb e d o f K ro n s ta d t, b u t b y O c to b e r 1917 and the B o lsh e v ik tak e o v er, he w as w ritin g a series o f d e s p o n d e n t letters to A d m ira l P h illim o re and, significantly, to A d m iral Sir R eginald “ B lin k e r” Hall, D ire c to r o f N a v a l Intelligence. O n O c to b e r i o t h h e w r o te to Hall: “ H a v e y o u con sidered relieving me? I am n o t a p p ly in g fo r it, b u t I a m read y to g o . . . ” A n d later, “ the w h o le th in g is b e y o n d b e lie f an d o n e ’s best efforts are paralysed. I feel sick o f this and lo n g fo r a clean chance instead o f fig h tin g in this m uck. Please fo rg iv e this s tra in .” H is re q u est w as g ra n te d in D e c e m b e r b u t w hile he w as w aitin g fo r the train to beg in his j o u r n e y h o m e he received a w ire telling h im th at he h ad been m a d e te m p o ra ry N a v a l A ttache. H e w ro te a 103

The Bolo Liquidation Club b itte r letter to H all: “ T h is is the v ery billet I asked y o u to p ro te c t m e fro m . . . a p o sitio n I c a n n o t afford w h e n I h ave to s u p p o rt a fam ily an d m y m o th e r o u t o f m y pay. T h e re fo re I earnestly ask y o u n o t to a b a n d o n m e fo r ever to th e b a c k w aters o f d ip lo m a c y . . . Please d o n ’t fo rg e t I a m still a su b m a rin e o ffic er.” Ironically, he w as so o n d o lin g o u t th o u san d s o f rou bles to R ussian agents in his efforts to sto p the R ussian fleet falling in to G e rm a n h an d s and to h o ld u p supplies, particularly m ines and gun s, to th e R ed G u a rd s o p p o s in g the B ritish in te rv e n tio n forces in the n o rth . A t a tim e w h e n he had £1,500,000 h id d e n in the B ritish E m b a s sy to p ay fo r th e d e s tru c tio n o f th e R ussian ships he h ad j u s t £720 in his P o r ts m o u th b ank . It seem s likely th at his a p p o in tm e n t to th e “ d ip lo m a tic b a c k w a te rs ” m a rk e d his tran sitio n fro m “ a su b ­ m a rin e o ffic er” to b ein g o n e o f B lin k er H a ll’s agents. H is first m a jo r task w as to scuttle his o w n su bm arines. W ritin g to H all, he re p o rted : “ I h av e a rran g e d tw o system s o f d e stru c tio n for th e boats. O n e , explosive, w o rk in g o f f an alarm clock so th a t all can go u p to g e th e r and o n e o f j u s t m essin g ev e ry th in g u p and b lo w in g th r o u g h o u r 130 o d d to rp e d o e s w ith ‘1840’ a c id .” In M a rc h 1918, a div isio n o f G e rm a n cruisers ca p tu red R evel (Tallinn) th e capital o f E sto nia, j u s t across the G u lf o f F inland fro m C r o m i e ’s base. T h e n , in th e first w eek o f A p ril th e G e rm a n s started lan d in g in S o u th F inlan d and m e t n o o p p o sitio n w h a ts o e v e r fro m th e R ussians. C r o m i e ’s boats, iced in, h ad to be d e stro y e d before th e y w e re c a p tu red b y th e G e rm an s. It w as a d esp erate affair lasting th ree days. E ach o f the seven bo ats h ad to be in ched o u t in the b itte r cold w ith the c re w b re a k in g thick ice to g et to deep w a te r w h e re the to rp e d o e s and stores w e re t h r o w n o v e rb o a rd and the su b m arin e s scu ttled . A t C r o m i e ’s u rg in g th e R ussians also sank fo u r o f th eir su b m arin e s. T h r o u g h o u t th e o p e ra tio n C r o m ie w as p lag u ed b y loo ters. “ O n e n ig h t I lost m y te m p e r an d held a p a rty o f fifty lo o ters w ith m y to y p i s t o l . . . I to ld th e m I w o u ld kill th e first a rm e d m a n th a t set fo o t ab o a rd , b ac k in g m y w o rd s w ith an ab su rd t w e n ty - tw o p is to l.” A fte rw a rd s he w ro te to Hall: “ A s h o rt n o te to let y o u k n o w th at o u r business is finally finished o u t h e r e . . . I am afraid the H u n s will o b ta in m u c h valuable m aterial, b u t devil a stitch o f o u r s .” H o w e v e r, C r o m ie w as m ista k en in th in k in g th at his w o r k w as finished. H e w as giv en a n o th e r m u c h m o re am b itio u s task - the scu ttlin g o f the R ussian B altic fleet in K ro n s ta d t in o rd e r to p re v e n t it falling in to th e h an d s o f the G e rm a n s w h o w e re n o w th rea ten in g to ca p tu re P e tro g ra d . A t that tim e th e fleet consisted o f tw o battleship s, several cruisers, a m in e-lay in g cruiser, th e su b m a rin e 104

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-August 1918 d e p o t ship an d a n u m b e r o f destroy ers. A lth o u g h a n u m b e r o f th e ships w e re o ld an d in p o o r c o n d itio n th ey w o u ld nevertheless have p ro v e d an e m b a rra s s m e n t to the R o yal N a v y i f th e y h ad been c o -o p te d in to the G e rm a n N a v y . In A p ril C r o m ie w ro te to Hall: “ I con sider th e Fleet at K ro n sta d t far fro m safe, b u t d e stru c tio n is o u t o f th e q u estio n unless R azv o so v will accept office a g a in .” V ice -A d m iral R azv o so v to o k o v e r as C - in - C B altic after the m u rd e r o f V iren b u t so o n retired and a lth o u g h the B olsh ev iks asked h im several tim es to re tu rn to d u ty to re o rg an ise th e Fleet he alw ays refused. H e paid the price for his in tran sig en ce, being m u rd e re d at H elsin gfo rs in S e p te m b e r 1918. C ro m ie , it seem s, w as rely ing o n this o ld T sarist officer to help h im w ith his sc u ttlin g schem es. T h e best he co u ld d o w ith o u t R azv o so v w as to b rib e so m e sabo teurs. O n A p ril 23rd, he w ro te to Hall: “ I h ave ho pes (faint ones) o f b u y in g s o m e n asty accidents at K r o n s ta d t.” It is w o r th n o tin g th a t the R ussians them selves scuttled ships o f the B lack Sea fleet in J u n e 1918 to p re v e n t th e m b e c o m in g prizes o f th e G e rm an s. It w as at this tim e th at th e G ig o lo -h a n d s o m e figure o f Sidney R eilly arriv ed in Russia, the land o f his b irth and th e scene o f a p re v io u s ep iso d e in his life: he h ad w o rk e d for th e B ritish Secret Service acq u irin g the secrets o f G e rm a n naval c o n stru c to rs b u ild in g th e ships to replace the R ussian fleet defeated b y th e Japanese in 1905. H is arrival w as s o m e w h a t less th an fo rtun ate. H ire d b y “ C ” an d a rm e d w ith a pass fro m L itv in o v , he h ad travelled to M u r ­ m a n s k b y sea o n his w a y to m a k e co n ta ct w ith L ock hart. H o w e v e r, as his n a m e o n th e pass h ad been m isspelled and in the suspicious eyes o f the R o y al N a v y he w as an u nlik ely lo o k in g Irish m an - n o t su rp risin g because he w as a R ussian J e w fro m O d e ssa - the N a v y arrested h im an d clapped h im in th e cells o n H M S Glory. F o rtu n a te ly fo r Reilly, M a jo r S tep hen A lley w as also passing th r o u g h M u rm a n s k , o n his w a y h o m e fro m his stin t as ch ie f o f B rita in ’s Secret Intelligence Service in M o s c o w . A d m ira l K e m p asked A lley to q u e stio n R eilly an d once Reilly w as h im s e lf co n ­ vin ced th a t A lley w as a fellow spy he p ro d u c e d a b o ttle o f aspirins, to o k o u t th e c o rk and ex tra cted a tin y piece o f p ap er o n w h ic h w as a m essage to L o c k h a rt w ritte n in SIS code. T h e re w e re rueful a p o lo ­ gies an d la u g h te r all ro u n d - A lley and Reilly later becam e close friends - an d Reilly w as o f f across c o u n try to P e tro g ra d w h e re he s to p p e d o n ly lo n g e n o u g h to re p o rt to the silver-h aired C o m m a n ­ d er B o y ce b efo re h ea d in g fo r M o s c o w and a m ee tin g w ith L o ck ­ hart. O p e ra tin g u n d e r th e code d e sig n atio n o f S T i (ST s to o d for 105

The Bolo Liquidation Club S to c k h o lm SIS statio n a n d he w as the first o f the agents) he thu s started five m o n th s o f h ig h a d v e n tu re. It m a y well be th at R eilly ’s life as a sp y has been o v e r-d ra m a tis e d b u t little cou ld be m o re d ra m a tic th an th e ev en ts o f th o se five m o n th s . His first act o n re ach in g M o s c o w w as to p u t o n his R oy al Flying C o rp s u n ifo rm an d m a rc h u p to the K re m lin w h e re he d e m a n d e d to see Lenin. N o t su rp risin g ly , he w as tu rn e d aw ay. B u t n o t even his enem ies in the C h e k a w e re w ith o u t praise fo r Reilly. T h e fo llo w in g e x tra c t co m es n o t fro m a p ap erb ack ro m a n c e b u t a re p o rt in a S oviet secret police file released for a S oviet b o o k a b o u t th e C hek a: I lo o k e d u p fro m d rin k in g a cup o f coffee an d re tu rn e d th e b ro w n - e y e d gaze fr o m across the ro o m . F o r a fleeting m o m e n t he lo o k e d in to m y eyes and I felt a pleasant shiver. H e w as w e ll-d ressed and w e ll-b u ilt. H is lean tan n e d face sp o k e o f a s tro n g will and decisiveness. H is eyes w e re q uiet and k in d and h a d a to u c h o f sadness a b o u t th em . All th e sam e he h ad an ex p ressio n w h ic h su g g e ste d th a t he h ad often co m e face to face w ith death. T h e a u th o r w h o w ro te th at w as n o n e o th e r th an a w o m a n ag e n t o f th e C h ek a. H e r re p o rt o n R eilly w as passed to A rtu r A rtu z o v , the C h e k a ’s head o f c o u n te r intelligence w h o w ro te in the m arg in : “ A n ex p e rien c ed lo v er w h o o n ly a few stro n g -w ille d w o m e n can resist. So he can rely o n w o m e n . U s e th eir flats as h id e o u ts .” T h e re p o rt gives n o details o f any fu rth e r co n tact b e tw e e n R eilly an d th e w o m a n C h e k is t b u t th ere is n o d isp u te a b o u t his ability to c h a rm w o m e n b o th in to his bed and his plots. H e m arried th ree tim es an d tw o o f his m arriag es w e re b ig a m o u s ly c o n tra cted - w ith th e full k n o w le d g e o f th e SIS - w h ile at least a n o th e r seven w o m e n t h o u g h t th e y w e re m a rrie d to h im . H e h ad m a n y m istresses a m o n g th e m several p ro stitu te s w h o fell in lo ve w ith h im - and w e re used, as A rtu z o v pred icted , to p ro v id e h im w ith safe houses. A fte r bein g tu rn e d a w a y fro m the K re m lin , he w e n t back to P e tro g ra d , o sten sib ly to help C ro m ie in his plans to d e s tro y the R u ssian Fleet. B u t Reilly h ad o th e r ideas. A S oviet file says he lived w ith a “ c o u rte sa n ” n a m e d Y elena M ik a ilo v n a B o y u z h o v sk a y a . As w ell as sp en d in g tim e in the c ity ’s best re sta u ran ts w ith a succession o f beautifu l w o m e n , he p atro n ise d the sm all, sm o k y , B aik o v cafe, th e h a u n t o f a n ti-B o lsh ev ik s o f b o th left an d rig h t. T h ere, he w as k n o w n as M o n s ie u r M assino , a T u rk is h m erc h an t, and c o n d u c ted business in w h isp e re d con v ersatio n s w ith m y ste rio u s m e n and 106

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917 - A ugust 1918 w o m e n . R eilly w as ta p p in g in to the o p p o s itio n w h o h ad th eir o w n plans for o v e r th r o w in g L enin an d his co m ra d es an d so o n he w as p lay in g a lead ing p a rt in th eir councils. H e b ec am e especially in v o lv e d w ith B oris S avin ko v, the Socialist R e v o lu tio n a ry w h o h ad been M in iste r o f W a r in th e P ro visio nal g o v e r n m e n t an d had b e c o m e leader o f a v io lent g ro u p called the “ U n io n fo r th e D efence o f F ath erla n d an d F re e d o m ” . M a n y o f its m e m b e rs h ad been officers in th e T s a r ’s a rm y an d it w as n o w in co n ta ct w ith o th e r le ft-w in g an d centre g ro u p s o p p o s e d to the B olsheviks. T h e Socialist R e v o lu tio n aries had g o o d reason to hate the B o l­ sheviks: o n J a n u a ry 18th, 1918 Lenin had cynically en d ed the C o n s titu e n t A ssem b ly , the o n ly tru ly d em o cratically elected b o d y ev er to exist in Russia, to w h ic h the SRs h ad w o n an o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity in the elections held im m e d ia te ly after th e B o lshev iks seized p o w e r. T h e A sse m b ly m e t o n ly once and a tte m p te d to d e m o n s tra te its independence. H o w e v e r, L enin sent his Lettish riflem en to th re a te n th e delegates, and it w as closed d o w n fo rth ­ w ith . T r o ts k y later w ro te : “ T h e sim ple, op en, b ru ta l b re ak in g up o f th e C o n s titu e n t A ssem b ly dealt fo rm a l d e m o c ra c y a finishing s tro k e fro m w h ic h it has n ev e r re c o v e re d .” R eilly an d S av in k o v b ec am e close friends an d to g e th e r p u rsu e d th e ir h a tre d o f B o lsh e v ism . B u t S av in k o v b r o u g h t disaster to ev e ry th in g he to u c h e d and in th e en d it w as he w h o led R eilly to his death. S av in k o v did n o t, h o w e v e r, “ b e lo n g ” to Reilly. J u s t a b o u t ev ery c o u n try in v o lv e d in the G re at W a r had agents o p e ra tin g inside R ussia. T h e F rench w e re partic u la rly active. T h e y gave S av in k o v m o n e y fo r his m o v e m e n t an d th e ir principal agent, C o lo n e l de V e rte m e n t, w as d eep ly in v o lv e d in the C zech u p risin g in Siberia. T h e G e rm a n s, w h o h ad sent th eir h a rd -n o s e d A m b a ssa d o r, C o u n t W ilh elm v o n M irb a c h , to M o s c o w after th e sign in g o f th e T re a ty o f B re st-L ito v sk , h ad an efficient an d aggressive n e tw o r k o f agents. It w as led b y C o lo n e l R u d o lf B au er w h o s e m e n co n d u c te d personal v en d e tta s against th e B ritish agents and ex e rted a great deal o f influence a m o n g r ig h t-w in g o p p o s itio n g ro u p s. T h e A m ericans lag g ed b ad ly in th e sp y business, rely in g fo r m u c h o f th eir in fo rm a ­ tio n o n th e rich and eccentric R a y m o n d R ob in s w h o c o m m a n d e d th e A m e ric a n R ed C ro s s M issio n in M o s c o w . H e w as th e on ly A m e ric a n w ith access to the B o lsh ev ik leaders and he w o rk e d p assion ately to b rin g a b o u t an u n d e rs ta n d in g b e tw e e n the U n ite d States an d the B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t. T h e actual head o f A m eric an esp io n ag e in M o s c o w w as an A m e ric a n o f G re ek ex traction, X e n o p h o n K alam atian o . T h e Jap a n ese h ad a lo n g -esta b lish ed n e t107

The Bolo Liquidation Club w o r k o f agents in Siberia and, as w e hav e seen, th e B ritish w e re b u s y in th e C aucasu s an d C e n tra l Asia. M u c h o f R u ssia’s p re sen t susp icio n o f fo reig n ers an d p aran o ia a b o u t spies stem fro m th o se early days in 1918 fo r R ussia w as th en a T o m T id d le r’s g r o u n d for agents in d u lg in g in all k in d s o f activities - all o f th e m d e trim e n ta l to th e B olshev iks. P erh ap s th e m o s t a c c o m p lish e d o f all these spies w as a m a n w h o s e re p u ta tio n has b ee n o v e rs h a d o w e d b y R eilly ’s n o to rie ty b u t w h o w as m u c h m o re p rofessional at his business th an the m o re g la m o ro u s w o m a n is e r. H e w as G e o rg e Hill, code n u m b e r “ L .K . 8” , w h o ran his o w n o rg a n isa tio n re p o rtin g to th e D ire c to r o f M ilita ry Intelligence at th e W a r O ffice and w h o saw his role as c o n d u c tin g his o w n p riv a te w a r against the G e rm an s. H ill’s father h a d been a B ritish b u sin essm an in Russia and h e h ad been b r o u g h t u p there. H e h ad travelled w idely, sp o k e perfect R u ssian and k n e w th e c o u n try well. H e ev en tually w e n t in to bu sin ess in M o s c o w , b u t w h e n th e G reat W a r b ro k e o u t he w as fishing in B ritish C o lu m b ia . H e im m e d ia te ly jo in e d the C an ad ia n L ig h t In fa n try an d fo u n d h im s e lf o n intelligence w o r k in F rance ly in g o u t in n o m a n ’s lan d listening to the G e rm a n fro n t line tr o o p s ’ c o n v e rsatio n , the ta rg e t fo r e x tre m e ho stility i f d iscovered. H ill w as ev en tu ally w o u n d e d b y a g re n ad e and b r o u g h t back to th e W a r O ffice in L o n d o n . B y 1916 he w as in Salonika re p o rtin g o n e n e m y tr o o p m o v e m e n ts . H e th e n v o lu n te e re d fo r the R o yal F lying C o rp s and bec am e o n e o f th e first pilots to land agents b e h in d th e e n e m y lines; o n o n e o ccasion he w as even chased b y a cavalry p atro l as he t o o k o f f again. H e g o t a w a y b u t n o t b efore the cavalry had p u m p e d h a lf a d o ze n bullets t h r o u g h his p rim itiv e B E 2 b o m b e r. O n leave in J u ly 1917, Hill w as o rd e re d to jo i n th e R F C m ission in R ussia b u t o n arrival fo u n d th a t th e m issio n h ad w ith d ra w n to M o s c o w an d th e w a r o n th e E astern F ro n t w as ru n n in g d o w n . H e m a d e his w a y to M o g ilev , a prov incial capital so m e 400 m iles s o u th -w e s t o f P e tro g ra d w h ic h h o u se d the G eneral H e a d q u a rte rs o f th e R ussian A rm y . H e re w e re B rito n s, French, A m erican s, Serbs, Jap an ese, B elgians, Italians an d R u m an ian s all advising the P r o ­ visional g o v e r n m e n t’s W h ite G enerals h o w to fig ht a w a r w ith tro o p s w h o w o u ld n o lo n g e r fight, as w ell as re p o rtin g the m a rc h o f ev en ts to th eir o w n g o v e rn m e n ts . T h e re w as also th e G e rm a n Secret Service, tw o o f w h o se agents a m b u s h e d Hill, b u t as he d escrib ed the in cid en t in his m e m o irs, Go S p y the Land: J u s t as th ey w e re a b o u t to close w ith m e I s w u n g ro u n d an d flou rished m y w a lk in g stick. As I expected, o n e o f m y assailants 108

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-August 1918 seized h o ld o f it. It w as a s w o rd -stic k , w h ic h h ad been specially desig n ed b y M essrs W ilk inso n, the s w o rd m a k e rs o f Pall M all and the m o m e n t m y attacker h ad the scab bard in his fist I d re w back the rap ie r-lik e blade w ith a j e r k an d w ith a fo rw a rd lu n g e ran it t h r o u g h th e g e n tle m a n ’s side. H e gave a scream and collapsed to th e p a v e m e n t. H is co m ra d e seeing th at I h ad p u t u p a figh t and w as n o t u n a rm e d , to o k to his heels w h ile I w ith d re w and fu m b le d fo r m y rev olv er. M e a n w h ile th e m a n I h ad ru n th ro u g h stag g ered off, leaving m y scab b ard o n the p a v e m e n t, an d I w e n t back and re co v ered it. T h a t sw o rd -s tic k th ereafter h ad a value in m y eyes . . . H ill, officially u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f G eneral P oole, w as o rd e re d to w o r k w ith a C an ad ia n eng in eer, C o lo n e l Jo e “ K lo n d y k e B ill” B o y le in g e ttin g R ussian railw ay s ru n n in g again. W ith the p e rm is ­ sion o f the B o lsh e v ik au th o rities th ey c o m m a n d e e re d a railw ay carriage, N o . 451, th at h ad b elo n g e d to the T s a r ’s m o th e r, E m p re ss M aria F e o d o ro v n a . It w as a co n v e y an ce o f so m e op ulence, consist­ ing o f an o b s e rv a tio n -d in in g salon, a c o m b in e d state b e d r o o m and sitting ro o m , five cou pes w ith d o u b le sleeping b erth s, a p a n try w ith a sto v e and sy stem fo r h ea tin g the carriage, and a lav a to ry . It cpu ld also gen e rate its o w n electric light, an d cam e w ith its o w n co n ­ d u cto r. N o . 451 b ec am e H ill’s h o m e fo r the n ex t seven m o n th s. H e and K lo n d y k e Bill steam e d o f f to P e tro g ra d in style, w h e re th ey becam e th e first A llied officers to g et th r o u g h the gates o f the S m o ln y Institu te, th e B o lsh e v ik hea d q u arte rs. T h e y o b ta in e d p erm issio n fro m L enin h im s e lf to c o n tin u e th eir o p eratio n s o n th e basis th at the B ritish w e re read y to w ith d r a w th eir s u p p o rt fro m th e o v e r th r o w n P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t an d back th e B olshev ik s instead. A rm e d w ith L e n in ’s passes, th ey e m b a rk e d o n a re m a rk ab le a d v e n tu re sto ry . A c q u irin g a g a n g o f navvies, th ey steam ed a ro u n d th e c o n g e ste d railw ays clearing th e w a y b y tip p in g w h o le trains d o w n e m b a n k m e n ts. H ill later claim ed th at as a result o f clearing th e lines, fo o d reached th e h u n g r y peop le o f P e tro g ra d and, in the o th e r d irectio n, supplies and fo d d e r g o t th ro u g h to th e s o u th ­ w e ste rn a r m y w h ic h w as still try in g to halt the G e rm a n advance t h r o u g h th e U k ra in e . T h e y w itn essed the m u rd e r o f the R ussian C o m m a n d e r - in - C h ie f G eneral D u k h o n in b y his o w n m en: “ It w as like w a tc h in g a pack o f w ild w o lv es . . . ” T h e y w e re also persu ad ed to take o n the j o b o f re tu rn in g to R u m a n ia its g o ld bu llion , c ro w n je w e ls, F oreign O ffice archives an d reserves o f p ap e r m o n e y w h ic h h ad been m o v e d 109

The Bolo Liquidation Club to th e K re m lin fo r safe k ee p in g w h e n the R u m a n ia n A r m y col­ lapsed. O f f set o u r h ero es in th e N o . 451 for Jassy, te m p o ra ry capital o f R u m a n ia . It to o k th e m nine days d u rin g w h ic h th ey n ev e r re m o v e d th eir clothes. D u r in g th e jo u r n e y th ey acq uired coaches full o f passeng ers w h o s to p p e d th e train to lo o t a b u rn in g v o d k a factory; th e y h ad h ijacked an en gin e an d d riv en it in to R u m a n ia th em selv es, an d th ey h ad been sh o t at. B u t th ey delivered th eir precio u s cargo an d in re tu r n w e re aw a rd e d th e O r d e r o f the Star o f R u m an ia. In b e tw e e n his acts o f d e rrin g -d o Hill also w o n th e confidence o f T r o t s k y w h o w as th e n th e B o lsh ev ik C o m m is s a r M in iste r o f W ar. It m u s t be r e m e m b e re d th a t th e A llied in te rv e n tio n h ad n o t yet starte d and th e B o lsh e v ik s w e re d esperate fo r e x p e rt m ilitary help w ith T r o ts k y m o re re ad y th a n any o f the o th ers to accept such help fro m th e W est. H ill w ro te : “ T r o ts k y k n e w all a b o u t the w o rk I had been d o in g an d received m e w ell . . . A fte r o u r first talk he a p p o in te d m e In sp e c to r o f A v ia tio n and I w as g iv en extensive p o w e rs in th at d e p a rtm e n t. T h is b r o u g h t m e in to close to u c h w ith the aviatio n perso n n el, g av e m e access to all a e ro d ro m e s and also lin ked m e u p w ith th e E v a c u a tio n C o m m itte e (fo rm ed to re m o v e a n y th in g likely to be o f value to the ad v a n cin g G erm an s). I w as to give T ro ts k y advice o n th e fo rm a tio n o f a n e w air force. T w o o r three tim es a w e e k I w o u ld sp en d h a lf an h o u r w ith h im discussing aviation. H e h a d m arv e llo u s p o w e rs o f c o n c e n tra tio n an d th e knack o f p u ttin g his fin g er o n the w e ak s p o t o f a n y th in g an d o f scen tin g w h e n in fo rm a tio n w as n o t b ein g freely given. ” T h r o u g h his c o n n e c tio n w ith T r o ts k y Hill w as able to bu ild u p a n e tw o r k o f B olsh ev ik s to re p o rt o n th e m o v e m e n t o f G e rm a n un its. H e w as th u s able to w a rn L o n d o n th at certain G e rm a n div isio n s h ad been pulled o u t o f the E astern F ro n t to take p art in L u d e n d o r f f ’s g reat s p rin g offensive in 1918. T r o ts k y later created th e “ T h ir d S ectio n ” o f his n e w R ed A r m y to in c o rp o ra te H ill’s n e tw o r k . In 1920 it w as re n a m e d th e R eg istratio n D ire cto rate , and later b ec am e the C h i e f D ire c to ra te o f Intelligence, th e G R U , w h ic h o p erates in e v e ry c o u n try o f th e w o rld to d ay , d o in g w h a t its p re d ece sso r did: a c q u irin g m ilitary in fo rm a tio n . W h ile Hill, Reilly, and C ro m ie w e re c o n d u c tin g their nefarious business B ru ce L o c k h a rt w as s tru g g lin g w ith th e im m e n s ity o f th e task w ith w h ic h he h ad been saddled. T h e real p ro b le m he faced w as th a t n o b o d y in W h iteh all k n e w w h a t w as g o in g o n o r u n d e rs to o d th e n a tu re o f the m e n w h o w e re n o w ru n n in g Russia. It w as as s u m e d in th e capitals o f the W est th at Lenin, T r o ts k y and th eir n o

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-August 1918 fo llo w ers w o u ld so o n be w a sh e d aw ay in the tide o f h is to ry and it did n o t really m a tte r w h o w as in charge at th e m o m e n t as lo n g as th e y ag reed to keep o n fig h tin g th e G erm an s. L o ck h a rt, w h o h ad m o v e d w ith the g o v e r n m e n t to M o s c o w , h ad a s to rm y first m e e tin g w ith T r o ts k y o n F eb ru a ry 15th. T h e R ussian attacked B ritain for its s u p p o rt o f a n ti-B o lsh ev ik g ro u p s w hile L o c k h a rt c o n d e m n e d B o lsh e v ik ag itatio n in B ritain. T h e re w as ju stific a tio n in b o th arg u m e n ts. B ritain h ad been g iv in g m o n e y to n atio n alist and T sarist g ro u p s, especially in th e so u th , w h ile in E n g la n d L itv in o v w as b u sy p re ach in g B o lsh e v ism and u rg in g th e w o rk e rs to d e m a n d an end to the w ar. D e sp ite th e h ig h w o rd s , L o ck h a rt w as im p ressed w ith T ro ts k y an d cabled th e F o reig n O ffice th at “ T r o ts k y w ill c o -o p e ra te w ith us as lo n g as it suits h im . O u r attitu d e sh o u ld be th e s a m e .” A rth u r B alfo u r rep lied to L o ck h a rt in w o rd s w h ic h s u m m e d u p B rita in ’s attitu d e to w a r d s the B o lshev ik s. “ Internal affairs in R ussia are n o co n c ern o f ou rs. W e o n ly co n sid er th e m in so far as th ey affect the w a r . ” W h e re th e B olshevik s w e re actually in charge, said B alfour, B ritain h ad n o desire to interfere. H o w e v e r, he stressed, B ritain had n o in te n tio n o f a b a n d o n in g “ o u r friends and Allies in th o se parts o f R ussia w h e re B o lsh e v ism ca n n o t be re g ard e d as th e de facto G o v e rn m en t” . It w as a sta te m e n t o f policy w h ic h p u t L o ck h a rt in an e x tre m ely difficult p o sitio n . W hile it m a y have seem ed p erfectly logical in L o n d o n , it m a d e little sense in M o s c o w . If the B ritish w e re to s u p p o rt th e B o lsh e v ik s ’ enem ies th en the B o lsheviks w o u ld reg ard th e B ritish as enem ies. M o re o v e r, in large parts o f R ussia it w as im p o ssib le to decide i f th ere w as a de facto g o v e r n m e n t o r n o t, and even i f th ere w as, w h e th e r it w o u ld be in charge th e fo llo w in g w eek. T h e r e w e re subtleties in v o lv e d o f w h ich L o n d o n h ad no u n d e rs ta n d in g w h a tso e v e r. W hile th e T re a ty o f B re s t-L ito v s k w as being h a m m e r e d o u t and L enin w as fo rcin g t h r o u g h its acceptance by a relu ctan t B olsh evik p a rty , L o c k h a rt w as plead in g w ith the F oreig n O ffice n o t to allow the Jap a n ese to carry o u t th eir th re a te n e d in te rv e n tio n in Siberia, b u t instead to give s u p p o rt to th e B o lsh ev ik s to carry o n th e fight again st the G e rm an s. “ T h is is o u r last chance. In tak in g it w e have e v e ry th in g to gain a n d n o th in g to lose w h ich w e h ave n o t already. ” T h e re w as o f course n o “ last ch a n ce” . Lenin w as d e te rm in e d to m a k e peace w ith th e G e rm a n s in o rd e r to save B o lsh e v ism in Russia. T h e t h o u g h t m u s t be con sid ered th at L o ck h a rt and his friend R a y m o n d R o b in s o f th e A m eric an R ed C ross, w e re led b y th e no se d u rin g this p e rio d in to p leading th e B o lsh e v ik s’ cause. h i

T he Bolo Liquidation Club C e rta in ly L o c k h a rt’s pleas for c o -o p e ra tio n w o n h im few friends in W h iteh all. M a jo r-G e n e ra l A lfred K n o x , the fo rm e r M ilita ry A tta c h e w h o h a d g o n e h o m e w ith A m b a s s a d o r B u ch an a n an d w as s o o n to be a p p o in te d h ead o f th e m ilitary m issio n to Siberia, w as the m o s t fo rm id a b le o f his o p p o n e n ts . In a p ap er u rg in g im m e d ia te in te rv e n tio n in Siberia he accused L o ck h a rt o f send ing dispatches w h ic h w e re politically u n s o u n d and “ in a m ilitary sense crim in ally m is le a d in g ” . K n o x u rg e d L o c k h a rt’s recall: “ I am co n v in c ed th at o u r cause in R ussia is b ein g m o re d a m a g e d b y k eep ing a B ritish official in c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith th e B o lsh ev iks th an it cou ld p o ss­ ibly be b y Jap a n ese in te rv e n tio n , n o m a tte r h o w stu p id ly arranged. T h e po licy o f flirtation w ith the B o lsheviks is b o th w r o n g as a po licy and im m o ra l. ” L o c k h a rt replied in k ind: “ I m u s t p o in t o u t th at since th e R e v o ­ lu tio n his c o m p le te m is u n d e rs ta n d in g o f the situ atio n has been o ne o f th e c h ie f reasons fo r o u r failure in this c o u n try . . . ” T y p ic a l o f the lack o f tru s t b e tw e e n W h iteh all and L o ck h a rt w as th e in cid en t o f C a p ta in H ick s and S iberia’s m y th ic al G e rm a n arm ies. R e p o rts reach in g L o n d o n fro m Irk u tsk an d V lad iv o sto k su g g e ste d th a t the B olsh ev ik s w e re releasing and a rm in g th o u san d s o f G e rm a n an d A u s tro -H u n g a ria n prison ers o f w a r held there. L o c k h a rt dism issed th e stories as n o n sen se and w as p ro m p tly re b u k e d b y L o n d o n . H e th e re u p o n w e n t to T r o ts k y an d asked h im i f he w as in d eed a rm in g th e G e rm an s. T ro ts k y denied it b u t su g g e ste d th a t th e Allies sh o u ld g o to Siberia to see for them selves. L o c k h a rt sent H ick s an d R a y m o n d R o b in s sent C a p ta in W . B. W e b ste r o f th e A m e ric a n R ed C ro ss M ission. H ick s, curio u sly , an e x p e rt o n p o iso n gas, and W e b ste r sp en t th e n e x t six w eek s v isiting P O W cam ps. T h e y cam e to th e co nclusio n th a t s o m e th o u s a n d P O W s h ad been a rm e d at Irk u tsk to defen d th em selv es against S em en o v , the T ra n s-B aik al C o ssa c k s’ leader, w h ile a n o th e r th o u s a n d H u n g a ria n s h a d been fo rm e d in to a R ed G u a rd u n it at O m s k . T h e ir re p o rt to this effect infuriated th e W ar O ffice and H icks w as recalled for ap p a ren tly failing to carry o u t o rd e rs. B u t L o c k h a rt d u g in his heels and said th at i f H icks re tu rn e d to L o n d o n , so w o u ld he. T h a t w as th e en d o f th e incident, b u t it m a d e L o c k h a rt m o re enem ies. W hile H ick s and W e b ste r w e re in fact rig h t in dism issin g the s to ry a b o u t G e rm a n an d A u strian arm ies b ein g fo rm e d in Siberia, th e y w e re v e ry w r o n g a b o u t th e n u m b e rs o f P O W s b ein g a rm e d fo r service in th e R ed A rm y . D esp e rate ly s h o rt o f trained m en , the B o lsh e v ik s lo o k e d to th e P O W cam p s for likely recruits. In ja n u a r y 1918 a P riso n e r o f W a r C o n g re s s held in S am ara (n o w K uib y sh ev ) 112

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-A ugust 1918 asked to b e allo w e d to fo rm R ed A r m y units and this led to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f “ In tern atio n al B a tta lio n s” . A m o n g th e m w e re C ze c h o -S lo v a k , H u n g a ria n , R u m a n ia n and S o u th Slav battalions w h ic h e v e n tu ally n u m b e re d s o m e 50,000. T h e re w as also a C h in ese battalio n d r a w n fro m so m e 10,000 m e n serving in la b o u r units. U p to this p o in t it is difficult to discern the h a n d o f the Secret Service in L o c k h a rt’s w o rk . E v e ry th in g he h ad d o n e indicated a g en u in e desire to c o -o p era te w ith the B olsheviks, even e n d a n g erin g his career to d o so. B u t as the events o f the sp rin g and s u m m e r o f 1918 u n fo ld e d . . . th e T re a ty o f B rest-L ito v sk . . . the lan d in g at M u r m a n s k . . . th e killing o f the c o m m issars at K e m . . . the re v o lt o f the C zec h L eg io n . . . the m u rd e r o f the T sa r . . . so L o ck h a rt ch a n g ed his m in d , tu rn e d at last to w a rd s a d v o c atin g in te rv e n tio n an d b eg a n to m a k e contacts a m o n g a n ti-B o lsh ev ist g ro u p s. B y th e b e g in n in g o f j u l y he h ad b e c o m e e m b ro ile d in the schem es o f th e m e n he h ad g ru m b le d a b o u t w h e n he arriv ed in Russia six m o n th s before. T h e re is n o evidence to s h o w w h e th e r this w as a n atu ra l e v o lu tio n o r w h e th e r it w as p art o f his b rie f fro m “ C ” w h ic h o n ly n o w b eg an to em erge. O n J u ly 6 th B o ris S av in k o v led his U n io n for the D efence o f F ath erla n d and F re e d o m in a full-scale rising against the B olsheviks at Y aro slavl, strategically placed n o rth -e a s t o f M o s c o w o n the ra ilw a y line to A rch ang el. It w as a cruel b attle w ith S a v in k o v ’s m en h o ld in g o u t fo r tw o w eeks, w a itin g for Allied help to co m e d o w n th e line fr o m the n o rth e r n p o rt. T h e y w ere, h o w e v e r, finally cru sh ed b y B o lsh e v ik field g un s b ro u g h t u p fro m M o s c o w a w eek b efo re the Allies lan d ed at A rch an gel. B y coincidence S a v in k o v ’s a tte m p t to o v e r th r o w the B olsheviks starte d o n th e sam e d ay th at the G e rm a n A m b a ssa d o r, C o u n t W ilh elm v o n M irb ac h , w as assassinated b y a g ro u p o f Left Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries. T h e m u rd e r signalled the start o f an a tte m p t b y the left SRs to take o v e r M o s c o w . T h e y succeeded in cap tu rin g the L u b y an k a , the secret police hea d q u arte rs, along w ith Felix D z e r­ zhinsky, th e m u c h feared head o f th e C heka. T h e y also occu pied the C e n tra l T e le g ra p h O ffice and sent cables to a n u m b e r o f cities a n n o u n c in g th at th e SRs h ad assu m ed p o w e r and th at all o rders sig ned b y L enin an d S v erd lo v w e re invalid. B u t th eir success did n o t last lo ng. T h e B o lsh ev ik s rallied and, w ith th eir p raeto rian g u a rd o f L ettish R iflem en, o n e o f th e few disciplined units in Russia, th e y d ro v e th e SRs o u t o f the L uby ank a. A rtillery and m a c h in e -g u n s w e re th e n b r o u g h t to bear on th e S R s’ re m a in in g s tro n g h o ld , the m a n s io n w h e re D z e rz h in sk y and so m e o th er leaders w e re b ein g held. It did n o t seem to m a tte r th at their 113

The Bolo Liquidation Club fire co u ld have w ip e d o u t alm o st the en tire C h e k a leadership. It w as q u ick ly over. D z e rz h in s k y w as released. A n d the e xecu tions started. T h e B ritish an d F rench w e re im m e d ia te ly b lam ed b y the B o lsh e­ viks fo r th e S av in k o v and th e Left SR u prisings. C e rta in ly th e F rench h ad financed S a v in k o v an d en c o u rag e d h im w ith stories o f an im m e d ia te lan d in g at A rc h an g e l b y large A llied forces; and it w as tru e th a t Y a co v B lu m k in , w h o killed v o n M irb ac h , h ad lived fo r s o m e m o n th s in th e r o o m n e x t d o o r to L o ck h a rt at the Elite H o tel. B u t L o c k h a rt h ad been specifically fo rb id d e n b y B alfo u r to hav e a n y th in g to d o w ith S a v in k o v ’s plans w h ile B lu m k in w as later p ro v e d to h av e w o rk e d as a d o u b le agent fo r th e C h ek a, w h ich w as itself infiltrated b y the Left SRs. T h e Left SRs th em selv es denied th at either the Allies o r th e C h e k a w e re in v o lv e d in th eir plot. W ith a lo n g h isto ry o f te rro ris m , th e y w e re p erfectly capable o f ca rry in g o u t their o w n m u rd e rs an d th eir reaso n fo r killing v o n M irb a c h w as to p ro v o k e th e G e rm a n s in to re sta rtin g th e w a r an d so b rin g a b o u t the o v e r th r o w o f th e B olshevik s. A q u e stio n rem ain s a b o u t the B ritish in v o lv e m e n t w ith Savin­ k o v . R eilly certainly k n e w a b o u t his plans, and Hill later w ro te th at he w as “ co n stan tly in to u c h ” w ith S a v in k o v ’s g ro u p and “ w as k e p t in f o r m e d ” o f th e plans for the rising o f Y aroslavl. G iv en th e in v o lv e m e n t o f Reilly and H ill it is possible th at B a lfo u r’s o rd e r to L o c k h a rt to hav e n o th in g to d o w ith S av in k o v w as a blin d to p re v e n t L o c k h a rt in terferin g in an affair already u n d e r the c o n tro l o f B ritish agents. L o c k h a rt h im s e lf later b lam ed th e failure o f the S av in k o v rising o n J o s e p h N o u le n s , th e F rench A m b assa d o r, for e n c o u ra g in g S av in k o v to strike b y telling h im th at a m a jo r A llied lan d in g w as a b o u t to tak e place at A rchangel. W ith o u t fu rth e r ev iden ce th e o n ly v erd ict w e can reach a b o u t B ritish in v o lv e m e n t in b o th these incidents is n o t p ro v e n . W h a t is certain is th at life n o w b ec am e e x tre m e ly difficult fo r the B rito n s w o r k in g in P e tro g ra d an d M o s c o w . T h e y n o lo n g e r h ad easy access to th e B o lsh e v ik leaders. T ro ts k y h im s e lf to re u p H ill’s passes, c o m m e n tin g as he did so: “ T h a t is all o v e r n o w . ” T h e y co u ld n o lo n g e r travel a r o u n d th e c o u n try w e arin g th eir B ritish u n ifo rm s. R eilly w e n t u n d e r g ro u n d , usin g a v ariety o f identities, in clu d in g th a t o f C o m r a d e R ilin sk y o f the C h e k a - an d he h ad the papers to p ro v e it. C ro m ie w as s h o w in g increasing signs o f strain in P e tro ­ grad, sen d in g em b a rra ssin g m essages en clair. In o n e o f his cables he re p o rte d th at the B olshevik s w e re losing p o w e r in P e tro g ra d and w e re p re p a rin g to evacuate the city. In an o th e r, he said th at L enin 114

Moscow and Petrograd, December 1917-August 1918 h ad a rriv ed at P eterh o f, th e T s a r ’s palace east o f P e tro g ra d , and w as p re p a rin g to leave th e c o u n try in a S w edish yacht. L o ck h a rt, cu t o f f fro m the B olsh ev ik leaders, and n o lo n g e r able to fulfil his b r ie f fro m L loy d G e o rg e to “ keep unofficially in t o u c h ” w ith th e m , re co g n ised th at his m issio n w as c o m in g to an end. In te rv e n tio n w as inevitable and the B olsheviks w o u ld o p p o se it. T h e e n e m y fo r th e Allies w o u ld h en c efo rth be th e C o m m u n is t g o v e r n m e n t o f Russia, and as w e shall see fro m G e o rg e H ill’s secret r e p o rt to th e D ire c to r o f M ilita ry Intelligence, th ere w as n o w p u t in to o p e ra tio n a p lo t to o v e r th r o w th at g o v e r n m e n t and replace it w ith o n e m o re am e n ab le to the Allies. T h is tim e th e re co uld be n o d o u b t a b o u t B rita in ’s in v o lv e m e n t. It w as a B ritish plot, p lann ed and led b y Reilly, financed b y L o ck h a rt and C ro m ie , w ith B oyce, th e SIS statio n chief, acting as case officer and H ill p ro v id in g safe houses and couriers. B ut, befo re the p lo t co u ld be s p ru n g the B ritish, F rench and A m ericans at last landed at A rc h an g e l an d th e fo llo w in g day, A u g u s t 3rd, th e 25th M id dlesex o n b o a rd th e Ping Suey w e re escorted into V lad iv o sto k b y a Jap a n ese d e s tro y e r an d m a rc h e d to the O ld Siberia B arracks b eh in d th e b a n d o f th e C zech Legion.

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CHAPTER 8

More M en, More M oney, More Weapons Murmansk, August-December 1918

O n A u g u s t 2nd, th e d ay th a t G eneral P o ole to o k o v er A rch ang el, L ieu ten a n t P eter C r a w f o r d set o u t fro m M u rm a n s k w ith his sev en stro n g b an d o f scarred w a rrio rs to take o v er his “ K in g d o m o f R e s tik e n t” in th e w ilds o f Lapland. H e d re w tw o m o n th s ’ rations, b o a rd e d a tu g , sailed past th e Askold an d p ro c eed e d up river th ro u g h clouds o f m o sq u ito e s. Steep hills rose o n eith er side and the river g re w n a r ro w e r until th ey h ad to leave the tu g and tran sfer to a sm all m o t o r b oat, crew e d b y local riv erm en , and a can oe-sh ap ed b oat, the o n ly ty p e capable o f g e ttin g th ro u g h the rapids. H e w as fo rced to split his sm all force an d send tw o m e n back to w ait u ntil the m o t o r b o a t re tu rn e d s o m e ten days later. A t o n e set o f rapids th ey alm o st lost b o th canoe and stores. T h e y h ad to carry th eir cases o f bu lly b e e f r o u n d the rapids and th en haul the canoe o v e r th e rocks. “ T o o k us tw o h o u r s ” , he w ro te in his diary. “ Issued ru m to all peasants w h o w o rk e d splendidly, c o n ­ tin u e d jo u r n e y after h a v in g had tea. M ad e a h u g e log fire to d ry clothes. ” T h e y arriv ed at a rest h o u se at fo u r in the m o rn in g w h e re th ey fo u n d th at a p a rty o f peasants h ad preced ed us o n t h e jo u r n e y b y o n ly a sh o rt tim e, as all w e re stan d in g b y a h u g e fire d ry in g th eir clothes. M e n and w o m e n all o f w h o m w e re alm o st n ak e d did n o t app ear to pay m u c h a tte n tio n to o u r m e n w h e n th ey arrived w h o in tu rn div ested them selves o f all th eir w e t c lo th in g and jo in e d in. H a d a n o th e r m eal - curds g iven b y the o w n e r o f the house. A b o u t t w e n ty peop le slept in the house. T o o m u ch . D ecided to h ave a few h o u rs sleep o n th e riv er bank, m e n as well. W o k e up at 6 a. m . in te n d in g to start. W e n t to see h o w th e o cc u p an ts o f the h o u se w e re faring. T h e a tm o s p h e re w as aw ful, e v e ry o n e sn o rin g peacefully. W o k e up m en. H a d tea. C o u ld n o t ind uce the m o to r b o a t sk ip p er to p ro c eed until 12 n o o n . H e h ad ad v a n tag e o v e r m e. H a d I k n o w n w h a t w e h ad in fro n t o f us I sh o u ld certainly h av e agreed w ith h im and taken the o p p o rtu n ity o f a few m o re h o u rs sleep. L o vely sitting o n the b an k h av in g breakfast j u s t as 116

M urm ansk, August-D ecem ber 1918 th e sun w as rising . . . d e w g listening . . . riv er calm . . . p re tty s h a d o w s o n th e w ater. T h e sm all force reached R estik en t o n A u g u s t 5th to be greeted w a rm ly b y th e village hea d m an , P o ch en k o v . C r a w fo rd o rg a n ise d the m o s t suitable local m e n in to patrols to scout the L otta and N o ta rivers, th e o n ly w a y th ro u g h to the Finnish fron tier. I f there w as g o in g to be an attack fro m th e s o u th -w e s t o n M a y n a r d ’s positio ns at M u r m a n s k it w o u ld have to co m e alo ng these rivers. T h e B ritish o cc u p a tio n o f P ech en g a h ad already sealed o f f th e n o rth e r n route. W h a t C r a w f o r d h ad to do w as survive, get early w a rn in g o f any F in n is h - G e r m a n attack and send th e new s back to M a y n a rd in M u rm a n s k b efo re his force suffered the inevitable and w as m o p p e d up. T h e re w e re several scares, re p o rts o f Finns being seen c o m in g in o v e r his n e tw o r k o f p atrols and scouts and th ro u g h the forest grap ev in e. B u t o n th e w h o le he sp en t a v ery agreeable s u m m e r, s w im m in g ev e ry m o rn in g , tak in g p o t shots at d u ck and learning to ad m ire the Lapps and th eir w a y o f life. T h e m ain d a n g e r to his little force cam e fr o m the vagaries o f the w e a th e r w hile th ey w e re o n the w a te r. T ra g e d y s tru ck w h e n o ne o f his m e n d ro w n e d in a rescue bid to save a colleague w h e n th ey w e re s w e p t o v er a fall w hile fishing a lm o st e v e ry u n it in th e n o r th lost at least o ne m a n b y d ro w n in g . “ A v ery sad d a y ,” re co rd e d C ra w fo rd . “ P o o r M rs M cleo d, w h a t­ ev er will she do. T h e re are th ree sm all kiddies to lo o k after. A b ra v e r act th a n M c le o d ’s is v ery difficult to im ag in e . . . w h a t a sad task to h av e to w rite to M rs M cleo d and tell h er a b o u t this e v e n t.” As the year d re w on, the w e a th e r tu rn e d colder and th e lake froze. T h e Lapps, c o lo u rfu lly dressed, g ath e red their reindeer herd s and m o v e d in to th eir w in te r village. C ra w fo rd and his m e n b u ilt a b lo c k h o u s e in case the Finns arriv ed o v erla n d o n th eir skis. T h e n on N o v e m b e r 27th - tw o w eeks after the ev ent - a friendly Finn b r o u g h t in a r u m o u r th a t an arm istice had been signed o n the W e ste rn F ron t. A few days later the A n tarctic exp lorer, C o m m a n ­ d er V ic to r C a m p b e ll arrived, h a v in g skied all the w a y fro m M u r ­ m an sk . H e w as fo llo w e d th e n e x t day by a reindeer c o n v o y b rin g in g w in te r clo th in g and p rov ision s. W ith th e c o n v o y w ere th ree m e m b e rs o f th e re n o w n e d ex p lo re r Sir E rn e st S h ack le to n ’s e x p e d itio n to th e A ntarctic. S hackleto n had g o n e o u t to M u rm a n s k to s tu d y the p ro b le m o f fig h tin g in the in ten se cold an d s n o w and h ad d esigned a co m p lete set o f arctic kit w h ic h in clu d ed “ 4 sets W olsely [sic] u n d e rc lo th in g . . . 1 B u rb e r ry s u i t . . . 1 A rctic cap . . . 1 pair blizzard go gg les . . . 117

More M e n , More M oney, More Weapons i pair skis an d sticks . . . i large w o o llen o v erco at . . . I pair Shackleton b o o t s .” E v e ry th in g w o rk e d beau tifu lly except the S h ackleton b o o ts. F ew item s o f m ilitary clo th in g can ev er h ave been so universally hated. T h e b o o t w as m ad e o f canvas w ith a w o o d e n sole u p to size 14, w ro te o n e v ictim o f its aw fulness, “ and y o u h ad to take fo u r o r five sizes b e y o n d y o u r n o rm a l size so th at y o u cou ld p u t o n socks, sto ck in g s (very thick), m occasins and th en in to the b o o t an d pack in rags o r hay in th e vacant space and tie u p . ” T h e y w e re certainly w a rm b u t th ey w e re so c u m b e rs o m e the m e n cou ld h ard ly w alk in th e m an d certainly c o u ld n o t fig ht in th em . T h e kit “ p ro v e d e x c e lle n t,” said o n e official re p o rt, “ w ith ex c ep tio n o f the so-called S h ack leto n b o o t w h ic h w as a dism al fa ilu re.” A n d m a n y years later R ic h a rd J. Z a n k o f the U S 338 In fan try recalled: “ M y m e m o rie s are very viv id o f h o w I lived th r o u g h the R ussian w in te r, the v ery p o o r ration s, h ea v y c lo th in g and th e u n fo rg e tta b le S hack leto n b o o t s .” B u t C r a w f o r d ’s v isito rs h ad b r o u g h t m o re th an w in te r clothes. A m o n g th e stores w e re t h ir ty - tw o gallons o f ru m . C o m m a n d e r C a m p b e ll su g g ested th at as w e h ad n o t celebrated th e A rm istice w e sh o u ld d o so, and inv ite th e village to ru m an d coffee. O ld B rad ley the c o o k m a d e th ree ca m p kettles o f coffee ad d in g m o re th an a reasonable su p p ly o f ru m , the result b ein g th a t the m e n folk (Russian) w e re in a g lo rio u s state o f in to x ic atio n in a v e ry s h o rt tim e. N o d o u b t this w as accentuated b y the v ig o ro u s d an cin g w h ic h had been g o in g o n in th e m e a n tim e to th e a c c o m p a n im e n t o f th e Balalaika. T h e visitors fro m M u r ­ m a n s k th en w e n t to su p p e r w ith P o c h e n k o v tak in g a sm all j a r o f N a v y ru m w h ic h p ro v e d fatal to P o c h e n k o v w h o d ra n k deep and lo n g u n til he slid o f f his chair o n to th e floor, there to re m a in fo r th e rest o f th e nig ht. C ra w f o r d did his d u ty w ell ab o v e the A rctic C ircle a m o n g the pine trees, th e w o lv es and the Lapps, leading a ro u g h b u t in v ig o ra tin g life to tally d ifferent fro m his lo n g service in India and th a t o th e r w a r he h ad fo u g h t o n the S o m m e . B u t events w e re m a rc h in g in M u r m a n s k an d A rc h an g e l w h ic h w o u ld so o n p u t an en d to his idyll. T h r o u g h o u t the s u m m e r G eneral M a y n a rd h ad b een p u sh in g s o u th d o w n th e railw ay line fro m M u rm a n s k to w a rd s P etro g ra d . In th o se first m o n th s o f th e in te rv e n tio n th e B ritish fo rc e ’s en em ies w e re th e G e rm a n s an d th eir allies, th e Finns. M a y n a rd feared th a t th e y w o u ld sw eep across fro m th e F innish b o rd e r, in s o m e places less th an a h u n d re d m iles aw ay, cut the railw ay line at 1 18

M urm ansk, August-D ecem ber 1918 K a n dalaksh a, th u s p re v e n tin g the R oy al N a v y ships o n th e W h ite Sea fr o m c o m in g to his assistance, an d th en advance o n M u rm a n s k fro m the so u th . Initially, he lo o k e d o n th e B olsheviks as a sid esh o w . H e d id n o t like the B olos and w as alw ays ready to fight th e m b u t, he insisted later, “ o u r e m b ro ilm e n t w ith B olsh ev ik R ussia m u s t be re g a rd e d as a th in g a p a r t.” N o t th at th e B olsheviks re g a rd e d his a d v an ce d o w n th e railw ay line to w a rd s P e tro g ra d as “ a th in g a p a rt” . T o th e m his force appeared to be a im ed at th e cap ture o f th e city an d its naval base o f K ro n s ta d t and th e o v e r th r o w o f B o lsh e v ism . Inevitably, therefo re, as he p u sh ed s o u th he m et increasing B o lsh e v ik resistance. A n d , as all the B ritish c o m m a n d e rs in R ussia fo u n d , this resistance cam e n o t o n ly fro m soldiers in the field b u t also fr o m the B o lsh e v ik u n d e r g ro u n d in th e to w n s and a lo n g th e lines o f c o m m u n ic a tio n . H e estim ated th at to cope w ith th e 55,000 G e rm an s believed to be in F inland allied to an equal n u m b e r o f W h ite Finns and w h a te v e r B o lsh e v ik s w e re m o v e d against h im he had an effective force o f o n ly s o m e 2,500. A lo n g w ith a c o m p a n y o f the 29th L o n d o n R e g im e n t, th e 253rd M ac h in e G u n C o m p a n y and tw o sections o f the 384th Field C o m p a n y o f th e R o y al E ngineers, these included a F rench A rtillery G ro u p , a Serbian B attalion, an e m b ry o legion o f R ed Finns alo n g w ith the b eg in n in g o f th e S lav o -B ritish L egion raised fro m local R ussians, and a K arelian R e g im e n t o f m e n living in th e district w h ic h lay b e tw e e n the M u rm a n s k railw ay and the F innish b o rd e r and w h o w a n te d in d ep en d en ce fro m b o th the R ussians and the Finns. T h ese n e w ly fo rm e d u nits w e re to p ro v id e M a y n a rd w ith m u c h n eeded m a n p o w e r and a great m a n y headaches. In a d d itio n to these forces he h ad a few agents ru n b y the u b iq u ito u s C o lo n e l T h o rn h ill, the Intelligence officer w h o had o rg a n ise d th e last C h ristm a s p a rty in th e B ritish E m b a s s y and had led the raid b e h in d th e B o lsh e v ik lines in s u p p o rt o f the A rchangel land ing . G eneral M a y n a rd c o m m a n d e d this m ix tu re o f forces, m a n y o f th e m strick en w ith flu an d scu rvy , first fro m a b o x car in th e sidings at M u r m a n s k and th en fro m a n e w ly built, substantial log house. H is early e x p e d itio n s alo ng the railw ay to o k place in so m e d is c o m fo rt b u t so o n ch a n g ed to lu x u ry w h e n , like G e o rg e H ill, he acq u ired a palace o n w h eels b elo n g in g to o n e o f the dep osed R o y al F am ily. M a y n a r d ’s carriage h ad b elo n g e d to G ra n d D u k e N ich o la s. T h e G ra n d D u k e h a d n o fu rth e r use for it. D ism issed as C o m m a n d e r - in - C h i e f b y th e P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t he fled to the C rim e a , an d fro m th ere left R ussia fo r the last tim e. M a y n a rd co n sid ered h im s e lf so s h o rt o f m e n th at he w e n t to P ech e n g a to see i f he co u ld w ith d r a w so m e o f the g arriso n and, 119

More M e n , More M oney, More Weapons c o n c lu d in g th at th e sh allo w h a r b o u r could n ev er be used as a U - b o a t base even i f it w as c a p tu red b y the G e rm an s, he p ro p o se d pu llin g o u t th e w h o le g arriso n an d red ep lo y in g the tro o p s. T h e A d m ira lty , h o w e v e r, w as h o rrifie d and refused. It b eing o ne o f the first law s o f m ilitary life th at as so o n as a general is giv en c o m m a n d o f tro o p s he im m e d ia te ly asks for m o re, M a y n a rd n o w fo llo w ed th at law to the lim it. H e used the A d m ira lty ’s refusal o v e r P ech e n g a ’s tro o p s to b lackm ail th e W a r O ffice in to send ing h im an in fa n try brig ade, th ree batteries o f field artillery, tw o m a c h in e -g u n co m p a n ie s an d a tren c h m o r ta r b attery . H e also g o t tro o p s fro m the Italians, w h o sent an e x p e d itio n a ry force o f 1,200, th e C an ad ia n s w h o sent a c o m p a n y , and th e F ren ch w h o sent an inv alu able c o m p a n y o f skiers. B u t these rein fo rce­ m en ts did n o t start to arrive u ntil S e p te m b e r and in the m e a n tim e T h o r n h ill’s agents h ad re p o rte d a b u ild -u p along the b o rd e r o f W h ite Finns w ith s o m e G e rm a n officers. M a y n a rd decided he had to sq uash this p o ten tial th re a t to th e railw ay line. First he sent o f f a sm all force c o m p o s e d o f a p la to o n o f B ritish In fan try and 120 Serbs to p u sh d o w n the railw ay line to establish the stre n g th o f the B olsh ev ik s s o u th o f S u m sk i P osad and to p re v e n t th e m fro m in terferin g w ith his p ro p o se d op erations. Led b y C ap tain S hep ­ pard, this en te rp rise b y w h a t w as n o m o re th a n a s tro n g raidin g p arty , w as a g reat success. It m e t a force o f B o lsh ev iks con sistin g o f an in fa n try b attalio n and tw o h u n d re d cavalry, inflicted h ea v y casualties and d ro v e it so m e th irty m iles d o w n th e line. M a y n a rd h ad also sent o f f tw o co lu m n s to take o n the W h ite Finns and G e rm an s, o n e fro m K e m c o m p o s e d o f Karelians an d the o th er, fro m K an dalak sha, d ra w n fro m th e F innish Legion. M a y n a rd d escribed th e m as “ tw o sm all co lu m n s o f sem i-b a rb aric au xiliaries” . It w as ro u g h g o ing , to o ro u g h fo r tra n s p o rt vehicles and th ere w e re n o t e n o u g h pack anim als to keep the c o lu m n supplied. E v e ry th in g h ad to be b ac k -p ac k ed or, w h e n th e rivers p e rm itte d , carried b y bo at. K arelian w o m e n w e re h ired to ru n the boats. T w o o f these w o m e n , u n a rm e d and alone in on e o f the big canoes, w e re seen b y a g ro u p o f W h ite Finns w h o o p en e d fire b u t m issed. T h re e o f th e Finns ju m p e d in to a b o a t an d set o f f in p u rsu it. B u t the w o m e n , e x p e rt o n the w ater, tu rn e d th eir b o at a ro u n d and r a m m e d th e Finns and th e n set a b o u t th e m w ith th eir oars. T h e y p u t all th re e o f th eir p u rsu e rs o u t o f action and k n o c k e d tw o o f th e m o v e rb o a rd . M a y n a rd to o k great pleasure in aw a rd in g th e m the M ilita ry M edal. B o th co lu m n s m e t th e usual s tu rd y o p p o s itio n fro m the Finns b u t o n S e p te m b e r 1 ith , th e Karelians u n d e r L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l W o o d s 120

M urm ansk, August-D ecem ber 1918 w h o raised an d train ed th em , o u tflan k ed the Finnish W h ite G uard s and scored a sm all b u t decisive v ic to ry at U k h tin s k a y a o n the n o rth b a n k o f the R iv er K e m . A g reat deal o f w a r b o o ty w as c a p tu red and a m o n g th e e n e m y dead w e re fo u n d several G e rm a n officers and N C O s . T h e R ed Finns, led b y a C an ad ia n officer, M a jo r B u rto n , m e t w ith sim ilar success and b y early O c to b e r the w h o le o f Karelia h a d been cleared u p to the Finnish frontier. T h is b risk little ca m p aig n in fact signalled the e n d o f the th rea t to M u rm a n s k , b u t M a y n a rd , a w o rr y in g m an, lo o k e d at it in a different lig ht. H e assu m ed th at because the Finns h ad been de­ feated, B a ro n R u d ig e r v o n d er G oltz, th e G e rm a n c o m m a n d e r in F inland, w o u ld retaliate b y b rin g in g u p regu lar G e rm a n tro o p s to attack M u rm a n s k . T h u s he pre p are d fo r a w in te r w ar. B lo ck h o u ses w e re built, th e S hack leto n w in te r kit issued, Italian and F rench ski tro o p s w e lc o m e d and a tte m p ts m ad e to teach th e B ritish tro o p s to ski. All th at c h a n g ed o f co urse o n N o v e m b e r n t h . B u t b y th en the G e rm a n s ’ role as e n e m y had been tak en o v er b y th e B olsheviks. T h e re n e v e r w as a clear cut o rd e r saying th at as fro m to d a y w e are at w a r w ith th e B olsh evik s. It h a p p e n e d as i f b y osm osis. M a y n a r d ’s w o rrie s re m a in ed the sam e: n o t e n o u g h m en a lth o u g h in reality he h ad m o re th a n e n o u g h - and h ard ly a p en n y to spend. T o these w e re add ed th e g ro w in g o p p o s itio n o f the B o lsh ev ik s in M u rm a n s k and in the to w n s along the railw ay line, a nd in creasing disaffection a m o n g his locally recruited soldiers. T h e m e n o f his F innish L egion d id n o t w a n t to fight against their B o lsh ev ik friends. T h e K arelians w e re d e m a n d in g in d ep en d en ce a nd th a t m e a n t fro m any R ussian g o v e rn m e n t, n o t o n ly the B o lshe­ viks, an d th e S lav o-R ussian units, co m p rise d m o stly o f con scrip ted m en , w e re rid d led w ith m u tin y . A t tim es the b lu ff G eneral P o o le also app eared to be an en em y , fo r he w as in te n t o n seizing th e 5,000 rein fo rcem en ts M a y n a rd had prised o u t o f the W a r O ffice. P o o le refused to give back the 100 R o y al M arin es M a y n a rd had lent h im for the A rch an g el landing. A n d , as M a y n a rd w r o te w ith s o m e b itterness to G eneral P. de B. Radcliffe, D ire c to r o f M ilita ry O p e ra tio n s at the W a r O ffice, w h e n he w as fo rced to send a b a ttalio n o f th e L iverp oo l R e g im e n t all the w a y r o u n d b y sea to K e m because sab oteurs had cut the railw ay line, P o ole hijacked th e w h o le b attalio n w h e n the ship p u t into A rc h an g e l to deliver a b a tte ry o f h o w itze rs. P o o le w as p ro b a b ly ju stifie d . H e faced m u c h stiffer o p p o sitio n w ith fe w er m e n th an M a y n a rd w h o n o w had so m e 15,000 u n d e r his c o m m a n d : 7,400 B ritish, 1,350 Italians, 1,200 Serbs, 1,000 French 121

More M en, More M oney, More Weapons and m o re th a n 4,000 R ussians, K arelians an d Finns. E v en g iv en th e un ce rtain lo y alty o f th e locally raised tro o p s M a y n a rd h ad e n o u g h m e n to cop e w ith his m ilita ry p ro b lem s. Ships arriv ed at M u r m a n s k alm o st ev ery day b rin g in g stores, w e a p o n s an d m en. A m o n g th e m w e re gu n n ers, m a c h in e -g u n n e rs, sappers an d in fa n try m e n fro m th e R oy al Sussex R eg im en t, th e K in g ’s R o y al Rifle C o rp s , th e M id d lesex R e g im e n t and th e 6th and 13 th B attalio n s o f th e Y o rk sh ire R eg im en t. T h e Y o rk sh ire s had a particularly h a rro w in g tim e reach ing M u rm a n s k . T h e ir v o y a g e started w ith a n e a r-m u tin y . P rivate F. H irs t o f the 6th Y o rk s re co rd e d w h a t h ap p e n ed in his G lo b e exercise b o o k . T h e y h ad g o n e b y train fro m A ld e rsh o t to G rim s b y w h e re o n O c to b e r 15th, 1918 th ey b o a rd e d a decrepit fo rm e r G e rm a n ship, th e Traz-os-M ontes, w h o se sailing w as delayed be­ cause o f m echanical tro u b le. T h e tro o p s exp ected to be allo w ed to g o o n sh o re and w h e n p erm issio n w as refused so m e 150 o f th e m m a d e fo r th e d o ck gates w h e re th ey w e re s to p p e d b y th e M ilita ry Police an d sentries w ith fixed b ay onets. T h e y th en re tu rn e d to the ship w h e re th ey h a ra n g u e d th eir co m ra d es w h o h ad re m a in ed o n b o a rd , an d called “ fo r us to be m e n and ru sh the g ates” . T h e colonel d re w his re v o lv e r and th re a te n e d th at the n e x t m a n to go o v e r the side w o u ld be fired u p o n , w h e re u p o n he w as to ld th at “ i f he does the rifles will so o n be fetched o ut. So he has to p u t his re v o lv e r a w ay . In a n o th e r place th e b rig ad ie r-g e n era l has a c ro w d r o u n d h im an d th e lads are telling h im w h a t th ey th in k o f h i m . ” T h e p ro b le m w as solv ed w h e n a tu g to w e d the ship in to m id ­ s tream , w h e re th ere w as n o chance o f the m e n g ettin g ashore. T h e y th en set o u t fo r R ussia w ith H irst n o tin g w ith fo re b o d in g th a t the ship w as sailing w ith a p ro n o u n c e d list. T h e y w e re head ing to w a rd s N o r w a y , escorted b y tw o d estro y e rs w h e n the engines b ro k e d o w n an d th e y fo u n d th em selves d riftin g to w a rd s a m inefield, “ an easy ta rg e t fo r old J e r r y ’s s u b s ” . O n e o f the d estro y e rs passed a t o w ro p e b u t it snapped. E v en tu a lly a tu g a rriv ed and to w e d th e m to safety in th e Shetlands. O n N o v e m b e r 4 th th ey p u t to sea again - and b ro k e d o w n again. O n th e 6th th ey tried again, this tim e sailing in to a s to rm . E v e ry o n e w as sick an d the ship to o k o n even m o re o f a list. T h e n e x t d ay th ey s o u g h t shelter at an c h o r in a b ay in the O rk n e y s . O n th e 8th H irs t w as w o k e n b y an u n u su al g ra tin g noise. T h e sea “ w as a w fu l” and the ship w as d ra g g in g h e r a n c h o r and d riftin g o n to th e beach. D istress ro ckets b u rst in th e sky an d an S O S w as sent o u t. S o m e m e n m a d e th e h azard o u s trip to the beach in th e s h ip ’s bo ats. O n e m a n w as seen to be tak ing his re g im e n ta l cap b ad g e o f f in th e boat. W h e n his serg eant asked h im w h y he replied: “ I d o n ’t 122

M urm ansk, August-D ecem ber 1918 w a n t K itc h e n e r to k n o w w h a t a m o b I b elo n g t o . ” (K itchener had b een d r o w n e d in th at area tw o years before w h e n th e cruiser Hampshire, ta k in g h im to Russia, stru ck a m in e and sank.) H o w e v e r, th e y all su rv iv ed w ith a few m in o r injuries and th ey celeb rated A rm istic e D a y a m o n g the h ospitable people o f the O rk n e y s . B u t th e y still h ad to g o to Russia and, eventu ally on D e c e m b e r 3rd, seven w eek s after th ey first set fo o t o n th e Traz-osM ontes, th e y lan d ed at M u rm a n s k w ith H irs t c o m m e n tin g , “ I co n sid er w e are th e luckiest 2,500 m e n w h o ever step p ed o n b o a rd a v esse l.” T h e y w e re p u t to w o r k in th e b itte r d arkness o f the A rctic w in te r as a service b attalio n, h elping the R oy al E ng ineers b uild barracks. W ith h in d sig h t, an d g iven the h is to ry o f the tra u m a tic v o y a g e it w as inevitab le th a t th ere w o u ld be tro u b le w ith these m en. W e d o n o t k n o w i f M a y n a rd a n ticipated the p ro b le m s in store. In any case th ere w as little he co uld d o a b o u t it. In the end as w e shall see he w as fo rtu n a te e n o u g h - o r clever e n o u g h - to tran sfer the Y o rk sh ire s b efo re th e tro u b le b ro k e. T h e Traz-os-M ontes arriv ed w h e n he w as in L o n d o n seeking a so lu tio n to th e m o n e ta r y p ro b le m s o f his c o m m a n d . A t the start o f his en te rp rise h e h ad g o n e to the T re a s u ry to ask for a “ m o d e st su m in h o n e s t E n g lish c u rre n c y ” to p ay for his fo rce’s necessities. H e w as refused. Instead th e T re a s u ry cam e u p w ith the e x tra o rd in a ry sch e m e th a t he sh o u ld take o v e r a h u g e q u a n tity o f salted h errin g s w h ic h h ad been b o u g h t b y B ritain and w e re sto red at V a rd o in N o r w a y an d use th e m instead o f cash. M a y n a rd p o in te d o u t th at he h ad n o w a y o f sh ip p in g the h errin g s to M u rm a n s k . H e h ad n o idea o f th eir co n d itio n an d d o u b te d th at a lo n g c o n tin u e d diet o f salted h errin g s w o u ld appeal to th e R ussian w o r k m a n as a su b stitu te for his w ages. M a y n a rd ad d ed th at he h ad a “ s tro n g o b jec tio n to a d d in g the ru n n in g o f a glorified fish sh o p to m y o th e r d u tie s .” H e w as ev en tu ally allo w ed a m in u scu le a m o u n t o f B ritish c u rren c y b u t it w as so o n sp en t o n a c c o m m o d a tio n for the tro o p s, tra n s p o rt, fo d d e r and w ages. M a y n a r d ’s p ro b le m w as m a d e m o re difficult b y the v ery success o f th e B ritish c a m p a ig n to w o o th e M u rm a n s k Soviet aw ay fro m th e B olsh ev iks an d the increasing a m o u n t o f te rrito ry w h ic h cam e u n d e r his c o n tro l fo llo w in g his o cc u p atio n o f the railw ay to w n s. H e b ec am e resp o n sib le fo r p ro te c tin g and feeding a b o u t 100,000 p eo ­ ple in th e te rrito ry he h ad tak en over. A n d since th e ra ilw a y m e n and d o ck e rs n o w w o rk e d solely fo r the B ritish forces th ey expected to be paid b y th e B ritish . B u t M a y n a rd w as sent little fo o d and n o m o n e y at all. In late A u g u s t, th e ra ilw a y m e n w e n t o n strike. His 123

More M e n , More M o n e y, More Weapons c o m m u n ic a tio n s w ith th e s o u th and his garriso ns at K and alak sha and K e m w e re th rea ten ed an d the d isco n ten t w as played u p o n b y local B o lsh e v ik sy m p ath isers. M a y n a rd w as forced to search th ro u g h th e B ritish tro o p s in M u rm a n s k to find m en w h o co u ld d riv e railw ay engines and even tually fo u n d five. T h ese he sent s o u th o n a F o rd car w h ic h h ad been fitted w ith railw ay w heels in a naval w o rk s h o p and w as d riv en b y his A D C . T h e y arriv ed safely after a h air-raisin g ride th r o u g h the forest. T w o o f the m e n g o t o f f at K and alak sha and the o th e rs w e n t o n to K e m . M a y n a rd w as n o w co n fid e n t th at in an e m e rg e n c y he cou ld get his tro o p s o u t o f b o th to w n s b y train i f th ey cam e u n d e r attack. H e also, h u m ilia tin g ly , b o r r o w e d e n o u g h m o n e y fro m the French A m b assa d o r, w h o w as th en at A rchang el, to pay o f f th e strikers. T h e re w e re a n u m b e r o f d e v e lo p m e n ts d u rin g th e a u tu m n : G eneral P oole, w h o s e lack o f political su b tlety h ad b ec o m e e m b a r­ rassing, w e n t h o m e to L o n d o n fo r con su ltatio n s and n ev e r re­ tu rn e d , his place being tak en b y th e fo rm id a b le M ajo r-G en e ral E d m u n d Iro nsid e w h o w as to b ec o m e F ield -M arshal L o rd Ironsid e in th e S econd W o rld W ar. T h e tw o m ilitary c o m m a n d s at A rc h an g e l w e re div id ed w ith M a y n a rd b ein g g iven his in d e p e n d ­ ence fro m A rchangel. B u t at th e sam e tim e M u rm a n s k w as b r o u g h t u n d e r th e political a u th o rity o f the n e w R ussian g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h h ad been set u p in A rchan gel. T h e M u rm a n s k S oviet w h ic h had in v ite d the B ritish to in terv e n e w as dissolved and p o w e r w as assu m ed b y D e p u ty G o v e rn o r Y e rm o lo v w h o w isely refused to take u p his a p p o in tm e n t u n til he w as given e n o u g h m o n e y to p ay at least a p r o p o r tio n o f th e w ages d u e to g o v e r n m e n t em p loy ees. M a y n a r d ’s p ro b le m s w ith m o n e y g re w w o rse. H e w as p ro m is e d £150,000 b u t th en th e T re a s u ry refused to allow h im to sp en d it w ith o u t special perm issio n . T h e d e s tro y e r H M S Dublin w h ic h b r o u g h t th e E n g lish b a n k n o te s also b ro u g h t o u t the first b atch o f the n e w issue o f R ussian b an k n o te s w h ic h h ad been p rin te d in E n g lan d . U n fo r tu n a te ly th ey w e re e n g ra v e d w ith th e m u rd e re d T s a r ’s coat o f arm s an d his m o n o g ra m , N .II. A lth o u g h n ev e r p u t in to circulatio n in M u rm a n s k , th ey w e re used in A rchan gel after ev e ry n o te h ad been la b o rio u sly o v e rsta m p e d . T h e situation n o w b ec am e so bad, w ith trains n o lo n g er being m ain tain ed because o f strikes, th at in D e c e m b e r M a y n a rd to o k passage o n the Dublin o n h er re tu rn trip to T h u rs o . In L o n d o n he h ad o ne o f tho se icily polite discussions w ith the T re a s u ry w h ich are m o re deadly th an any s h o u tin g m atch . B u t eventu ally he w o n his p oint. H e w as given p e rm issio n to sp en d th e £150,000 and assured th at a n e w issue o f cu rre n c y w as b ein g sent out. 124

M urm ansk, August-D ecem ber 1918 In o n e o f th o se s tran g e tu rn a ro u n d s th at w a r p rov ides, o n e o f the m e n w ith w h o m he talked in L o n d o n w as the W h ite F innish leader, G eneral M a n n e rh e im , against w h o m he h ad been fig h tin g all that s p rin g and a u tu m n . It w as p ro b a b ly at this m ee tin g th at M a y n a rd finally realised th a t th e th rea t fro m Finland w as en d e d and th at his o n ly en em ies n o w w e re the B olsheviks. T h e talk w ith M a n n e rh e im w as n o t en tirely successful, h o w e v e r, for M a y n a rd w a n te d h im to take b ack th e m e n o f th e R ed Finn L egion w h o w e re d e m a n d in g an a m n e sty an d th e rig h t to re tu rn to th eir h om es. B u t M a n n e rh e im , after leading his c o u n try to freed o m fro m the Russians, h ad n o w ish to accept m e n w h o had fo u g h t to re im p o se a n e w so rt o f R ussian rule. H is business in L o n d o n finished, M a y n a rd fo u n d h im s e lf back on th e Dublin at In v e rg o rd o n o n C h ris tm a s D a y w h ic h he celebrated w ith th e e x p lo re r Shackleton, also re tu rn in g to M u rm a n s k - n o d o u b t to listen to m o re c o m p lain ts a b o u t his atro cio us b oots. T h e g a m e h ad ch a n g ed co m p lete ly fo r M a y n a rd . H e had g o n e o u t to M u r m a n s k to p ro te c t it fro m th e G e rm an s. N o w , six m o n th s later, his task w as to help p ro v id e the infant “ g o v e r n m e n t o f N o r t h R u ssia” w ith space an d tim e to establish itself befo re th e Allied forces in ev itab ly w ith d re w . A n d i f he co uld strike so m e h a rd b lo w at th e B o lo s th en so m u c h the better. M a y n a rd had n o q u alm s ab o u t his role. “ R u ssia’s le a d e rs,” he argu ed, “ h ad n o t been chosen by the people. T h e ir rule w as hated, and th ey o w e d th eir re te n tio n o f p o w e r solely to the te rr o r inspired b y system atic b lo o d s h e d and m assacre . . . ” As he steam e d back th ro u g h th e n a r ro w ice walls o f the K ola Inlet a few days later he felt w ell satisfied. H e n o w had e n o u g h m e n and e n o u g h m o n e y . H is tro o p s w e re settled in to c o m fo rtab le, w ellh eated blo ck h o u ses. T h e m enace o f the G e rm a n s and th e Finns had been re m o v e d . H e h ad secured his m ilitary in d ep en d en ce an d in Y e rm o lo v had a civilian a d m in istra to r w h o m he respected. In Iro n sid e he h ad a m ilitary colleague in w h o m he h ad confidence. W h a t he did n o t foresee, h o w e v e r, w as ten m o n th s o f h ard fig h tin g against an in creasingly n u m e ro u s and skilful R ed A rm y . D u rin g this p e rio d the o riginal sm all-scale en g a g em en ts d evelop ed in to a w a r in v o lv in g battles b e tw e e n flotillas o f a rm e d ships, b o m b in g raids b y the R A F and duels b e tw e e n heavy gu n s m o u n te d o n a r m o u r e d trains.

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CH A PTER 9

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War Archangel, August-December 1918

A rc h an g e l h ad ech o ed to B ritish voices ev er since its fo u n d a tio n o v e r th ree h u n d re d years before H M S Attentive d ro p p e d ancho r. T im b e r, v irtu ally A rc h a n g e l’s o n ly p ro d u c t, w as e x p o rte d m ain ly to B ritain. B ritish ships b r o u g h t in fo o d and coal. B rito n s cam e o u t to ru n th e saw mills an d in 1899 L enin c o m p lain e d th at “ this re g io n o f E u ro p e a n R ussia has served in this respect as an extern al m a rk e t fo r B ritain w ith o u t b ein g an internal m a rk e t for R u ssia .” Indeed, un til th e ra ilw a y to V o lo g d a w as b uilt b y C o u n t W itte in 1897 it w as easier in th e s u m m e r m o n th s for th e p eople o f A rch an g el to take ships to B ritain th a n to travel to M o sc o w . It w as, as C o n s u l D o u g la s Y o u n g described it, “ A h u m a n b a c k w a te r . . . n o b o d y lived at A rc h an g e l ex cep t fro m accident o f b irth , b a n is h m e n t o r business; and th e b an ish ed inclu ded officials as w ell as political exiles o f m in o r m is d e m e a n o u r. ” N o o n e w o u ld w illing ly live th ere b u t at th e sam e tim e it w as n o t sufficiently u np leasant to be a place o f real exile. A rc h an g e l h ad b ro a d streets p aved w ith w o o d . It h ad tra m s an d electricity b u t n o se w e r sy stem and w a te r h ad to be d ra w n fro m p u m p s . Life ce n tred ro u n d the m ag n ificen t cathedral o f the A rc h an g e l M ichael w ith its fo u r d o m e s o f blue and w h ite s u r­ m o u n te d b y g o ld e n spires, and the w h a rv e s w h e re the debris o f 300 years o f seafaring trad e lay ro ttin g . T h e w a r h ad ch ang ed A rch an g el to th e e x te n t th a t it b ec am e v ery m u c h busier, fo r until M u rm a n s k w as co m p lete d , it re m a in e d R u ssia’s o n ly E u ro p e a n p o rt n o t b lo c k ­ aded b y th e G e rm a n s o r the T u rk s: o n its quays w e re piled th e supplies and a rm a m e n ts b o u g h t ab ro ad b y the T sarist g o v e rn m e n t o n w a r credits fro m th e Allies, especially B ritain. So m u c h had been o rd e re d and d elivered that, as at V lad iv o sto k , the railw ay cou ld n o t cope. G uns, shells, facto ry -fresh aircraft still lay in their crates, and w h o le cargoes o f ra w m aterials aw aited th e freig ht trains south: 14,000 to ns o f co pper, 5,000 to ns o f lead, o v e r 2,000 to n s o f a lu m in iu m , a n o th e r 2,000 to ns o f a n tim o n y and 250,000 tons o f coal. O th e r w is e the w a r b r o u g h t little radical change to the city. It w as 126

Archangel, A ugust—December 1918 a b o u rg e o is place an d re m a in ed b o u rg e o is after the M a rc h re v o ­ lu tio n w ith th e M en sh e v ik s and Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries fo rm in g a g o v e r n m e n t an d n o th in g particu larly v io lent tak in g place. S o m e u n p o p u la r officers w e re ro u n d e d up, b u t instead o f bein g killed w e re sent o f f to P e tro g ra d . A n d w h e n th e B olshevik s seized p o w e r th ere w e re n o excesses. B o lsh e v ism w as slow in c o m in g to the n o rth . T h e b an k s still o p erated, priests still ta u g h t in the schools, th e fashionable re sta u ran ts w e re th riv in g . It w as business as usual, until, th a t is, th e arrival in M a y 1918 o f M ikhail K e d ro v as head o f a “ R evising M is s io n ” . K e d ro v h a d a b o u rg e o is b a c k g ro u n d and h ad stu d ied law at M o s c o w U n iv e rs ity b u t w as expelled for re v o lu tio n a ry activities. H e sp en t several p erio d s o f exile in Siberia before e m ig ra tin g to S w itzerlan d , w h e re he m e t Lenin. A n acco m plish ed pianist, K e d ­ ro v u sed to play B e e th o v e n to his leader. H e m ad e his w a y back to R ussia in 1916, to o k p a rt in the R ev o lu tio n and h ad been p u t in ch arg e o f d em o b ilisin g th e T s a r ’s forces and, co n seq u en tly , o f e x p a n d in g th e R ed A rm y . W h e n th e R oy al M arines w e n t ashore at M u r m a n s k an d the th re a t o f in te rv e n tio n b eg an to lo o m , K e d ro v and his “ R ev ising M is s io n ” w as sent to A rch an g el to b rin g it p ro p e rly u n d e r th e B o lsh ev ik rule. H e a rriv ed im p ressiv ely o n an a r m o u r e d train b ristlin g w ith guns a c co m p an ied b y a re tin u e o f fo rty B o lshev ik officials an d a b o d y ­ g u a rd o f th irty -th re e L ettish riflem en. H is task, ac co rd in g to Soviet accounts, w as to p u t d o w n revolts, “ d iscip lin e” the locals and “ p e rs u a d e ” m e n to j o i n th e R ed A rm y . W hile K e d ro v atten d e d to th e political discipline o f A rch an g el, its m ilitary defence w as en­ tru ste d to G eneral A lex a n d er S am oilo, o n e o f a n u m b e r o f T sarist officers w h o h ad g o n e o v e r to the B olsheviks either o u t o f con vic­ tio n o r b ecause th eir fam ilies w e re th rea ten ed w ith d ea th i f th ey did n o t d o so. S am o ilo w as o n e o f th o se w h o w e n t o v e r freely and he served his n e w m asters faithfully. A t the en d o f j u n e he becam e c o m m a n d e r o f land an d naval forces in th e W h ite Sea m ilitary area. H is m ilitary c o m m is s a r w as R. K u lik o v and his fleet c o m m a n d e r w as R earA d m ira l Ya. E. V iko rist. K e d ro v w as n o t at A rc h an g e l w h e n th e B ritish seaplanes flew o v e r the t o w n an d p an ick ed th e B olsh ev iks in to fleeing. H e w as in M o s c o w m a k in g a re p o rt o n the s itu atio n in the n o rth . B u t he so o n re tu rn e d , sto p p in g his a r m o u r e d train at villages alon g the track to s h o o t any “ tra ito rs ” h e sniffed o u t an d h a ran g u e the villagers.

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General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War T h e B ritish an d the F ren ch and the A m erican s need the p o o r as ca n n o n fo d d e r [he w o u ld tell th em ], they need re in fo rce m en ts for th eir re g im e n ts. T h e y h av e ev e ry th in g else, guns, a m m u n itio n , b u t th e y d o n ’t h av e the m en . So th ey have co m e to Soviet Russia fo r m en , a c o u n try th a t w a n ts n o m o re w a r and w a n ts to live in peace w ith e v e ry o n e, ex cep t the rich and the K ulaks [rich peasants]. So, th ey will try to b rib e y o u w ith m o n ey . T h e y will send y o u to figh t against the G e rm an s an d the T u rk s and against y o u r o w n b ro th ers. W e are te m p o ra rily retreatin g in the face o f th eir cruisers and th eir g u ns. B u t w e will re tu rn . T h e re is n o force w h ic h is able to cru sh th e p o w e r o f m illions o f w o rk e rs and peasants. [H e w o u ld end his ex h o rta tio n :] T h e decisive h o u r has com e. E v e ry o n e w h o s e soul has n o t been stilled and w h o se heart is n o t yet h a rd e n e d m u s t cru sh the in tru d ers. J o in o u r ranks. F o rm partisan d eta ch m en ts. C o n ta c t the R ed A rm y . U n ite. C a tc h and kill spies. B lock the e n e m y ’s roads. B u rn th eir bridges. D e stro y th e railw ay tracks th ey are using. D e n y th e m ev e ry th in g . M a y th o u sa n d s o f o u r eyes w a tc h th eir ev ery m o v e m e n t. Set traps, s o w d eath at e v ery step th ey take. T u r n in to m erciless reven gers. H a v e n o m e rc y o n th em . In S e p te m b e r K e d ro v re tu rn e d to M o s c o w to d e m o n s tra te h o w to s h o w n o m erc y . H e w as given co n tro l o f a special section o f the C h e k a w h o s e task w as to d e s tro y “ c o u n te r re v o lu tio n a rie s” in the R ed A rm y . Later he dealt w ith w h a t w as re g ard e d as “ sa b o ta g e ” b y d o c to rs w h o declined to jo i n the R ed A r m y and in M a y 1919 he w as sent to P e tro g ra d to p u rg e the city o f “ c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n a rie s ” . T w e n ty years later he an d his son, also a secret p olicem an, fell foul o f Beria, the secret police chief. H is son w as shot. K e d ro v w as to r tu r e d and later died in a la b o u r cam p. W hile K e d ro v w as w h ip p in g up the civilian p o p u latio n , S am oilo w as o rg a n isin g defences alon g th e o n ly tw o ro u tes the in v ad in g force co u ld take, the R iv er D v in a and th e railw ay to V o lo g d a. R e a r-A d m ira l V ik o rist assem bled a flotilla o f sh allo w draft riv er b o ats and a rm e d th e m w ith field g un s to blo ck th e riv er w h ile S am o ilo h alted the fleeing R ed G u a rd s w h o , alth o u g h p o o rly train e d and a rm e d , w e re far su p erio r in n u m b e r to P o o le ’s force. T h e B o lsh e v ik s had feared th at the Allies w o u ld land in o v e r­ w h e lm in g force an d th at their re v o lu tio n w o u ld be crushed. It w as this fear, tu rn in g in to panic w h e n H M S Nairana's floatplanes flew o v e r A rch an g el, w h ic h h ad sent the R ed G u a rd s fleeing th ro u g h the forests an d s w a m p s. As w e h ave seen, s o m e tw o th o u sa n d o f th e m 128

Archangel, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 h ad already been desp atch ed w ith th eir artillery to m ee t C o lo n el T h o r n h ill’s ra id in g p a rty and th eir absence also affected the m o rale o f R ed forces in A rch ang el. S am oilo collected his scattered m en , called fo r re in fo rc e m e n ts fro m P e tro g ra d and w a ite d to m eet P o o le ’s advance. M e a n w h ile P o o le to o k o v e r A rchan gel, settled his m issio n into ho uses in th e city - he had aston ished Y o u n g b y askin g for 600 billets b efo re th e e x p e d itio n sailed for A rchan gel - and sent patrols u p th e R iv er D v in a to w a rd s K otlas and along the railw ay line to w a r d s V o lo g d a. B u t he did n o t h ave th e m en to u n d e rta k e any serious m ilitary m o v e in to the in terio r. H e also discov ered th at o n e o f the aim s o f his en terp rise h ad been p re -e m p te d . N e a rly all the w a r stores h ad been taken a w ay b y th e B olsheviks to a safe site near V o lo g d a. H e re m a in e d in A rch an g el settin g u p w h a t a m o u n te d to an o cc u p a tio n ad m in istra tio n . O sten sib ly , N ik o lai T c h a ik o v s k y ran th e affairs o f the city. A relative o f the co m p o ser, he w as a liberal, civilised m a n w h o h ad sp ent tw e n ty -s ix years in exile in E n g la n d an d a n o th e r six in A m erica, and after C h a p lin ’s co u p o f A u g u s t 1st he fo rm e d a g o v e r n m e n t co nsisting o f six Socialist R ev olu tion aries. B u t it w as a g o v e r n m e n t w ith o u t real p o w e r. P oo le a p p o in te d a F rench O fficer, C o lo n e l D o n o p , as M ilitary G o v e rn o r o f A rc h ­ angel. B e tw e e n th e m P o ole an d D o n o p ran the city and th ey did so w ith an unfeelin g d isreg a rd for th e w ishes o f its citizens. T h e W h ite R ussians h ad so few an d such p o o r tro o p s th at th ey feared an u p risin g b y th e B olshevik s w h ic h th ey w o u ld n o t be able to w ith sta n d . It d id n o t help th eir cause th at b o th th e B ritish C o n s u l, D o u g la s Y o u n g , an d th e A m eric an C o n su l, Felix C ole, w e re to tally o p p o s e d to the in te rv e n tio n . P o ole there fo re insisted o n im p o s in g a strict m ilitary rule o v e r A rch angel. H is attitu d e t o w a r d s R ussian sensibilities w as such th at w h e n M a y n a rd w as h a v in g p ro b le m s w ith ra ilw a y m e n strik in g fo r the w ages d ue to th e m , P o o le su g g ested th a t M a y n a rd sh o u ld use force to g et th e m back to w o rk . M a y n a rd , w isely, b o r r o w e d th e m o n e y instead. D e sp ite his b lu f f g o o d h u m o u r , th ere w as n o chance th at Poole, in th e m o d e rn phrase, w o u ld w in the hearts and m in d s o f A rc h angelskis. H e set u p his h e a d q u a rte rs in a large sto n e b u ild in g in the centre o f th e to w n . In a letter h o m e , M a jo r A m b ro s e S tu rd y o f the Leicester­ shire R e g im e n t w h o w as w o rk in g in th e cy p h e r section o f the h e a d q u a rte rs w ro te : “ It is j u s t like a y o u n g w a r office; w e h ave a fine large cy p h e r r o o m , co m p le te w ith telep h o n e etc., W e are billeted in a v e ry c o m fo rta b le house. Like m o s t o f th e houses here, it is o ne 129

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War sto ried an d w o o d e n b u t v ery fine and luxuriou s.*’ T h e fact th a t the arrival o f an a r m y in a sm all to w n , especially o n e as o v e r c ro w d e d as A rc h an g e l w ill alw ay s cause p ro b le m s seem ed to escape the a d m it­ ted ly ja u n d ic e d eye o f C o n s u l Y o u n g . In a re p o rt to th e F o reig n O ffice he co m p lain e d :

O n e o f G eneral P o o le ’s first acts w as to req uisitio n for h im s e lf and his p erso nal s ta ff th e larg est an d finest residence in to w n , b e lo n g in g to a sa w m ill o w n e r w h o w as a R ussian subject. E v e n th e B o lsh ev ik s h ad a llo w e d the o w n e rs to o cc u p y p art o f this ho use, b u t it w as o n ly after th e o w n e r ’s w ife had to ld G eneral P o o le th at he w as “ w o rs e th a n the B o lsh e v ik s” th at the B ritish a llo w e d h er to retain fo u r ro o m s . T h e sam e th in g w as ev id e n t in th e in n u m e ra b le d e p a rtm e n ts o f the Allied m ilitary org an isatio n . W h o le scho ol b u ild in g s w e re re q uisitioned, an d in large ro o m s capable o f h o ld in g fo u r o r five peo ple m ig h t be seen o ne officer an d o n e table.

Y o u n g w o u ld seem to h av e b een sin gu larly ig n o ra n t o f the w a y the m ilita ry co n d u c ts its affairs b u t n o d o u b t his re p o rt reflected the th in k in g o f th e citizens o f A rchangel. T h e letters o f A m b ro s e S tu rd y to his fam ily give so m e idea o f w h a t it w as like to be o n P o o le ’s staff. T o his father h e w ro te : “ M y life is m a d e u p en tirely o f w o rk , h ard w o rk , ro ast m u tto n , in c o m ­ p e te n t s ta ff and a b o u t 200 yard s o f slipp ery w o o d e n p a v e m e n t. I f I d o n ’t get at least an O B E fo r it, I’ll tu rn B o lsh ev ik . . . ” Like ev e ry o th e r so ldier w h o has left a re co rd o f his s o jo u rn in N o r t h Russia, S tu rd y also co m p lain e d b itte rly a b o u t th e failure o f th e au th o rities to get m ail th ro u g h . “ T h e p o st here is an aw fu l sc a n d a l.” A n d he h ad o th e r co m plaints. T o his sister he w ro te : “ I h av e decid ed th a t the R ussian girls a re n ’t really at all p re tty . I o n ly t h o u g h t th ey w e re at first after c o m in g fro m a b e n ig h te d sp o t like M u r m a n s k . ” A n d , again to his sister: “ I have co m e to the co n clu ­ sion th a t all R ussians are un p leasan t savages, th eir eyes are close set, th e y h av e n o noses and th e m an n e rs o f pigs. T h e y are n early as bad as A rabs. O u r E n g lish soldier serv an t is a useless and senseless c o u n try lout. W e h av e been to o b u sy to g o fo r a b a th for 4 w eeks, (12 ro u b les at the b a th house) b u t w e are h o p in g to m an a g e o ne to m o rro w .” H o w e v e r, it w as n o t all h a rd w o rk . S tu rd y w e n t to a p a rty at the h o u s e o f an E n g lish saw m ill o w n e r . . . “ e x tre m e ly b o u rg e o is w ith 130

Archangel, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 t w o u n p re p o sse ssin g flapper d a u g h te rs . . . ” A n d he a tten d e d a “ g ra n d c o n c ert an d dance given b y all th e A llied m ilitary - tickets 40 ro ub les, pro ceeds for S lav o -B ritish -A llied L eg ion c o m fo rts f u n d .” Later, he w as to m ello w . O n the eve o f g o in g u p to the fro n t he w ro te again to his sister: “ I’ve g r o w n qu ite fo n d o f A rch angel; w e ’ve h ad so m e v ery decent dances lately, an d th ere are so m e aw fu lly nice girls here (for R ussians) . . . ” It is possib le th at i f P oo le h ad been able to land a large force he co u ld w ell h av e p u sh ed far e n o u g h u p the D v in a to take K otlas. B u t it w as n o t till A u g u s t 26th th at his first sizeable force o f B ritish in fan try , th e 2 / i o t h R oy al Scots, d isem b ark ed . E v en th ey w e re all B2 M edical c a te g o ry an d m a n y w e re old soldiers full o f w o u n d s and w a r w eariness. N ev erth ele ss th ey w e re im m e d ia te ly e m b a rk e d on barg es an d sen t u p the D v in a w ith the Poles w h ile the F rench C o lo n ia l In fa n try m o v e d alon g th e railw ay line. T h e railw ay ran du e s o u th w h ile th e riv er ran o f f to the so u th -ea st so th a t the tw o forces w e re fig h tin g so m e eig h ty m iles apart fro m o ne an o th er. T h e y fo u g h t an u n c o m fo rta b le , h ard little cam p aign . S am u o lo had rallied his m e n and received a b atc h o f R ed G u ard s, a rm e d factory w o rk e rs , fr o m P e tro g ra d . H e set u p b lo ck in g parties in the villages o f w h ic h th ere w e re a su rp risin g n u m b e r tu ck e d aw ay in th e forests a lo n g the riv e r an d its tributaries. T h e barges, in c o n sta n t d a n g e r o f being s tra n d e d o n san d b an k s in th e sh allo w river, and o f b eing b lo w n u p b y m in es floated d o w n th e river, w e re sniped at fro m the b an k s w h ile th e b o x cars c a rry in g the F rench w e re s h o t at fro m the den se forest t h r o u g h w h ic h the railw ay line w as carved. T h e line w as cut often, easily d o n e w h e n it passed o v e r so m a n y bridges, beau tifu lly b u ilt o f w o o d b u t v u ln erab le to sab o teu rs a rm e d w ith a bale o f h ay an d a gallon o f paraffin. P ro g re ss w as slow . O n c e o f f th e b o a t the soldiers h ad to cope w ith th e b e w ild e rin g forest an d deep s w a m p s in w h ic h m e n dis­ ap p e are d w ith o u t trace. A n d a ro u n d each m a n b u zz ed his o w n perso n al c lo u d o f e x tre m e ly h o stile m o sq u ito e s. O n e m a n w ro te in his diary: “ I h a d b o u g h t s o m e a n ti-m o s q u ito cream fro m B o o ts. It seem ed to attra ct g reat sw a rm s o f th e m fro m m iles a ro u n d to dine o n it a nd m e. ” T h e local m en , s o m e fig h tin g fo r th e B olshevik s and oth ers acting as g uides to the Allies, seem ed in u re d to th e m o s ­ q u ito es and blazed trails t h r o u g h th e forest, m a rk in g trees so that th e y co u ld m o v e as i f alo n g streets. B u t the P e tro g ra d R ed G uards, c ity -d w e lle rs to a m an , w e re even w o rs e o f f th an th e B ritish and F rench w h o at least w e re profession al soldiers ac cu sto m ed to a h ard life in th e o pen. 131

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War D e sp ite all the difficulties, the R oy al Scots to o k the riv er t o w n o f B erezn ik , so m e 125 m iles fro m A rch an g el o n S e p te m b e r 3rd. It w as h ere th a t P o o le p lan n e d to set u p his w in te r base. O n the railw ay fro n t, th e allies h ad g o t as far as O b o z e rs k a y a so m e sev e n ty -fiv e m iles d o w n the line. T h e d ay after B erezn ik fell the A m ericans landed at A rchan gel; 4,477 soldiers o f th e 339th In fan try, the 310th E ngineers, the 337th Field H o sp ita l and th e 337th A m b u la n c e C o m p a n y u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f th e A u s tra lia n -b o rn C o lo n el G e o rg e E. S tew art. T h e y had been tra in in g at C a m p C u ste r, in B attle C reek , M ich ig an , to fig h t in France w h e n th ey w e re sh ip p ed o f f to E n g la n d and to ld th at th e y w o u ld be g o in g to N o r t h Russia. T h e y landed at L iv erp o o l o n A u g u s t 4 th an d m a rc h e d th r o u g h th e city w ith the ch u rch bells rin g in g an d peo p le lin ing th e streets to w a tc h the Y ank s pass by. T h e y th e n to o k th e train s o u th to C a m p C o w s h o t in S urrey w h e re th e y drilled an d m a rc h e d and w e re issued w ith R ussian rifles an d arctic u n d e rw e a r, n e ith e r o f w h ich m e t w ith th eir ap pro val. T h e y also g o t passes to g o up to L o n d o n : a m u c h nicer prosp ect. As C o rp o ra l F rank D o u m a , later to b e c o m e S u p e rin te n d e n t o f S chools at O t t u m a , Io w a, w ro te in his diary: A u g u s t 12. T h is ev e n in g w e w e n t to L o n d o n . W as in the finest salo o n there, the b ar-te n d e rs w e re all girls. W o m e n d rin k in the saloons th e sam e as th e m e n and also sm o k e a g reat deal . . . A u g u s t 17. G o t a n o th e r pass for L o n d o n . . . V isited the T o w e r o f L o n d o n , th e H o u ses o f P arliam en t, and St P a u l’s C ath e d ra l w h ic h w as v ery beautiful and a w e-in sp irin g . V isited so m e m o re sw ell saloons and h ad p le n ty to d rin k . W e ate s u p p e r at the E agle H u t an d w e n t to th e S tran d T h e a tre in the evening. T h e m e n and w o m e n b o th s m o k e d u rin g the s h o w an d liq u o r is served be­ tw e e n acts. O n A u g u s t 26th th e y sailed fro m N e w c a stle in a c o n v o y o f fo u r tro o p s h ip s esc o rted b y b u sy little d estro y e rs w h ic h chased r o u n d th e m sh e p h e rd in g th e m aw a y fro m d an ger. T h e cro ssin g w as s m o o th , and th ey w e re d elig h ted b y the stran g e sigh ts o f th e n o rth e r n sea, th e w hales and p o lar bears an d the m id n ig h t sun. B u t th ey h ad the flu a m o n g s t th e m an d b y th e tim e th e y g o t to A rc h an g e l five h u n d re d m e n w e re sick. T h e rest m a rc h e d d o w n the g a n g w a y , the first A m e ric a n soldiers in Russia. T h e y w e re su p p o se d to parade th ro u g h th e to w n , b u t it w as rainin g an d th e p arad e w as cancelled. O n S e p te m b e r 7th o n e b attalio n w as pack ed in to b o x cars an d sent d o w n th e railw ay to help m ain tain the 132

Archangel, August-D ecem ber 1918 situ atio n at O b o z e rs k a y a , so m e seventy -five m iles s o u th w hile a n o th e r b attalio n w as p u t o n b o a rd filthy coal barges and sent u p the D v in a to B ere zn ik w h e re th e R oyal Scots and the Poles w ere p u sh in g o n to w a r d s K otlas an d w h e re, it was h o p ed , th ey w o u ld j o i n th e C zechs. T h e A m eric an s lost their first m an fo u r days after arrival. H e died o f flu and e x p o s u re o n a coal b arg e and w ith the b u g le r play ing the Last P o st he w as b u rie d in a tin y village b y the river. T h is use o f th e A m erican s b y P o o le w as q u ite c o n tra ry to P resid en t W ils o n ’s te rm s o f reference w h ich said th at th ey cou ld o n ly be u sed to g u a rd th e stores and give “ such aid as m ay be acceptable to the R ussians in th e o rg a n iz atio n o f th eir self defense” . W ilso n h ad m a d e it quite plain th at the d o u g h b o y s w e re n o t to “ take p art in o rg a n iz ed in te rv e n tio n . . . fro m either V la d iv o sto k o r M u r m a n s k an d A rc h a n g e l.” Y et th ere th ey w e re b ein g ru sh ed in to th e fro n t line. T h e reason w as sim ple. T h e A m erican s w h o , w ith th e O lym pia's sailors an d m arin es, n u m b e re d 4,800, n o w fo rm e d the b u lk o f th e A llied forces. T h e B ritish n u m b e re d o n ly 2,420, m a n y o f w h o m w e re base p erso n n el w ith m o s t o f the fig h tin g tro o p s bein g offici­ ally classified as un fit for active service. T h e re w e re 900 F rench, m o s t o f w h o m w e re C o lo n ia l In fan try u n su ited to fig h tin g in n o rth e r n latitudes, 350 Serbs w o r n o u t w ith fig h tin g and scurvy , a h an d fu l o f excellent P olish soldiers, and o n ly th e ru d im e n ts o f the S la v o -B ritish L egion. I f th e fro n ts w e re to be held against the B o lsh e v ik s ’ reo rg an ised and n u m e ro u s forces the A m eric an s h ad to g o in to b attle w h a te v e r P resid en t W ilson said. T h e y w e re s o o n in the th ick o f th e fig hting. S ergeant Silver P arrish o f B C o m p a n y reco rd s in his diary th at th ey fo u g h t their first b attle o n S e p te m b e r 16th. P arrish w as w eak o n g ra m m a r and spelling, b u t h ad a fine tu rn o f p hrase and his d iary gives a vivid acco u n t o f the role played b y the A m erican Infan try in the in terv en ­ tio n in th e N o r t h . H is c o m p a n y h ad g o n e so m e tw e n ty m iles up river, s o u th o f B erezn ik , b y a c o m b in a tio n o f steam e r an d “ h ik in g ” an d w e re m a k in g break fast o v e r bo nfires w h e n a B olsh ev ik g u n ­ b o a t steam e d in to sight, shelled th e m and landed s o m e riflemen. “ T h e y saw us an d o p e n e d u p o n us, ” w ro te Parrish. “ A lm o s t every m a n w as ra ttled u n til I w e n t d o w n o v e r an o p e n field h o llo rin g [sic] fo r o u r m e n to fo llo w and I fo rm e d a sk irm ish line and w ith the assistance o f a few R ussian regu lars an d one p la to o n o f Scots w e d ro v e th e m back o n th eir b o a t and th en o u r g u n b o a t h o v e in sight a nd su n k th e e n e m y b o a t . ” (T his w as p ro b a b ly the sm all B ritish M o n ito r M 252.) 133

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War O n th e 19th, P arrish w as in T u lg as, a village o n the D v in a w h ic h w as to be th e scene o f b itte r fig h tin g , ch a n g in g han ds several tim es th r o u g h o u t th e A llied o ccu p atio n : A t tw o in th e a fte rn o o n the e n e m y field pieces and g u n b o a ts o p e n e d u p o n us and g av e us hell. W e w e re in a g ra v ey ard at the tim e (a g o o d place to die). A t seven in th e ev en in g th e captain sent m e back to to w n to see i f o u r m ach in e gu n s an d g u n n ers w e re there. I g o t in to to w n a b o u t e ig h t p .m . an d the e n e m y g u n b o a ts an d field pieces w e re b lo w in g hell o u t o f th in g s b u t I w e n t fro m place to place u ntil I g o t all the m e n an d guns. I arrested a spy w h o w as flashing signals f r o m a loft to the g u n b o a ts and th e n I w e n t o n a lo n g h u n t fo r th e c o m p a n y for th ey h ad m o v e d u p in to the w o o d s closer to th e e n e m y . I had fo u rte en m e n and eigh t L ew is g u n s an d w e w e re in o n e hell o f a rain o f shrapnel an d H .E . [H ig h E x p lo siv e] fo r tw o h o u rs and it w as d ark as pitch and rain ing and w e w e re h u n g r y as w e h ad n o food. W e fo u n d th e c o m p a n y in a rav in e h u d d le d to g e th e r to keep w a rm . B u t w e s h o u ld w o rr y . W e h ad L ew is g un s n o w an d all the en e m y h ad w as g u n b o a ts, p o m -p o m s , m ac h in e guns, rifles and field pieces an d trenches. B u t o rd e rs w e re to keep o n o u r full packs an d these w e d id keep o n fo r a b o u t 52 h o u rs. Sept. 21. 1 0 a .m . W e fo rm e d a sk irm ish line. B C o m p a n y o n th e rig h t flank. C o n th e left an d D in reserve. W e w e n t in to b attle w ith full p acks an d w a te r k n ee deep. T h e e n e m y w as en tre n ch e d and w e w e re in th e op en. W e ad v an ced against th eir m ach in e em p lac e­ m e n ts an d tren ches, m e in charge o f th e rig h t flank o f o u r c o m p a n y w h e re I to o k 2 m a c h in e -g u n crew s and a b o u t ten o th e r m en . W e tried flanking m o v e m e n t w h ic h m ad e the e n e m y fall back an d w h e n I placed m y m e n an d starte d b ack to in fo rm th e c o m m a n d e rs o f m y success to m y su rp rise I saw th at o u r m e n w e re re treatin g and th e e n e m y w e re g o in g the o th e r w ay. So I w e n t back to g et m y m e n an d th e n w e fo u n d th e c o m p a n y and d u g o urselv es in and at 5 p .m . the R ussian artillery c o m p o s e d o f tw o th re e -in c h g u n s o p e n e d u p and after an h o u r ’s barrage, A , B an d C co m p a n ie s fo rm e d a sk irm ish line an d to o k th e t o w n o f Selsoe. W e lost fo u r dead and five w o u n d e d . T h ese w e re all in m y little te a m . . . N e x t m o rn in g I w as called befo re the c o m m a n d e r an d in fo rm e d th at I w as re c o m m e n d e d fo r a co m m iss io n for m a k in g a g o o d th in g o u t o f a b ad m ix -u p . F ran k D o u m a w h o w as w ith D C o m p a n y w as also in v o lv ed in th e fracas o f S e p te m b e r 21st: 134

Archangel, August-D ecem ber 1918 S tarted to h ik e at 9.00 a.m . O u r w h o le b attalio n w e n t at one tim e, o u r c o m p a n y b eing in the lead. I w as the ru n n e r b e tw e e n C a p ta in and M a jo r all day. W as e x tre m e ly h ard w o r k ru n n in g t h r o u g h th e h ea v y m u d . W e cam e u p o n the B olos at Selsoe at 2.30 p. m . I w as o n the p o in t w ith th e C ap tain an d th ey o p en e d up o n us w ith m ac h in e g u n s an d p o m -p o m s . W e h ad to dig in rig h t w h e re w e w ere. T h a t n ig h t w e m o v e d back to a fence at the back o f w h ic h w e d u g a sy stem o f trenches. W e slept in th e trenches all th a t n ig h t. It rained co n stan tly an d w e w e re soaked to the skin b y m o rn in g . A B o lo g u n b o a t o p e n e d u p o n us early this m o rn in g . O u r ratio ns w e re v ery lo w and I d iv id ed u p m y last can o f bully at 2.00 p .m . O u r artillery cam e u p and saved the d ay for us. W e w e re o rd e re d to advance at 5.00 p .m . W e chased the B olos o u t o f th eir tren ch es and c a p tu red a n u m b e r o f priso ners. T h e B olo s re treate d and left considerable a m m o and guns. W e to o k th ree villages an d established o u t posts. W e h ave n o rations an d all w e ate to d a y w as tu rn ip s an d cleba [bread]. T h is w as th e p a tte rn o f fig h tin g in the s w a m p s and forests s o u th o f A rc h an g e l w ith sm all forces clashing in the w o o d s , s tru g g lin g th r o u g h th e m ire to attack villages and w ith g u n b o a ts m a k in g forays a lo n g th e D v in a and its tribu taries. It w as hard, b lo o d y w o r k w ith the fo g o f w a r m a d e even m o re co nfusin g b y p o o r c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n s and th e im p o ssib ility o f k n o w in g w h a t w as g o in g o n o n ly a few h u n d re d y ard s a w a y w h e re a b attle co u ld be co m p lete ly screened b y the forest an d cu t o f f b y im passable sw am p s. In such fig h tin g th e E n g in ee rs b ec am e priceless. T h e m e n o f th e R oy al E n g in ee rs an d th e U S 3 10th E n g in ee rs w e re w o rk in g w ell to g e th e r to b u ild th e b rid g es and b lo ck h o u ses an d to p ro v id e the ac c o m ­ m o d a tio n w h ic h w as to be vital w h e n w in te r clam ped its iro n fist o n the battlefield. J a y H . B o n n ell o f the 3 10th E ng ineers later r e m e m ­ b ered g o in g u p th e D v in a fo r a b o u t a h u n d re d m iles “ th e n I w as left o f f th e b o a t w ith ten o th e r soldiers tw o o f th e m b ein g a serg ean t and co rp o ral. P ro ce ed ed to th e fig h tin g line a b o u t tw e n ty m iles aw ay. B u ilt a b rid g e in th irty -s ix h o u rs w ith the help o f 18 R ussian la b o u re rs .” H e sp en t tw o m o n th s at th e fro n t b u ild in g b ridg es and re p airin g roads. It w as h a rd graft, en lig h ten e d o n e day b y b ein g p u t in charge o f a ra tio n barg e. “ T h e b o y s h ad a g o o d tim e, and fo rg o t th eir h a rd sh ip s fo r th e tim e fo r th e y b ro k e in to th e r u m and g o t d ru n k , all b u t D a n an d I . ” W hile this little w a r w as b ein g fo u g h t, virtu ally u n k n o w n to the o u tsid e w o rld , P o o le w as ru n n in g in to tro u b le in A rch ang el. F o o d w as sh o rt, and th ere w as a th riv in g black m ark e t. T h e Y M C A h ad 135

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War s to p p e d selling chocolate because it w as being resold at e x o rb ita n t prices. R e c ru itm e n t o f local R ussians in to th e N o r th e r n G o v e rn ­ m e n t A r m y w as so b a d th a t c o n sc rip tio n w as in tro d u ce d . P o o le fo u n d h im s e lf d en ied th e re in fo rce m en ts he so badly need ed and indeed t w o days b efo re th e A m eric an s fired their first shots, the U n ite d States a n n o u n c e d th a t n o m o re A m eric an soldiers w o u ld be sent to A rc h an g e l o r M u rm a n s k . As th ere seem ed to be n o chance o f b u ild in g an effective R ussian force to o p p o se the B olsh eviks, A m eric a insisted “ th at all m ilitary effort in n o rth e r n Russia be g iv en up ex c ep t th e g u a rd in g o f the p o rts th em selv es and as m u c h o f th e c o u n try r o u n d th e m as m a y d ev elo p th re a te n in g co n d itio n s . . . ” A n d th e n th ere w as P o o le him self. H e h ad ru b b e d the A m eric an s u p the w r o n g w a y b y ta k in g to o literally the a g reem e n t th at th e B ritish s h o u ld be in c h arg e o f o p eratio n s and th ere fo re insisting th at B ritish officers sh o u ld c o m m a n d all aspects o f the exp ed ition. T h e A m eric an s w e re p artic u la rly irk ed b y w h a t th ey saw as the B ritish tactic o f p ro m o tin g officers an d even N C O s to field ra n k to en su re th at th e y w e re senio r to th e A m eric an officers. T h e re m a y hav e b een an ele m e n t o f tr u th in this charge, b u t th ere w as also a g reat lack o f g o o d B ritish officers to replace th o se s u c c u m b in g to old w o u n d s , th e flu and th e w h isk y bottle. P o o le ’s m a jo r p ro b le m s, h o w e v e r, w e re w ith the g o v e r n m e n t o f T c h a ik o v s k y . R elation s b e tw e e n the tw o m e n g re w increasingly difficult w ith P o o le try in g to ru n an a rm y o f o c c u p atio n and T c h a ik o v s k y try in g to r u n a R ussian g o v e r n m e n t o n R ussian soil. It d id n o t h elp th a t his w as a socialist g o v e r n m e n t b itte rly o p p o s e d b y the b o u rg e o is o f A rc h an g e l and b y T sarist officers such as G e o rg i C h a p lin w h o lo o k e d o n T c h a ik o v s k y ’s m inisters as h ard ly b e tte r th a n th e B o lshev iks. It w as o b v io u s th at m a tte rs cou ld n o t co n tin u e as th e y w ere. C h a p lin w as th e m a n w h o b r o u g h t th e crisis to a head. O n th e n ig h t o f S e p te m b e r 5th, he and a g ro u p o f o th e r fo rm e r T sa rist officers k id n a p p e d T c h a ik o v sk y and five o f his m in isters an d p ac k ed th e m o f f to S olov etski Island in th e W h ite Sea, an island w ith a h isto ry o f B ritish in terv e n tio n . A t th at tim e th ere still re m a in e d evidence o f E n g lish r o u n d s h o t fired at o n e o f the to w e rs o f th e islan d ’s great m o n a s te ry d u rin g th e C rim e a n W ar. In folklo re th e m o n a s te ry is fa m o u s fo r its seagulls w h ic h left its m o n a s te ry w alls w h e n the B ritish w arsh ip s o p en e d fire, flew o f f to the B ritish ships an d m a d e such a m ess w ith th eir d ro p p in g s th at the E n g lish sailors ceased firing an d w ith d re w . T h e m ess th e y m a d e w as n o th in g to th e m ess th at P o ole w as n o w in. H e to o k th e n ew s o f th e co u p calm ly, so calm ly th at it gave rise to suspicion th a t i f he w a s n ’t in v o lv e d in it he w as at least p riv y to it. 136

Archangel, August-D ecem ber 1918 B u t w h e n th e A llied am b assad o rs g o t to hear o f it th ey w e re en rag ed, especially the A m eric an A m b assa d o r, D a v id Francis, and as a result o f his p ro te s t to W a sh in g to n , P resid en t W ilson in fo rm e d th e B ritish g o v e r n m e n t th at unless P o o le ch ang ed his attitu d e to w a rd s th e R ussians the A m eric an force w o u ld be re m o v e d fro m his c o m m a n d . A t th e sam e tim e a general strike w as called in A rc h an g e l an d b and s o f a rm e d peasants appeared o n th e streets d e m a n d in g th e re tu r n o f T c h a ik o v sk y and his m inisters. M e a n ­ w h ile the A llied d ip lo m a ts h ad teleg rap h ed K em , th e nearest p o rt to S o lo vetsk i an d o rd e re d a B ritish w a rsh ip to pick u p th e castaw ays an d re tu rn th e m to A rchangel. O n th eir re tu rn T c h a ik o v s k y agreed to get rid o f s o m e o f his m o re socialist colleagues and to m o d e ra te his policies. P o o le th en agreed to abolish C o lo n el D o n o p ’s p o st o f M ilita ry G o v e rn o r and allo w T c h a ik o v sk y to a p p o in t a R ussian G o v e rn o r-G e n e ra l. In this w a y a m o d u s v iv en d i w as established. B u t it w as to o late fo r Poole. O n O c to b e r 14th he w as recalled to E n g la n d “ fo r c o n s u lta tio n s” an d n e v e r re tu rn ed . H is place w as taken b y M a jo r-G e n e ra l E d m u n d Iron sid e w h o h ad d is e m b a rk e d fro m H M S Czaritsa o n O c to b e r 6th to be P o o le ’s C h i e f o f Staff. A h u g e m an,' six feet an d fo u r inches tall and o v er n in etee n sto n e in w e ig h t, he d w a rfe d e v e ry b o d y a ro u n d h im and w as, o f course, n ic k n a m e d “ T i n y ” . A t th irty -se v e n he w as o n e o f th e y o u n g e s t M a jo r-G e n e ra ls in th e B ritish A rm y . H e w as a n atu ral lin g u ist an d w h e n a y o u n g lieu ten a n t w o rk e d u n d e rc o v e r in G e r­ m a n S o u th -W e st A frica w h e re he disguised h im s e lf as a B o er o x e n - d riv e r an d jo in e d a G e rm a n p u n itiv e ex p e d itio n against the n ativ e H e re ro s in th e th e n G e rm a n co lo ny . T h e G e rm a n s th a n k e d h im fo r his g o o d w o r k w ith a m edal. W hile he w as in S o u th A frica he m e t J o h n B u c h a n w h o w as w o rk in g for L o rd M iln er, th e n H ig h C o m m is s io n e r fo r S o u th A frica. B u ch an w as so im p ressed b y Iro n sid e ’s exp loits th a t he m ad e h im th e m o d e l for R ich ard H a n n ay , h e ro o f The T h irty-N in e Steps. Iron sid e lived u p to his re p u ta tio n in Russia. U n lik e P o o le he did n o t re m a in in A rc h an g e l b u t to o k h im s e lf to th e battle, trav ellin g fast o n a h o rs e -d ra w n sleigh a n d ap p earin g su d d en ly o u t o f the forest to frig h te n A llied c o m m a n d e rs m o re th an the B o lsh ev ik s did. H e w as n o respecter o f p erso n s and he seem ed to dislike th e B o lsh ev iks, the J e w s, th e F ren ch an d th e G e rm an s in th at order. N o r did the A m eric an s m ee t w ith his approval. O n e o f his early actions in A rc h an g e l w as a p ro c la m a tio n w h ich said:

137

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War T h e r e seem s to be a m o n g th e tro o p s a v ery in distinct idea o f w h a t w e are fig h tin g here in N o r t h Russia. T h is can be ex plained in a few w o rd s . W e are u p against B olsh ev ism , w h ic h m eans an a rch y p u re an d sim ple. A n y o n e o f y o u can u n d e rs ta n d th at n o State can po ssib ly exist w h e n its o w n internal affairs such as lab o u r, railw ays, relations w ith F o reig n P o w e rs, etc., are so diso rg an ised as to m a k e life im p o ssib le for ev e ry b o d y . L o o k at Russia at th e p re sen t m o m e n t. T h e P o w e r is in th e h and s o f a few m en , m o s tly J e w s w h o h av e succeeded in b rin g in g the c o u n try to such a state th a t o rd e r is n o n -e x is te n t, th e posts an d railw ays do n o t ru n p ro p e rly , ev e ry m a n w h o w a n ts s o m e th in g th at s o m e b o d y else has g o t j u s t kills his o p p o n e n t, o n ly to be killed h im s e lf w h e n the n e x t m a n co m es along. H u m a n life is n o t safe, y o u can b u y ju s tic e at so m u c h fo r each object. Prices o f necessities h ave risen so th at n o th in g is p r o c u r a b l e . . . In fact the m a n w ith the g u n is “ cock o f th e w a lk ” p ro v id e d th a t he does n o t m eet a n o th e r m a n w h o is a b e tte r shot. T h e result is th at th e c o u n try as a w h o le suffers an d be c o m e s liable to be th e p re y o f any ad v e n tu rers w h o h a p p e n along . B o lsh e v ism is a disease w h ich, like c o n s u m p tio n , kills its v ictim and b rin g s n o g o o d to a n y b o d y . U n d o u b te d ly th in g s w ill be c h a n g e d after th e w ar, b u t n o t b y an arch y an d w holesale m u rd e r. B o lsh e v ism to start w ith w as o n ly c o m m e n c e d w ith the san c tio n o f G e rm a n y to rid the latter o f a d a n g e ro u s en e m y . N o w B o lsh e v ism has g r o w n u p o n th e u n ed u c ated m asses to such an e x te n t th a t R ussia is d isin te g rate d and helpless an d th erefo re w e h av e c o m e to help h e r get rid o f th e disease th at is eating h er up. W e are n o t h ere to c o n q u e r R ussia, and n o n e o f us w a n ts to stay here, b u t w e w a n t to help h er and see h er a g reat p o w e r, as at p re se n t she is ly in g helpless in the h and s o f the ad v e n tu rers w h o are sim p ly e x p lo itin g h e r for th eir o w n ends, and w h o , in o rd e r to a ttain th eir ends, kill o f f their o p p o n e n ts fro m th e h ig h est to th e lo w e s t in clu d in g th o se w h o have the best b rains in the c o u n try , an d w h o s e p o w e rs co u ld be utilised to re sto re h er p restige an d place a m o n g th e nation s. W h e n o rd e r is re sto re d here w e shall clear o ut, b u t o n ly w h e n w e have attain ed o u r object, an d th a t is, th e re s to ra tio n o f Russia. T h e Jew ish Chronicle in L o n d o n learnt o f th e p ro c la m a tio n after it h a d ap p e are d in an A rc h an g e l n ew sp a p er. F o llo w in g c o rre s p o n ­ den ce b e tw e e n th e e d ito r o f th e Jew ish Chronicle and the F o reig n O ffice, a F o reig n O ffice m e m o r a n d u m agreed th at Iro n sid e’s re­ m a rk s a b o u t J e w s w e re “ u n fo r tu n a te ” an d su g g ested th at th e W a r O ffice s h o u ld tell Iro n sid e to issue a n e w p ro c la m a tio n m a k in g it 138

Archangel, August-D ecem ber 1918 clear th a t n o th in g d e trim e n ta l to the J e w is h race w as inten ded . Iro n sid e w as to ld to refer his p ro c la m a tio n s to L o n d o n in future. T h e Jew ish Chronicle, m ea n w h ile , w as asked n o t to m a k e any reference to th e p ro c la m atio n . B u t a lth o u g h Iro n sid e m a y have been pub licly silenced, the pencilled drafts o f his re p o rts, m a d e fo r h im b y M a jo r S tu rd y o n th e back o f o ld m ap s reveal th a t he h ad n o t ch a n g ed his attitudes. R efe rrin g to th e b ad state o f m o ra l [sic] o f th e tro o p s u n d e r his c o m m a n d he b la m e d it in p art o n the “ insidious B o lsh e v ik p ro p a ­ g an d a . . . b ro a d c a st b y the p o ly g lo t J e w s and ren eg ad e jo u rn a lis ts o n th e o th e r s id e .” T h e A m eric an s an d th e F ren ch also cam e in for fierce criticism . H e accused th e F rench o f refu sing to fight an d o f “ general illdiscipline an d slov en liness” w h ile the A m eric an officers w e re “ in c o m p e te n t” and th eir m e n “ w o rth le s s ” . T h e A m erican s, he m a in tain ed , “ h av e n ev e r been g o o d fig h tin g tr o o p s ” . H o w e v e r, his a c co u n t o f the B o lsh e v ik offensive alo n g the D v in a w h ic h lasted fro m O c to b e r 4th to N o v e m b e r 15th s h o w e d th at his B ritish tro o p s w e re n o t b e y o n d re pro ach. T h e offensive started w h e n th e B ritish g u n b o a ts and barges w ith d re w d o w n th e riv er for fear o f b ein g frozen in. T h is m e a n t th at the soldiers w e re d ep riv e d o f tra n s p o rt, c o m m u n ic a tio n s and, m o s t im p o rta n t, o f th eir artil­ lery w h ic h w as m o u n te d o n th e boats. W h e n th e B ritish bo ats w ith d re w , th e B o lsh e v ik b oats reap peared and o n O c to b e r 4th “ o p e n e d a b o m b a r d m e n t o n o u r p o sition s at a rate o f a b o u t 1000 rounds a d ay ” . H e n o te d th a t a re in fo rc e m e n t o f th ree officers an d 200 o th e r rank s o f th e R oy al Scots arriv ed at th e fro n t o n th e n ig h t o f the I 2 t h / i 3 t h O c to b e r after a w e e k lo n g j o u r n e y fro m A rch an g el. T h e j o u r n e y itse lf m u s t h av e been terrib le e n o u g h an d th e y w e re th r o w n in to the re a rg u a rd fig h tin g th e m o m e n t th ey arrived. “ T h e c o n ­ tin u o u s s h e llin g ,” he w ro te , “ sorely tried the m o ra l o f th e R oy al Scots, w h o w e re all o f lo w c a te g o ry [B2 and m o s t o f th e m p re v io u sly w o u n d e d ] and w h o s e v itality w as m u c h re d u ced b y th e ir p re v io u s e x e rtio n s and th e e x tre m e ly severe co n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h th ey h a d been fig h tin g .” O n O c to b e r 20th he re p o rte d th a t fresh tro o p s w e re n eed ed b u t m o re w e re b ein g sent o u t . . . th e p o sitio n w as v e ry ex te n d ed for th e available tro o p s . . . B rig ad ier-G en e ral F inlay son re p o rte d he w as im p re ssin g la b o u r to dig defences . . . F in layso n also said th a t he co u ld o n ly h o ld his p o sitio n as lo n g as the g u n (solitary 130 m m g u n m o u n te d o n a barge) k ep t g o in g . L ater in th e d ay F inlayson re p o rte d th at an e n e m y 4.8 inch 139

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War g u n in T ro its k o y e h ad s u n k th e b arg e an d the g u n h ad been lost. O n O c to b e r 23rd, Iro n sid e re corded, an e n e m y attack w as re p u lse d b y C a p ta in B o y d o f the 339th U S In fantry . It w as a fig h t in w h ic h Silver P arrish w as, as usual, heavily invo lved. In his sp id ery scraw l he recorded: “ O c to b e r 23rd. E n e m y b o m b a rd m e n t all day fro m th e g u n b o a ts. W e m a k e n o reply fo r w e have n o th in g to reply w ith . A t 6 p .m . the e n e m y attacked o u r o p en posts w ith a b a y o n e t ch a rg e and w e had t w o h o u rs fast fierce fig h tin g and w e d ro v e th e m b a c k .” F o u r days later the R o y al Scots w ith a p la to o n o f L ithuanians and a d e ta c h m e n t o f Poles m a d e an attack o n K ulika o n th e rig h t b a n k o f th e river. B u t the R ed tro o p s h ad g o t w in d o f the attack and w e re w ell p re p are d . T h e y o p e n e d u p w ith m a c h in e -g u n and rifle fire an d sm a sh e d the attack. Iro n sid e noted : T h e L ith u an ian s im m e d ia te ly bo lted . T h e p la to o n officers o f the R o y al Scots bec am e casualties an d th e e n e m y th en d elivered a c o u n te r attack. T h e R o y al Scots tu rn e d and fled, th ro w in g aw ay th eir arm s an d e q u ip m e n t in a state o f abso lute panic an d d em o ra lisa tio n . T h e Poles o n the left flank w e re the o n ly tro o p s w h o b eh a v ed w ell and d id n o t s u c c u m b to panic. T h e y co v e red th e re tire m e n t an d b r o u g h t b ack all th eir w o u n d e d . F o u r C an ad ia n a rtillery m e n and fo u r m a rin e artille ry m e n w h o ac co m p an ied th e R o yal Scots in th e attack b eh a v ed v ery gallantly and w e re the last to be w ith d r a w n after m a k in g th eir presence v ery severely felt o n the en e m y . T h e C an ad ia n s h ad been sent to Russia - to the far n o rth as w ell as the far east o f w h ic h m o re in C h a p te r 10 - w ith m u c h reluctance after inten se p re ssu re b y th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t. In A rc h an g e l th ere w e re sixteen o f all rank s p e rfo rm in g ad m in istrativ e duties, th ere w e re n in e ty -tw o in stru c to rs o n th e M u rm a n s k fro n t and 16 B rig a d e o f th e C a n a d ia n Field A rtillery n u m b e rin g 497 (all ranks) w h o to o k p art in th e fig htin g. T h e y p e rfo rm e d e x tre m ely w ell an d m e t w ith n o th in g b u t praise fro m Ironside. T h e B o lsh ev ik s c o n tin u e d their attacks, w ith sm all b u t b lo o d y en c o u n te rs in the forests, and charges across o p en g r o u n d su p ­ p o rte d b y fire fro m th eir g u n b o ats. T h e m o sq u ito e s had gone, the s n o w h a d started, cold w as b e c o m in g th e real e n e m y to b o th sides. O n N o v e m b e r 10th, Silver P arrish re c o rd e d th at he had been o n p a tro l ev e ry d ay since O c to b e r 23rd. O n N o v e m b e r n t h , the day W o r ld W a r I end ed , s o m e 2,500 B olsheviks attack ed th e Allied

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Archangel, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 p o sitio n s a r o u n d T u lg as w h ic h w e re m a n n e d b y a b o u t 400 m en. T h e fig h tin g c o n tin u e d for fo u r days and, ac co rdin g to P arrish, “ w e licked th e B o lo g o o d and h ard b u t lost 7 killed and 14 w o u n d e d and the C an ad ia n s lost quite a few an d the R oyal Scots lost 36 m e n and m a n y w o u n d e d . T h e B o lo lost a b o u t 475 m e n .” T h e B o lsh e v ik offensive cam e to an end o n N o v e m b e r 15th w h e n , said Ironside, “ th e e n e m y w as forced b y the freezing o f the riv er to w ith d r a w all his ships back to K otlas fo r the w in ter. H e h ad lost v e ry h ea v y casualties and m a n y o f his tro o p s h ad been scattered an d lost in th e forest w h ilst th e rest w e re in a state o f u tte r d em o ra lisa tio n . Five o f th e ch ie f e n e m y leaders had been killed and the e n e m y w e re finally c o n v in c ed th at these a tte m p ts to d riv e us d o w n th e riv er w e re h o p e le ss .” O n th at sam e day, P arrish, n o w P la to o n Sergeant, to o k p art in a co u n te r-a tta c k , “ and w as o rd e re d to b u rn a sm all village w h e re the e n e m y c o u ld do effective sniping. W o m e n o p en e d fire o n us and w e h ad to advance w ith o u t firing u p o n th em . B u t w e to o k 14 e n e m y p riso n ers an d killed tw o . T h e n w e b u rn e d the village an d m y heart ached to h av e th e w o m e n fall d o w n at m y feet and g rab m y legs and kiss m y h a n d and b eg m e n o t to d o it. B u t o rd ers are o rd ers an d I w as in c o m m a n d o f the fifteen m e n w h o w e n t across th a t field. So I done m y d u ty .” W hile P arrish did his d u ty th ere w e re o th ers w h o d id n o t. T h e re had already been tro u b le a m o n g th e R ussian recruits m a n y o f w h o m s y m p a th is e d w ith the B olshev ik s. O n A u g u s t 29th a section o f th e S la v o -B ritis h Legion, a u n it raised fro m local R ussians and officered b y the B ritish, h ad fired o n its officers and deserted an d o n O c to b e r 29th co nscripts at the A le x a n d e r N e v sk i B arrack s refused to g o o n parade. T h e y g ave fo u r reasons: 1. T h e ir R ussian officers w e re still w e a rin g th eir T sarist bad ges o f rank. 2. T h e y w o u ld n o t fig h t fo r th e E n g lish K ing . 3. T h e y w o u ld n o t salute. 4. T h e y w a n te d larg e r rations. O n D e c e m b e r 3rd th ere w as a m o re serious affair w h e n the 1st A rc h an g e l R e g im e n t m u tin ie d . It w as end ed w h e n B ritish officers b o m b a rd e d th e m u tin e e rs ’ b arrack s w ith a Stokes M o rta r, w h ich h ad been d ev e lo p ed fo r tre n c h fig h tin g o n th e W e ste rn F ro n t, and fo rced th e m to su rre n d er. Iron sid e, tru e to th e c u s to m o f the W e ste rn F ro n t w h e re s o m e 300 B ritish soldiers faced the firing sq u ad fo r desertio n, co w a rd ic e an d sim ilar offences d u rin g the co urse o f th e w ar, h ad th irte e n o f th e m u tin e ers shot. It w as n o t o n ly the R ussians w h o w e re disaffected. O n c e the n e w s o f th e A rm istice sp read a m o n g the tro o p s th ere w e re few w h o w a n te d to co n tin u e fig h tin g in this stran g e land in a w a r th e y did n o t 141

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War u n d e rs ta n d . As far as th e y w e re co n cern ed the w a r w as over. It w as tim e to g o h o m e . T h e F rench m a d e it plain th at th ey w o u ld soldier n o m o re and th e A m eric an s, re p ublican to a m an, h ad n o w ish to re sto re th e T sarist re g im e . A n u m b e r o f th e m w e re o f R ussian an d P olish fam ilies - o n e m a n actually m e t his m o th e r in A rc h an g e l w h o h a d fled fro m th e cruelties and p o v e rty o f T sarist rule. M a n y o f th e m s y m p a th is e d w ith th e B olsheviks. A n d , w h ile few o f th e B ritish tro o p s w e re B o lsh e v ik sy m p ath isers, m o s t o f th e m n o w co n sid ered th eir w a r o v er. T h e o n ly b o d y o f tro o p s th at s h o w e d an y real e n th u sia sm fo r the fig h t w e re the Poles w h o , like th e C zechs, w e re fig h tin g to p ro v e th at th ey deserved th eir in d e p e n ­ dence. A n d th e y h ate d all R ussians an y w ay . T h e r e w e re o n e o r tw o ex cep tion s a m o n g the m alco n ten ts. T h e C an ad ia n s w h o h ad been sent so relu ctan tly to p ro v id e a u n ite d E m p ire flav o u r to the in te rv e n tio n , u n ifo rm ly fo u g h t well. T h e re w e re also profession al B ritish soldiers, b o th officers and o th e r ranks, w h o , despite h a v in g been at w a r fo r n early five years suffering w o u n d s an d gassing and th e trau m a s o f tren c h w arfare, still to o k p rid e in th e ir ability to carry o u t th eir duties like tru e professionals. T h e r e w e re also s o m e e x tra o rd in a ry W h ite R ussians, m e n o u t o f the pages o f War and Peace, w h o fo u g h t fo r h o n o u r an d fo r lo v e o f th eir c o u n try . O n e su ch m a n w as th e fig h ter pilot, A lex a n d er K azak o v . H e w o n his w in g s in F eb ru a ry 1915 an d th e fo llo w in g m o n t h b r o u g h t d o w n his first G e rm a n . T h e p rim itiv e m ach in es o f th a t tim e h ad n o t y et been a rm e d w ith m ac h in e -g u n s an d so K a z a k o v d ev ised his o w n aerial w e a p o n - a w e ig h te d grap n el su sp e n d e d f ro m a w ire cable. A rm e d w ith this he to o k o f f to chase a t w o seater A lb atro ss w h ic h w as sp o ttin g for the G e rm a n guns. H e p o s itio n e d h im s e lf a b o v e the A lbatro ss an d began to unreel the g ra p n e l w h ile th e G e rm a n o b se rv e r fired at h im w ith a rifle. B u t he o n ly m a n a g e d to g et a few feet o f w ire u n w o u n d w h e n th e w in c h ja m m e d . U n p e rtu rb e d , K a zak o v d iv ed o n the G e rm a n and ra m m e d it w ith his un d ercarriag e, sen d in g it crash ing b e h in d the R u ssian lines w h ile he m ad e a belly land ing . A lth o u g h the in ten sity o f the air fig h tin g w as n o w h e re near th at o f th e W e ste rn F ro n t K a zak o v c o n tin u e d to be successful. H e h ad a M a x im g u n fitted to fire u p w a rd s fro m his N ie u p o r t “ B e b e ” . B u t to use this w e a p o n he h ad to attack fr o m b e lo w , p o sitio n in g his p lan e ra th e r th a n aim in g the fixed g u n . In 1917 he w as g iven c o m m a n d o f N o . 1 F ig h te r G ro u p o f fo u r sq u a d ro n s flying F rench M o ra n e Saulnier m o n o p la n e s and th e excellent N ie u p o r t 17. T h e y w e re k n o w n as the “ D e a th o r G lo ry B o y s ” because o f the skull and 142

Archangel, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 cro ssb o n e s p ain ted o n th eir tails. B y the tim e the R ussians s to p p e d fig h tin g K a z a k o v had sh o t d o w n 17 G e rm a n planes. H e w as a religious m a n w h o h ad an Ik o n o f St N ich o la s screw ed to th e in s tru m e n t panel o f his plane and alw ays tried to atten d th e funerals o f th e m e n he sh o t d o w n . H e w as d escribed as “ possessing an austere an d im p e rio u s c o u n te n a n c e ,” b u t b ein g “ u n a s s u m in g an d alm o st n a iv e ” . W h e n th e B o lsh e v ik R ev o lu tio n to o k place he, like m o s t pilots in th e Im perial A ir Service, w as in a m o s t inv id io u s position. M a n y w e re m u rd e re d , o th ers im p riso n e d and, w h e n th eir m e c h ­ anics tried to fly th eir planes o n b e h a lf o f the n e w re g im e and crashed, w e re th en pressed in to B o lsh e v ik service u n d e r th rea t o f death. K a zak o v w as o n e o f the few w h o g o t aw ay, largely due to the efforts o f G e o rg e H ill, w h o in his sh o rt-liv ed role as T r o t s k y ’s In sp e cto r o f A v iatio n , o rg a n ise d an escape ro u te for the pilots. In his secret re p o rt w h e n it w as all over, Hill said: “ I g u aran tee d 10,000 ro u b les to th e pilo t o f each aero plane landed w ith all accessories in the C z e c h o -S lo v a k lines: 2,500 roub les to each o b se rv e r o n c o n ­ d itio n th a t th e y w e n t o v e r in flights o r s q u a d r o n s .” T h e reason for this c o n d itio n w as th at w h e n pilots escaped singly th e o th e r m e m ­ bers o f his s q u a d ro n w e re b ru talised b y th e B olsheviks. K a zak o v ev e n tu ally a rriv ed at A rc h an g e l w ith th irty -s e v e n pilots an d g r o u n d c rew fro m th e Im p erial A ir Force alon g w ith a sm all R A F c o n tin g e n t and e ig h t D H 4 b o m b e rs . T h e y c o m m a n d e e re d so m e S o p w ith 1V2 S tru tte rs and N ie u p o rts 17C-IS w h ic h th ey fo u n d , still in th eir crates j u s t as th e y h ad been u n lo a d e d at B akaritza m a n y m o n th s before, and w h ic h h ad been m issed b y th e B o lsheviks w h e n th ey carried a w a y the A llied stores fro m A rchang el. K a zak o v and his m e n w e n t in to action a lm o st im m e d iately , flying fro m an a d v a n ced field o n th e D v in a F ront. T h e e n e m y w e re k n o w n to have a N ie u p o r t 28 fig h ter and a flight o f C a u d ro n G 111A 2 reco nn aissance aircraft in the region, b u t th ey rarely p u t in an appearance and m o s t o f K a z a k o v ’s activities consisted o f straffing p o sitio n s an d s p o ttin g for the g un s o n the B ritish river boats. W h e n th e B o lsh ev ik s lau n c h ed th eir O c to b e r offensive o n the D v in a his s q u a d ro n w as cu t off. T h e y d ism an tled th eir aircraft, lo ad e d th e m o n sleighs a nd set o u t fo r safety, fig h tin g their w a y past patro ls t h r o u g h ever th ic k e n in g sn o w . T a k in g refuge at Siy C o n ­ vent, th e y fo u g h t o f f attacks fo r a w e ek before slipping aw ay to the A llied lines u n d e r co v e r o f d ark ness still d ra g g in g th eir aircraft b e h in d th e m . O n c e safe th ey assem b led the planes and w e re in the 143

General Ironside and Sergeant Parrish Go to War air a lm o s t im m e d ia te ly , m a c h in e -g u n n in g th e R ed G u a rd s w h o w e re attac k in g the C a n a d ia n g u n pits. K a z a k o v w as m a d e a M a jo r in the B ritish A r m y and a w a rd e d the D S O fo r this ex ploit. W in te r n o w cla m p e d its b o n e -h a rd arctic fingers o n the battlefield. T h e r e w as little flying, th e soldiers to o k tu rn s b e tw e e n te n d in g th eir m a c h in e -g u n s an d sto k in g th eir stoves. O n N o v e m b e r 26th the te m p e r a tu re w as re c o rd e d at 60 degrees b e lo w zero. T h e re w e re patrols, alarm s an d excu rsio n s, b u t m ilitary activity w as dictated n o t b y G eneral Iro n sid e o r C o m ra d e S a m u o lo b u t b y G eneral Ice and C o m r a d e S n o w . C h ris tm a s cam e and Iro nside spen t it like s o m e h u g e im p ro b a b le Santa C lau s sw a th e d in furs in his p o n y sleigh v isitin g the tro o p s in th e fro n t line. S ilver P arrish did q u ite well. H e sp en t C h ris tm a s at S hu sug a and h ad “ p in e-fed p h ea san t fo r d in n e r an d so m e r u m ” . F rank D o u m a ’s p la to o n w h o w e re in rest billets b u t still w ith in p atro l ran ge o f th e e n e m y w e re each g iv en a w ild tu rk ey . T h e n o n C h ristm a s E ve, “ w e h ad a p r o g r a m m e at th e Y [Y M C A ]. C a p ta in B o y d played his m a n d o lin e fo r us. It is th e best m u sic I hav e h eard for a lo n g tim e. W e each received a sock filled w ith candy, raisins, dates and cigarettes an d an ex tra p air o f socks, I w ish I w as at h o m e. T h is is so d iffe ren t fro m last C h ris tm a s . Lieut. M ills p re sen ted us each w ith a n o th e r b i r d . ” O n C h ris tm a s D a y “ the R ussian children cam e all m o rn in g sin g in g carols, e x p e ctin g sw eets fro m us. Lieut. M ills called us to his billets and gav e us each a d rin k o f ru m , and a n o th e r o f cognac. W e h a d d in n e r at th e Y at 12.00 b u t this w as a failure. T h e m ea t w as ro tte n an d it m a d e a n u m b e r o f th e b o y s sick. ” S uch are th e realities o f w ar.

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CHAPTER 10

Cattle Truck to Omsk Siberia, August-December 1918

P riv ate R e a rd o n o f the 25th (G arrison) B attalio n M id d lesex R egi­ m e n t h ad been sittin g o u t th e w a r in H o n g K o n g . H e and his co m ra d es, n o t fit e n o u g h to fig h t in F rance even w h e n B ritain w as so d esp erate fo r m e n to p u t in to th e trenches th at skilled craftsm en w e re b ein g c o n sc rip ted fro m th e aircraft w o rk s and the tank factories, h a d b een lo o k in g fo r w a rd to the en d o f th e w ar, rapid d e m o b ilisa tio n an d th e jo y s o f civilian life w h e n th ey w e re o rd e red to Siberia. N o t b ein g a b a ttalio n w h ic h b re ath ed fire and b rim s to n e and itch ed to g et in to action, this w as h a rd ly a m o v e w h ic h m et w ith th eir w h o le -h e a rte d ap pro val. T h e y left H o n g K o n g and the m a n y d elights it h a d to offer fo reig n soldiers and sailed o n the Ping Suey on J u ly 27th, 1918 for V lad iv o sto k , a place they did n o t k n o w b u t susp ected q u ite rig h tly w o u ld be u n c o m fo rta b le , cold and d an g e r­ ous. N e v erth ele ss, it started w ell e n o u g h w ith a Japanese d estro y e r c o u rte o u s ly ste a m in g o u t to esco rt th e m into V lad iv o sto k on A u g u s t 3rd, th e day after P o o le h ad landed at A rch angel. T h e y th en m a rc h e d th r o u g h the streets w ith a g u a rd o f h o n o u r su pp lied by H M S Suffolk an d a C zec h L egio n b an d playing ro u sin g m ilitary m usic, to th e ir q u arte rs in the O ld Siberian B arracks. As th e first A llied in fa n try m e n to reach Siberia it w as considered essential th at, fit o r n o t, th ey w o u ld hav e to s h o w th e flag and so it w as arra n g e d th a t h a lf o f th e m alo ng w ith fo rty -th re e m ac h in e g u n n e rs s h o u ld g o u p to the fro n t o n the U ssu ri river w h e re the C zechs an d th eir W h ite R ussian allies w e re h o ld in g the R eds w hile o th e r C zec h u n its tried to fig h t th eir w a y th ro u g h Irk u tsk fro m the w est. It w as agreed, h o w e v e r, th at th e M idd lesex w o u ld o n ly act as seco nd line tro o p s. So w h e n th ey m o v e d u p to the U s s u ri on A u g u s t 10th it w as to take o v e r p o sitio n s fro m a C ossack u n it w h ich w as g o in g to advance. B u t th ere is n o safe place o n any battlefield an d R e a rd o n re c o rd e d in his d iary th ree days later: “ First en e m y sh ellfire.” T h e re a fte r his d iary reads:

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Cattle Truck to O m sk A u g u s t 15: started tre n c h d ig g in g am id st m arshes. P estered w ith m o s q u ito s . W o rk in g all n ig h t u n d e r terrible difficulties. A u g u s t 18: H e a v y shell fire fro m e n e m y gu ns and a rm o u re d trains. A u g u s t 20: D ig g in g b u n k h o le s to m ak e co v er fro m shells. A u g u s t 21: R etired at n o o n fo u r h o u rs after C zech and F rench tro o p s. V e ry h ea v y shell fire. A u g u s t 22: First D iv isio n o fja p a n e s e tro o p s arrive. A u g u s t 24: O rd e r e d to ad vance w ith Japanese at 2 a.m . C zechs an d F rench as line o f s u p p o rt. Jap s m ak e a brilliant v icto ry . T h e n e w ly arriv ed Jap anese, w ell-train ed , w e ll-a rm e d an d spo iling fo r action, co m p le te ly d efeated th e ra g -ta g R ed A r m y and a few days later the C zechs fo rced th eir w a y th ro u g h Irk u tsk w ith o u t any help fro m th e Allies w h o h a d co m e to “ re scu e” th em . T h e C zechs n o w held th e T ra n s-S ib e ria n fro m w e st o f the U rals all th e w a y to V la d iv o sto k , s o m e fo u r th o u s a n d m iles aw ay . T h e ir w e s te rn m o s t o u tp o s ts w e re established at K azan and Sam ara w h e re th ey ca p tu red the train ca rry in g R u ssia’s g o ld and p la tin u m reserves. T h ese successes m o m e n ta rily raised B ritish h op es th at the Allied forces m o v in g d o w n th e D v in a R iv er fro m A rchan gel, and the C zechs established at K azan, co u ld jo i n up at K otlas and lay th e fo u n d a tio n o f a n e w E astern F ro n t - even th o u g h it w as h u n d re d s o f m iles a w ay fro m the nearest G e rm an s. T h is w as j u s t w ish fu l th in k in g . T h e plan w as d o o m e d fro m th e start. T h e Jap an ese h ad n o in te n tio n o f m o v in g fu rth e r w e st th an Irk u tsk . T h e A m eric an s w e re u n d e r strict o rd e rs to d o n o th in g ex c ep t help th e C zechs leave Russia an d g u a rd th e m ilitary stores. A n d th e C zechs, w h ile read y to defend th em selves, had n o desire w h a ts o e v e r to stay in Russia. T h e y suffered th eir first defeat o n S e p te m b e r 5 th w h e n T r o ts k y to o k to th e field w ith his re o rg an ised R ed A r m y and d ro v e th e m o u t o f K azan. F ro m th at m o m e n t the d re am ers o f a n e w E astern F ro n t w o k e u p to reality. T h e r e w o u ld be n o E aste rn F ron t. In fact th ere w as n o lo n g e r any need fo r one. T h e G e rm a n s h ad sh o t th eir b olt. N e v e rth e le ss C o lo n e l W a rd lo aded his “ D ie - H a rd s ” o n to the T ran s-S ib erian an d set o f f for O m s k , 3,500 m iles w e st o f V lad iv o s­ tok . It to o k th e m a m o n th and th ere th e y stayed, as R e a rd o n w ro te , fo r “ six m o n th s o f a terrible Siberian w in te r ” w h ic h th ey saw th r o u g h w ith th e help o f w in te r clo th in g su pp lied b y th e C an ad ia n s. T h e y saw n o m o re action, alth o u g h , w h e n th eir b a n d visited a fo r w a rd po sitio n , th eir playing so e n rag ed th e B o lsh ev iks th a t th e y started a b o m b a rd m e n t. 146

Siberia, August-D ecem ber 1918 B y n o w s o m e 70,000 Japan ese tro o p s w e re based in the Pacific p ro v in ce s o f R ussia a n d C h in a, c o m m a n d e d b y G eneral O ta n i w h o claim ed th e title o f S u p re m e Allied C o m m a n d e r in Siberia. T h e Jap an ese p lay e d a cynical g a m e o f self-interest. As far as th ey w ere co n c ern e d th e y w e re th ere to stay, and th ey w ere n o t o v er particular a b o u t th eir m e th o d s . O n e o f th eir ch ie f allies w as S em en ov, the vicious and u n p lea sa n t A ta m a n w h o h ad orig in ally been given arm s an d m o n e y b y th e B ritish in th e m ista k en belief th at he w o u ld b rin g o rd e r to th e an archic situ atio n in E astern Siberia. T h e B ritish had d ro p p e d h im w h e n it b ecam e o b v io u s th at far f ro m b rin g in g o rd er, he w as an o ld -fa sh io n e d w a rlo rd w h ile his M o n g o l and C o ssack h o rs e m e n w e re d edicated believers in the ancient m ilitary habits o f rape an d pillage. T h is did n o t stop the Japanese, h o w e v e r. T h e y su p p lied S e m e n o v w ith w e ap o n s, m o n e y , artillery m e n and “ advi­ s o rs ” . H e, grateful to his benefactors, carried o u t o p eratio n s for th e m w h ic h th e y h ad n o w ish to a c k n o w led g e. It is o n e o f the quirks o f h is to ry th a t a lth o u g h the B ritish rap id ly d iso w n e d h im and the A m eric an s actually h ad a b lo o d y e n c o u n te r w ith h im , it is the Allies w h o the R ussians b lam e for th e reign o f te rro r w h ich he spread across Siberia an d in to M a n c h u ria w h e re he settled in 1921. T h e B o lsh e v ik s ca u g h t u p w ith h im eventually. T h e R ed A rm y arrested h im in M a n c h u ria in 1945 and he w as execu ted th e fo llo w in g year. T h e first c o n tin g e n t o f the A m eric an ex p e d itio n a ry force arrived at V la d iv o s to k o n S e p te m b e r 2nd, j u s t tw e n ty -f o u r h o u rs after the C zechs th e y h ad co m e to rescue b ro k e th ro u g h at Irk u tsk thus m a k in g th e A m e ric a n s ’ jo u r n e y unnecessary. E v en tu a lly there w e re nearly 9,000 U S tro o p s in Siberia. O f these 5,000 cam e fro m the E ig h th D iv ision . O t h e r c o n tin g e n ts w ere the 27th and 31st In fan try R e g im e n ts p o sted fro m the P hilippines along w ith a field ho spital, an am b u lan c e c o m p a n y and a telegraph c o m p a n y . T h e y w e re c o m m a n d e d , albeit reluctantly , b y M ajo r-G en e ral W illiam S. G rav es w h o h ad been giv en his assig n m en t in a co n v e rsatio n lasting a b o u t ten m in u te s w ith th e U S Secretary o f W ar, N e w t o n Baker, at K ansas C ity railw ay station. B ak er gave h im a co p y o f P resident W ils o n ’s sta te m e n t o f J u ly 17th and to ld him : “ T h is contains the po licy o f th e U n ite d States in R ussia w h ich y o u are to follow . W a tch y o u r step; y o u will be w a lk in g o n eggs lo aded w ith d y n a ­ m ite. G o d bless y o u and g o o d b y e .” Sm all w o n d e r th en th at G raves arrived in Siberia d e te rm in e d to d o n o th in g o u tsid e his brief. B u t th at was a m b ig u o u s in the e x tre m e. H e w as su p p o se d to p ro te c t th e C zech forces, b u t th ey had s h o w n th a t th ey n ee d ed n o p ro te c tio n . H e w as also su p p o sed to g u a rd the m ilitary stores “ w h ic h m a y su b seq u en tly be need ed by 147

Cattle Truck to O m sk R ussian forces . . . ” W h a t W ils o n ’s aid e -m e m o ire did n o t spell o u t w as: w h ic h R ussian forces? As G raves later g ru m b led : “ I could n o t give a R ussian a shirt w ith o u t b ein g subjected to the ch arg e o f try in g to help th e side to w h ic h the recipient o f th e sh irt belo n g e d . ” P resid en t W ilson h ad also u rg e d in his m e m o that, a m o n g oth ers, “ R ed C ro s s represen tatives and agents o f the Y o u n g M e n ’s C h ris ­ tian A s s o c ia tio n ” sh o u ld be sent to help the p eop le o f Siberia. A n d so th e y w ere. E v e n tu a lly th e R ed C ro ss had o v er 2,500 w o rk e rs there, five h u n d re d o f th e m A m erican. T h e Y M C A sent team s and so d id th e K n ig h ts o f C o lo m b u s . T h e ir presence p erhaps h ig h lig h t­ ed th e u n b rid g e a b le aim s and policies o f the so-called Allies in Siberia. T h e y re p rese n te d P resid en t W ils o n ’s m u d d le d h o p e for g o o d to co m e o u t o f an evil situation. T h e o th e r natio n s h ad different reasons for b ein g there. T h e B ritish h ad sent th eir w o r n o u t D ie -H a rd s in o rd e r to m ain tain th eir influence o n th e c o n d u c t o f affairs: the F rench a C o lo n ial b attalio n o f 1,100 m en fo r sim ilar reasons; the Italians 1,700 m e n to p ro v e th a t th ey w e re ind eed m e m b e rs o f the Alliance. In a d d itio n the B ritish an d the French h ad sent stro n g M ilita ry M issions to train the n e w W h ite R ussian A rm y . T h e C an ad ian s, w h o h ad g iv en in to the pressure fro m L o n d o n , sent 4,186 m en, m a n y o f th e m illegally for th ey had been c o n ­ scrip ted u n d e r the M ilita ry Service A ct w h ic h stipu lated th at th ey could o n ly be used fo r th e defence o f C anada. U n lik e their c o m ­ rades in A rc h an g e l th ey saw n o fig h tin g and w e re used in a logistic role for th e M id d lesex and, later, the H a m p s h ire b attalions. R u m a ­ nian, Serbian and P olish co n tin g en ts w e re th ere for th e sam e reaso n as th e C zechs: th eir fierce d e te rm in a tio n to p ro v e th eir rig h t to ru n th eir o w n nations. A n d the Japan ese w e re th ere in p u rsu it o f th eir ex p a n sio n ist a m b itio n s w h ic h w e re to reach th eir zenith after Pearl H a r b o r tw e n ty -th r e e years later. T h e fra g m e n ta tio n a n d je alo u sie s o f this “ alliance” w e re m a tc h e d o n ly b y the rivalries, in trig u es and trea ch e ry a m o n g the v ario us g ro u p s o f R ussians w h o m ad e u p the W h ite forces fig h tin g th e B olsheviks. A t o n e stage nearly a score o f different bodies claim ed to be the real g o v e r n m e n t o f Siberia w ith each o ne h o p in g to co m e to p o w e r on ce the B o lshevik s h ad been defeated. M in o r w a rlo rd s flourished an d sm all g ro u p s o f m e n w ith gu ns an d fo o d claim ed the rig h t to rule h u g e areas o f te rrito ry . It m u s t be re m e m b e re d th a t at this tim e, ap a rt fro m th e to w n s an d the land b o rd e rin g the railw ays w h ic h flo w ed like g reat civilising rivers th ro u g h Siberia, the far side o f th e U ra ls w as still u n ta m e d c o u n try w h o s e h in te rla n d b elo n g e d to 148

Siberia, August-D ecem ber 1918 tribes ru n b y S h am ans (w itch -d o cto rs). It w as like th e A m eric an W est b efo re th e U S 7th C a v a lry p u t d o w n the tribes. T h e m o s t influential o f the early o p p o n e n ts to C o m m u n is t rule w e re the Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries - m a n y o f w h o m had been exiled u n d e r T sarist rule to Siberia along w ith the C o m m u n is ts . W h e n it w as all o v e r s u rv iv in g Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries claim ed th a t it w as th e y w h o started th e fight against th e B o lsheviks in Siberia ra th e r th an th e C zech Legion. B u t this is a claim w h ich is h a rd to sustain. It m a y be th at the SRs w e re p lo ttin g against the B olsh ev ik s b u t it w as the C z e c h s ’ d e te rm in a tio n to fig h t th eir w a y to V la d iv o s to k w h ic h precip itated the C ivil W ar in Siberia and b r o u g h t a b o u t the A llied in te rv e n tio n there. It is, h o w e v e r, in d isp u ta b le th a t the SRs c o -o p e ra te d w ith the C zech s in fig h tin g the B olsheviks alo ng w h a t b ec am e k n o w n as the V o lg a F ro n t fro m K azan to Sam ara. T h e SRs, led b y fo rm e r m e m b e rs o f the C o n s titu e n t A ssem b ly w h o had fled fro m P e tro ­ grad, set u p a g o v e r n m e n t in S am ara w h ich th ey claim ed w as the real g o v e r n m e n t o f R ussia and p u t to g e th e r an a r m y o f so m e 10,000 m e n to fig h t along sid e th e C zech Legion. A t th e sam e tim e a co n se rv ativ e g ro u p set u p a fiv e-m an p ro v isio n al g o v e r n m e n t in O m s k o n th e o th e r side o f th e U rals. T h is ju n ta , w h ich claim ed s o v e re ig n ty o v e r Siberia b u t n o t the rest o f Russia, set a b o u t d e stro y in g ev e ry v estig e o f C o m m u n is m . F o rm e r T sarist officers and kulak s - the rich peasants - flocked to its stan d ard , alth o u g h th ere w as n o love lost b e tw e e n th e m . H o w e v e r, u n d e r th e pressure o f events - th e C zechs w e re d riv e n o u t o f S am ara b y the B olsheviks o n O c to b e r 8th - th ey cam e to g e th e r to fo rm the A ll-R ussian P ro v isio n a l g o v e r n m e n t in O m s k o n N o v e m b e r 5th. It lasted j u s t tw e lv e days. O n th e n ig h t o f N o v e m b e r 17th in a c o u p re m in isce n t o f C h a p lin ’s action against T c h a ik o v s k y and his m in iste rs at A rch an g el, a g ro u p o f W h ite officers k id n a p p e d fou r socialist m e m b e rs o f the O m s k g o v e rn m e n t. T h e ir reason w as the sam e as C h a p lin ’s: th e y w a n te d to replace w h a t th ey re g ard e d as a w eak , g o v e r n m e n t o v e rly influenced b y its le ft-w in g m e m b e rs w ith a s tro n g m ilitary regim e. B u t w h e re this p lo y failed in A rch an g el, it succeeded in O m s k . T h e fo llo w in g d ay th e g o v e r n m e n t w as dissolved and all p o w e r, civil and m ilitary , w as placed in th e h ands o f a “ S u p rem e R u le r” , A d m ira l A le x a n d e r K olch ak , W a r M in iste r in the O m s k g o v e rn ­ m en t. K olch ak , a C rim e a n T a r ta r b y b irth , w as an im p o s in g m an. A c c o rd in g to an o v e r-fu ls o m e re p o rt fro m the Times co rre sp o n d e n t 149

Cattle Truck to O m sk in Siberia: “ H is sw a rth y , sm o o th -s h a v e n , aquiline features, his black h air a n d black p iercin g eyes, and a long head like a N o r m a n , m a k e u p a p o rtra it th a t recalls the B ritish q u a rte r-d e c k ra th e r th a n his n ativ e C o ssack s te p p e .” H e w as a n o te d A rctic ex p lo re r an d o c e a n o g ra p h e r, p layed a leading p art in the defence o f P o rt A r th u r in 1905 an d w as a successful c o m m a n d e r o f the B lack Sea Fleet in o p e ra tio n s against th e G e r m a n - T u r k is h fleet 1916-1917. H e be­ cam e an e x p e rt o n m in es w h ic h w e re u sed w ith d ev astatin g effect b y b o th sides in th e R u ssia -Ja p a n e se w a r and in A p ril 1917 he w e n t to A m eric a to advise the U S N a v y o n th eir use. H e w as th u s o u t o f d a n g e r w h e n th e Im p erial N a v y m u tin ie d and tu rn e d o n th eir officers. W h e n th e B olsh ev ik s seized p o w e r fro m the P ro v isio n al g o v e r n ­ m e n t in P e tro g ra d he w as actually in T o k y o o n his w a y back to Russia. H e im m e d ia te ly m a d e th e q u ix o tic g estu re o f calling o n the B ritish A m b a ss a d o r and o fferin g his services to th e B ritish. H e asked to serve in th e A r m y ra th e r th an the R oy al N a v y o n the basis th a t th e N a v y w o u ld be em b a rrasse d b y h av in g to a c c o m m o d a te an officer o f his h ig h ran k. H is offer w as accepted. H e w as to be p o ste d to M e s o p o ta m ia , b u t b efore he could take u p his n e w duties it w as su g g ested th at he co uld serve his c o u n try b e tte r b y re tu rn in g to Siberia to help fo rm a n e w R ussian A r m y to o p p o se the B olsheviks. A n d so it w as th at ev e n tu ally he cam e to O m s k . H e w as a brave, in telligent, b u t serious and au to cratic m a n im b u e d w ith the disci­ pline o f the old Im p erial N a v y , w h o cam e to re g ard h im s e lf as the leg itim a te successor to th e T sar. H e w as also active an d h o n e st and created a g o o d im p re ssio n o n th e B ritish officers o f the m ilitary m issio n w h o w e re b eg in n in g to despair o f find ing a senio r officer w h o w as n o t eith er in c o m p e te n t o r co rru p t. G eneral K n o x w as especially im p ressed. W h a t he w a n te d w as a stro n g m a n in charge at O m s k capable o f im p o s in g the co n d itio n s in w h ic h th e n e w R ussian A r m y co u ld be raised an d trained. K o lch a k w as K n o x ’s m an a n d he w e lc o m e d th e A d m ira l’s a s s u m p tio n o f p o w e r as S u p re m e R uler. Later, G eneral M a u ric e ja n in , H e ad o f th e F rench M ilitary M issio n, accused K n o x o f o rg a n isin g K o lc h a k ’s c o u p fo r perfidiou s B ritish reasons. B u t, as w e shall see, J a n in p ro b a b ly h ad g o o d reason for try in g to clo ud th e K o lch a k sto ry. K n o x , later asked b y a c u n n in g e d ito r to re v ie w p art o f J a n in ’s m e m o irs , w ro te th at the co u p w as “ carried o u t b y the Siberian g o v e r n m e n t w ith o u t th e p re v io u s k n o w le d g e and w ith o u t in an y sense th e co n n iv an ce o f G reat B rita in ” . C o lo n e l W ard , n o w established w ith his b attalio n in O m s k w ith

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Siberia, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 o rd e rs to keep th e peace in th e to w n , w as a n o th e r o f K o lc h a k ’s ad m ire rs. H e re c o rd e d in his b o o k With the Die-Hards in Siberia h o w , w h e n he h ea rd o f th e k id n a p p in g s he tu rn e d o u t his soldiers an d set u p m a c h in e -g u n posts to co v er th e streets in case th ere w as tro u b le a ro u n d his barracks. As it h ap p e n ed the barracks w e re n ex t d o o r to th e b u ild in g w h e re th e C o u n c il o f M inisters m e t to decide o n its o w n d isso lu tio n . As he w r o te w ith his to n g u e firm ly in his cheek: “ T h a t these arra n g e m e n ts gave th e M inisters g re ater c o n ­ fidence to p ro c e e d w ith th eir po licy I hav e n o d o u b t. T h a t w as o ne o f th e inevitable consequences o f th e p re p ara tio n s fo r o u r o w n defence . . . it d id stead y the s itu a tio n .” O n e m a n o p p o s e d to A d m ira l K o lch ak w as G eneral G raves, the A m e ric a n c o m m a n d e r, w h o w as to tally against the re sto ra tio n o f a T sarist style re g im e in Siberia. D e sp ite K n o x ’s u rg in g s to co­ o p e ra te he d re w W ils o n ’s a id e -m e m o ire ro u n d h im like a r m o u r plate and refused to step o u tsid e its confines. E d ith F aulstitch re co rd s w h a t he had to say a b o u t his d ile m m a in h er b o o k The Siberian Sojourn: “ I h ave o ften th o u g h t th at it w as u n fo rtu n a te I did n o t k n o w m o re o f the co n d itio n s in Siberia th an I did w h e n I w as p itc h -fo rk e d in to the m elee at V lad iv o sto k . A t o th e r tim es I h av e t h o u g h t th a t ig n o ran c e w as n o t o n ly bliss in such a situ atio n b u t w as ad v isa b le .” T e n days after K o lch a k seized p o w e r rein fo rce m en ts arrived for th e B ritish. T h e i / 9 t h H a m p sh ire s, o rig in ally a C yclists B attalion o f th e T e rrito ria l A rm y , arriv ed at V lad iv o sto k o n b o a rd SS Dunera fro m India. U n lik e th e M iddlesex , th ey w e re all g ra d ed A i . T h e y c o m p rise d t h i r ty - tw o officers an d 945 o th e r ranks an d w e re c o m ­ m a n d e d b y C o lo n e l R o b e rt J o h n s o n , a p eace-tim e civil servant. A m o n g his N C O s w as C o rp o ra l A rth u r W aide w h o recalls th at he h ad j o in e d th e T errito rials w h e n he w as o n ly sixteen because “ I w as a keen cy c list.” W ith his elder b ro th e r W alter he w as called u p for coast p a tro l d u ty at th e b e g in n in g o f the w a r b u t in 1915 as the W e ste rn F ro n t ate u p m e n th e H a m p s h ire s w e re sent to India to replace re g u la r tro o p s w h o h a d been tran sferred to France. D u rin g th ree years e n jo y in g th e g a rriso n life o f India, th ey h ad taken p art in a m in o r c a m p a ig n in W aziristan and w e re b eg in n in g to lo o k fo r w a rd to th e en d o f th e w ar. C o rp o ra l W aide w as o n leave in Sim la sittin g in the th ea tre w a itin g fo r th e curtain to g o u p w h e n a se rg e a n t-m a jo r w a lk e d o n to the stage and ann ou nced: “ W ill any m e m b e r o f the H a m p s h ire s re p o rt to m e in th e foyer. ” T h a t w as the start o f an o d y ssey w h ic h to o k W aide and his co m ra d es fro m their c a n to n m e n t at A m b a la in the E ast P u n jab to B o m b a y , C o lo m b o , S ingapo re, H o n g K o n g , V la d iv o s to k and O m s k . W aide w as re151

Cattle Truck to O m sk lieved th e y w e n t b y sea; s o m e o n e in the barracks h ad su g g ested th at th ey w e re g o in g to m a rc h o v e r th e H im alay as to Siberia. T h e y w e re at sea w h e n th ey learnt o f th e A rm istice. “ S o m e o f th e b rig h t b o y s said w e w o n ’t be g o in g o n after this. B u t w e d i d .” O n A u g u s t 16th, C o lo n e l J o h n s o n h ad w ritte n a ra th e r d e s p o n ­ d e n t letter to his m o th e r telling h er th at he h o p e d to be aw ay fro m A m b a la “ for a fo rtn ig h t o r so after hill pheasants o u t C h a k ra ta w ay . A re v iv e r in p re p a ra tio n fo r this w e a riso m e cam p an d m a n o e u v re train in g w h ic h com es r o u n d w ith the cold w e a th e r - b u t I m u s t take care n o t to o v e rd o m y s e lf this tim e. It has been o n e o f the w o rs t h o t w e a th e rs o n reco rd , alw ays 10 degrees at least ab o v e the n o rm a l fo r this tim e o f year . . . N o t a d ro p o f rain yet - already 6 w eeks o v e rd u e . . . ” L ater in the letter he w rites o f his h atre d o f w a r an d his lo n g in g to g et h o m e to his w ife and fam ily: “ O h L o rd h o w I w ish this terrib le o rg y w as o v e r . . . A n d h o w I w ish I cou ld afford to go in to P a rlia m e n t after this w a r an d help in th e ab o litio n o f all soldiers!” “ E v e n w h e n d e m o b ilisa tio n does c o m e ,” he co m plained, “ th ere w ill be ships fo r Y ankees, A ustralians, C an adians, Irish m en , W e lsh m e n , S co tch m en , C hinese, Japanese, Indians, H o tte n to ts . . . b u t n o n e for E n g lis h m e n and least o f all i f th ey are T e r ri­ to rials!” H e w as so o n to find h im s e lf o n a ship h ead in g fo r a m u c h c old er clim ate and a n e w w ar. O n D e c e m b e r 5th J o h n s o n w as w ritin g to his father: “ H e re w e are in V la d iv o sto k w a itin g to co m p lete c lo th in g and e q u ip m e n t w h ic h is ex p ected to arrive fro m C an ad a this w e ek after w h ic h w e start o n o u r lo n g jo u r n e y to O m s k . ” H e to ld his father o f th e e x tre m e con fu sio n in Russia - “ this seeth in g p o t o f m u rd e r and m a d n e ss ” - th e d iv id ed counsels o f the Allies. “ Y o u can w ell im ag in e the reluctance o f all the Allies to take o n fresh c o m m itm e n ts n o w the w a r is o v e r - especially w ith tro o p s enlisted fo r the w a r o nly. ” B u t, he insisted, “ w h e th e r th ey like it o r n o t th e y will find th at the task o f re sto rin g settled g o v e r n m e n t to R ussia is u n a v o id a b le .” A b o u t th e m a g n itu d e o f the task an d h o w lo n g it w ill take o p in io n s differ, b u t the B ritish v ie w (w hich is also th a t o f n o n -B o ls h e v ik Russians) is th at it is an easy business i f tackled firm ly and w ith re so lu tio n an d th at a v e ry few g o o d tro o p s acting re so lu te ly will so o n re sto re o rd e r . . . T h e idea is to fo rm n e w R ussian arm ies train ed an d at th e b e g in n in g officered b y E n g lish and F rench and h a n d o v e r w h e n th e y are able to stan d o n th eir o w n . So far in Siberia all the w o r k has been d o n e b y the 152

Siberia, August-D ecem ber 1918 C ze c h o -S lo v a k s - m ag nificent fellow s. B u t th ey n atu ra lly w a n t to g et h o m e n o w to b u ild u p their n e w little state in B o h e m ia and th e q u e stio n is, w h o is to take th eir place? A t present the o nly peo ple w h o can d o so are th e 9 th H a n ts and a few o ld g arriso n B n [B attalion] m e n w h o are already u p th e line - b u t even the 9th H a n ts is h a rd ly a sufficient su b stitu te for the C an ad ian s n eith er fo r several th o u sa n d s o f C zechos. It w as w ith this attitu d e th at J o h n s o n to o k his m en o f f o n the m o n th - lo n g ra ilw a y jo u r n e y to O m s k . T h e y travelled at a c o m fo r t­ able 15 m iles an h o u r in cattle tru ck s w h ich had been ro o fed in, e q u ip p e d w ith a sto v e and b o ard s to sleep on. C o rp o ra l W aide w as o n e o f the adv an ce p arty . N o w fully e q u ip p e d w ith C an ad ian sh eep skin coats th ey set o f f fro m V lad iv o sto k o n D e c e m b e r 5th and steam e d fo r H a rb in , C h ita and Irk utsk . W aide sp en t m u c h o f his tim e o n the fo o tp late arm e d w ith a re v o lv e r to m ak e sure the d riv er and fire m an b eh a v ed them selves. B y C h ristm a s day th ey w e re a few h u n d re d m iles sh o rt o f O m s k . T h e te m p e ra tu re in th eir tru ck w as —40°F an d th ey celebrated C h ristm a s w ith an ex tra to t o f ru m as th ey travelled. F o llo w in g o n w ith the m ain p a rty ten days later J o h n s o n spent his C h ris tm a s in C h ita. A religious m an , he w as gratified to be able to a rra n g e a C h ris tm a s c o m m u n io n in a G reek O r t h o d o x ch urch b efo re collecting his 250 m e n to g e th e r and h o ld in g a C h ristm a s service in a hall near th e station. H e read the lesson, the m en sang C h ris tm a s h y m n s and th e G reek O r t h o d o x priest blessed th e m all. T h e n th ey set o f f o n a m a rc h ro u n d C h ita to s h o w the flag, w ro te J o h n s o n , “ bugles b lo w in g (until fro zen up) and d ru m s beating, the b ig d r u m m e r v e ry s m a rt in his Indian tig er s k in .” J o h n s o n m a rc h e d his m e n o f f to the h o u se o f A ta m a n S em en o v w h o , the C o lo n e l ob serv ed: “ rules C h ita and district w ith a ro d o f iro n .” H e is, said J o h n s o n in a letter to his m o th e r, an in tere stin g p e rso n ality and o n e o f th e g reat difficulties in the situ atio n o u t here. H e is s tro n g ly an ti-B o lsh ev ik . . . b u t he has a person al d isa g re e m e n t w ith A d m ira l K olchak, the head o f the Siberian G o v e rn m e n t at O m s k an d co n seq u en tly w ill n o t re co g ­ nise th e G o v t . . . As he c o n tro ls th e railw ay in these p arts this is v e ry a w k w a rd , he takes his toll o f supplies g o in g u p to K olchak and th e fro n t, in tercep ts teleg ram s an d as K olch ak has n o w declared h im a tra ito r to R ussia, th e situ atio n is v ery strained. T h re e days b efo re o u r arrival he w as b o m b e d b u t escaped w ith 153

Cattle Truck to O m sk b u t slig ht injuries and n o w lies in ju red in bed. I d re w m y d e ta c h m e n t u p b efo re his d o o r and w a lk e d in to en q u ire h o w he did. I h ad ra th e r to guess w h e th e r this w as in accordance w ith p olicy b u t he w as satisfied th at it w as so; a lth o u g h in disgrace fo r n o t c o m in g in to line he has n o quarrel w ith th e B ritish and shares th e g eneral an ti-B o lsh e v ik v iew w h ic h recognises o u r disin­ terested ness and w e lc o m es us as d eliverers. C o m in g j u s t after the attack o n h im w h ic h he declares (quite w ith o u t g ro u n d ) to h ave been in stig a ted b y th e K o lch a k p a rty this fo rm al visit fro m the B ritish C o m m a n d e r o f O m s k w as an im m e n s e j o y to h im a n d he w as o b v io u s ly h u g e ly gratified. T h e g o o d colonel o b v io u s ly h ad n o idea o n w h a t d an g e ro u s g r o u n d he w as trea d in g . S e m e n o v ’s d ep red atio n s h ad already h o rrified the B ritish and A m e ric a n g o v e rn m e n ts an d i f J o h n s o n h ad k n o w n o f his h o s t ’s catalo g u e o f crim es he w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly n o t h av e been so civil. B u t he w as in u n s to p p a b le fo rm . . . “ H a v in g been in tro d u c e d to his b e d c h a m b e r, h o w e v e r, I th e n p ro c eed e d th ro u g h m y in te rp re te r to deliver a lecture to h im w h ic h I k n e w w as in accordance w ith p o lic y .” It w as ind eed a v ery p o m p o u s lecture o n the n eed to pull to g e th e r to fig h t th e B o lshevik . “ It w as intolerable th at the re sto ra­ tio n o f settled g o v e r n m e n t in Russia sh o u ld be held u p o w in g to a perso n al q u arrel b e tw e e n t w o great m e n like S em en o v and K o l­ c h a k .” Im ag in e th e scene; the b lo o d th irs ty w a rlo rd ly ing in b ed n u rs in g his w o u n d s fro m an assassination a tte m p t and being lectu red o n his b e h a v io u r b y a fo rm e r p re sid e n t o f th e O x f o r d U n io n - a civil s e rv a n t tu rn e d soldier w h o h ad j u s t c o m e fro m celebrating C h ris t­ m as c o m m u n io n . “ H e w as o b v io u s ly im p re s s e d ,” w ro te J o h n s o n , “ and said the relatio ns b e tw e e n B ritish and R ussian w e re excellent and th a t he h ad n o idea o f d is tu rb in g th em . I replied th at in th at case the relatio ns b e tw e e n all g o o d R ussians m u s t be equally g o o d . W e p a rte d w ith toasts o f c h a m p a g n e and a speech fro m his ch ie f o f s ta ff to m y b ew ild e red m e n . ” J o h n s o n rejoined his m e n fo r C h ris tm a s d in n e r “ p rincipally co n sistin g o f p heasants w h ic h I h ad b o u g h t fo r th e m in H a r b i n .” T h e p a rty w as j o in e d b y S e m e n o v ’s sta ff officers w h o “ g o t ra th e r d r u n k o n o u r r u m ” . T h e H a m p sh ire s th en tro o p e d o f f to th e b ath h o u s e b efore re jo in in g th e train w h ic h steam ed o u t o f C h ita to a “ ro y al ro u n d o f ch e ers” fro m S e m e n o v ’s m en. A n e x tra o rd in a ry episode. B u t th e n e v e ry th in g w as e x tra o rd in 154

Siberia, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 ary in Siberia d u rin g the C h ris tm a s o f 1918. J o h n s o n ’s e n c o u n te r w ith S e m e n o v m ere ly reflected th e co n fu sio n th a t prevailed, and th e p e rsisten t lack o f a c o h e ren t Allied policy.

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CHAPTER 11

The Lockhart Plots Moscow and Petrograd, August-December 1918

A u g u s t 1918 w as a tra u m a tic m o n th for Lenin and his fo llo w ers. T h e G e rm a n s, b re a k in g th e B rest-L ito v sk T re a ty , seized the C rim e a , the D o n re g io n and th e U k ra in e and m o v e d in to the Baltic states. T h e Allies lan d ed at A rch an g el and V lad iv o sto k . T h e C zechs established th em selv es alo n g the T ran s-S ib erian . G eneral D e n ik in a nd his W h ite A r m y w as o n the m o v e in the so u th and had ca p tu red E k a te rin o d a r (K rasn odar). O t h e r W hite forces w e re g a th e rin g in th e n o r th an d east w hile th e o p p o s itio n parties, defeated in M o s c o w an d at Y aroslav l, re m a in e d a threat. T h e B o lsh e v ik p ersp ectiv e o f the w o rld fro m M o s c o w w h e re L enin h ad established his g o v e r n m e n t in the K re m lin w as a p re ­ carious and in sular one: s u rro u n d e d b y enem ies b e n t o n th e des­ tru c tio n o f th eir n e w o rd e r. It is a p erspective w h ich in essence re m a in s th e sam e to d a y an d so does the S oviet reaction to it: b ru tal repression. S uspicion q u ite rig h tly settled o n the B ritish, French and to a lesser ex te n t, th e A m eric an represen tatives in M o s c o w an d P e tro ­ grad . C a p ta in C r o m ie h ad his cabling facilities re m o v e d , and w as n o t allo w e d to travel. B rito n s living in th e t w o cities w e re detained, in te rro g a te d an d after being released w e re effectively p u t u n d e r h o u se arrest. H o u n d e d b y th e C h e k a and h e m m e d in b y S oviet F o reig n M in istry restrictions, the official presence in R ussia becam e a sham bles. In M o s c o w L o c k h a rt’s offices w e re raided. T h e re w as n o w n o official c o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n th e Allied m issions and the R ussian g o v e rn m e n t. G e o rg e H ill’s agents to ld h im th a t the B olsh eviks w e re d iv id ed o v e r w h a t to d o w ith th e Allied officers. S o m e w a n te d to arrest th e m all p e n d in g th eir exp u lsio n fro m Russia w hile th e o th ers w a n te d “ p ub lic executions as reprisals fo r th e su p p o sed sh o o tin g o f so m e Soviet C o m m is s a rs at K e m . . . ” H e w as n o t su rp rise d th ere fo re w h e n th ere w as a r o u n d - u p o f A llied officers o n A u g u s t 5th. T ip p e d -o ff, he left his ro o m s and escaped to R eilly ’s flat. A c c o rd in g to Hill, Reilly “ k n e w n o th in g a b o u t th e events in the 156

Moscow and Petrograd, August-D ecem ber 1918 to w n , b u t im m e d ia te ly g o t ready to leave his flat, packed up a few re m a in in g th in g s he had, d estro y e d his papers and a re p o rt he was w ritin g , in m y presence, and w ith m e, after sen d in g a w a rn in g to th e A m e ric a n consulate, left his flat for o u r secret q u a r te rs .” In o n e o f th e b ig g est raids, o n A u g u s t 15th, th e B ritish C o n s u lG eneral, O liv e r W a rd ro p , b u r n t ev ery d o c u m e n t he cou ld find in the fireplace o f his b e d r o o m j u s t before the C h ek ists b u rs t in. T h e re w as so m u c h s m o k e th a t th ey h ad to w e ar w e t cloths o v e r th eir faces and in th e e n d a b a n d o n e d the raid. W a rd ro p cru shed the b u rn t rem ain s an d co n ta cted th e F o reig n O ffice - as C o n su l-G e n e ra l he w as still allo w e d to cable - saying th ere w as “ n o t n o w in the b u ild in g a single scrap o f pap er o f a strictly confidential k i n d ,” and th ere w as n o lo n g e r any p o in t in sen d in g o r receiving such cables. N e v erth ele ss, despite th e C h e k is ts ’ close atten tio n s a nd the th rea t to th eir lives, L o ck h a rt, Hill an d R eilly w e re d e te rm in e d to a tte m p t th e o v e r th r o w o f th e B olsh ev ik g o v e rn m e n t. L o ck h a rt re m a in ed in th e o pen, still acting as head o f the B ritish m issio n b u t Reilly, a c co rd in g to H ill’s secret re p o rt, “ g o t a j o b in a technical d e p a rt­ m e n t w h ile I received papers as a film actor and had an interest in a curio and fancy g o o d s s to re ” . H ill w as p re o ccu p ie d w ith setting u p his courier service for s u p p ly in g in fo rm a tio n “ to the c o m m a n d e rs o f the allied tro o p s o p e ra tin g fro m N o r t h to S o u th ” . H e also set up g ro u p s to find o u t th e best roads, k n o w o f all th e traps, take stock o f the d isp o sitio n o f the S oviet tro o p s, gu ns, fo o d stores, d u m p s and m o ra le o f th e a rm y , an d send these re p o rts verbally to th e Allied adv an ce d e ta c h m e n ts an d scouts, also carry o u t, i f desired, recon naissance w o r k re q u ired b y these advance units. I f neces­ sary th ey w e re to o cc u p y them selv es w ith gentle sabotage. T h e y sh o u ld also k n o w all th o se w h o w e re p ro o r anti-ally, reliable and unreliable, for o u r use d u rin g su b seq u e n t o ccu p atio n o f villages b y us. T h e y w e re fo rm e d o f m e n “ w h o h ad suffered and lost ev e ry th in g th e y possessed o w in g to th e B o lsh e v ik s” . N in e o f th e m w e re to lose th eir lives as well, ca u g h t an d ex e cu ted b y C h ek ists in th e V o lo g d a district. M e a n w h ile , L o c k h a rt and Reilly w e re p u rsu in g a n o th e r course. T h e ir a tte n tio n focused o n the L ettish soldiers w h o h ad lost their c o u n try to th e G e rm a n s b u t re m a in e d a cohesive, w ell-d iscip lin ed a nd w e ll-tra in e d force. W ith n o th in g to lose th ey th re w in th eir lot w ith the B olsh ev ik s d u rin g th e R e v o lu tio n and becam e the m ilitary 157

T he Lockhart Plots c o rn e r-s to n e o n w h ic h L e n in ’s g o v e r n m e n t rested. T h e y w e re g iv en special facilities, g o o d fo o d an d pay. A c co rd in g to H ill “ th ey g u a rd e d th e K re m lin , g o ld sto ck and th e m u n itio n s. A t th e head o f th e E x tra o rd in a ry C o m m is s io n s , the prisons, the b ank s and the railroad s w e re Letts. T h e n ucleus o f stre n g th o n the fro nts c o nsisted o f Letts and w h e re v e r fig h tin g w as to be d o n e th e y w e re sent. R u ssian tro o p s co u ld o n ly be relied u p o n to act i f backed u p and coerced b y th e Letts. ” I f th e y co u ld be sed u ced aw ay fro m their alliance w ith the B o lsh ev ik s th e n L enin a n d his co m ra d es w o u ld find th em selves in v e ry serio us tro u b le. T h e r e w as h o p e th a t this co u ld be ac c o m ­ plished. T h e civilian Letts w h o h ad fled fro m the G e rm an s w e re g r o w in g restive u n d e r C o m m u n i s m and th eir d isco n ten t w as b e g in n in g to affect th e L ettish soldiers, increasingly d ism ay ed by th e role o f ex e c u tio n e r w h ic h h ad been th ru s t u p o n th e m a n d b y the p ossibility th a t th ey w o u ld be called u p o n to figh t against a fullscale A llied invasion. A t least, th a t w as th e b elief th at prevailed in the B ritish and F ren ch m issio ns in M o s c o w . A m e e tin g w as set up b e tw e e n L o ck h a rt, Reilly an d the F rench C o n su l-G en e ral, M . G re n ard , and C o lo n e l B erzin, c o m m a n d e r o f the artillery battalio n o f the L ettish Rifles. It is still unclear w h e th e r th e initiative for this m ee tin g cam e fro m B erzin o r the A llied rep resentatives b u t w h a t w e do k n o w is th a t R eilly re p o rte d to H ill after th e m ee tin g th at th e Letts co uld p ro b a b ly be w o n o v e r to th e A llied side as a n u m b e r o f th e m n o w believed it w o u ld be in th eir interest. It is w o r th q u o tin g H ill’s re p o rt at s o m e le n g th here because he set o u t precisely w h a t th e Allies h o p e d to gain fro m the Letts and h o w th e p lo t w as to be o rganised: C e rta in su m s o f m o n e y for p ro p a g a n d a and w o r k w e re p ro m is e d [to B erzin] an d it w as a rran g e d that, i f o n th e d e p a rtu re o f the D ip lo m a tic C o rp s all the m o n e y h ad n o t been h a n d e d over, drafts w o u ld be left w ith Lt. Reilly to enable us to carry o u t the schem e. T h e sch e m e w h ic h th e Allied D ip lo m a tic rep resen tatives w o rk e d fo r w as: a definite re lie f o n o u r N o r t h e r n and C z e c h o ­ slo v ak fro n ts w h ic h w as to be b r o u g h t a b o u t b y certain L ettish u n its tu rn in g o v e r to o u r side an d th e re b y w e ak en in g th e m ain force against o u r tro o p s. T h e Allies, the C zec h o slo v ak and W h ite G u a rd tro o p s w e re strain in g th eir u tm o s t to jo i n u p w ith each o th e r and to fo rm a u n ite d fro n t. T h e stag ed Y aroslavl affair h ad w o r n itself in to a disastro u s failure; th e confidence o f th e W h ite G u a rd o rg a n is­ es

Moscow and Petrograd, August-D ecem ber 1918 a tio n w as sh ak en in the Allies and it w as im p o ssib le to rely o n an y m o b o f th eirs fo r s u p p o rt o f the Allied tro o p s . . . T h e o n ly s o u n d sch em e left w as to back th e Letts. T h is had been c o n c ed ed as s o u n d b y m o s t peo ple w h o k n e w th e co n d itio n s in Russia, b u t a few have h ad d o u b ts as to th e rig h ts o f stag ing a re v o lu tio n in tern a lly in M o s c o w an d P etro g ra d . T h e p ro p o s e d tu rn in g o f the Lettish tro o p s to o u r cause o n th e fro n ts co u ld n o t be achieved w ith o u t seriously affecting the M o s c o w an d P e tro g ra d centres. T h e sim u lta n eo u s ch ange on the fro n ts an d at M o s c o w and P e tro g ra d w o u ld h ave d e stro y e d th e S o viet G o v e rn m e n t, an d au to m atically th e W h ite G u ard s w o u ld h av e c o m e in to p o w e r and the a m m u n itio n , arm s and supplies w o u ld h av e been at th e disposal o f this n e w force. D e s tru c tio n g ang s o rg a n ise d b y us for a tim e w o u ld have p re v e n te d a n y possible a tte m p t at in terference fro m the G e rm an s u ntil the A llied forces h ad lin k ed up , an d a natio nal W h ite G u a rd A r m y fo rm e d . S upplies fro m the N o r th , c o rn fro m the E ast and p ro d u c e fro m th e V olg a, w ith a W h ite G u a rd force, and th ere w o u ld have been n o fear o f an y tro u b le fro m the people. T h is w as th e possibility o f success. In th e ev e n t o f failure an d o u r bein g fo u n d in any plot, Lt. R eilly an d m y s e lf sh o u ld h av e sim p ly been p riv ate individuals an d re sp o n sib le to n o one. As w e h o u rly expected the d ep a rtu re o f th e A llied rep resentatives, th e w h o le b ru n t w o u ld have been b o rn e b y us. It will be seen fro m this a c co u n t o f L o c k h a rt’s dealings w ith B erzin th a t th e B ritish re p rese n ta tiv e w h o , o n ly a few w eeks before, had been u rg in g th e g o v e r n m e n t to c o -o p era te w ith the B olsheviks, w as n o w a tte m p tin g to b rin g th e m d o w n . It m u s t be assu m ed th at he w o u ld n o t h av e e n te red in to such a p lot w ith o u t the explicit o rd e rs o f th e g o v e r n m e n t w o rk in g th ro u g h “ C ” at M I6. H o w e v e r, L o c k h a rt w as n o t in v o lv ed in th e detailed plann ing. T h a t w as left to Reilly. H ill, to o , play ed n o p art in th e p lan n in g b u t R eilly re p o rte d to h im after ev e ry m ee tin g so th at i f an y th in g h a p p e n e d to Reilly, H ill w o u ld be able to take over. R eilly initially m e t C o lo n e l B erzin in the T ra m b le C afe in the T v e r s k o y B o u le v a rd (n o w G o rk y Street) to th rash o u t the details. L ater th eir v en u e w as a flat b e lo n g in g to a m e m b e r o f th e C o m m i t ­ tee o f Letts fo rm e d fr o m friends o f B erzin. T h e y p ro p o s e d to use th e civilian L ettish refugees to spread p ro p a g a n d a and th ey esti­ m a te d th a t th e p lo t w o u ld be re ad y in five o r six w eeks. Hill says th a t teleg ram s w e re sent to G en eral P o o le in A rch ang el, telling h im 159

The Lockhart Plots w h a t th e y w e re d o in g b u t w e h av e n o t been able to trace any re co rd o f these m essages. B y th e th ird w e ek in A u g u s t Reilly had th e bit b e tw e e n his teeth. H e to ld Hill th at B erzin w a n te d to assassinate T r o ts k y an d L enin ra th e r th an arrest th e m because their m arv e llo u s oratorical p o w e rs w o u ld so act on the p s y c h o lo g y o f the m e n sent to pick th e m u p th at it w as n o t advisable to risk arrestin g th em ; m o re o v e r, their assas­ sin atio n w o u ld create panic a m o n g the B olshevik s an d th ere fo re th ere w o u ld be n o resistance to th e coup. Reilly said th at he h ad been v e ry firm in d issu ad in g B erzin fro m such a co urse and th a t he had im p re sse d u p o n th e L ett th at th e policy sh o u ld be “ n o t to m ak e m a rty rs o f th e leaders b u t to h o ld th e m u p to ridicule b efo re the w o rld ” . R eilly ’s plan w as to arrest the B o lsh ev ik leaders o n A u g u s t 28th at a m e e tin g o f the S oviet C e n tra l E x ec u tiv e C o m m itte e in the B o lsh o i T h ea tre, w h e re th e Lettish R iflem en w o u ld be o n g u ard. H e w o u ld th e n strip th e m o f th eir tro u sers and u n d e rp a n ts and m a rc h th e m th r o u g h M o s c o w to the jee rs o f the populace. B y this tim e the B ritish h ad taken o v e r fro m the F rench as th e fm ancers o f the c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n . L o ck h a rt d istrib u te d large su m s o f m o n e y to p eo p le w h o p ro m is e d their help w h e n the tim e cam e. P atriarch T ik h o n , head o f the R ussian C h u rc h , w as o n e o f the recipients. R eilly an d H ill called o n h im w ith tw o large suitcases stuffed w ith m o n e y . In e x c h an g e fo r five m illion roubles, th en w o r t h a b o u t £143,000, T ik h o n p ro m is e d th at so lem n d ivin e ser­ vices w o u ld be held in M o s c o w chu rches to m a rk R u ssia’s release fro m the B o lsh e v ik yoke. W ith so m u c h m o n e y in circulation and w ith so m a n y peop le n o w in v o lv e d in th e p lo t it w as inevitable th at the B olshevik s w o u ld h ear a b o u t it th ro u g h th eir h ig h ly d ev e lo p ed sy stem o f in fo rm e rs. H o w e v e r th e q u estio n is n o t w h e th e r th ey k n e w a b o u t it b u t w h e th e r th ey set th e w h o le th in g u p in o rd e r to trap the Allies. A c c o rd in g to the Soviet versio n o f th e affair th ey k n e w every m o v e th at L o c k h a rt m a d e because B erzin w as an a g en t p ro v o c a te u r loyal to B o lsh e v ism . T h e c o u n te r plot, th ey add, w as set u p b y M o ise U rits k y , head o f the C h e k a in P etro g ra d . T h is v ersio n claim s th at U rits k y p lan ted a y o u th called S m id c h en o n C a p ta in C r o m ie w h o used h im to ca rry m essages to L o ck h a rt in M o s c o w . S m id c h en w as a m y ste rio u s figure an d it w as n o t until 1966 th at a R ussian n e w sp a p e r p ub lish ed an ac co u n t o f his exploits. T h is S oviet v ersio n said th at he w as really Y an B uikis, a Lett w o r k in g fo r the C h ek a, an d th a t th e m a n he w as re p o rtin g to w as C o lo n e l B erzin. S m id c h en w as w ith B erzin o n A u g u s t 15th w h e n 160

Moscow and Petrograd, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 he m e t L o c k h a rt at th e B ritish d ip lo m a t’s flat in K h le b n y Lane. In L o c k h a rt’s discreet v ersio n o f th e affair the Letts said th ey w e re n o t p re p a re d to fig h t for the B o lsh ev iks against th e Allies and th ey w a n te d safe c o n d u c t passes to reach th e B ritish forces in A rchan gel. H e gav e th e m th e passes and p u t th e m in to u c h w ith Reilly. T h e S oviet v ersio n co n firm s th at L o c k h a rt p ro d u c e d th e passes b u t claim s th at he also offered th e m s o m e six m illion rubles to b rib e the L ettish soldiers. A lto g eth er, say th e R ussians, the B ritish actually h a n d e d o v e r o n e m illion , tw o h u n d re d th o u s a n d ro u b les w h ic h the colonel passed o n to his su p erio rs in th e C h eka. L o c k h a rt w as able to acquire all th e rou bles he n eed ed in M o s c o w b y d o in g deals w ith rich R ussians w h o w a n te d to get o u t o f the co u n try . L o c k h a rt relieved th e m o f th eir useless cu rren c y and gave th e m p ro m is s o ry no tes to be repaid b y th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t. T h a t p artic u la r chicken cam e h o m e to ro o s t a few years later w h e n th e n o tes w e re p re sen ted w ith th e th rea t o f a lo n g c o u rt action i f th e y w e re n o t h o n o u re d . T h e case w as h u sh ed up; p re s u m a b ly the h o ld ers o f the n o tes w e re paid off, because the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t feared w h a t revelation s m ig h t be m a d e in court. J u s t h o w m u c h th e C h ek a did k n o w rem ains unclear b u t th ey certainly k n e w e n o u g h to p o stp o n e th e C en tra l E x ec u tiv e C o m ­ m itte e m e e tin g fo r a w eek. A t the sam e tim e the B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n ­ m e n t signed a trad e a g re e m e n t w ith G e rm a n y w h ic h seem ed to m a k e it even m o re im p o rta n t to the Allies th at th e B o lsh eviks sh o u ld be o v e r th r o w n . T h e a g re e m e n t gave the G e rm a n s w h a t th ey had lo n g coveted: oil fro m B aku , th e use o f the B lack Sea Fleet an d a large in d e m n ity . In re tu rn G e rm a n tro o p s w o u ld be used to help the R ed G u a rd s deal w ith the A llied in te rv e n tio n in th e n o rth , and B erlin w o u ld w ith h o ld its s u p p o rt o f th e D o n C ossacks w h o h ad d eclared th e ir indep en den ce. R eilly left M o s c o w fo r P e tro g ra d o n A u g u s t 28th to m ee t the L ettish o rg a n isa tio n th ere an d to co nfer w ith C ro m ie and B oyce, th e M I6 statio n chief. B erzin h ad g o n e ahead o f Reilly to set u p the m ee tin g . S oviet d o c u m e n ts re c o rd th a t B erzin to ld the C h e k a w h a t he w as d o in g , and th e p apers state specifically th at B e rz in ’s co u rag e an d resourcefulness p layed a m a jo r p a rt in fru stratin g th e “ L o ck h a rt P lo t ” . T h is v ersio n is s u p p o rte d b y the fact th at the C h e k a raided tw o o f R eilly ’s h id eo u ts in P e tro g ra d w h ile he w as still in the city. H o w he escaped arrest rem ain s a m y s te ry , b u t on e sto ry has h im g o in g to th e C h e k a h ea d q u arte rs in G o ro k h o v a y a w h e re friends to ld h im to fo rg e t ev e ry alias except o n e - th at he w as a C h ek ist C o m m is s a r called R ilinsky. 161

The Lockhart Plots B u t all this p lo ttin g an d c o u n te r-p lo ttin g cam e to an a b ru p t and b lo o d y en d o n A u g u s t 30th. U rits k y , head o f the P e tro g ra d C h e k a , w as s h o t d ead b y L eon id K anegisser, a t w e n ty - tw o - y e a r o ld J e w is h stu d e n t, an d th a t n ig h t L enin w as seriously w o u n d e d b y th ree sh o ts fired at p o in t b lan k range. T h e w o u ld -b e assassin w as o n e F an n y K aplan, a p re tty tw e n ty -e ig h t-y e a r-o ld J e w is h re v o l­ u tio n a ry w h o h ad b een sen tenced to d eath tw elv e years p re v io u sly fo r a tte m p tin g to b lo w u p th e T sarist G o v e rn o r o f Kiev. She had been sp ared ex e cu tio n b y th e T s a r ’s ju d g e s b u t sent to Siberia for life, a sentence fro m w h ic h she w as released b y th e R ev o lu tio n . Ironically, U rits k y w as o n e o f the few m e n in the C h e k a lead­ ersh ip w h o w as against ex ecutions; he insisted th at th ey g en e rate d h a tre d an d fear an d w e re c o u n te r-p ro d u c tiv e . As he w as also a m e m b e r o f th e C e n tra l C o m m itte e his view s carried w e ig h t. H o w e v e r, he h ad th e m is fo rtu n e to u n c o v e r a p lo t a m o n g so m e artillery officers. H is d isc o v e ry led to th e e x e cu tio n o f tw e n ty -o n e o f th e officers and he sig n ed th eir d eath w a rran ts. H e has since been describ ed as a m erciless b u tc h e r an d tw o w eek s befo re his d ea th a cable to th e F o reig n O ffice in L o n d o n fro m th e C o n su la te G eneral h ad referred to h im as a “ v e n o m o u s J e w ” w h o w as th re a te n in g to m u r d e r B ritish d ip lo m a ts. U n lu c k ily for h im , o n e o f th e m e n w h o s e death w a rra n t he had sig n ed w as a friend o f K an eg isser’s w h o b elo n g e d to a sm all g ro u p co n n e c te d w ith the R ig h t SRs. T h e y o u n g s tu d e n t to o k his rev eng e, b o th p erso nal an d political, sh o rtly after eleven in the m o rn in g w h e n U rits k y w a lk e d in to th e fo rm e r T sarist M in istry o f F o reig n A ffairs. H e escaped o n a bicycle b u t w as trac k ed d o w n an d ca u g h t in th e E n g lish C lu b used b y B ritish d ip lo m a ts - a coincidence w h ic h w as to lend s u p p o rt to th e B o lsh e v ik accusations th at th e B ritish w e re beh in d th e assassination. P o o r K anegisser. W h e n Felix D z e rz h in ­ sky, h ead o f th e secret police, w as to ld o f the m u rd e r at C h e k a h e a d q u a rte rs in M o s c o w he s u m m o n e d an a rm o u re d train and h ea d ed fo r P e tro g ra d . K anegisser w as to rtu re d and th en in te rro ­ g ate d b y D z e rz h in s k y him self. H e insisted th at he had acted alone. B u t the C h e k a boss w as certain th at th e B ritish w e re responsible. T h e n , th a t n ig h t he received a teleg ram telling h im o f the a tte m p t o n L e n in ’s life. G iv en th at he k n e w o f R eilly ’s plot, th e killing o f U r its k y an d th e w o u n d in g o f L enin m u s t h av e seem ed to this d edicated, co ld -h e arte d m an the signal fo r th e start o f the c o u n te r­ re v o lu tio n . H e decid ed to strik e back. T h e n e x t m o rn in g he o rd e re d g u n ­ b o ats to take u p statio n in th e N e v a o p p o site th e B ritish E m b a ssy 162

Moscow and Petrograd, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 an d th e n he sen t his h ard est m e n in to the b uild in g. As th e C h ek ists b a tte re d o n th e h ea v y w o o d e n d o o rs w ith th eir pistol b u tts and rifles, B o y c e starte d to d e stro y his to p -se c re t d o c u m e n ts , especially th e c o d e b o o k an d in c o m in g cables w hile C ro m ie s to o d g u a rd w ith his service re v o lv e r in his h a n d at th e to p o f th e w id e sw ee p in g staircase w h ic h h ad seen so m a n y g ra n d d ip lo m a tic occasions. Im ag in e th e scene; a w a r m S atu rd ay a fte rn o o n , the su n sp ark lin g o n the N e v a , th e g u n b o a ts w ith th eir ca n n o n trained o n th e E m b assy , a g ro u p o f 20 sh o u tin g m e n b re a k in g the d o o rs o f f th eir hinges and facing th e m , an arch etyp al B ritish h e ro figure, h a n d s o m e and c o u rag eo u s, d efy in g th e m o b o nce again w hile th e a ll-im p o rta n t d o c u m e n ts are d estro y e d . C r o m i e ’s life alm o st seem ed destined for this m o m e n t. As w e hav e seen, he h ad frig h te n ed o f f g ang s o f loo ters w ith his pistol w h ile he w as scu ttlin g his su b m arin e s fo u r m o n th s p re v io u sly . B u t the m e n w h o b ro k e in to the E m b a ss y w e re n o t so easily frigh tened; th ey w e re picked trig g e r -m e n o f th e C h ek a w h o in the n o rm a l cou rse o f ev en ts h ad little re g ard fo r h u m a n life an d o n this day w e re en rag ed b y th e m u r d e r o f U r its k y and the w o u n d in g o f Lenin. C ro m ie s h o u te d at th e m to get o u t, to leave B ritish te rrito ry at once. T h e C h ek ists to o k n o n o tice b u t ad van ced u p th e staircase yelling, “ H a n d s up, h an d s u p . ” C r o m ie th en o p e n e d fire in to the c r o w d a n d m e n fell dead and d y in g . B u t s o m e o f the R ussians m u st h av e g o t b eh in d h im o n the first floor fo r he w as sh o t in the back as he w as g o in g d o w n th e stairs. M rs N atalie B ucknall, o n e o f the em b a ssy clerks, later m a d e a s w o rn sta te m e n t o f w h a t h ap p en ed . She w as, she stated, in th e E m b a s s y ’s p assp o rt office talk ing to a clerk w h e n she h ea rd sho ts and “ terrible scream s” . As she w e n t in to th e hall she saw several R ed G u a rd s ru n n in g d o w n th e stairs b e h in d C a p ta in C ro m ie , w h o fell o n th e b o tto m step. T h e re w as a g reat deal o f w ild sh o o tin g an d up stairs th ere w e re s h o u ts of, “ C o m e o u t o f th e ro o m , c o m e o u t o f the r o o m o r w e will use o u r m ac h in e g un s o n y o u . ” A fte r k ick in g th e m o rta lly w o u n d e d C ro m ie a coup le o f tim es th e R ed G u a rd s re tu rn e d upstairs and M rs B uck nall and a n o th e r w o m a n w e n t in to th e hall an d sp o k e to C ro m ie . H is eyelids m o v e d a n d he sp ok e, b u t so faintly th ey co uld n o t h ear w h a t he said. R ed G u a rd s th en re ap p ea red an d p o in ted th eir gu n s at the w o m e n an d sh o u ted : “ G et u p stairs o r w e ’ll s h o o t y o u . ” In th e C h a n c e ry th ere w e re several d ip lo m a ts stan d in g w ith th eir h an d s in the air. O n e o f th e m w as B o y ce w h o m u s t hav e been ex p e rien c in g s o m e q u alm s a b o u t his choice o f profession. A senior C h e k is t to ld th e m th a t th e E m b a s s y h ad been seized in th e n a m e o f th e law and the S oviet g o v e r n m e n t. W h e n M rs B uck nall to ld h im 163

T he Lockhart Plots th a t C r o m ie w as p ro b a b ly d y in g d o w n sta irs he replied, “ H e can lie there. W e h av e n o tim e to lo o k after him . ” “ T h e r o o m w as full o f soldiers an d sailors w h o w e re m o s t b ru tal in th e ir b e h a v io u r ,” said M rs B ucknall. “ O rd e rs w e re g iv en th at th e E m b a s s y w as to be searched fro m to p to b o tto m , an d th e hall p o rte r w as led in to the r o o m w ith a re v o lv e r held to his neck. H is g u a rd th re a te n e d to s h o o t h im i f he did n o t o b ey h im an d o p e n ev e ry d o o r. W e w e re tak e n d o w n s ta irs fo u r b y four, and at the b o t t o m I saw C a p ta in C r o m i e ’s b o d y ly in g u n d e r the hall w in d o w . H e w as alread y d e a d .” T h e B rito n s w e re tak e n to th e C h e k a p riso n at G o ro k h o v a y a . T h e w o m e n w e re p u t in to a sm all ro o m packed w ith th irty -fiv e people. M rs B uck nall w as in te rro g a te d b y a C h e k ist w h o asked h er i f she k n e w a n y th in g a b o u t C r o m i e ’s political view s, and w h a t political p a rty h er h u s b a n d b e lo n g e d to. She replied th at n o m e m ­ b e r o f th e E m b a s s y b e lo n g e d to a political p arty , E n g lish o r R ussian. She w as to ld th a t five E n g lish people, o n e o f w h o m w as B o y ce, w e re o n th e list fo r e x e cu tio n an d a decision w as s h o rtly to be tak e n a b o u t th e m . “ T h e m a n w h o m I saw w as v ery ru d e and said th a t all the E n g lish w o u ld be killed because the M u rm a n s k ex p e d i­ tio n w as a d v a n c in g .” T h e S o viet v ersio n is, n atu ra lly en o u g h , s o m e w h a t different. D z e rz h in s k y , it run s, h ad in d isp u ta b le p r o o f o f crim inal activities b ein g carried o u t b y B ritish d ip lo m a ts and decided to search th e E m b a s s y fo r ev id en ce p o in tin g to B ritish co m p licity in U r i t s k y ’s death . H e selected six C h ek ists, in clu d in g his secretary B ro n islav B r o tn o v s k y w h o w as later to h o ld respo nsib le p ositio ns in Soviet M ilita ry Intelligence an d th e C o m in te rn . T h e tea m w as led b y J o s e p h S tand olin , a v ete ran B o lsh ev ik w h o h ad lived overseas fo r m a n y years an d sp o k e fluent E nglish. T h e y en te red th ro u g h th e fro n t d o o r to find s m o k e and ashes fro m b u rn in g papers floating th r o u g h the b u ild in g as th e d ip lo m a ts set a b o u t “ hastily d e s tro y in g ev id en ce o f th eir c r im e ” . A s th ey started to w a lk u p the stairs th ere w as a shot. S ta n d o lin sh o u te d in E nglish: “ S top th at sh o o tin g im m e d ia te ly . ” B u t h e w as hit b y a b u llet an d fell bleeding o n to the w h ite carp et o f th e staircase. B eh in d h im o th e r m en , o n e o f th e m B ro tn o v s k y , w e re b ad ly w o u n d e d . T h e n , acco rd in g to the S oviet versio n , the C h ek ists re tu rn e d C r o m i e ’s fire a n d killed the “ head o f th e B ritish Intelligence N e tw o r k in R ussia because he had lost his se lf-c o n tro l” . T h e fact th a t th e y h a d b ro k e n all the law s o f d ip lo m a tic b e h a v io u r w as n o t lost o n th e B olsheviks. T h e ir v ersio n o f th e events insists th a t th e y w o u ld n e v e r h ave searched the E m b a s sy in n o rm a l 164

Moscow and Petrograd, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 circ u m sta n ces b u t th at th ey co uld n o t rem ain inactive “ w h e n the E m b a s s y is c o n v e rte d in to q u arte rs o f conspiracy fo r p lo tte rs and m u rd e re rs w h e n officials in o u r te rrito ry w e av e . . . a n et o f b lo o d y in trig u e an d m o n s tro u s c r im e .” D z e rz h in s k y ’s m e n m ad e a t h o r o u g h j o b o f searching the E m ­ bassy w h ile th e d ip lo m a ts w e re held at C h e k a h ea d q u arte rs. O n S e p te m b e r 2 n d th e D a n ish M in iste r in P e tro g ra d sent a teleg ram to his g o v e r n m e n t saying: “ T h e archives w e re sacked and e v e ry th in g w as d estro y e d . C a p ta in C r o m i e ’s co rpse w as trea ted in a h o rrib le m a n n e r. C ro s s o f St G e o rg e w as taken fro m th e b o d y and sub se­ q u e n tly w o r n b y o n e o f the m u rd e re rs . E nglish cle rg y m e n w e re refused p e rm issio n to repeat p ray ers o v e r b o d y . ” O n S e p te m b e r 4th, th e D u tc h M in iste r W. J. O u d e n d ijk w h o h ad been lo o k in g after B rita in ’s interests in P e tro g ra d since the d ep a r­ tu re o f Francis Lindley, re tu rn e d fro m M o s c o w w h e re he h ad been n e g o tia tin g th e ex c h an g e o f B ritish an d R ussian officials b eing held as n ea r-h o stag e s b y either c o u n try . H e w as o u tra g e d to find C r o m i e ’s m u tila te d corpse still ly in g in the E ng lish ch urch . N o funeral h ad b een o rg a n ise d because so m e o f th e d ip lo m a ts B rito n s a m o n g th e m - w e re frig h te n ed o f p ro v o k in g th e ho stility o f th e m o b . O u d e n d ijk w o u ld h av e n o n e o f this and he insisted th at C r o m ie be g iv en w h a t w as v irtu ally a state funeral w ith all th e n eu tra l d ip lo m a ts fo llo w in g th e co rte g e as it w o u n d its w a y t h r o u g h th e city. T h e re w as n o hostility. E ven th e undisciplin ed B o lsh e v ik sailors o n th e ru stin g d estro y e rs m o o re d in the N e v a cam e to a tte n tio n as th e p ro cessio n passed slo w ly o v e r th e N ik o lai B rid g e. C r o m i e ’s d ea th in defence o f th e E m b assy did m o re th an any o th e r single act to co n v in ce th e B ritish th at the B o lsh ev iks w ere in d eed barb arian s. T h e re w as u p ro a r in the press. W h e n W in sto n C h u rc h ill h ea rd o f C r o m i e ’s d eath he w ro te a n o te fo r th e W ar C ab in et. In it he argu ed: I earnestly h o p e th a t th e G o v e rn m e n t, in spite o f its m a n y p re -o c c u p a tio n s, w ill p u rsu e th e p erp e tra to rs o f this crim e w ith tireless perseverance. R eprisals u p o n various B olsh ev ik n o n ­ entities w h o h a p p e n to be in o u r h an d s are o f n o real use, th o u g h th e y sh o u ld be b y n o m ean s excluded. T h e o n ly p olicy w h ic h is likely to be effective, eith er fo r th e past o r the future, is to m a rk d o w n th e personalities o f the B olshevik G o v e rn m e n t as the objects u p o n w h o m ju s tic e w ill be executed, h o w e v e r lo n g it takes . . .

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T h e Lockhart Plots T h e g o v e r n m e n t d id tak e actio n against the “ B o lsh e v ik n o n ­ en tities” in B ritish h an ds. M a x im L itv in o v , L o c k h a rt’s c o u n te rp a rt in L o n d o n , a n d his s ta ff w e re tak en to B rix to n P riso n as ho stag es a n d tw e n ty -f iv e R ussians selected b y L itv in o v fo r re p atriatio n as a g o o d w ill g estu re b y the B ritish h a d th eir passages cancelled. O n S e p te m b e r 4 th F o reig n M in iste r A rth u r B alfo u r to o k u p C h u rc h ill’s th e m e an d sent a teleg ram to the R ussian F oreign M in iste r, G e o rg i C h ic h e rin , d e m a n d in g the im m e d ia te p u n is h ­ m e n t o f e v e ry b o d y co n n e c te d w ith “ this a b o m in ab le o u tra g e ” . B a lfo u r left n o d o u b t a b o u t the B ritish G o v e r n m e n t’s fury. H is te le g ra m w e n t o n in th re a te n in g tone: S h o u ld the R ussian S o viet G o v e rn m e n t fail to give co m p lete satisfaction o r s h o u ld an y fu rth e r acts o f violence be c o m m itte d ag ain st a B ritish su bject H is M a je sty ’s G o v e rn m e n t will h o ld th e m e m b e r s o f th e S oviet G o v e rn m e n t ind iv id u ally resp on sib le and w ill m a k e ev e ry e n d e a v o u r to secure th at th ey shall be trea ted as o u tla w s b y the G o v e rn m e n ts o f all civilised natio n s and th at n o place o f re fu g e shall be left to th em . N o n e o f this, o f course, h elped the situ atio n o f Reilly o r L o ck h art, b o th o f w h o m c o u ld feel th e h o t b re ath o f th e C h e k a o n the backs o f th e ir necks. A c c o rd in g to an official C h e k ist versio n o f events R eilly h a d a rra n g e d to m e e t C ro m ie fo r lu n ch at the B aik o v C afe o n th a t fateful S atu rday . H e w a ite d th ere fo r n in e ty m in u te s in a back r o o m an d w h e n C r o m ie did n o t s h o w u p d ecided to w alk alo ng to th e E m b a ssy . W h e n he g o t th ere it w as all over. T h e re w e re th ree b o d ies ly in g o n th e g ro u n d . T w o w e re th e C h ek ists S h e n k a m a n n a n d Y a n so n . T h e th ird w as C ro m ie . T h e C h e k is t ac co u n t has it th a t a R ed A r m y soldier re cog nised R eilly b u t as he k n e w th e B ritish ag en t o n ly as C o m ra d e R ilin sky o f th e C h e k a he said: “ A h C o m rad e ! See h o w bad ly it has tu rn e d o u t. T h e d o g fired back. T h a t ’s h im o v e r th e r e .” R eilly h ad already been in to u c h w ith his friend an d ch ie f contact, th e rich la w y e r A le x a n d e r G ra m m a tik o v w h o h ad to ld h im n e r­ v o u sly , “ T h e idiots. T h e y acted to o so on. T h e y w e re su p p o sed to c o -o rd in a te th e jo b . U rits k y has b een killed. Y o u m u s t get a w a y .” D e sp ite the h u e and cry m o u n te d for h im , he did j u s t that. R eilly s p e n t th e n ig h t at the h o m e o f an SR con tact, th en, usin g his C h e k a pass, blu ffed his w a y b y train to M o s c o w . In H ill’s official v e rsio n R eilly h a d g o n e to his o w n flat in P e tro g ra d w h e re he m e t B o y ce and spelt o u t th e L ettish plan. B o y ce w as d u b io u s, saying he th o u g h t the affair w as to o risk y b u t ag reed it 166

Moscow and Petrograd, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 w as w o r t h try in g . H e co nsid ered it w as im p o rta n t fo r R eilly to m e e t C ro m ie , as C ro m ie h ad h a d a great deal to d o w ith th e Letts. A c c o rd in g to H ill, he left R eilly at his flat to g o to th e B ritish E m b a ss y w ith the in te n tio n o f re tu rn in g b y th ree o ’clock w ith C ro m ie . R eilly w a ite d in his flat u n til after six o ’clock b u t n o o ne tu rn e d up. H e afte rw a rd s h e a rd o f C a p ta in C r o m i e ’s death, b u t in n o w a y co n n e cted it w ith th e Letts affair. O n M o n d a y Reilly b o o k e d a sleeper fo r M o s c o w . H e used the sam e passes th a t he h ad d o n e on his j o u r n e y N o r t h an d arriv ed in M o s c o w . . . and o n ly th en g o t th e first n e w s o f th e crash. In M o s c o w R eilly fo u n d e v e ry th in g in chaos. T h e B ritish m issio n h a d been closed d o w n . G e o rg e H ill h ad g o n e to g ro u n d . M o s c o w ’s n e w sp a p e rs carried lu rid stories a b o u t th e “ L o ck h a rt P lo t” . L o ck ­ hart, th e y said, w as th e o rg an iser, Reilly d id the d irty w o rk . R eilly’s p ictu re an d d esc rip tio n ap p eared o n h o a rd in g s an d a price o f 100,000 ro u b les w as p u t o n his head. T h e C h e k a picked u p six - s o m e say e ig h t - R ussian w o m e n o f v ario u s ages, shapes an d sizes all o f w h o m claim ed to b e m arried to Reilly. W h a t h a p p e n e d to th e m is n o t k n o w n . It w as a n o th e r o f his m istresses, D a g m a ra , th e ballet d an cer niece o f G ra m m a tik o v , w h o sav ed Reilly. She p u t R eilly in to u c h w ith H ill and g ave h im a cache o f tw o m illio n ro u b les w h ic h she h ad been hid in g. D a g m a ra w as later arrested an d sho t, n o t because o f h e r w o r k fo r R eilly b u t because the C h e k a established th a t she k n e w an accom plice o f F an n y K aplan. A n d th at w as e n o u g h to c o n d e m n her. T h e r e w as n o w n o reason fo r Reilly to stay in Russia. H is great p lo t h a d collapsed. H e w as h u n te d . H is contacts an d friends w e re b ein g slau g h tered . Reilly slept w h e re he could an d o n e n ig h t he lay lo w in a b ro th el. H e later to ld th e s to ry o f h o w a p ro s titu te sp en t the n ig h t in his ro o m , m o a n in g in the last stages o f syphilis. E v en tu a lly H ill gave h im his o w n false papers and a train ticket to P etro g ra d . H e arriv ed th e re o n S e p te m b e r n t h after sh aring a c o m p a rtm e n t w ith G e rm a n d ip lo m a ts an d p re te n d in g he w as o n e o f th eir n u m ­ ber. H e later w ro te : “ M y aim j u s t th e n w as to get o u t o f Russia as s o o n as possible. T h e M issio n I h a d been e n tru ste d w ith h ad ended in c o m p le te fa ilu re.” H e b rib e d his w a y o n b o a rd a D u tc h ship and b y the first w e e k in N o v e m b e r he w as back in L o n d o n , lu n c h in g at th e S avoy. L o c k h a rt w as in ev en m o re tro u b le th a n Reilly. H e w as the official re p rese n ta tiv e o f th e B ritish g o v e r n m e n t in M o s c o w and 167

T he Lockhart Plots co u ld n o t g o u n d e r g ro u n d . T h e n ig h t after Lenin w as sh o t he w as arrested b y Pavel M a ik o v w h o b efore th e R ev o lu tio n h ad b ee n a sailor in the B altic Fleet b u t w as n o w C o m m a n d a n t o f th e K re m lin an d o n e o f the C h e k a ’s m o s t d edicated ex ecutioners. C a p ta in H ick s w as p ick ed u p at th e sam e tim e. A n o th e r m a n in tro u b le w as C o m m a n d a n t de V e rte m e n t, head o f the F rench secret service in M o s c o w - c o d e n a m e d H e n ri w h o s e flat w as raided an d stripp ed. T h e searchers fo u n d explosives b u t de V e rte m e n t m a n a g e d to escape. “ H e n r i” w as co n v in c ed he had been b e tra y e d b y R ene M arc h a n d , M o s c o w c o rre s p o n d e n t for Figaro w h o , o n A u g u s t 22nd, had atten d e d a conference in the A m e ric a n consulate at w h ic h Reilly, de V e rte m e n t and X e n o p h o n K a la m atian o , the A m e ric a n agent, w e re present. It has been su g ­ gested th a t as a resu lt o f w h a t he heard, M a rc h a n d ex p o se d the w h o le p lo t to the C h ek a. B u t w h e n H ill an d de V e rte m e n t m e t in the safety o f Finland an d dissected w h a t h ad hap p e n ed th ey decided th a t w h ile M a rc h a n d h ad p ro b a b ly b etra y ed de V e rte m e n t an d o n e o f R eilly ’s girls w h o s e n a m e w as m e n tio n e d at th e conference, he w as u n lik ely to have g iv en the w h o le g a m e aw ay. M a rc h a n d w as certainly indiscreet - w h e n he w as h im s e lf arrested he left o n his table a m o s t in crim in atin g letter to P resid en t P o in c are o f France. T h is letter g ave a full d esc rip tio n o f th e m e e tin g o f th e secret serv ic em en in the A m e ric a n con sulate an d w as seized u p o n w ith glee b y the B olshev iks. Like so m a n y o th e r aspects o f this tw is te d tale the tr u th w ill p ro b a b ly n ev e r be k n o w n . W h a t w e do k n o w is th a t w h e n M a rc h a n d re tu rn e d to France he jo in e d the F rench C o m m u n i s t P arty . M a ik o v to o k L o c k h a rt in to a r o o m at C h e k a ’s h ea d q u arte rs in th e L u b y a n k a - fo rm e rly th e offices o f a life insu ran ce c o m p a n y w h e re he w as c o n fro n te d b y a m a n he k n e w and h ad g o o d reaso n to fear, Ja c o b P eters, D z e rz h in s k y ’s d e p u ty , a m u rd e r e r w h o sh o u ld hav e h a n g e d fo r th e sh o o tin g o f th ree L o n d o n p o licem e n in th e ro b b e ry w h ic h led u p to the n o to rio u s siege o f S idney Street, in 1911. P eters, son o f a L atvian fa rm -la b o u re r, h ad m o v e d to R iga w h e n he w as eig h teen an d jo in e d th e illegal L atvian Social D e m o ­ crats L ab o u rers P arty . H e agitated a m o n g the sailors o f th e Baltic Fleet against the w a r w ith Ja p a n an d in the repression th at fo llo w ed th e 1905 u p risin g w as arrested, beaten u p and h ad his fingernails to rn o ut. E v en tu a lly released in 1909, Peters fled to E n g la n d and jo in e d th e s w a r m in g im m ig r a n t c o m m u n ity in L o n d o n ’s E ast E n d w h e re he learn ed to speak E ng lish w ith a C o c k n e y accent and b ec am e a m e m b e r o f several o f the g ro u p s th at p lo tte d an arch y and w o r ld re v o lu tio n in th e m ean houses o f L o n d o n ’s slum s. 168

Moscow and Petrograd, August-D ecem ber 1918 W hile th e ir im m e d ia te schem es w e re directed against T sarist R ussia ra th e r th a n B ritain the anarchists nevertheless co nsidered th em selv es ju s tifie d in ca rry in g o u t “ e x p ro p ria tio n s ” - in plain lang uage, ro b b e ries - in L o n d o n to finance th e ir re v o lu tio n a ry activities. It w as i n ju s t such an “ e x p r o p ria tio n ” o n D e c e m b e r 16th, 1910 at a H o u n d s d itc h je w e lle rs th at a g an g o f L ettish re v o lu tio n ­ aries w as s u rp rise d b y a g ro u p o f u n a rm e d policem en. T h e Letts o p e n e d fire. T h re e o f the p o licem e n w e re killed an d tw o w e re crippled fo r life w h ile o n e o f th e g an g w as m o rta lly w o u n d e d b y a b ullet fired b y o n e o f his co m rad es. It w as J a c o b P eters w h o killed the policem en , p u m p in g bullets in to th e m ev en w h e n th ey w e re w o u n d e d . H e w as ca u g h t so m e tim e later after tw o o f the g an g h ad died in th e S idney Street siege d u rin g w h ic h C h u rch ill, th en H o m e Secretary, h ad tu rn e d o u t the Scots G u a rd s. B u t w h e n P eters s to o d trial he w as fo u n d in n o ce n t d u e to an in ep t p ro se c u tio n an d a lax ju d g e w h o allo w e d P eters to g et aw ay, literally, w ith m u rd e r. H e stayed in L o n d o n after he w as set free and m a rrie d an E n g lish girl, M a y F reem an, b u t left h er b e h in d in 1917 w h e n h e re tu rn e d to Latvia to preach B o lsh e v ism to th e L ettish tro o p s. H is p ro g ress w as rapid. A p p o in te d to th e C heka, he dealt w ith all o p p o s itio n w ith o u t m ercy. W h e n L o c k h a rt first a rriv ed in M o s c o w P eters h ad tried to cultivate his friendship. In A p ril 1918, after T ro ts k y h ad d ecided to sm ash th e A n arch ists - w h o h a d been m in o r b u t useful allies o f L enin - P eters tele p h o n e d L o c k h a rt a n d in vited h im to “ co m e fo r a rid e ” in a C h e k a car. H e and C o lo n e l R o bins o f the A m eric an R ed C ro s s w e re taken to an area w h ic h h ad once been o n e o f the m o s t stylish in M o s c o w b u t h ad been tak en o v e r b y the A n a rch ist “ Black G u a rd s ” . It h ad j u s t been s to rm e d b y C h ek a units and L ettish riflem en - o n ce again in th e th ick o f the action - and fo rty A n a rc h ­ ists h ad been killed and 500 tak e n p rison er. L o ck h a rt gave a fa m o u s ac co u n t o f w h a t he saw th a t day: T h e sig h t w as indescribable. B ro k e n bo ttles littered the floors, th e m a g n ifice n t ceilings w e re p erfo ra te d w ith bullet holes. W ine stains and h u m a n e x c re m e n t b lo tc h e d the A u b u s so n carpets. Priceless p ictures h ad b een slashed to strips. T h e dead still lay w h e re th e y h ad fallen. T h e y in clu d ed officers in g u ard s u n ifo rm , stu d en ts - y o u n g b o y s o f tw e n ty - and m e n w h o b elo n g e d o b v io u s ly to th e crim in al class and w h o m the re v o lu tio n had released fro m priso n. In the lu x u rio u s d r a w in g - r o o m o f the H o u s e G racheva, the A n arch ists h ad been su rp rised in the m id d le o f an o rg y . T h e lo n g table w h ic h h a d s u p p o rte d the feast h ad been 169

T he Lockhart Plots o v e r tu r n e d an d b ro k e n plates, glasses, c h a m p a g n e b ottles, m ad e u n s a v o u r y islands in a p o o l o f b lo o d and spilt w ine. O n th e floor lay a y o u n g w o m a n face d o w n w a rd s . P eters tu rn e d h er o ver. H e r h air w as dishevelled. She h ad b een sh o t t h ro u g h the neck an d the b lo o d h ad co n g ealed in a sinister p u rp le clu m p. She co u ld n o t h av e b een m o re th e n tw e n ty . Peters s h ru g g e d his sh ould ers. “ P r o s titu tk a ,” he said. “ P erhaps it is fo r th e b e s t.” N o w L o c k h a rt w as P e te rs ’ p risoner. T h e latter tried to q u estio n h im , to im plicate h im in th e a tte m p t o n L e n in ’s life. B u t L o c k h a rt claim ed d ip lo m a tic im m u n ity and refused to a n sw e r any q uestions. H e a n d H ick s w e re p u t in a cell and the n ex t m o rn in g he h a d a visitor: She w as dressed in black. H e r hair w as black, and her eyes set in a fixed stare, h ad g re at black rings u n d e r th em . H e r face w as colourless. H e r features, stro n g ly Jew ish , w e re u n attractiv e. She m ig h t h av e been any age b e tw e e n 20 and 35. W e guessed it w as K ap lan. D o u b tle ss th e B olsh ev iks h o p e d th at she w o u ld give us s o m e sign o f re c o g n itio n . H e r c o m p o su re w as un n atu ra l. She w e n t to th e w in d o w an d leaning h er chin u p o n h er h an d lo o k e d o u t in to th e d ay lig h t. A n d here she re m ain ed , m otio nless, speechless, a p p a re n tly resign ed to h e r fate. U n til p resen tly the sentries cam e an d to o k h e r aw ay . She w as sh o t before she k n e w w h e th e r h er a tte m p t to alter h is to ry h a d failed o r succeeded. It later e m e rg e d th a t F an n y K a p la n ’s a tte m p t to kill L enin w as p art o f a Socialist R e v o lu tio n a ry a tte m p t to d e stro y th e leadership o f th e B o lsh e v ik P arty , b u t she gave n o th in g a w ay at h er in te rro g a tio n in th e L u b y an k a . It w as M a ik o v w h o w as g iv en th e task o f killing her. H e later w ro te th a t he to o k her, b o u n d h a n d an d foot, to a w o o d o n th e o u ts k irts o f M o s c o w , an d sh o t h e r w ith his re v o lv e r at p o in t b lan k range. P etro l w as p o u re d o n h e r b o d y and a m a tc h th ro w n . H e r re m a in s w e re b u rie d in an u n m a rk e d grave. P eters released L o ck h a rt, p ro b a b ly at C h ic h e r in ’s insistence. H e w as tu rn e d loose in to a frig h te n in g w o rld : th e C h e k a h ad been r o u n d in g u p an d killing “ c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n a rie s ” ever since th e SR re v o lts o f Ju ly . N o w , w ith the assassination o f U rits k y an d th e w o u n d in g o f Lenin all re strain t disappeared. T h e “ R ed T e r r o r ” w as launched. W ith in h o u rs o f F an n y K a p la n ’s bullets h ittin g Lenin the C e n tra l E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e ru sh e d o u t a sta te m e n t signed b y S v erdlov, th e m a n w h o o rg a n ise d th e T s a r ’s m u rd e r, d eclaring that: “ E ach 170

Moscow and Petrograd, August-D ecem ber 1918 d ro p o f L e n in ’s b lo o d m u s t be paid fo r b y the b o u rg e o isie and the W h ites in h u n d re d s o f deaths. T h e interests o f the R e v o lu tio n d e m a n d it. T h e b o u rg e o isie h av e n o pity, n o r h ave w e n o w . ” So D z e rz h in s k y w e n t a b o u t his g rim w o rk , pitiless, rem orseless, d e te rm in e d to cleanse Russia o f th e enem ies o f B o lsh e v ism . E v en b efo re L enin h a d been sh o t he h ad m a d e his in ten tio n s clear. H e to ld a press conference: “ W e exist o n a basis o f org a n ise d te rr o r . . . W e c o u n te r th e en em ies o f th e S oviet G o v e rn m e n t w ith te rro r an d e x tirp a te th e crim inals o n th e s p o t . . . T h e C h e k a is o b lig ed to d efen d th e re v o lu tio n and cru sh th e en e m y , even i f its s w o rd s o m e tim e s chances to strike the heads o f the in n o c e n t.” H e w as s u p p o rte d b y L enin w h o attacked “ n a r ro w m in d e d intelligentsia in th e p a rty w h o sob and fuss” o v e r m istakes m a d e b y D z e rz h in sk y an d his collegium . T h a t co lleg iu m in clu d ed so m e bestial m e n an d w o m e n w h o n o t o n ly saw it as th eir d u ty to kill b u t p o sitiv e ly en jo y e d the to rtu re an d th e b lo o d sh ed . S o m e 500 p eople w e re sh o t in P e tro g ra d after U r i t s k y ’s m u rd e r, and o v e r 300 p riso n ers w e re d o n e to death in M o s c o w w hereas it is d o u b tfu l if m o re th an a h an d fu l w e re in v o lv e d in th e plots. T h e y w e re sh o t “ fo r L e n in ” . S uch w as th e logic o f th e R ed T e rro r. P eters h im s e lf w as c o n d u c tin g in te rro g a tio n s o n a p ro d u c tio n line basis at the L u b y an k a , sig n in g d eath w a rra n ts b y the score an d c o m p la in in g he w as sick an d tired o f sen ten cin g p eo p le to be sh ot. B u t h e n ev e r slackened. T h e M o s c o w p ap ers w e re h o w lin g fo r L o c k h a rt’s b lo o d . A letter to th e Bulletin o f the Cheka com plained: T h e C h e k a has still n o t g o t a w a y fro m P e tty -B o u rg e o is id eo lo g y , the cursed inheritance o f the p re -re v o lu tio n a ry past. Tell us, w h y d id n ’t y o u sub ject L o c k h a rt to th e m o s t refined to rtu re s, in o rd e r to get in fo rm a tio n an d addresses, o f w h ic h such a b ird m u s t have h ad v ery m an y ? T ell us w h y y o u p e rm itte d h im to leave the b u ild in g o f th e C h e k a “ in g reat c o n fu s io n ” instead o f su bjectin g h im to to rtu re s, th e v e ry d esc rip tio n o f w h ic h w o u ld have filled c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n a rie s w ith cold terro r? . . . E n o u g h o f b eing soft; give u p this u n w o r t h y play o n d ip lo m a cy . A d an g e ro u s sco u n d rel has been caugh t. G e t o u t o f h im w h a t y o u can and send h im to th e o th e r w o rld . L o c k h a rt d ecided to b razen it o u t an d called o n th e R ussian F oreig n M in istry to c o m p la in th a t the stories a b o u t h im w e re all lies. T h e n o n S e p te m b e r 4 th he w e n t b ack to th e L u b y an k a to p ro te s t o v e r the arrest o f M o u ra B u d b e rg , th e latest e x h ib it in his large collection o f 171

T he Lockhart Plots m istresses; b u t she w as s o m e th in g m o re th an that. H ig h ly intelli­ g e n t a n d c h a rm in g , she later lived w ith M a x im G o rk y fo r tw e lv e years an d th e n cam e to th e W est and h ad a te m p e s tu o u s affair w ith H . G. W ells. She w as also p ro b a b ly a Soviet agent - G u y B urgess, th e B ritish d ip lo m a t w h o defected to R ussia in 1951, w as o n e o f h er friends - and it is q u ite likely th at she h ad been “ p la n te d ” o n L o ck h a rt. She w as certainly q u ick ly released b y the C h e k a and this w as n o t d u e to L o c k h a rt’s pro tests, for w h e n he arriv ed at the L u b y a n k a he w as tak e n to see P eters w h o p ro m p tly re -arrested h im . “ Y o u h av e saved m e s o m e t r o u b le ,” said P eters, “ m y m e n h ave been lo o k in g fo r y o u fo r the last h o u r. I h ave a w a rra n t fo r y o u r a r re s t.” T h is tim e L o c k h a rt w as detain ed for a m o n th , b ein g in te rro g a te d at n ig h t b y P eters w h o w o u ld u rg e h im to tell th e w h o le tr u th o f th e “ L o c k h a rt P lo t” in his o w n interests. B u t the ja ile r m u s t h av e realised he w o u ld g et n o w h e re for he w o u ld su d d e n ly change the c o n v e rsa tio n and chat a b o u t E n g lan d . A fte r a tim e L o c k h a rt w as m o v e d to a suite o f ro o m s in th e K re m lin w h e re M o u ra w o u ld b rin g h im n ew sp a p ers - m o s t o f th e m d e m a n d in g his ex e cu tio n - fo o d and b o o k s. O n S e p te m b e r 19th h e n o te d in his diary, “ L enin b e tte r and allo w ed to w o r k again — a m irac u lo u s e sc ap e.” It w as a m iracle fo r L o ck h a rt as w ell as L enin fo r th ere is little d o u b t th a t i f L enin h ad died, L o ck h a rt w o u ld have been shot. O n O c to b e r 1st he w as taken to his flat and to ld to pack. H is e x c h a n g e fo r L itv in o v h a d been agreed. T h e fo llo w in g d ay he w as p u t o n th e train for Finland. A m o n g th e p a rty o f s o m e th irty B ritish officials o n the train w as G e o rg e Hill, w h o in his b o o k to ld a s o m e w h a t ro m a n tic s to ry o f h o w h e an d his girl helpers escaped fro m th e C hek a: “ I co uld hear n o t o n ly m y o w n h ea rt p o u n d in g b u t stran g e ly th e beat o f E v e ly n ’s as w ell. ‘I a m glad y o u let m e d o this w o rk , ’ she w h isp ered to m e. ‘It has been a w o n d e rfu l experience. W e h av e d o n e g o o d an d n o m a tte r w h a t h ap p e n s n o w it has been w o rth w h ile . R e m e m b e r th at, and d o n ’t h av e an y r e g re ts .’ ” H is secret re p o rt, h o w e v e r, w as s o m e w h a t m o re prosaic: “ O w i n g to th e visible s h o rtag e o f fu nd s in th e near future, an d as o u r expenses w e re g o in g u p daily w e felt th at the w o r k cou ld n o t be carried on, an d th at I w as in n o w a y suspected, it w o u ld be best to c o m e to life an d try to g et o u t o f R ussia as an official. ” H o w e v e r he m e t resistance in th e fo rm o f C o n s u l G eneral W a rd ro p w h o ,

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Moscow and Petrograd, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 fo u n d th a t it w as im p o ssib le for m e to be in clu d ed in his official staff, as h e said he did n o t dare risk h av in g m y n a m e o n paper, and th e re b y e n d a n g e r th e w h o le o f his p arty . T h is w as after I had ex p la in e d to h im th at to th e best o f m y k n o w le d g e I w as in n o w a y u n d e r suspicion, th at n o n e o f m y acts could be traced b ack to m e. C a p ta in H icks, h o w e v e r, to o k u p the m a tte r, and it w as th a n k s to h im after a co n su ltatio n w ith his A m e ric a n colleagues, th a t I w as p u t o n M r. L o c k h a rt’s list as an official m e m b e r (L o c k h art w as in th e L u by ank a). I to o k o f f m y disguise o n the F riday a fte rn o o n (Sept 6) and ap peared again u n d e r m y o w n n a m e an d papers. H ill c o n tin u e d to g o a b o u t his business, g ettin g R eilly o f f to P e tro g ra d , sen d in g a w o m a n ag en t “ H i ” o f f to S w ed e n “ as I c o n sid ered it n o lo n g e r safe fo r h e r to re m a in b e h in d ” and dis­ m a n tlin g his M o s c o w co u rie r n e tw o r k . H e also n o te d th a t K a la m atian o , c h ie f o f the A m e ric a n Secret Service, w as arrested: All his d o c u m e n ts w e re fo un d. Lt. R eilly ’s last flat w as raided and his ag e n t “ C ” arrested at th e K re m lin . F ro m S e p te m b e r 3rd all B ritish officers w ith the ex c ep tio n o f o n e o r t w o p an ic -strick en consuls, w e re either im p ris o n e d o r besieged in the A m e ric a n C o n s u la te so that it w as im p o ssib le to get any advice o r to confer w ith an yone. I fo llo w ed general principles. I in s tru c te d the d e s tru c tio n g angs at S aratov to c o m m e n c e o p eratio n s. A b o u t fo u r trains o f m aterial w e re derailed a w eek. P re p a ra tio n s w e re m a d e for th e d e stru c tio n o f fuel and oil supplies here, and a section w as sent to w o rk o n the V o ro n e z h line. H e later learnt th at tw e lv e o f his co uriers h ad been sh o t “ as h ad o ne o r t w o o f m y in d e p e n d e n t a g e n ts ” . G reat credit [he w ro te ] is d u e to this b o d y o f m e n an d to those shot, w h o co u ld all h av e saved th eir lives b y g iv in g aw ay th e H Q address in M o s c o w . T h is address w as n ev e r g iv en aw ay, an d ev e ry m a n sh o t s h o w e d th e spirit o f th e 1914 R ussian officers. I e m p lo y e d th e m collectively o n o n e o r tw o j o b s in M o s c o w . As tw o o f th e m cam e fro m th e B altic p rovin ces, th e y w e re sent there, and finally the 173

T he Lockhart Plots re m a in d e r w e re p aid t w o m o n th s m o n e y and sent to th e East, w h e re I h o p e to pick th e m u p again an d re su m e w o rk . H ill, g ru d g in g ly a llo w e d to j o i n th e official p arty , g o t as far as F inland w h e re he w as o rd e re d to tu rn ro u n d and go back. T h e p u rp o s e o f this m issio n has n e v e r been revealed b u t, p ro b a b ly , it w as to c o n tin u e b lo w in g u p b rid g es an d railw ay tracks. H e ev e n ­ tually reached L o n d o n o n the m o rn in g o f A rm istice D ay , N o v e m ­ b e r n t h , 1918. G iv e n a D S C fo r his ex ploits, he w as tran sferred fro m M ilita ry Intelligence to M I6. In D e c e m b e r he and Reilly, w h o h ad been a w a rd e d (b u t secretly) th e M C , w e n t back to S o u th R ussia p o sin g as B ritish b u sin e ssm e n w ith th e task o f assessing G eneral D e n ik in ’s situ atio n . T h e y w e re b r o u g h t bgck to L o n d o n after th ree w eeks, lo n g e n o u g h fo r D e n ik in to a w a rd H ill th e O r d e r o f St G e o rg e o f T s a r N ic h o la s II. H e w as sen t o n on e last m ission and w as in O d e ssa j u s t b efo re it fell to th e B olsheviks. H ill w as n o t finished w ith Russia. In an episod e o f s u p re m e iro n y he w as sent b ack to M o s c o w in 1941 w h e n B ritain and R ussia w e re o n ce again allied against G e rm a n aggression. B y th en a brig adier, red-faced , b o w -le g g e d an d bald, “ P o p ” Hill, th e m an w h o h ate d B o lsh e v ism , w as g iv en th e task o f liaising w ith the N K V D , suc­ cessor o f the C h ek a. W hile he w as th ere he laid the g r o u n d w o r k for th e re o p e n in g o f the M I6 M o s c o w station, th e first since 1918. L o c k h a rt arriv ed in L o n d o n th ree w eeks earlier th an H ill, o n O c to b e r 19th, 1918. H e h a d a lo n g talk w ith A rth u r B alfo u r and s u b m itte d a re p o rt fo r th e W a r C ab in et. It w as lo n g an d closely a rg u ed , p o in tin g o u t th a t th ere w e re o n ly tw o alternatives; eith er to c o m e to an a g re e m e n t w ith th e B o lsheviks o r to o v e r th r o w th e m b y a m assive ap p licatio n o f force. H e fa v o u re d the latter b u t the g o v e r n m e n t chose n e ith e r an d L o ck h a rt disap peared to S cotland o n a v ic e -c o n s u l’s h a lf pay. H is o n ly co n so latio n w as an audience w ith th e K in g w h o disp lay ed a g reat u n d e rs ta n d in g o f the R ussian situ atio n . L ater he w as to en jo y a d istin g u ish ed d ip lo m a tic career b u t w as to play n o fu rth e r p art in R ussian affairs a lth o u g h he k n e w m o r e a b o u t it at close h a n d th an any o th e r B ritish official. B o th he and Reilly w e re sen tenced to death in th eir absence b y th e B o lsh e v ik s in o n e o f the first o f th eir s h o w trials. T h e tw o m e n d ra n k to th eir co n v ic tio n in c h a m p a g n e at th e Savoy. O n e o f th eir colleagues w as n o t so lucky. X e n o p h o n K alam atian o, the A m e ri­ can agent, h a d to stan d trial in M o s c o w . H e w as sentenced to d ea th an d tak e n o f f to th e L u b y a n k a to aw ait ex ecu tion . O ffs p rin g o f a m a rria g e b e tw e e n a G reek tra d e r and the d a u g h te r o f a R ussian

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Moscow and Petrograd, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 fam ily w ith close co n nection s to the T s a r ’s fam ily, he h ad been b r o u g h t u p in th e U n ite d States after his father h ad died and his m o th e r h a d re m a rrie d . W h e n the R e v o lu tio n b ro k e o u t he w as selling ag ric u ltu ral m ac h in e ry in Russia as a re p rese n ta tiv e o f the C ase C o m p a n y . T h e U n ite d States g o v e r n m e n t asked h im i f he w o u ld p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n an d he accepted in w h a t Secretary o f State R o b e rt L ansing later d escrib ed as a “ soft r e c ru itm e n t” . T h e re w as n o th in g soft a b o u t his tre a tm e n t b y th e B olsheviks. H e w as tw ic e tak e n o u t o f his cell, g iv en a last cigarette, b lin d fo ld ed an d h ea rd th e o rd e rs given: “ R ead y . . . A im . . . F ire .” T h e re fo llo w e d o n ly th e clicks o f firing pins falling o n e m p ty ch a m b ers a n d he w as led back to his cell fo r fu rth e r in te rro g a tio n . It is th o u g h t th a t he w as saved fro m d eath b y th e direct in te rv e n tio n o f Lenin w h o h ad n o w ish to an ta g o n ise th e U n ite d States w h e n the A m e ri­ cans, re lu c tan t particip an ts, w e re try in g to disentangle them selves fro m th e in te rv e n tio n . K a la m atian o w as th en v irtually fo rg o tte n in the L u b yanka w here, h o w e v e r, he c o n tin u e d to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n b y tap p in g in to th e p ris o n e r’s g ra p ev in e and o b se rv in g the p ris o n ’s ro u tin e and his ja ile r’s m e th o d s . H e w as released in 1921 and re tu rn e d to A m erica w h e re he w r o te a lo n g re p o rt fo r the State D e p a rtm e n t. H e then re tired in to academ ic life. T h e re is a certain iro n y in th at h av in g s u rv iv e d th e firing squad, he died o f b lo o d p o iso n in g fo llo w in g a s h o o tin g accident. R eilly w as to be s h o w n n o m e rc y b y the B olsheviks. L u red back to R ussia in 1924 th ro u g h his o ld friend B oris S av in k o v in a carefully m a n ip u la te d plot, Reilly w as sh o t so o n after he crossed the F in nish fro ntier. Ja c o b P eters m e t th e en d he so richly deserved. In the late sp rin g o f 1919 he to o k U r i t s k y ’s place as head o f the P e tro g ra d C h ek a, th e n he w e n t to K iev and o n to T u rk e s ta n and e v e ry w h e re he w e n t he ju s tifie d his n ic k n a m e o f “ E x e c u tio n e r” . A fter 1922 he d ro p p e d o u t o f sig h t b u t it is n o w k n o w n th at he co n c en tra te d o n b u ild in g up th e fo reig n section o f O G P U as th e C h e k a b ecam e k n o w n in 1924.* H e m a y th u s be re g ard e d as o n e o f the fo u n d e rs o f the m o d e rn overseas a rm o f the K G B . H e w as last identified setting u p a te rro rist n e tw o r k in B erlin w ith th e object o f assassinating R ussian em igres. T h e n cam e the g reat p u rg e s and Peters, like so m a n y th o u s a n d s o f his colleagues, w as a rrested o n S talin’s o rd e rs and sent to th at “ o th e r w o r l d ” to w h ic h h e h ad co nsig ned so m a n y m en and w o m e n j u s t u n d e r tw o decades earlier. * The organisation went through a variety o f name changes. It became the O G P U in 1924 but had become the N K V D by the time Hill returned to Moscow.

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T he Lockhart Plots T h e r e is a cu rious fo o tn o te to th e P eters sto ry. O n a n u m b e r o f occasions he asked his E n g lish w ife to jo i n h im in M o s c o w . B u t she w as re lu c ta n t an d w h e n she ev en tu ally arriv ed in M o s c o w w ith th eir d a u g h te r M a ry , she fo u n d he had d iv o rce d h er and re m a rrie d . H o w e v e r, she stayed in M o s c o w and even tually h er d a u g h te r w e n t to w o r k fo r the B ritish E m b a ssy . In 1948, M a ry like so m a n y o th ers w o r k in g fo r foreign ers, w as w h isk e d a w ay b y the secret police and d id n o t re ap p ea r un til S ta lin ’s G ulag w as d ism an tled in 1956. T h e re h av e b een m a n y different versio ns o f the “ L o ck h a rt P lo t” . A t o n e e x tre m e th ere are the fu ll-b lo o d ed R ussian accusations th at the B ritish , F ren ch and A m eric an s h ad c o n sp ire d to kill L enin and T r o t s k y - a lth o u g h T r o t s k y ’s n a m e w as deleted d u rin g th e Stalin era - an d to hav e o rg a n ise d the “ W h ite G u a rd s risings in Y aroslavl, R y b in sk , M u r o m an d o th e r to w n s , th e m u tin y o f the C zec h o slo v ak corp s in the P o v o lz h e an d in Siberia, and the m u tin y o f the Left SRs in M o s c o w an d S a m a ra .” A n d at the o th e r th ere is the sanitised B ru ce L o c k h a rt v ersio n w h ic h claim s th at all he did w as to m ee t C o lo n e l B erzin and S m id c h en and give th e m a n o te asking B ritish tro o p s in the fro n t line n ear A rc h an g e l to allo w a m essen g e r safe passage to B ritish h ea d q u arte rs. H ill’s secret re p o rt co n tra d icts b o th versions. It sh o w s th a t L o c k h a rt q u ite d elib erately p u t C o lo n el B erzin in to u c h w ith R eilly in o rd e r to b rin g a b o u t a m u tin y a m o n g th e L ettish tro o p s and the arrest o f th e B o lsh e v ik leaders. L o ck h a rt m a y w ell h ave d iv o rce d h im s e lf fro m th e details b u t he k n e w w h a t Reilly w as abo ut. T h e re p o rt also explicitly states th at H ill h ad o rg a n ise d sab o teu rs to w re c k b rid g es and ra ilw a y lines to p re v e n t B o lsh ev ik tro o p s and m aterial g e ttin g to th e fig h tin g areas. B u t n o w h e re is th ere a h in t o f B ritish c o m p lic ity in th e m u rd e r o f U r its k y o r the a tte m p te d m u r d e r o f Lenin. It is possible th at R eilly m a y h av e h ad k n o w le d g e o f su ch a p lo t th r o u g h his links w ith the SRs, b ut, in v iew o f his m o v e m e n ts an d actions d u rin g the h o u rs co v e rin g th e sh o o tin g s, it seem s u n lik ely th at he w as in any w a y in v o lv ed . M o re o v e r, i f — as the B o lsh e v ik s claim ed - th ey k n e w e v e ry th in g a b o u t his plans th e y m o s t certainly w o u ld n o t hav e allo w e d U r its k y and L enin to be sh ot. As fo r B erzin, it seem s p ro b a b le th at he - an d S m id c h en - w e re in d eed w o r k in g fo r D z e rz h in sk y a lth o u g h Reilly told H ill he th o u g h t B erzin w as in n o c e n t o f b e tra y in g th em . B u t, as R eilly d e m o n s tra te d w h e n he w as lu red back to Russia, he w as so b lin d ed b y his h a tre d o f B o lsh e v ism he w as an easy m a rk for a n y b o d y p ro fessin g a sim ilar hatred. A n d this is a trait w h ich , alas, has 176

Moscow and Petrograd, A ugust-D ecem ber 1918 persisted u n til v ery recently in the ranks o f th e B ritish S ecurity Services. T h e im m e d ia te , practical result o f this im b ro g lio w as the b re a k ­ ing o f all official contacts b e tw e e n Russia an d the W est and the d e s tru c tio n o f the B ritish F rench an d A m eric an spy n e tw o rk s in M o s c o w . F ro m n o w o n the Allies h ad n o “ assets” in M o s c o w and c o m m u n ic a tio n s b e tw e e n th e B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t an d the Allies w e re m a in ta in e d o n ly b y radio. F o r th e B o lsh e v ik s there w e re tw o m ajo r benefits. T h e o p p o ­ nents, w ith in th e p arty , o f the C h e k is ts ’ use o f te rr o r w e re silenced: D z e rz h in s k y an d P eters w e re able to kill w h o e v e r th ey w a n te d w ith o u t interferen ce. A n d the hy steria calculatedly w h ip p e d up o v e r the affair aro u sed th e n a tio n alism w h ic h is n ev e r far beneath an y R u s s ia n ’s skin and co n v in c ed p eop le w h o w e re n o t in fa v o u r o f B o lsh e v ism th a t th ey sh o u ld n o w fig ht against th e “ foreign th re a t” . T h e c o m b in a tio n o f n atio n alism and fear o f the C h e k a ’s ex ecution s effectively c o n so lid ated B o lsh e v ik p o w e r as n o th in g else could h av e d one. A t th e sam e tim e th e killing o f C ap tain C ro m ie an d th e excesses o f th e R ed T e r r o r d isg u ste d m a n y p eople in the W est w h o w ere sy m p a th e tic to th e B olsh ev iks an d c o n firm ed o th ers in th eir b elief th a t th e B o lsh e v ik s w e re in deed barb arian s, capable o f any cruelty. T h e y ag reed w ith C h u rc h ill w h e n he to ld his co n stitu en ts at D u n d e e: “ C iv ilisatio n is b eing c o m p lete ly ex tin g u ish ed o v er g igan tic areas, w h ile B olsh eviks h o p and caper like tro o p s o f ferocious b a b o o n s a m id the ruins o f cities and the corpses o f their v ic tim s .” A n d he, despite w e lc o m in g th e m in to the fig ht against H itle r in the S eco nd W o rld W ar, n e v e r did change his o p in io n o f the B olshevik s.

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CHAPTER 12

“ Too Much o f a Warlord” London, November 1918-March 1919

T h e elev en th o f N o v e m b e r , 1918, w as A rm istice D ay , the d ay the w a r end ed , the w a r w h ic h h ad p o iso n ed the fields o f F rance and B e lg iu m w ith m illions o f to n s o f h ig h ex plo siv e an d m a n u re d th o se sam e fields w ith the bodies o f arm ies o f m en, th e w a r w h ic h ch a n g ed the w o rld for ever. L o n d o n , Paris and N e w Y o rk w e n t no isily m a d w ith th at ex c ite m e n t th at o n ly co m es w ith the b u rstin g o f p e n t-u p e m o tio n ; b e m u s e d m en, dazed b y th e silence w h ic h h ad fallen o v e r the W e ste rn F ro n t, w a n d e re d like curio us to u rists across th e battlefield in w h ic h th e y h ad been deadly professionals a few h o u rs before. T h e first in cre d u lo u s th o u g h t in all their m in d s w as: “ I h av e s u rv iv e d .” T h e second was: “ I shall be g o in g h o m e . ” W a r c o rre s p o n d e n t P hilip G ib b s w ro te : “ T h e fires o f hell h ave b een p u t o u t.” B u t n o t in Russia. As w e hav e seen, th e m e n o f the Y o rk s h ire R e g im e n t celebrated A rm istice D a y - and th eir o w n deliverance fr o m sh ip w re c k - in th e O rk n e y s . B u t th ey still h ad to g o o n to M u r m a n s k to fig h t th e B olsheviks. Surely, n o w th at th e w a r w as o v er, the Allies w o u ld w ith d r a w fro m Russia? A fter all th ey had o n ly in te rv e n e d in o rd e r to save the stocks o f w a r m aterial fro m the G e rm a n s and to re-establish the E astern F ront. Yes, b u t, th in g s w e re different n o w . T h e B ritish felt th ey co u ld n o t tu rn th eir backs o n th o se gallant R ussians w h o h ad jo in e d th eir cause in R ussia w h e n th e B o lsh ev ik s so trea ch e ro u sly m ad e peace w ith th e G e rm a n s an d w h o w o u ld be d o o m e d i f the B ritish w ith d r e w th eir s u p p o rt. N e ith e r co uld B ritain forsake th o se states a r o u n d the p e rip h e ry o f R ussia w h o , after years o f op p ressio n , h ad seized the o p p o r tu n ity offered b y th e collapse o f th e T sarist E m p ire to declare th eir ind ep end en ce. I f B ritain w ith d r e w its s u p p o rt fro m th e m th e y w o u ld be g o b b le d u p b y the n e w B o lsh ev ik E m p ire. A n d so a w h o le n e w set o f reasons e m e rg e d fo r the in te rv e n tio n to be m ain tain ed . T h is m e ta m o rp h o s is w as co m p lete d in M a rc h 1919 w h e n FieldM arsh a l Sir H e n ry W ilson, C h ie f o f th e Im p erial G eneral Staff, w r o te in a W a r O ffice repo rt: “ T h e e n e m y o f 12 m o n th s ago has fo r 178

London, November 1918-March 1919 th e tim e b e in g ceased to exist and has been replaced by a m o re tan g ib le b u t even m o re insidious foe in the shape o f B o lsh ev ­ ism . . . ” Sir H e n ry , later to be m u rd e re d b y the IR A , did n o t get m u c h s u p p o rt fr o m th e Allies. H o w e v e r m u c h th ey m ig h t h ave agreed w ith his re aso n in g , n o n e o f th e m had any in te n tio n o f sin king fu rth e r in to th e R ussian q u a g m ire w ith its appalling political and m ilitary d an g ers. T h e A m ericans, w h o had been so relu ctan t to b e c o m e in v o lv e d at all, had already a n n o u n c ed th at n o m o re m en w o u ld be sen t to n o r th Russia and th e y re m a in ed in Siberia o n ly to m a k e su re th e C zechs g o t aw ay safely and to keep an eye o n the Japanese. T h e French, w h o h ad lost a considerable a m o u n t o f m o n e y in loans to the T sarist g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld h ave been h a p p y to see th e B olsh ev ik s o v e r th r o w n i f on ly for so u n d financial reasons, b u t th eir a rm y h ad been tre m b lin g o n th e edg e o f m u tin y fo r t w o years and th e y re co gnised th ere w as little th ey cou ld do. T h e Japanese, u n b lo o d ie d b y th e w a r, w e re g o in g a b o u t their o w n business. T h e y h ad n ev er h ad any in te n tio n o f setting up a n e w E astern F ro n t - in any case a logistic im p o ssib ility - and th ey w e re n o t p artic u la rly co n c ern e d w ith g ettin g rid o f the B o lsh evik s as lo n g as th e y w e re giv en a free h a n d in setting u p th eir trad in g colonies o n th e Pacific seaboard. A n d the C anadians, finally, had g iv en n o tice o f q u ittin g . T h e re w as certain ly n o s u p p o rt fo r a n e w w a r a m o n g the soldiers an d sailors o f th e A llied forces. T h e y had fo u g h t the b lo o d iest w a r in th e h is to ry o f th e w o rld and all th ey w a n te d w as a re tu rn to C iv v y Street and a d ecen t j o b in a “ fit c o u n try fo r h eroes to live in ” . E ven th a t m o s t p atien t an d loyal o f m en , the B ritish T o m m y , w as b e g in n in g to kick at th e slo w n ess an d unfairness o f the d em o b ilis­ atio n p ro c ed u re , and th e p ro sp e c t o f fu rth e r service ab ro ad in a w a r w h ic h he d id n o t u n d e rs ta n d against peo ple o f his o w n class w h o had o v e r th r o w n a desp o tic ty ra n n y . A fav ou rite m usic hall song o f th e p e rio d w as called “ W h a t are w e w a itin g for n o w ? ” and it was su n g w ith g reat g u sto b y the tro o p s w a itin g for th eir release. So g reat w as th e d isc o n te n t th at fro m th e b eg in n in g o f 1919 the B ritish forces b ec am e unreliable. T h e re w e re d e m o n s tra tio n s and m utinies in th e A r m y an d th e N a v y . In J a n u a ry 10,000 m e n refused o rd ers to re tu rn to France at F olkesto ne. A n o th e r 4,000 d e m o n s tra te d in s u p p o rt at D o v e r. S en ior officers w e re forced to m ee t th e soldiers’ representatives and actually n eg o tiate a settlem en t. T h e n n o less th an 20,000 soldiers refused to o b e y o rd e rs at th e tran sit cam p o u tsid e Calais and discipline w as n o t re sto re d un til tw o divisions had been recalled 179

“ Too Much o f a Warlord” fro m G e rm a n y and th e m u tin e e rs s u rro u n d e d b y m a c h in e -g u n s an d fixed b ay o n e ts. E v en th e G u a rd s w e re n o t im m u n e . O n e re p o rt refers to an inciden t w h e n “ five battalio ns o f G u a rd sm e n m a rc h e d fro m S h o re h a m to p re sen t a list o f grievances to the M a y o r o f B r i g h t o n ” . T h e re w e re d e m o n s tra tio n s in W hitehall and o n o n e occasion the disaffected soldiers besieged cabinet m inisters in N o . 10 D o w n in g Street. O n ly the p ro tests o f senior officers p re v e n te d the P rim e M in ister, L lo y d G eo rg e, fro m receiving a d ep u ta tio n . T h e situ atio n w as n o b e tte r in the R o yal N a v y . O n Ja n u a ry 13 th, 1919, sailors o n b o a rd H M S Kilbride at M ilfo rd H a v e n raised the R ed Flag to the m a sth e a d an d declared: “ H a lf th e N a v y are o n strike and th e o th e r h a lf so o n w ill be. ” T h e u n re st in the forces w as m a tc h e d in civilian life. M a jo r in d u strial conflicts p u t o f f b y th e o u tb re a k o f w a r in 1914 e ru p te d as th e trad e u n io n s, s tre n g th e n e d b y the social and political changes b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the w a r, p resen ted far-reach ing d e m a n d s for re fo rm . In A u g u s t 1918, ev en b efo re the w a r h ad ended, L o n d o n ’s M e tro p o lita n P olice h ad g o n e o n strike and t h r o u g h o u t 1919 there w as an averag e o f 100,000 m e n o n strike ev ery day. T h e m in ers and ra ilw a y m e n had p re sen ted d em a n d s w h ic h th rea ten ed to lead to d a m a g in g d isputes. A t th e sam e tim e th e L ab o u r P a rty h ad e m e rg e d fro m th e w a r s tro n g e r th an ever b efore an d C o m m u n is m w as g ain in g g ro u n d , especially in Scotland. T h e leg en d o f R ed C ly d esid e w as b o rn in the last w eek o f ja n u a r y 1919 w h e n , the w a r co n tracts e n d in g and th e spectre o f m ass u n e m p lo y m e n t lo o m in g , th e w o rk e rs stru ck fo r a re d u ctio n in the w o rk in g w eek. T h e re w as violence at a m ass m ee tin g o n J a n u a ry 31st an d the n e x t day tro o p s w e re m o v e d in to the city and tan ks w e re p a rk e d in th e cattle m ark e t. T h e g o v e r n m e n t cou ld o n ly spare t w o battalio n s because th e strike coincided w ith th e m u tin y at C alais. B u t th e y w e re sufficient. T h e leaders o f the strike w e re tried o n charges o f in c ite m e n t to riot. M a n n y Shin well, later to b e c o m e M in iste r o f D efence and a centenarian m e m b e r o f th e H o u s e o f L ords, w as sent to p riso n for five m o n th s ; W illie G allacher, later leader o f the B ritish C o m m u n is t P arty, received a sentence o f th ree m o n th s . It w as n atural in this tu rb u le n t, re v o lu tio n a ry a tm o s p h e re th a t th ere s h o u ld be g ro w in g o p p o s itio n to th e in te rv e n tio n in Russia. T h e re h ad been little ob jectio n w hile it could be p resented as necessary for w in n in g the w a r against G e rm a n y b u t n o w the cry w e n t up: “ H a n d s o f f R u s s ia .” T h e re w as also, even at this early stage, a conscious effo rt b y the B olshevik s to include B ritain in th eir d re a m o f w o rld rev o lu tio n . C lose links h ad been fo rg ed b e tw e e n 180

London, November 1918-March 1919 B ritish socialists and R ussian em ig res at the tu rn o f th e cen tury. M aisk y , L itv in o v and their colleagues h ad p reached th e re v o lu tio n ­ ary gospel in L o n d o n . W hile B ritain in terv e n ed b y m eans o f soldiers in R ussia, th e B o lsh ev iks in terv e n ed b y w a y o f p ro p a g a n d a and a g itato rs in B ritain. T h e p ro sp e ct o f re v o lu tio n in B ritain w as frig h te n in g ly real in 1919, so real th at the W a r O ffice sent a con fidential qu estio n n aire to th e c o m m a n d in g officers o f all u nits to find o u t i f th e tro o p s w o u ld “ re m a in loyal in the case o f a re v o lu tio n in E n g la n d ” . A m o n g the q uestio n s asked w ere: w ill the tro o p s in th e v ario us areas re s p o n d to o rd e rs for assistance to preserv e the public peace? W ill th ey assist in strike b reak in g? W ill th ey parade fo r draft overseas, especially to Russia? Is th ere any g r o w th o f trad e u n io n ­ ism ? H a v e any so ld iers’ councils been fo rm ed ? Is any agitation fro m in ternal o r ex tern al sources affecting them ? T h e existence o f the q u e stio n n a ire and the details o f th e qu estio ns w e re revealed in the D aily Herald, th e iro n y o f w h ic h is th a t the p ap er w as given £75,000 b y the B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t in 1920. It w as in this m a e ls tro m o f political and social ch ange and m ilitary u n re s t th at th e B ritish g o v e r n m e n t h ad to decide w h a t to d o a b o u t Russia. O n j a n u a r y 3rd, 1919, th e D aily Express carried a s to ry say ing th a t th ere w e re signs th at the g o v e r n m e n t w as a b o u t to lau n ch a “ gig an tic c a m p a ig n ” against R ussia and the n ew sp a p e r m a d e its p o sitio n q u ite plain: W e are s o rry for the R ussians, b u t th ey m u s t fig ht it o u t a m o n g th em selv es. G re at B ritain is already th e p o licem an o f h a lf the w o rld . It w ill n o t and c a n n o t be th e po licem an o f all E u ro p e . W e w a n t to re tu rn to in d u stry an d to restore the ravages o f w ar. W e w a n t to see o u r sons h o m e again. In fact, w e w a n t peace. T h e fro zen plains o f E astern E u ro p e are n o t w o r th th e b ones o f a single B ritish grenadier. T h e D aily Express h ad b y n o w co m e u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f M a x A itk en , n e w ly created L o rd B e a v e rb ro o k , and at th at tim e w as s u p p o rtin g L lo y d G e o rg e, w h o h ad been re-elected P rim e M in iste r o n D e c e m b e r 14th, 1918. B u t B e a v e rb ro o k w as o p p o s e d to the in te rv e n tio n and disp lay ed a s y m p a th y for the B olsheviks w h ich surfaced again in W o rld W a r II. N ev erth eless, it is possible that B e a v e rb ro o k , in this instance, w as reflecting L lo yd G e o rg e ’s o w n view s. O n th e o th e r side o f the a rg u m e n t there w e re peo ple in fa v o u r o f 181

“ Too Much o f a Warlord” c ru sh in g B o lsh e v ism . Sir H e n ry W ilson h ad n o d o u b ts a b o u t w h a t o u g h t to be done. In his W a r O ffice p ap er he detailed th e A llied d isp o sitio n s in R ussia and co ntin ued : A t the b e g in n in g o f 1919, w e th u s hav e th e possibility o f u n ite d action fro m th e east a n d so u th -ea st against B olsh ev ism , w h ile A llied o cc u p atio n o f th e N o r th e r n p o rts, o f th e B lack Sea p o rts and B essarabia, to g e th e r w ith their c o n tro l o f th e Baltic closes m o s t o f the channels b y w h ic h the flood o f infection can reach W e ste rn E u ro p e . I f the Poles can establish and m ain tain th eir ind epend ence, it o n ly rem ain s to close th e gap b e tw e e n this s o u th e rn fro n tie r an d th e n o r th o f R ussia to c o m p le te th e “ C o r d o n S anitaire” w h ic h will set a lim it to B o lsh e v ik ex pansio n, and, b y co nfining it to its o w n dev a sta ted districts, b rin g a b o u t its u ltim a te collapse. T h e n th ere w as Sir G e o rg e B u ch an an , th e fo rm e r A m b a ss a d o r to R ussia, and a friend o f th e T sar. H e h ad at first advised the g o v e r n m e n t to fo llo w a po licy o f conciliation to w a rd s the B o lsh e­ viks b u t w h e n Lenin d estro y e d the C o n s titu e n t A ssem b ly and th en h ad th e T s a r m u rd e re d , Sir G e o rg e becam e a fervent ad vo cate o f m ilita ry in te rv e n tio n . A t o n e m e e tin g in E d in b u rg h in M a rc h 1919 he a rg u e d th at had such crim es as th o se o f w h ic h th e B o lshev iks h ad been g u ilty been c o m m itte d u n d e r the E m p ire a s to rm o f in d ig ­ n a tio n w o u ld h ave s w e p t th ro u g h o u r co u n try ; b u t no , even w h e n in n o c e n t children like the little G ra n d D uchesses h ad been m u r ­ d ered in cold b lo o d , h a rd ly a voice w as raised in c o n d e m n a tio n o f the crim e, w h ile in certain q u arte rs o n e fo u n d a latent s y m p a th y w ith th e ir m u rd erers. Lenin, he claim ed, aim ed at w o rld d o m in a tio n and o p e n ly a v o w e d his in te n tio n o f creating a n e w E u ro p e in w h ic h B o lsh e v ­ ism w as to reig n s u p re m e . . . T o p re v e n t the spread o f B olshevist p o iso n it h ad been p ro p o s e d to d ra w a sanitary c o rd o n ro u n d R ussia, and to isolate h er com p letely . H e person ally believed th at such a policy w o u ld in th e end cost us m o re , and be less effective th a n w e re w e to strike b o ld ly at th e h eart o f th e disease and eradicate th e cancer th at w as sap p in g R ussia’s vital energies . . . O n e could nev er, as h ad been su gg ested , h o p e to save Russia b y e c o n o m ic re lie f alone. M ilita ry assistance and e c o n o m ic re lie f m u st go h a n d in h a n d i f w e w e re to help the R ussians to free them selv es fro m B o lsh e v ist ty ra n n y . T h e task w as n o t as gig antic as w as generally s u p p o s e d fo r the ca p tu re o f M o s c o w and P e tro g ra d w o u ld suffice to s o u n d the death knell o f B o lsh e v ism .* . . 182

London, November 1918-March 1919 It w ill be seen fro m the a r g u m e n t o f b o th W ilson an d B u ch an a n th a t th e reaso n fo r in te rv e n tio n h ad n o w adv an ced fro m saving the stores an d re -estab lish in g the E astern F ro n t, th r o u g h “ w e m u s t n o t d esert o u r allies” to “ w e m u s t p re v e n t the p o iso n o f B o lsh e v ism s p re a d in g ” . W h ic h b rin g s us to W in s to n C h u rch ill. H e has o ften b een accused o f b ein g th e arch itect o f in te rv e n tio n , b u t as his b io g ra p h e r, M a rtin G ilbert, has q u ite co rrectly p o in te d o u t, for the first nin e m o n th s o f the in te rv e n tio n C h u rc h ill h ad n o th in g to do w ith it. H e w as M in iste r o f M u n itio n s an d un til N o v e m b e r 1918 w as fully occu pied w ith k ee p in g th e shells flo w in g to the W e ste rn F ront. It w as n o t un til 10th J a n u a ry 1919 w h e n he w as a p p o in te d M in iste r o f W a r in L lo y d G e o rg e ’s n e w ly elected g o v e r n m e n t th at he b ecam e officially in v o lv e d w ith events in Russia. W h a t is tru e, is th at fro m th at m o m e n t o n he w o rk e d ceaselessly to b rin g a b o u t th e d e stru c tio n o f B olsh ev ism . O n th e day he w as ap p o in te d h e su g g ested th at G e rm a n y sh o u ld be to ld th at th e Allies w o u ld h av e n o o b jec tio n i f “ she w e re p re p are d to o rganise h er E aste rn fro n t ag ainst th e ingress o f B o lsh e v is m ” . Later he p ro p o se d th a t th e B u lg arian s m ig h t “ be g iv en a chance to relieve th eir past m is d e e d s ” b y sen d in g tro o p s to fig h t alongside D en ik in . H e w e n t to Paris to try to co n v in ce the Allies th a t th ey h ad to a d o p t a “ co h e re n t p o lic y ” o n R ussia and his idea o f a co h e ren t po licy w as a c o m b in e d effort to s u p p o rt the an ti-B o lsh ev ik forces in R ussia. B u t he g o t n o w h e re w ith “ T ig e r ” C lem en ce au o r W o o d ­ r o w W ilson. In L o n d o n , L lo y d G e o rg e to ld Sir G e o rg e R iddell: “ W in sto n is in Paris. H e w a n ts to c o n d u c t a w a r against th e B olsh evik s. T h a t w o u ld cause a re v o lu tio n . O u r p eo p le w o u ld n o t p e rm it i t . ” T h e P rim e M in iste r h ad a m u c h b e tte r p erspective o f w h a t th e people w o u ld o r w o u ld n o t p e rm it at th a t tim e and C h u rc h ill w as suspect as a p r o m o te r o f d isastro us m ilitary enterprises. T h e albatross o f the B ritish defeat in the D ardan elles w as still h a n g in g a ro u n d his th ro at, an d L lo y d G e o rg e w a n te d n o R ussian albatross to ad d to his p ro b le m s . T h e d eb ate d ra g g e d o n in the C a b in e t u n til M a rc h 4th, 1919. O n th a t d ay it w as decided th a t all B ritish tro o p s sh o u ld be ev a cu ate d fro m N o r t h R ussia b y th e en d o f Ju ne. In effect th e in te rv e n tio n h a d been w ritte n off. B u t C h u rc h ill w as b y n o m ean s finished. In th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s later th a t m o n th he sp o k e o f th e B o lsh ev ik s w h o “ d e stro y w h e re v e r th ey e x is t,” b u t at th e sam e tim e, “ b y rollin g fo rw a rd in to fertile areas, like the v a m p ire w h ic h sucks the b lo o d fro m his victim s, th ey gain the m eans o f p ro lo n g in g th eir o w n blam eful e x isten c e.” 183

“ Too Much o f a Warlord” L ater the D aily Express w a rn ed : “ E v en w ith th e u n d e rta k in g g iv en b y the g o v e r n m e n t to d o th e sensible thing, w e m u s t w a tc h M r. C h u rc h ill carefully. T h e re is to o m u c h o f the w a rlo rd a b o u t h im .” H o w e v e r, th e first p ro b le m in early 1919 w as h o w to g et the tro o p s o u t o f Russia w ith o u t a m ilitary disaster. T h e Allied soldiers w e re u n ifo rm ly d isco n ten ted , m a n y o f th e m w e re m u tin o u s and o p e n to B o lsh e v ik p ro p a g a n d a w hile th e n e w ly o rg a n ise d R ed A rm y , o u tn u m b e rin g the A llied forces, w as sh o w in g ev ery sign o f belligerency. It w as to be n o easy m a tte r and, as w e shall see, g ave rise to fu rth e r accusations th a t C h u rc h ill w as d e te rm in e d to g o to w a r w ith S oviet Russia.

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CHAPTER 1 3

King George's Secret Orders Murmansk—Archangel, January-March 1919

W hile these hig h -lev el decisions w e re bein g taken in L o n d o n and Paris early in 1919 th e soldiers in N o r t h Russia w e re co n c ern e d w ith m o re m u n d a n e questions: h o w to stay alive in the grip o f a w in te r so b itte r th a t few o f th e m h ad ever im a g in e d being so cold and, at the s am e tim e, fig h t o f f the increasingly b o ld attacks o f the B olsheviks. In Iro n sid e ’s N o te s o n O p e ra tio n s co v erin g this p erio d he w ro te : “ As the fig h tin g p ro g ressed it b ecam e m o re and m o re e v id e n t th at th e fig h tin g w as o n e o f a c c o m m o d a tio n . I f y o u r a c c o m m o d a tio n w as d e s tro y e d even to th e ex te n t o f b re ak in g y o u r w in d o w s , y o u had to evacuate y o u r po sition. ” H e w as fu rio u s w ith the m ilitan t teetotallers in B ritain w h o w e re w a g in g a ca m p a ig n against the su p p ly o f a ru m ra tio n to th e troo ps: “ I w ish I c o u ld have had so m e o f the placid p ro h ib itio n ists on se n try -g o fo r an h o u r in 72 degrees o f frost and th ey w o u ld have c h a n g ed th eir o p in io n s as to w h e th e r it sh o u ld be issued o r n o t . ” T h e S hack leto n cold w e a th e r gear w o rk e d ex tre m e ly well, ex­ cept for th e h ate d b o o ts, b u t fro stb ite w as c o m m o n p la c e . It seized h o ld in th e tim e it to o k a soldier to take o f f his p ad d e d m itte n s to lig h t his pipe. G eneral M a y n a rd suffered fro m it w h e n p in n in g m edals o n th ree o f his m en . H is fingers becam e so n u m b he did n o t n o tice he h ad d riv en th e pin o f a m edal deep in to his o w n finger. M e n w h o w e re ca u g h t o u tsid e w ith o u t shelter lost fingers and toes an d th o se w h o fell asleep in th e o p e n rarely w o k e up. J o u rn e y s w ere plan n e d in s h o rt stages fro m b lo c k h o u se to b lo ck h o u se and the w in te r ’s fig h tin g d ep e n d ed o n these w o o d e n forts. T h e y w e re b u ilt in g ro u p s o f th ree w ith each o n e co v e red b y th e m ac h in e -g u n s o f th e o th ers. T h e y w e re each a rm e d w ith an au to m a tic w e a p o n and seven m e n w ith rifles and w e re s u rro u n d e d b y b arb ed w ire. L arger b lo ck h o u ses h o ld in g t w o V ickers g u n s and th eir crew s gave su p ­ p o rt to each g ro u p o f three. T h e y w e re quick to build. M oss ra m m e d b e tw e e n th e logs k ep t o u t the arctic w in d and th ey w ere k e p t w a r m b y big stoves on w h ic h the m en slept, R ussian-style. N o t all M a y n a r d ’s m e n w e re so lucky. S o m e o f th e a c c o m m o ­ d a tio n th a t w as a p p ro p ria te d w as u n su ited to this so rt o f w arfare, 185

K ing George's Secret Orders b ein g h eated b y m ak e sh ift stoves th at o ften c a u g h t fire and des­ tro y e d th e bu ilding s. O n e ship th at b ro u g h t o v e r the p refab ricated parts o f N isse n h u ts tu rn e d u p w ith o n ly certain sections, th e o th ers on ly a rriv in g a m o n th later. A m o n g th e m e n w h o suffered m o s t w e re th e fitters and m e c h ­ anics o f th e R o yal A ir Force. T h e engines o f th eir aircraft froze despite b ein g heated d ay and n ig h t b y m eans o f flameless lam p s and covers. Five gallons o f h o t w a te r w o u ld be p o u re d th ro u g h the co o lin g sy stem to take th e chill o f f th e m etal, b u t o ften the drain cock froze solid after t w o gallons had passed th ro u g h . A ir in tak e pipes froze. O il froze in th e th ro ttle jo in ts . E v ery lu b rica n t tried failed until, finally, th e jo in ts and fu lcru m s w e re cleaned and left d ry. T h e b racin g w ires w h ic h held w in g s tau t w e re liable to snap because th e in tense cold crystallised the m etal w ire. It w as im p o ssi­ ble fo r th e m e n to h an d le m etal w ith th eir bare h and s because it w o u ld stick to th eir skin and tear it aw ay. B o m b release gear froze d u rin g flights and in m o s t cases th e 20 lb b o m b s h ad to be carried in the o b s e r v e r’s seat an d d ro p p e d o v e r th e side b y hand. T h e cold also h ad an effect o n g u n s an d a m m u n itio n , c o n sid er­ ably sh o rte n in g the ra n g e o f shells. T h e 18 -p o u n d e r guns, for e x a m p le , h ad to be ra n g e d at 3,750 yards to o b ta in a ran g e o f 2,000 yards at te m p e ra tu re s o f —io°F. T h e F rench 75 m m ca n n o n w h ic h p e r fo rm e d so b rillian tly o n the W estern F ro n t did n o t o p erate at all w ell in A rctic co n d itio n s. Rifle grenades o ften failed to ex p lo d e in deep s n o w an d the m o v in g parts o f m a c h in e -g u n s froze solid. M a jo r T . B a rra tt o f th e R oy al A r m y O rd n a n c e C o rp s w ith his to n g u e firm ly in his cheek m ad e this rep ort: “ I am in fo rm e d th a t a m ix tu r e o f sp irit (e.g. V o d k a) has occasionally been used in the R u ssian m a c h in e -g u n s b u t th at it freq u en tly disappeared. T h e m ix tu r e is also o f co urse e x tre m e ly v o la tile .” In these circu m stances the F rench an d Italian skiers and the C an ad ia n s w ith experien ce o f living in frozen forests w e re in v alu ­ able. A tte m p ts w e re m a d e to teach B ritish tro o p s to use skis and s n o w s h o e s b u t in M a y n a r d ’s c o m m a n d results occasioned m o re despair th an h o p e w h ile Iro nside c o m m e n te d w ith so m e bitterness: “ W e m ad e plans to tu rn o u t h u n d re d s o f m e n o n skis and s n o w shoes b u t n o n e o f th e w in te r e q u ip m e n t arriv ed u n til after it w as p ossib le to use i t . . . H a d w e been o p p o s e d to bodies o f g o o d skiers o f even o n e q u a rte r o u r n u m b e rs w e m u s t have been tu rn e d o u t o f the c o u n try . M o b ility w h e n s h o w n b y either side m e t w ith in stan t su cc ess.” It w as in these co n d itio n s th at Iro nside set o u t j u s t b efo re C h ris tm a s b y p o n y sleigh to visit his scattered forces. A t Seletskoe, 186

M urm ansk-Archangel, January-M arch 1919 w h e re th e left w in g o f th e R ailw ay Force h ad its h ea d q u arte rs, he sent a m essag e o rd e rin g S tu rd y there. W h e n S tu rd y arriv ed he fo u n d the B ritish lieutenant-colonel in charge o f th e d eta ch m en t “ on the v erg e o f th e D . T . s ” and w ith n o a rra n g e m e n ts m ad e for an attack d u e to be m a d e along the railw ay in a few d a y s ’ tim e. I p r o m p tly g o t th e d e ta c h m e n t d o c to r to take th e Lt. C ol. sick, m a d e o u t o p eratio n s o rd ers and m ob ilised all the w o m e n and ch ildren to take u p sleigh loads o f sm all arm s a m m u n itio n and shells to th e tw o w in g s o f th e d e ta ch m en t. T h e attack e ventu ally failed, the U S A tro o p s o n th e rig h t w in g sufferin g a b o u t 30 casualties w ith o u t adv ancing. T h e U S h ead­ q u arte rs later co m p lain e d th at B ritish G H Q alw ays p u t the A m eric an s in th e m o s t d a n g e ro u s p ositions. T h e d e ta c h m e n t M O (an A m e ric a n him self) re p o rte d th at th e w o u n d s w e re all self-inflicted in h an ds and feet. Iro n sid e ’s j u d g e m e n t o n this offensive w as th at “ it failed u tte rly th r o u g h the d ru n k e n n e ss o f a ch ie f c o lu m n c o m m a n d e r and the co n se q u e n t d is o rg a n is a tio n ” . T h e A llied force w as n o w u n c o m fo rta b ly e x p o se d w ith extensive gaps b e tw e e n th e stro n g p o in ts alon g th e railw ay an d th e river. T h e W h ite R ussians and A m eric an s at S h en k u rsk o n the R iv er V aga w e re especially vulnerab le. T h e y w e re 180 miles fro m A rch angel, stu ck o u t in th e m id d le o f n o w h e re , su rro u n d e d b y forest and frozen sw a m p . Iro n sid e w as later to a d m it th at th ey “ w e re to o far adv an ced, b u t it w as decided for political reasons to m ain tain th e m th ere d u rin g th e w in te r ” . O n J a n u a ry 19th the B olshevik s to o k ad v a n tag e o f this situation an d lau n c h ed a s tro n g attack o n S h en k u rsk , d riv in g th e defenders o u t an d fo rcin g th e m in to a h u rrie d retreat o f so m e sev e n ty miles. T h e R ussian tro o p s fig h tin g alo ngside the A m erican s p ro v e d use­ less w ith o n e c o m p a n y refu sing to o b ey o rd ers to attack the a d v a n cin g B o lsh evik s. F rank D o u m a m ad e terse notes in his diary: J a n u a ry 25 - S h en k u rsk fell to d ay . T h e advance p a rty cam e in this n o o n . T h e y h a d 50 casualties. T ro o p s are co ntin ually passing here in retreat. 8,000 B olos attack 2,000 allies. T h e allies are leaving e v e ry th in g . J a n u a ry 26 - W e have jo in e d in th e retreat. Set o u t at 1.00 p .m . an d m a rc h e d 7 versts [4V2 miles] to w a rd s the B olos. A c te d as a rear g u a rd as the o th ers evacuated. W e m e t the B olo s at 3.00 p .m . Several o f the m e n are quite bad ly w o u n d e d . W e stay ed in s k irm ish until 9.00 p .m . and th en m arc h ed back to 187

K ing George's Secret Orders S hlgov ari. E v e ry o n e h ad left th e to w n . All th e kit bags and perso n al b elo n g in g s h a d been ransacked. All th e so uvenirs w h ic h I h ad collected h ad been tak en aw ay. All m y p ersonal b elo n g in g s in clu d in g a dress u n ifo rm , shoes, ex tra razo r and 24 bars o f soap. I shall m iss the soap m o re th an a n y th in g else. W e started to hik e in re treat at 10.00 p .m . W e h ad lost ev e ry th in g except th e clothes w e h ad on. W e h ad to h ik e in o u r stock ing s because th e ro a d w as to o slip p ery fo r S h ack leto n b oo ts. T h e C ossacks b u rn e d the to w n after w e left it. W e h ik ed till 7.00 a.m . W e arrived at K itsa all in. T h is w as a serious setback for Ironside. T h e A llies’ m o rale s lu m p e d an d th e B o lsh e v ik ad v an ce th rea ten ed to outflan k their po sitio n s o n b o th th e riv er and ra ilw a y fronts. Iro n sid e appealed yet again to th e W a r O ffice for rein fo rcem en ts, an appeal to w h ic h it reacted b y o rd e rin g M a y n a rd to send tw o in fa n try battalion s an d a m a c h in e -g u n c o m p a n y to Iro n sid e’s assist­ ance. M a y n a rd w as n o t w ell pleased w ith this o rd e r as his force w as ra p id ly sh rin k in g . B u t th ere w as n o th in g he could d o a b o u t it ex c ep t arran g e the tran sfer o f th e m e n and th eir e q u ip m e n t in g o o d o rd e r fro m his ad v a n ced base at S oro ka to O n e g a , 150 m iles to th e east w h e re Iro n sid e ’s officers w o u ld take o v e r the arran g e m e n ts. It w as n o easy task. T h e W h ite Sea w as frozen, there w as n o ro a d fro m S o ro k a to O n e g a , little o v e rn ig h t shelter and th ere w as n o fo d d e r o n th e ro u te fo r reindeer, th e best fo rm o f tra n sp o rt. M a y n a rd w as able to p u t 300 in fa n try m e n and h a lf th e m a c h in e -g u n c o m p a n y o n an iceb reaker m a k in g its last ru n to A rch an g el fro m M u r m a n s k u ntil the sp ring . T h e rest o f th e m en, n u m b e rin g so m e 2,000, w e re first tak en d o w n to S o ro k a b y train. D o g team s w e re harn essed to a m b u lan c e sledges. E v e ry available h o rse w as re q u i­ sitio n ed to carry supplies and th e m e n set o u t across the b itte r landscape, a w h ite w o rld w h e re frozen trees b u rs t w ith cracks like rifle shots. T h e y m a rc h e d in parties o f u p to 300 o n fixed stages and the w h o le m o v e m e n t w as carefully co ntrolled. T h e m e n arriv ed at O n e g a w ith o n ly a few cases o f frostbite. B u t it w as n o picnic and it w as especially u n fo rtu n a te th at th e o n ly in fa n try m e n M a y n a rd had to send Iron sid e w e re th o se sam e m e n o f the Y o rk s h ire R e g im e n t w h o h ad suffered such h ard sh ip s o n the v o y a g e to M u rm a n s k and had th e n been e m p lo y e d in the b ac k -b re ak in g and so u l-d e stro y in g w o r k o f la b o u rin g o n th eir arrival there. T h e y w e re ru sh e d directly to the fro n t, b u t th ey refused to fight an d Ironside, far fro m h av in g a re in fo rc e m e n t o f fresh soldiers, h ad a full-scale m u tin y b y surly, w o r n o u t m e n o n his hands. H e later 18 8 *

M urm ansk-Archangel, January-M arch 1919 ratio nalised th e ir b e h a v io u r b y a rg u in g th a t th eir ill-discipline arose chiefly “ fr o m th eir lo n g inactio n at M u rm a n s k and the su d d en ch an g e fr o m peace to w a r c o n d itio n s ” . W h a te v e r th e reason he acted w ith his c u s to m a ry brisk decisiveness and p u t th e ringleaders o n trial. T w o sergean ts w h o “ h ad sp en t th e w a r in th e P ay C o r p s ” w e re sen ten ced to d eath b y firing squad. B u t Iro nside n ev e r had the sentence carried o u t because, as he ex plained in his b o o k , Archangel 1918—1919, “ K in g G e o rg e had issued secret o rd ers stip ulatin g that n o d ea th sentences w e re to be inflicted u p o n B ritish p erso nn el after th e A rm istice. T h e sentences w e re there fo re c o m m u te d to life im p ris o n m e n t. ” * T h e Y o rk sh ire s w e re n o t the o n ly Allied tro o p s w h o w a n te d to “ soldier n o m o r e ” . S ergeant Silver P arrish and his p la to o n had been in th e th ick o f th e fig h tin g ever since th ey landed at A rchang el. H e received a scalp w o u n d in J a n u a ry an d his d iary sh o w s th at he w as in v o lv e d in close q u a rte r fig h tin g th r o u g h o u t J a n u a ry and F eb ru ­ ary. O n M a rc h 4 th he d re w u p a re so lu tio n to “ requ est w h y w e are fig h tin g th e B o lo s an d w h y w e h a v e n ’t any big g u ns an d w h y the E n g lish r u n us a n d w h y w e h a v e n ’t e n o u g h to eat and w h y o u r m en ca n ’t get p ro p e r m edical a tte n tio n and so m e m a il” . E v e ry o n e in th e p la to o n signed, b u t “ so m e o n e sq u ea le d ” and P arrish w as b r o u g h t u p before th e C o lo n e l w h o read the articles o f w a r to h im an d p o in te d o u t w h e re his offence w as p u n ish ab le by death. H o w e v e r, fo u rte en days later, P arrish w as aw a rd e d a B ritish d e c o ra tio n fo r gallantry, th e M ilita ry M edal. Iro n sid e ’s citation read: “ T h is N C O has s h o w n excep tio n al initiative and g o o d j u d g e ­ m e n t in actio n and as a p atrol leader his co u rag e and perso n ality h av e b een valuable in k eep in g up th e spirits o f th e c o m p a n y . H is sense o f re sp o n sib ility an d ability at sizing u p situ atio ns h ave been o f im m e n s e value to the c o m p a n y .” P arrish led a s o m e w h a t sch izo p h ren ic life fro m th en on , tak in g p rid e in b ein g a g o o d an d b ra v e soldier b u t at th e sam e tim e re c o rd in g in his diary his s y m p a th y fo r the people he w as fig h tin g ag ainst . . . th e w a y these kids and w o m e n dress w o u ld m ak e y o u laug h i f y o u saw it o n th e stage. B u t to see it here o n ly p ro m p ts s y m p a th y (in th e h ea rt o f a real m an) an d lo ath in g for a clique o f b lo o d ­ su ckin g, p o w e r-lo v in g , capitalistic, lying, thiev ing , m u rd e rin g , tsarist a r m y officials w h o keep th eir peo ple in this ig n o ran c e and * There is no reference to these orders in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle. 189

K ing George's Secret Orders p o v e r ty . . . after b ein g u p here fig h tin g these peo ple I will be ash a m e d to lo o k a u n io n m a n in the face . . . T h e m a jo rity o f the p eo ple here are in s y m p a th y w ith th e B o lo and I d o n ’t b lam e th e m , in fact I am 9 /1 0 B o lo m y s e lf and th ey all call m e the B o lo L eader an d m y p la to o n th e B o lo p lato o n . . . C learly , n o t th e so rt o f attitu d es w h ic h allo w a c o m m a n d in g officer to sleep easy. W o rse w as to fo llo w fo r Ironside. O n M a rc h 16th th e B olsh ev iks o p e n e d an offensive ag ain st the railw ay fron t, attacking th ro u g h the deep s n o w o n sleighs. Iro nsid e w as h arsh ly critical o f the p e r fo rm ­ ance at B o lsh o i O z e rk e o f th e F rench F oreig n L egion and 21st C o lo n ia l B attalio n w h o “ did n o t p u t u p m u c h resistance” . W h e n he w e n t to find o u t w h a t w as h ap p e n in g , “ I fo u n d m y s e lf o b lig ed to relieve th e F rench c o m m a n d at O b o z e rs k a y a as th ey w e re n o t equal to the occasion and to o k perso nal c o m m a n d un til the arrival o f B rig ad ier-G en e ral T u r n e r fro m E n g la n d ten days la te r.” T h e e n e m y ’s success, he said, w as en tirely du e to th e state o f the F rench tro o p s w h o w e re th o ro u g h ly disaffected and the w eak ness o f the F rench c o m m a n d w h ic h h ad n ev e r really taken h o ld o f th e m en . Iro n sid e w as in n o d o u b t th at if th e B olsheviks h ad pressed on w ith th eir attacks th e y “ cou ld h ave tu m b le d in o u r w h o le lin e” w ith v e ry serious co nsequ ences for the forces co v e rin g A rchangel. S tu rd y , w h o h ad displeased o n e o f his su p erio rs b y b eing to o free w ith his criticism o f th e c o n d u c t o f op eratio n s, h ad been sent to th e O n e g a fro n t as a p u n is h m e n t b u t fo u n d h im s e lf en jo y in g his fre e d o m fro m desk w o rk : I h av e been ab so lu tely cut o f f fro m e v e ry w h e re . A rch an g el seem s as far a w a y as E n g la n d . . . I live like a savage, j u s t roll u p in a b lan k e t o n th e floor at n ig h t at any o ld village I h ap p e n to be at, s o m e tim e s w ith a peasant and his w ife in the sam e ro o m , to g e th e r w ith m y R ussian o rd e rly , alw ays w ith countless bugs. G enerally trav ellin g b y sleigh fro m village to village and w a d in g a b o u t in a c o u p le o f feet o f s n o w . B u t I w o u l d n ’t h av e m issed these m o n th s in th e c o u n try fo r an y th in g . I h ave g o t to k n o w m o re a b o u t the R ussians in th at tim e th an o n e co uld in years o f to w n life. I have k e p t w o n d e rfu lly fit an d y o u w o u ld n e v e r guess I w a s n ’t g ra d ed Ai . . . S tu rd y to o k p art in th e fig h tin g at B o lsh o i O z e rk e and w as aw a rd e d th e 3rd C lass O r d e r o f St A n n e b y the R ussians - “ they are h a n d in g th e m o u t b y th e d o zen . . . ” B u t he h a d to give u p the c o u n try life 190

M urm ansk-Archangel, January—March 1919 w h e n Iro n sid e d e m a n d e d his recall to h ea d q u arte rs w h e re he helped d ra ft th e g e n e ra l’s despatches and repo rts. B y this tim e a n e w p ro b le m h ad em e rg e d for Ironside; an active B o lsh e v ik u n d e r g r o u n d o p e ra tin g in A rch an g el itself. It w as sm all, n u m b e rin g o n ly a b o u t tw e n ty m ilitants, b u t effective. Its head w as t w e n ty -f o u r-y e a r- o ld M a k a r B o y o v , w h o h ad lived briefly in the U n ite d States a n d sp o k e E nglish. U s in g this b a c k g ro u n d and p o sin g as a b u sin essm an w illing to w o r k w ith th e Allies he stru ck u p acquaintance w ith s o m e A m e ri­ can officers. S o viet accounts say th at in J a n u a ry 1919 he w a n te d to m o u n t a te rr o r ca m p aig n against th e B ritish, m u rd e r in g officers, a n d p la n tin g b o m b s in m ilitary installations. B u t o th e r m e m b e rs o f th e u n d e r g r o u n d insisted th at th ey sh o u ld confine th eir activities to p ro p a g a n d a , p ro b a b ly because it w as safer. B o y o v ’s c h ie f h elp er w as his g irlfriend A n n a M atiso n , w h o w o rk e d as a w aitress in the B ritish O ffic e rs’ M ess. A n o rp h a n , she w as b r o u g h t u p in Latvia w h e re she h ad learned E nglish. B etw ee n th e m th ey d is trib u te d leaflets aim ed at local w o rk e rs, u rg in g th e m to leave A rc h an g e l and jo i n the R ed A r m y in th e forest. T h e y also p ro d u c e d p a m p h le ts w ritte n in E n glish aim ed at causing disaffec­ tio n a m o n g the tro o p s. O n e o f th e m w as h ead ed “ W h y d o n ’t y o u re tu rn h o m e ? ” an d read: T o th e A m e ric a n an d B ritish soldiers. C o m ra d e s. T h e w a r is o v er, w h y are y o u n o t re tu rn in g h o m e? . . . D o n ’t y o u w a n t to m in g le w ith y o u r lo v ed ones again? D o y o u really desire to bleed a nd die in o rd e r th at capitalism m a y continue? . . . F o rm Soldiers C o u n cils in each re g im e n t and d e m a n d o f y o u r g o v e rn m e n ts , d e m a n d o f y o u r officers to be sent h o m e . R efuse to s h o o t o u r fellow w o rk e rs in Russia. R efuse to crush o u r W o rk e rs R ev o lu tio n . T h e G ro u p o f E n g lish speaking C o m m u n is ts . T h e se leaflets w e re stu ck o n d o o rs and fences and tossed o v e r fa cto ry w alls. S o m e w e re d istrib u te d in churches. Soldiers w o u ld s o m e tim e s find th e m u n d e r th eir pillow s. O th e rs w e re slipped in to packets o f cigarettes. B o y o v an d M a tiso n also ran o f f re p o rts in E ng lish o f R ed A rm y successes o n o th e r fron ts. T h e y acqu ired n ew s for these rep o rts t h r o u g h th e C o m m u n is t w ireless o p e ra to r o f a h y d ro g ra p h ic ship, th e Taim ir, w h ich , cu riou sly , w as still ca rry in g o u t research in the B are n ts Sea. T h e ir efforts c u lm in ated in p ro d u c in g an u n d e r g ro u n d n e w sp a p e r, The Call. M a tis o n ’s j o b w as to p u t this in the officers’ 191

K ing George's Secret Orders toilets. B u t, eventu ally, B o y o v fell in to a trap set fo r h im b y B ritish c o u n te r-in tellig en ce . L u re d to a h o u se w h e re he believed he w o u ld m eet a B ritish con tact, he fo u g h t it o u t for ten m in u te s before s h o o tin g him self. D e sp ite th e attacks o n his positions, the disaffection o f c o n sid er­ able ele m e n ts in his forces, and the cam p aig n o f s u b v ersio n m o u n te d in A rch an g el, Iro n sid e w as able, d ue largely to his o w n v ig o rc is action, to co n ta in the B o lshevik offensive and it p etered o u t in th e m id d le o f A p ril w ith th e loss o f so m e 2,000 R ed soldiers. W hile Ironsid e w as e n d u rin g this to rrid episode M a y n a rd p u sh ed alo ng th e M u rm a n s k ra ilw a y line. A lread y established at S o roka, he p lan n e d to d riv e th e B olsh eviks d o w n the line to Segezha th u s secu rin g his po sitio n s and o p e n in g up so m e 3,000 squ are m iles o f te rrito ry in w h ich th e W h ite R ussians cou ld p ro sp ect for recruits. H e lau n c h ed the offensive o n F eb ru a ry 15th a lth o u g h w ith o n ly 600 m e n it h a rd ly d ese rv ed the descrip tio n o f offensive. T h e c o m p o ­ sition o f th e force w o u ld have caused Iro nside m isg iv in g s fo r it c o n ta in e d o n ly 50 B ritish regulars in m a c h in e -g u n an d m o rta r team s. T h e rest w e re C anad ian s, French, Russians, Karelians an d Serbs. B u t M a y n a rd t h o u g h t b e tte r o f his Allies th an did Ironsid e a nd he sent th e m a b o u t th eir business w ith his usual o p tim ism . H e n ee d ed to be o p tim istic because his m en , split in to fo u r c o lu m n s, w e re im m e d ia te ly attac k ed n o t b y th e e n e m y b u t b y appalling w e ath er. T h e te m p e ra tu re d ro p p e d to m in u s fo rty degrees fa h ren h e it an d a k nife-lik e w in d d ro v e s n o w squalls at the m e n as th e y stru g g le d t h r o u g h the soft s n o w o n skis and sn o w sh o es. T w o o f th e c o lu m n s failed to reach th eir objectives b u t an o th er, u sing sledges, co v e red 100 m iles in sixteen h o u rs an d attacked Segezha u n d e r th e co v er o f m a c h in e -g u n an d tre n c h m o rta r fire. Segezha fell w ith h a lf its g arriso n killed. W h ite R ussian m ac h in e g u n n e rs b ro k e the railw ay line and a m b u s h e d a train b rin g in g u p B o lsh e v ik re in fo rce m en ts fro m the so u th . T h e y p erp etrate d a dre ad fu l slau g h ter a n d the train, w ith o n e set o f w heels derailed and th e en g in e rid d led w ith bullets, steam e d slo w ly aw ay w ith its carriages d rip p in g b lo o d . H o w e v e r, th e B olsh eviks re tu rn e d to th e fight th e fo llo w in g day, p u s h in g fo rw a rd in fan try s u p p o rte d b y can n o n fire fro m an a r m o u r e d train b u t th e attack b ro k e d o w n against accurate fire fro m po sitio n s p re p are d o v e rn ig h t b y M a y n a r d ’s m en. Im ag in e the scene: a train slun g r o u n d w ith a rm o u r, d im ly seen a m o n g th e s n o w squalls, belch in g shells w h ic h ex p lo d e w ith a flash an d a ro a r as m e n p lo d th ro u g h th e deep sn o w , th eir rifles held high , 192

M urm ansk-Archangel, January-M arch lg ig o n ly to be m o w n d o w n b y the ch a tte rin g m ac h in e -g u n s. T h e n w h e n it is o v e r an d the su rv iv o rs d rag their w o u n d e d back to the train an d it m ak e s o f f in to the g rey distance, the s n o w falls again to c o v e r the already frozen dead and so on the battlefield is w h ite and silent as i f n o th in g h ad ever h ap p e n ed there. It w as a n eat little v ic to ry for M a y n a rd . B u t he, like Ironside, w as h av in g tro u b le w ith his tro o p s. T h e K arelians, w h o lived alo ng the F innish b o rd e r, w a n te d to set u p th eir o w n state and the tw ists and tu rn s o f politics had m ad e the R ed Finns u n tr u s tw o rth y . T h e y had p ro te c te d M u r m a n s k against th e W h ite Finns and th e G e rm an s b u t n o w th eir e n e m y h ad been tra n s m o g rifie d in to the B olsheviks w h o s e ideals and am b itio n s th ey s u p p o rte d . N o t o n ly could th ey n o t be tru sted , care h ad to be taken th at th ey did n o t d ec am p to m o u n t an attack o n the W hite Finns in their h o m elan d . T h e inv aluable F rench ski tro o p s w h o had p e rfo rm e d well in the ca p tu re o f Segezha h ad also b e c o m e disaffected, asserting that th ey h ad n o t been sent o u t to R ussia to fight. M a y n a rd w as forced to w ith d r a w th e w h o le c o m p a n y o f 200 m e n fro m the fro n t line. H e p o in te d o u t in his m e m o irs th at these w ere n o t th e o n ly A llied tro o p s to g o w ro n g , b u t refusing “ to w a sh soiled linen befo re even a lim ite d public, and still less to fu rn ish it w ith a detailed la u n d ry list . . . I will th ere fo re con fine m y s e lf to th e general s ta te m e n t that, b efo re th e u n d e rta k in g reached its close, th ere w e re units o f nearly ev e ry n atio n ality u p o n w h ic h I cou ld n o t rely w ith abso lute c o n ­ fid e n c e .” M a y n a rd w h o w as far fro m b ein g o ne o f th e unfeeling officers w h o s e b e h a v io u r precipitates m u tin y , s o u g h t to explain b u t n o t excuse his m e n ’s b e h a v io u r in a desp atch to the W a r O ffice: O w i n g to th e e x tre m e sh o rta g e o f civilian lab o u r, I have been c o m p e lle d to e m p lo y a great p r o p o r tio n o f th e m [the tro o p s] on p e rm a n e n t w o rk in g an d b u ild in g parties and o n sim ilar tasks o f an u n co n g e n ial nature; their a c c o m m o d a tio n has n o t alw ays been as suitable as I co u ld h av e w ished ; th e clim ate is severe, and try in g even to th e m o s t healthy ; leave to E n g lan d is necessarily rare; local a m u s e m e n ts are con fined to such as w e are able to prov ide; a ny m o v e m e n t o f tro o p s b y rail is atten d e d b y great d isco m fo rt, o w in g to the s h o rta g e o f suitable ro lling stock. A n d , d u rin g the w in te r, tra n s p o rt b y sea and ro a d entails u n u su al hardsh ip s. M o re o v e r m y m e n h av e been s u rro u n d e d fo r m a n y m o n th s b y an a tm o s p h e re o f d iso rd er, disaffection, an d lawlessness, w h ich c a n n o t b u t affect ad versely even th e b est-disciplined tro o p s.

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K ing George's Secret Orders M a y n a rd w as u n d o u b te d ly co rrec t in his diagnosis o f the p ro b le m . B u t th ere w as little he co u ld d o a b o u t it an d w e shall see j u s t h o w seriously th e disaffection g re w and h o w close it cam e to causing a terrib le tra g e d y .* It w as in these u n p ro m is in g m ilitary circum stances th a t Iro nside an d M a y n a rd w e re w a rn e d to p re p are to evacuate N o r t h R ussia b y th e e n d o f th e s u m m e r o f 1919. * H e also had trouble with Bolshevik agitators in Murmansk. They were more violent than B o y o v and his friends in Archangel and injanuary they murdered tw o British officers. His lengthening lines o f communication also provided saboteurs w ith the opportunity to burn bridges and derail trains.

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CHAPTER 1 4

“ Shameful, Illegitimate Little War” London-Archangel, A p ril— June 1919

As seen f r o m L o n d o n the p ro b le m w as tw o fo ld ; h o w to p re v e n t the B olsh ev ik s tu rn in g the ev a cu atio n in to a debacle and h o w to give the B ritis h -s u p p o rte d N o r t h R ussian g o v e r n m e n t th e tim e and space it n ee d ed to establish itself. T h e W ar O ffice th ere fo re p ro ­ p o sed th at th e e x p e d itio n a ry force sh o u ld u n d e rta k e th ree tasks before it w as w ith d ra w n . T h e first w as to deliver sharp attacks o n b o th the M u r m a n s k and A rc h an g e l sectors in o rd e r to dissuade th e B o lsh ev iks fro m in terferin g w ith the pre p ara tio n s fo r evacuation. T h e secon d w as to effect a p ro p e r u n io n b e tw e e n the N o r t h Russian forces an d th e rig h t w in g o f A d m ira l K o lc h a k ’s Siberian A rm y . S m all parties h ad m a d e con tact b e tw e e n th e tw o arm ies b u t w h a t w as n ee d ed w as the o cc u p atio n o f the riv er and rail j u n c tio n at K otlas o n th e D v in a so th at a unified fro n t co uld be o rgan ized. Finally the W a r O ffice p ro p o s e d th at a v o lu n te e r force o f B ritish officers and N C O s sh o u ld be fo rm e d to “ organise, in stru c t an d lead R ussian u n its ” . T h is plan d e m a n d e d large scale rein forcem ents. B u t th e A rm y h a d n o n e to spare. D ra in e d b y d em o b ilisatio n and the need to police an in creasin g ly restive E m p ire , it c o u ld scarcely find e n o u g h tro o p s to cope w ith th e “ T ro u b le s ” in Ireland. It w as decided th ere fo re to appeal fo r v o lu n teers. First o f all the “ re p u ta b le ” press w as enlisted to stress th e dan g ers and h ard sh ip s bein g faced b y o u r m e n in R ussia. The Times d u tifu lly argued : “ W e shall, therefo re, w a n t m o re m e n fo r N o r t h e r n Russia, and re g rettab le th o u g h this need o f re in fo rc e m e n t is, w e h o p e th at it w ill be accepted w ith o u t o p p o s i­ ti o n . ” O t h e r n ew sp a p ers w e re less con vinced , th e D aily Herald a ttac k in g “ T h e g a m b le r o f G allipoli, W in sto n C h u rc h ill,” and his “ n e w w a r in Russia, to b ack re actio n in the p erso ns o f K o lchak and D e n ik in ” . In A rc h an g e l S tu rd y to o k a m o re relaxed view . H e w ro te to his sister in s o m e su rp rise because the n ew sp a p ers w e re saying that th eir situ atio n w as sim ilar to th a t o f th e d o o m e d B ritish defenders o f K u t e l-A m a ra o n th e T ig ris w h o h ad been starv ed in to su b m is195

“Shameful, Illegitimate Little War”

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London-Archangel, A p ril-Ju n e 1919 sion b y th e T u r k s in 1916. T o p ro v e th at this w as n o t so he sent h o m e a co p y o f th e m e n u for a M ess n ig h t held o n M a y 2nd: H o rs D ’O e u v re s C re m e G ibier Saum on Sauce H ollan daise C o telettes de V eau P etits Pois Pom m es Glace P anachee C afe

A n d , he ad ded, “ I h a v e n ’t g o t th e p r o g r a m m e o f m u sic w ith m e, b u t w e also h ad an excellent trio. ” It w as n o t h o w e v e r “ base w a lla h s” like S tu rd y w h o w e re h av in g a r o u g h tim e, b u t the in fa n try m e n w h o h ad e n d u re d the long h ard w in te r o n basic rations. It w as to th e m th at C h u rch ill addressed an appeal: “ Y o u are n o t fo rg o tte n . Y o u r safety and w ell-b ein g , o n the co n tra ry , is o n e o f th e m ain anxieties o f the W ar O ffice, and w e are d e te rm in e d to d o e v e ry th in g in o u r p o w e r to b rin g y o u safely h o m e . . . O n ly a few m o re m o n th s o f reso lu te and faithful service against this ferocious e n e m y an d y o u r task will have been d ischarged. C a rr y o n like B rito n s fig h tin g fo r dear life and dearer h o n o u r, and set an e x a m p le in these difficult circu m stan ces to th e tro o p s o f every o th e r c o u n try . R e in fo rc e m e n t and re lie f are o n th e w a y . . . ” T h e g r o u n d p re p are d , the re c ru itin g posters w e n t up and v o lu n ­ teers w e re in v ite d to j o i n the R ussian R elief F orce to enable the h a rd -p re ss e d m e n o f the N o r t h R ussian E x p e d itio n a ry Force to re tu rn safely h o m e . T h e re w as a great deal o f p u rp le patrio tic w ritin g a b o u t the scenes in th e re cru itin g offices w ith m en o nly recently released fro m th e A r m y after the dang ers an d rig o u rs o f the G re at W a r q u e u in g u p to go to the rescue o f their co m a rd es in arm s. T h e D aily M ail rep o rted : “ T h e fig h tin g spirit o f th e old a rm y is aflame. Y e ste rd ay h u n d re d s o f veteran s o f the G reat W a r w e re c r o w d in g G re at S cotlan d Y ard , W hitehall, to jo i n th e N o r t h R u s­ sian R elief Force. ” F o rm e r C o lo n els jo in e d u p in the ranks and s o m e m e n w e re tu rn e d aw ay in tears because th ey w e re n o lo n g e r fit 197

“Sham eful, Illegitimate Little War” e n o u g h to fight. M a jo r A llfrey o f the R oyal Fusiliers re co rd e d th e scene at P ark R o y al d e p o t o n M a y 5th, 1919. “ R ecruits are still p o u rin g in dressed in civilian clothes w ith m ed al rib b o n s o n th eir w aistco ats and red h an d k e rch ie v es ro u n d th eir necks. T h e y h av e all seen p re v io u s service and lo o k the m o s t ideal m aterial fro m w h ic h to fo rm a battalion. T h e officers to o are excellent, several C o lo n els a nd s e c o n d s -in -c o m m a n d h av in g th r o w n u p th eir a p p o in tm e n ts to c o m m a n d c o m p a n ie s .” T h e r e w e re in deed m a n y m e n w h o v o lu n teered for p a trio tic reasons b u t th ere w e re also m a n y o thers, officers a m o n g th e m , w h o h ad fo u n d th at p o s t-w a r E n g la n d w as n o t a “ fit c o u n try fo r h e r o e s ” . T h e y w e re u n e m p lo y e d , w ith n o p ro sp e ct o f g ettin g jo b s a nd w o u ld ra th e r rejoin th e A r m y th an suffer the h ard sh ip s an d in d ig n ity o f su ch bleak p ro sp e cts in civilian life. A n d , as A llfrey w as qu ick ly to find o u t, th ey inclu ded a n u m b e r o f h ard cases an d m isfits. E v e n tu a lly a force o f eig h t th o u s a n d m e n w as raised, b o th v o lu n te e rs and so m e re g u la r units. It w as d iv id ed in to tw o b rig ades c o m m a n d e d b y t w o fiery y o u n g brigadiers, G. W . St G e o rg e G ro g a n , V C , C B , C M G , D S O , an d L. W . de V. Sadleir-Jackson, C B , C M G , D S O . T w o battalions o f the R o yal Fusiliers, th e 4 5th an d 46th, w e re to serve in S adleir-Jack son’s B rigade. T h e y b o a rd e d th e SS Porto at N e w c a s tle o n M a y 27th an d th ere w as tro u b le im m e d ia te ly , fo r w h e n th e m e n w e re refused p erm issio n to go a sh o re “ to b u y c ig a rettes” a b o u t fo rty o f th e m ru sh e d th e g a n g w a y . T h e y w e re talked back an d A llfrey had so m e s y m p a th y w ith th em : “ H o w th e W a r O ffice h av e the audacity to p u t 1,400 m e n a long side an a m u s in g to w n and o rd e r th e m n o t to g o ashore I’m b lo w e d i f I k n o w .” T h e y sailed the n e x t day. A c c o rd in g to A llfrey it w as q u ite a p erfo rm an c e: G re a t send off. P eo p le cheering. S h ip s’ sirens, and d ru n k e n deserters ru n n in g alon g q u ay as ship d re w aw ay . T a k e n o f f in laun ch. O n e fell in to sea and h ad to be rescued. C o m m a n d in g officer created sensation b y p erso nally esco rtin g three v ery d ru n k m e n o f D C o m p a n y to th e G u a rd R o o m . E v e ry n o w and th en he g av e th e m a great clo u t o n the head. O n e h u n g o v e r the side and said h e w o u ld d ro p o f f i f he w as n o t let go. G ra b b e d and p u t in irons. T h e v o y a g e w as enlivened b y the R eg im en tal S e rg e a n t-M a jo r g e ttin g v e ry d r u n k an d try in g to m u rd e r th e Lew is G u n C o m p a n y 1 98

London-Archangel, A p ril—Ju n e 1919 S e rg e a n t-M a jo r. “ L u c k ily ,” w ro te A llfrey, “ th e a tte m p t w as n o t successful a lth o u g h he p u t a b ullet in to the p illo w o f the m a n he tried to d o i n . ” H o w e v e r, ap art fro m ru n n in g a g ro u n d in the D v in a , S ad leir-Jackson’s B rig ad e reached A rch an g el safely o n J u n e 6th. G r o g a n ’s m e n h ad already reached A rch ang el, h av in g sailed o n th e SS Stephen fro m T ilb u ry o n M a y 13 th. O n e o f th eir first duties had been to celebrate the K in g ’s B irth d a y P arad e w ith a service in th e cathed ral an d a cerem o nial m a rc h past. T h e n e x t d ay the 2nd H a m p s h ire s , a re g u la r b a ttalio n w h o fo rm e d p art o f G r o g a n ’s B rigad e, w e re load ed o n to barges an d sent u p to B ereznik w e arin g th e insignia o f th e R elief Force o n th eir arm s: a w h ite star o n a black b a c k g ro u n d . T h e c o n v o y w as c o m m a n d e d b y L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l J o h n S her­ w o o d Kelly, V C , D S O , C M G , a m a n w ith a brilliant re co rd as a fig h tin g soldier. T h e D aily Express later said o f him : H e f o u g h t in M atab e lelan d an d Som aliland and w as so anx iou s to g o to th e fro n t in th e recent w a r th at he enlisted as a p riv ate u n d e r an assu m ed n am e. H e w as p ro m o te d o n the field d u rin g the seco nd battle o f Y pres, w e n t to G allipoli in 1915 and re tu rn e d in th e battle o f th e S o m m e . H e w o n th e V C after th e C a m b ra i battle in 1917 b y his skill and g a llan try in co v e rin g th e passage o f a canal b y his battalio n o f Inn isk illing Fusiliers. H e led th e first c o m p a n y o f th e battalio n o v e r th e canal th en, u n d e r h ea v y fire, re c o n n o itre d th e e n e m y ’s p o sitio n , an d w h e n his left flank w as held up, b r o u g h t a Lew is g u n in to p o sitio n to co v e r th e adv an ce th ro u g h th e w ire. H e w ears five w o u n d stripes and w as seven tim es m e n tio n e d in despatches. T h e barges arriv ed at B erezn ik at n o o n o n J u n e 5th and b y teatim e th e H a m p s h ire s , alo n g w ith the 238th F rench M o r ta r B a tte ry and h a lf a c o m p a n y o f th e 8th B attalio n o f the M a c h in e -G u n C o rp s , had been sent fu rth e r u p riv er to relieve th e R iver C o lu m n in the line at K u r g o m e n and T u lg as. T h is m u c h fo u g h t o v e r village o f T u lg as h ad been re cap tu re d b y th e A m eric an s o n M a y 18th after b ein g h a n d e d o v e r to th e B olshevik s o n A p ril 25th b y the 2nd B attalio n o f th e 3rd N o r t h R ussian R e g im e n t w h ic h h ad m u tin ie d an d g o n e o v e r to th e Reds. T h e d o u g h b o y s o f the 339th In fa n try w e re d elig h ted to see th e H a m p s h ire s arrive. Silver P a rr is h ’s c o m p a n y h ad already g o n e up riv er to A rc h an g e l b u t h a d ru n a g ro u n d w h e re it stayed fo r three 199

“Sham eful, Illegitimate Little War” days, passing th e tim e b y p laying baseball o n the o ffen d in g sa n d ­ ban k . B u t F rank D o u m a ’s c o m p a n y had been in action rig h t up un til J u n e 2nd w h e n it ca p tu re d a B olsh ev ik p atro l o f tw e n ty -fiv e m en . D o u m a re c o rd e d th a t th e H a m p sh ire s to o k o v e r their p o s ­ itions at 9.30 o n J u n e 6th. T w o days later th ey w e re back at A rc h an g e l c a m p ed in ten ts at P o in t E c o n o m y . “ T h e re are m illions o f m o s q u ito s a r o u n d ,” w ro te D o u m a . “ W e saw auto s, street cars and trains to d ay , the first tim e in nin e m o n th s . W e also saw civilised girls for the first tim e, reg u lar dresses an d silk sto ck in g s. It surely see m e d g o o d . I am g o in g to try to date u p s o m e o f th e m as so o n as possible an d try to get a little lovin g. W e m u s t surely be o n o u r w a y h o m e b y n o w . ” In deed th e y w ere. O n J u n e 14th th ey b o a rd e d th e Menominee and sailed first to B rest an d th en, o n J u ly 12th, arrived in B o sto n . T h e “ P o la r B e a rs ” , as th ey called th em selves, had lost 244 dead in R ussia an d desp ite Iro n sid e ’s v ie w o f their fig h tin g ability had fo u g h t as w ell as an y o f th e A llied co n tin g en ts and b etter th an m o st. S tran g ely , o n ly the d iv is io n ’s h o m e t o w n o f D e tr o it g ave th e m any s o rt o f w e lc o m e . T h e y received n o ca m p aig n m edals and to this d ay m o s t A m eric an s d o n o t k n o w th at an A m eric an ex p e d itio n a ry force fo u g h t th e B olsh ev ik s o n R ussian soil. P resid en t N ix o n seem ed u n a w a re o f this piece o f h is to ry w h e n , in 1972 w hile o n a visit to R ussia, he ap p e are d o n television an d to ld th e Russians: “ M o s t i m p o r ta n t o f all, w e hav e n ev e r fo u g h t o n e a n o th e r in w a r . ” A n d tw e lv e years later P resid en t R eagan suffered an attack o f th e sam e h istorical blind ness in his State o f the U n io n m essage, w h e n , re ferrin g to the U n ite d States and Russia, he m ad e a sim ilar c o m m e n t: “ O u r sons and d a u g h te rs h ave n ev e r fo u g h t each o th e r in w ar. It seem ed th a t o n ce the “ P o lar B e a rs” had re tu rn e d h o m e , A m e r ic a ’s role in th e in te rv e n tio n w as p u sh ed in to th e nation al su b co n sc io u s. B u t th e m e n w h o to o k p art in it, h o w e v e r u n ­ w illin g ly , n e v e r fo rg o t. J o h n C u d a h y o f th e W isco nsin m ea t p ac k ­ in g fam ily w h o , as a lieutenant, had tak en p a rt in the ca p tu re o f T u lg a s gave th e n a m e o f th e village to his d au g h te r. H e w as later P re sid e n t R o o s e v e lt’s M in iste r to Ireland and A m b a s s a d o r to P o ­ land a n d B e lg iu m and p u b lish ed his ac co u n t o f Archangel: America's War Against Russia in 1924. It w as, h e said a “ m a d m a n ’s w a r ” an d a “ sh am efu l, illegitim ate little w a r ” . B u t th a t w as all in th e future. W ith b o th th e C anadians an d the A m eric an s g o n e A rch an g el becam e an a lm o st entirely B ritish “ s t u n t ” . T h e H a m p s h ire s settled in to the p ositio n s vacated b y th e P o la r B ears an d w e re th an k fu l th at th ey h ad n o t arriv ed in w in ter. 200

London-Archangel, A p ril-J u n e 1919 T h e re w as a lm o s t n o n ig h t, th e riv er had th a w e d , g u n b o a ts h ad m a d e th eir w a y u p s tre a m an d the R A F co uld give v irtu ally tw e n ty fo u r h o u r c o v e r to the soldiers. B u t it w as the in fa n try w h o , as usual, suffered. T h e y w e re p lag u ed b y clouds o f m o sq u ito e s and tin y stin g in g black flies and the s w a m p s, passable w h e n th ey w e re frozen, w e re n o w death traps o f black m u d . M o s t u nits lost m en d ro w n e d . B y J u n e 12th it seem ed th at the gallant S h e rw o o d K elly had slipped easily back in to his fig h tin g g ro o v e . T h e H a m p s h ire s ’ W ar D ia ry fo r th a t d ay records: “ T h e C . O . to o k o u t N o . O n e P la to o n o f W C o m p a n y and ran in to a B o lo p atro l in a n eu tral village. T w o o f th e e n e m y w e re killed and o n e w o u n d e d . T h e C .O . killed o ne m an in p erso n al co n flic t.” T h e n again, o n J u n e 16th: “ T h e C .O . to o k o u t 9 P la to o n o n an all day reconn aissance o f the ro u te to T ro its k o y e . M a rc h e d 35 m iles in 17 h o u r s . ” S h e rw o o d K elly received a letter fro m G ro g a n w h ic h read: T h e G O C w ishes p erso n ally to th a n k y o u o n th e v ery gallant w a y y o u led th e p atro l o n J u n e 13, 1919 w h ic h resulted in y o u killing th ree o f th e e n e m y at g reat person al risk to yourself. T h e in fo rm a tio n o b tain ed b y y o u w as v ery valuable an d the result o f y o u r e n c o u n te r ca n n o t b u t increase the m o ra l [sic] o f o u r m en . Iro n sid e b ad ly n ee d ed aggressive so ld ierin g to b o o s t the m e n ’s m o ra le fo r the locally re cru ited R ussian soldiers w e re s h o w in g th em selv es to be ev er m o re p ro n e to m u tin y and th e m u rd e r o f their officers. O n M a y 14th th e 1st C o m p a n y o f the 8th N o r t h R ussian R e g im e n t o n th e P inega fro n t h ad refused to e m b a rk to g o u p river an d killed tw o o f th eir officers. Iro n sid e teleg rap h ed C hu rchill: “ I re g re t to re p o rt I h ad to s h o o t 15 b u t the co m p an ies are back at d u ty . . . ’’ In fact the 2 n d C o m p a n y h ad to be d isarm e d an d w e re m a d e in to la b o u r tro o p s. E v e n m o re serious w as th e n e w s th at reached L o n d o n o n Ju n e 17th, fro m Siberia. T h e C zec h G eneral G ajda, c o m m a n d in g K o l­ c h a k ’s W e ste rn a rm y w h ic h w as s u p p o sed to link w ith Iro n sid e ’s m e n at K otlas, h ad been s to p p e d in his tracks b y an inferio r force o f B olshevik s. T h e n ew s o f this defeat ad ded to th e g ro w in g feeling in L o n d o n th a t n o g o o d w o u ld c o m e o f th e plan to p u sh B ritish tro o p s fu rth e r in to th e R ussian m orass. L lo y d G e o rg e in p articu lar w as 201

“Sham eful, Illegitimate Little War” an x io u s th a t Iro n sid e s h o u ld n o t get h im s e lf so in v o lv ed th a t it w o u ld n ee d y et m o re tro o p s to g et h im o u t o f tro ub le. O n J u ly 2 nd A llfrey m a d e an in tere stin g e n try in his diary: T h e C . O . w as o v e r to see Iro nside to d a y . . . Iron sid e to ld th e C . O . th at he h ad received a teleg ram fro m E n g la n d to su sp en d all hostilities o u t here at once. T h is teleg ram m ere ly m akes Iro n sid e sm ile, as he has n o m o re in te n tio n o f ceasing hostilities th a n the m a n in the m o o n , n o r is it possible to do so, for the B ritish force o u t here is in v o lv e d p re tty deeply in th e o p e ra tio n an d th e re is n o th in g b e tw e e n th e B olshevik s and th o u san d s o f R ussians b u t us, an d th e y w o u ld all be m u rd e r e d at on ce i f w e w ith d re w . It is n o t k n o w n w h y th e teleg ram w as sent, b u t it is p re tty certain it is, as usual, j u s t a w e a k g o v e r n m e n t p an d e rin g to th e L a b o u r people. T h e r u m o u r is th a t th e coal m iners have th rea ten ed th at unless th e B ritish force in R ussia is h o m e w ith in fo rty days th ey w ill all c o m e o u t o n strike o n th e g ro u n d s th at w e are in terferin g w ith th e rig h ts and freed o m s o f th e R ussian people. In o th e r w o rd s th ey to o are B o lsh e v ik s an d w ish to s u p p o rt the B o lsh ev ik m o v e ­ m ent . . . W h a t th e W a r O ffice files in fact reveal is th at Iro nside had tele­ g ra p h e d o n J u n e 19th to say th at he had n o in te n tio n “ o f a llo w in g B ritish forces to get in to such a p o sitio n th at th ey w o u ld re q u ire re lie f o r th a t th e y co u ld n o t w i t h d r a w ” . M o re o v e r he m ad e it plain th a t he t h o u g h t the K otlas o p e ra tio n c o uld n o t be carried o u t i f “ th e e n e m y p u ts u p a s tu b b o rn resistance” . N e v e rth e le ss, th e fo llo w in g d ay he set th e first p art o f his K otlas plan m o v in g . A p a rt fro m fresh tro o p s he n o w also h ad s o m e excellent e q u ip m e n t. H is fleet o n th e D v in a h ad been rein forced b y M o n ito rs and coastal m o t o r boats. H e w as s u p p o rte d fro m th e air b y D H 9 b o m b e rs an d th e v e ry latest in fighters, th e S o p w ith Snipe, s uccessor to th e fa m o u s C am el. It w as w h ile he w as flying o n e o f these n e w aircraft th a t K azakov , R ussian ace an d p ro u d w e a re r o f th e D S O , M C , and D F C , m e t his death. H e h ad flo w n b rilliantly in s u p p o rt o f Iro n sid e ’s forces and it is claim ed th at he sh o t d o w n fifteen e n e m y planes. T h is is s o m e w h a t d o u b tfu l because v ery few B o lsh e v ik planes v e n tu re d in to th e skies o f N o r t h Russia, b u t he certain ly sn ap p e d u p th o se o f his fo rm e r colleagues w h o crossed his p a th in aircraft n o w b earin g th e R ed Star, th e insignia o f the in fant B o lsh e v ik A ir Force. H e to o k o f f o n e d ay so o n after he h ea rd th at th e B ritish w e re g o in g to w ith d ra w , n e w s w h ic h deeply affected 202

London-Archangel, A p ril-J u n e 1919 h im , starte d a lo w level loo p, stalled his eng ine an d w e n t straig h t in to the g ro u n d . E v e n th e icon o f St N ich o las w h ic h he alw ays carried o n his in s tru m e n t panel cou ld n o t save him . K a z a k o v ’s d eath had little effect o n th e o u tc o m e o f the fig h tin g because th e B ritish h ad co m p lete c o n tro l o f th e air, and using the close c o -o p e ra tio n tactics d ev e lo p ed b y th e C a m e l s q u a d ro n s in th e last m o n th s o f th e w a r o n the W e ste rn F ron t, gave the g ro u n d and naval forces first class su p p o rt. B u t the R ussian ace h ad been an in sp iratio n al leader o f m en , the so rt o f officer so desp erately needed by th e W h ite R ussians to offset th e b e h a v io u r o f th o se c o u n te r­ re v o lu tio n aries w h o th o u g h t o n ly in te rm s o f a re tu rn to the ancient reg im e. A loo f, stern, in tensely religious, he w as a s o rt o f S o lzh enit­ sy n o f his tim e and his death, especially the m a n n e r o f it, dealt a severe b lo w to th e m o ra le o f th e W h ite cause. A n o th e r w e a p o n n o w m ad e available to Iro nsid e w as p o iso n gas. T h is m a y s o u n d ho rrific to d a y b u t it m u s t be re m e m b e re d th at ever since the G e rm a n s first used a lethal fo rm o f gas o n th e W estern F ro n t o n A p ril 23rd, 1915, it h ad been accepted b y b o th sides as p art o f th eir a r m o u r y o f w e ap o n s. In his History o f the First World War Liddell H a rt w ro te : “ T h e ch lorin e gas o rig inally used w as u n ­ d e n ia b ly cruel, b u t n o w o rs e th a n th e freq u en t effect o f shell o r b a y o n e t, and w h e n it w as succeeded b y im p ro v e d fo rm s o f gas b o th exp erience an d tactics p ro v e d it the least in h u m a n e o f m o d e rn w e ap o n s. ” A n d the o n ly q u a lm felt at th e W ar O ffice a b o u t the use o f gas a gainst th e B olsh eviks w as th a t the d e p lo y m e n t o f a n e w ty p e d ev e lo p ed to o late fo r use o n the W e ste rn F ro n t m ig h t give aw ay its secrets to p o ten tial enem ies. C h u rch ill, w h o w as initially again st its use solely fo r this reason, ev en tu ally ag reed and w h e n , o n M a y 29th, 1919, a L a b o u r M P q u erie d its e m p lo y m e n t in Russia, h e replied: “ I d o n o t u n d e rs ta n d w h y , i f th ey use p o iso n gas, th e y sh o u ld object to h a v in g it used again st t h e m . ” T h e re are in fact n o records o f the B olshevik s ever u sin g p o iso n gas in this conflict a lth o u g h th ere w e re at least tw o re p o rts o f gas shells b ein g ca p tu re d fro m th e R ed A rm y , an d the R ussian A r m y h a d u n d e n ia b ly ac q u ired experience o f gas w arfare o n th e E aste rn F ron t. T h e W a r O ffice sent a te le g ra m to Iro nside ad v isin g caution: “ T h e in v e n tio n is v e ry secret, an d o f course, on ce used, th e secret w o u ld be div u lg ed . It is o n ly in te n d e d th at this w e a p o n s h o u ld be used i f specially n e c e ssa ry .” A n d w ith th at p ro v iso th e y sent o u t n in eteen Gas O fficers, eq u ip p e d w ith the n e w gas in cylinders and th e “ S m o k e G e n e ra to r N o . 1, M a r k 1” . It w o u ld appear fr o m S tu r d y ’s pencilled draft o f Iro n sid e ’s 203

“ Sham eful, Illegitimate Little War”

R e p o rt o n O p e ra tio n s c o v e rin g the p erio d fro m the arrival o f th e R elief Force (M ay 27th, 1919) to the final date o f ev acu atio n (S e p te m b e r 27th, 1919) th a t Iro n sid e ju d g e d its use to be “ specially n ec e ssa ry ” im m e d ia te ly it arrived. H o w e v e r, the gas ex perts w e re to find th at co n d itio n s in N o r t h R ussia w e re v ery different to th o se in F rance for, Iro n sid e re p o rted : “ It w as fo u n d im possible to e m p ty th e gas b y o rd in a ry h a n d disch arg e o w in g to the lack o f w in d in th e th ick forest. F or a m o n th w e w a ite d for a n o rth w in d and this m e th o d o f d isch arg e h ad to be a b a n d o n e d .” Iron side th en w ire d to th e W a r O ffice fo r gas p ro jec to rs b u t these to o w e re fo u n d to be useless because th ey arriv ed in an u n u sab le con ditio n. As so o ften ha p p e n s the soldiers in th e field fo u n d their o w n solution. M a jo r T . H . D avies o f the Special C o m p a n y , R oy al E ngin eers, in v e n te d the first gas b o m b s fo r use fro m aircraft. T h ese b o m b s w e re m a d e b y th e O rd n a n c e Services an d b y th e naval w o rk s h o p s o n b o a rd the re p air ship H M S Cyclops and, ac co rd in g to Iro n sid e ’s re p o rt, “ Gas b o m b in g p ro v e d h ig h ly successful an d m aterially helped th e R u s­ sian o p e r a tio n .” Iro n sid e ’s n e w a tte m p t to reach K otlas o n J u n e 20th w as to h ave political rep ercu ssio n s in L o n d o n far exceedin g its m ilitary im p o r t­ ance. A c c o rd in g to A llfrey the plan w as fo r the 3rd N o r t h R ussian Rifles to m o u n t a fro n tal attack o n the villages o f T o p s a and T ro its k o y e w h ile S h e rw o o d K elly to o k tw o com pan ies o f his H a m p s h ire s o n a lo n g trek th r o u g h th e forest to ap pear b e h in d the B o lsh e v ik p osition s. A llfrey, w h o h ad m a d e his w a y to the fro n t in a F o rd car, sto p p in g to give j o y rides to villagers w h o h ad n ev e r seen a car before, a rriv ed at K e lly ’s rear H Q to see a village b u rs t in to flam es and R o yal N a v a l M o n ito rs chasing B o lsh ev ik g u n b o a ts u p th e D v in a. H e passed a b o u t 150 B o lsh e v ik prisoners o n th eir w a y to th e p riso n cages: “ T h e y lo o k e d a ro tte n lo t o f people, v ery d irty a n d w ith th e m o s t villainous uncivilised faces, v ery like the o r th o d o x c a rto o n s .” H e re c o rd e d h o w e v e r, th at “ the m o r n i n g ’s fig h tin g has n o t w o r k e d o u t to o w e ll” . Indeed it h ad n o t. S h e rw o o d K elly had, u n ch aracteristically, failed to press h o m e his attack an d had actually w ith d r a w n his m en, leaving his R ussian allies to do the fighting. T h e H a m p s h ir e ’s W a r D ia ry co ntain s a bare accou nt o f th at m o r n i n g ’s w o rk : A tta c k e d 04.45. A t 10.30 as n o n e w s w as h ea rd o r seen o f 3rd N .R . Rifles o n o u r rig h t w h o w e re attack in g T o p sa an d th e e n e m y w h o w e re fig h tin g v ery w ell h ad nearly su rro u n d e d us, 204

London-Archangel, A p ril-Ju n e 1919 th e C .O . decided to w ith d ra w fro m th e p o sitio n w e h ad reached ro u n d T r o its k o y e village. A fte r h a v in g w ith d r a w n a b o u t tw o m iles n e w s w as h ea rd th at th e 3rd N R R had taken th eir objectives an d T o p s a so w e m a rc h e d in to T o p sa via the w o o d s to th e S outh. S h e rw o o d K e lly ’s o w n re p o rt o n th e failure o f his m issio n w as full o f self-justification and b lam e fo r o th ers . . . th e re w as g reat difficulty in g ettin g th ro u g h the m a rsh . . . su p p o s e d to have been re n d ere d passable b y th e R .E . b u t in a g re at m a n y places little w o r k h ad been d o n e . . . n o telep h o n e cable lin k in g the po sitio n s . . . ru n n in g o u t o f a m m u n itio n . . . th e c h ie f reaso n fo r m e h av in g to w ith d ra w w as the fact th at I had n o in fo rm a tio n o f the success o r o th e rw ise o f th e attack on T opsa . . . T h e H a m p sh ire s spen t the n e x t few w eeks fairly quietly o n the R iv er F ro n t b efo re b ein g tran sferred to th e R ailw ay F ro n t. T h ere, a few days after th e ir arrival S h e rw o o d K elly w as o rd e re d to carry o u t a raid o n s o m e B o lsh e v ik b lo ck h o u ses u n d e r co v er o f gas. H e p r o m p tly w r o te a h ig h -h a n d e d letter to the G O C o f th e front, B rig a d ie r-G e n e ra l T u rn e r, p ro te s tin g th at th e raid w o u ld serve n o p u rp o se , “ i f th e p ro p o s e d o p e ra tio n is left to m y discretion I shall n o t carry it o u t. I am c o n tin u in g to m a k e all p re p ara tio n s in case y o u o rd e r m e to carry o u t the ra id .” A lth o u g h he later insisted th a t his o p e ra tio n o rd e rs w e re a p p ro v e d b y T u r n e r except “ fo r the ex p o sed task I h a d allo tted to m y s e lf ” th e to n e o f his letter w as n o t acceptable. It w as read as p art an d parcel o f his a rro g a n t b e h a v io u r at T ro its k o y e . B u t S h e rw o o d K elly h ad already taken th e step th a t w o u ld end his m ilitary role in th e in te rv e n tio n an d catapult h im in to the far m o r e d a n g e ro u s g a m e o f politics. H e w ro te a p riv ate letter to a friend at h o m e in w h ic h he b itte rly criticised the N o r t h R ussian o p eratio n . H e w as later to a rg u e th at he h ad w ritte n the letter k n o w in g th a t it w o u ld be o p e n e d b y the censor an d th at he w o u ld be b r o u g h t befo re th e C - in - C to a n sw e r for it. H e h ad w ritte n it, he said, because he w as sickened b y the w a ste o f m o n e y and m e n o n a “ useless, aim less an d ill-m an ag e d c a m p a ig n ” , and “ d e te rm in e d b y s o m e m eans o r o th e r to get back to E n g la n d ” . T h e letter w as d u ly o p en e d b y th e censor an d the w heels o f m ilita ry ju s tic e starte d to g rind . B rig ad ier T u rn e r w as asked fo r a re p o rt o n his b e h a v io u r in N o r t h Russia. T u rn e r w as fo rth rig h t: “ H e is a h o t-h e a d e d an d q u a rre ls o m e m a n w h o has ro w s w ith 205

“ Sham eful, Illegitimate Little War”

practically e v e ry o n e w ith w h o m he has co m e in c o n ta c t.” T u r n e r added: “ H e has a fine s m a rt w ell-d rilled battalio n an d his m e n like h im , b u t I d o n o t co n sid er he is suitable fo r c o m m a n d o f a re g u la r b a tta lio n u n d e r th e p re sen t c o n d itio n s .” S h e rw o o d K elly w as d u ly relieved o f his c o m m a n d an d o n A u g u s t 22 nd th e H a m p s h ire s ’ d iary record s w ith o u t c o m m e n t: “ Lt. C o l. D . M . M ac le o d , D S O , M C , D C M , 4th S o u th A frican L ig h t In fa n try j o in e d th e B attalio n and to o k o v e r C o m m a n d . ” H is offence, as he w ell k n e w , w a rra n te d co u rt-m a rtia l, b u t Iro n sid e in terc ed ed w ith th e C -in - C , G eneral Sir H e n ry R aw lin so n , w h o h ad c o m e o u t to tak e overall ch arge o f the ev acu atio n o f the B ritish tro o p s . B u t, w h ile R a w lin so n w as p re p are d to send S h er­ w o o d K elly h o m e w ith o u t c o u rt-m a rtia llin g h im because o f his fine re c o rd he w as n o t p re p a re d to w ith h o ld T u r n e r ’s adverse re p o rt. S h e rw o o d K elly (w h o th o u g h t he h ad m ad e a deal w ith Iron side to refrain fro m w ritin g a letter to R a w lin so n “ telling all” in ex c h a n g e fo r th e w ith d ra w a l o f the re p o rt an d a re c o m m e n d a tio n th a t h e s h o u ld h av e six m o n th s leave and th e c o m m a n d o f a reserve b a tta lio n at h o m e ) w as enraged . So he w ro te a n o th e r letter. T h is tim e it w as to th e D aily Express. “ I ask yo u , Sir, to p ub lish this letter so th a t p eo p le in E n g la n d m a y k n o w the tru th a b o u t th e situ atio n in A rc h an g e l an d m a y be able to take steps to rig h t it. ” T h e D a ily Express lap p ed it up. O n S atu rd ay S e p te m b e r 6th, 1919, its fro n t p age splash headlines read: A rc h an g e l Scandal E x p o s e d D u p lic ity o f C h u rc h ill P olicy in Russia T h e P u blic H u m b u g g e d F am o u s V C appeals to the N a tio n . S h e rw o o d K e lly ’s letter w as a slashing attack b o th o n B ritish policies in N o r t h R ussia an d the w a y th ey w e re bein g carried ou t. H e h a d v o lu n te e re d w ith the R elief Force, he said, in the sincere b e lie f th a t re lie f w as u rg e n tly need ed in o rd e r to m a k e possible the w ith d ra w a l o f lo w -c a te g o ry tro o p s in th e last stage o f ex h a u stio n d u e to fierce fig h tin g a m o n g the rig o u rs o f an A rctic w in ter. B u t, he claim ed, I w as re lu c tan tly b u t in ev itab ly d r a w n to th e fo llo w in g c o n ­ clusion: T h a t th e tro o p s o f th e R elief F orce w h ic h w e w e re to ld h a d been sent o u t fo r p u re ly defensive pu rp o se s, w e re bein g u sed 206

London-Archangel, A p ril-J u n e 1919 fo r o ffensive p u rp o se s o n a large scale and far in to th e in terior, in fu rth e ra n c e o f s o m e am b itio u s plan o f c a m p aig n th e n a tu re o f w h ic h w e w e re n o t allow ed to k n o w . M y perso nal experience o f th o se o p e ra tio n s w as th at th ey w e re n o t even w ell c o n d u c te d and th e y w e re n o t calculated to b enefit in a m ilitary o r any o th e r sense a so u n d a n d practical B ritish policy in Russia. T h e y o n ly entailed useless loss an d suffering in tro o p s th at had already m ad e great sacrifices in th e G reat W ar. H e w e n t o n to criticise the “ m u c h v a u n te d i o y a l R ussian A r m y ’ c o m p o s e d larg e ly o f B o lsh e v ik p riso n ers dressed in k h a k i” an d the “ p u p p e t g o v e r n m e n t set u p b y us in A rch an g el . . . ” T h e W a r O ffice replied w ith a sta te m e n t re fu tin g th e letter as b ein g “ biased an d entirely u n f o u n d e d ” . G eneral S adleir-Jack son ’s m o v e fo rw a rd , it said, w as o f ten m iles and w as “ p u re ly a local affair.” It w as in accord ance w ith s o u n d principles o f defence and w as n o t a p e n e tra tio n “ far in to the in te rio r” . A n d , th e W a r O ffice insisted, “ T h e r e is n o t, n o r ev er has been the slightest in te n tio n o f d e v ia tin g a h a irs -b re a d th fro m the settled policy o f e v a c u a tio n .” All this w as, o f course, m e a t an d d rin k to th e o p p o n e n ts o f in te rv e n tio n w h o ig n o re d the W a r O ffice denial. T h e D aily Express, a rm e d w ith tw o m o re letters fro m S h e rw o o d Kelly, m o u n te d a g re at c a m p a ig n ag ainst C h u rc h ill an d his “ P riv ate W a r” . S h e rw o o d K elly sent a m essag e to the T ra d e s U n io n C o n g re ss w h ic h lo u d ly a p p la u d ed h im . A n d Sir Basil T h o m s o n , D ire c to r o f Intelligence at th e H o m e O ffice, in o n e o f his w e ek ly re p o rts o n “ R e v o lu tio n a ry O rg a n is a tio n s in th e U n ite d K i n g d o m ” said th a t the letter had effects in L iv erp o o l, N e w c a stle , N o ttin g h a m and G la s g o w w h e re the “ o u tb u rs t o f re s e n tm e n t has b een re m a rk a b le ” . In e v ita b ly S h e rw o o d K elly w as co u rt-m artialled . H e pleaded g u ilty o n O c to b e r 28th at th e M id d lesex G uildhall to charges o f c o n tra v e n in g K in g ’s R eg u latio n s b y w ritin g th ree letters to the Press. H is o n ly defence w as a ju stific a tio n o f his actions: “ I plead w ith y o u to believe th a t th e action I to o k w as to p ro te c t m y m e n ’s lives again st needless sacrifice an d to save th e c o u n try fro m s q u a n d e rin g w e a lth she co u ld ill afford. I leave this m a tte r in y o u r h and s, h o p in g y o u w ill re m e m b e r m y past services to m y K in g and c o u n try .” T h e c o u rt did, in fact, treat h im w ith great leniency, sen tencing h im o n ly to a severe re p rim a n d . N e v erth ele ss his career in th e A r m y w as finished. H e re tired an d a lth o u g h he tried to rejoin o n several occasions he w as alw ay s tu rn e d d o w n . H is life en d e d sadly in 1931 w h e n he died at th e age o f fifty-o ne, a solitary m a n in a 207

“Sham eful, Illegitimate Little War” n u rs in g h o m e . H e w as b u rie d w ith full m ilitary h o n o u rs , the A r m y sen d in g t w o b u g lers to s o u n d th e Last P o st o v e r his grave. T h e re w e re th o se w h o insisted th at the w h o le affair s te m m e d fro m his loss o f n e rv e at T ro its k o y e and all th a t fo llo w ed w as a sn o w b a llin g a tte m p t at ju stific atio n . L ieu tenant I. H . B o w e n o f th e g u n b o a t M oth o p e ra tin g o n the D v in a w ro te : “ W e h ad read o n e o f his in te rv ie w s ou rselves an d th o u g h t m o s t o f it aw ful rot; five years o f fig h tin g m u s t h av e d is tu rb e d th e gallant officer’s m en tal facul­ tie s .” B u t ev en i f e v e ry th in g he h ad to say w as tru e did it m ak e an y difference? T h e a n s w e r is no. C e rta in ly Iron side w o u ld h av e pressed o n to K otlas i f th e w a y h ad been op en. C e rta in ly C h u rc h ill w o u ld h av e c o n tin u e d to w a g e w a r against th e B o lsh ev iks i f he h ad been a llo w e d to. B u t L lo y d G e o rg e h ad m ad e his p o sitio n clear: “ T h e m e re idea o f cru sh in g B o lsh e v ism b y m ilitary force is p u re m a d n e s s .” A n d p erh ap s w h a t is m o re to th e p o int, b y th e tim e S h e rw o o d K e lly ’s o rig in al letter w as pub lished , th e A rc h an g e l ex p e d itio n w as already p ac k in g its bags to c o m e h o m e .

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CHAPTER 15

Mutiny and a Victoria Cross Archangel, J u n e - September 1919

B y th e s u m m e r o f 1919 G eneral A lex a n d er S am oilo, the T sarist officer tu rn e d B o lshevik , h ad a p ro p e r m ilitary o rg a n isa tio n , the S ix th A rm y , u n d e r his c o m m a n d . As w ell as rifle re g im e n ts, field g u n batteries, m a c h in e -g u n n e rs and a “ m in e - th r o w in g ” unit, S am o ilo h a d o b s e rv a tio n balloo ns and a n u m b e r o f aircraft includ­ ing a N ie u p o r t flo w n b y S. F. S m irn o v w h o w as, he said, k n o w n to th e B ritish as th e “ R ed D e v il” . S am o ilo also h ad a v ery effective fleet o n th e D v in a w h ic h reg u la rly en g a g ed the B ritish g u n b o a ts and s u p p o rte d a r m y o p eratio n s w ith fire fro m th eir b ig guns. T h e u n u su a lly lo w level o f th e R iv er D v in a th at year helped S am oilo , fo r w h ile he cou ld get supplies d o w n river fro m K otlas the B ritish s u p p ly barges g o in g u p riv er fro m A rch ang el fo u n d g ettin g p ast th e san d b a n k s increasingly difficult. T ro o p s w h o sh o u ld have passed easily alo n g th e riv er to th e fro n t w ere forced to m arch, a rriv in g at the fro n t line w o r n o ut. B u t S a m o ilo ’s m o s t effective w e a p o n w as th e m u tin o u s state o f th e R ussians enlisted in th e S lav o -B ritish Legion and th e N o r t h R u ssian re g im e n ts. It w as th eir disaffection w h ich , m o re th an a n y th in g else caused the B ritish to ab a n d o n w h a te v e r h op es they m ig h t still h av e h ad o f o p e n in g u p th e w a y to K otlas. Iro nside w as forced to g u a rd as m u c h against his so-called allies as against his enem ies. U ltim a te ly he h ad to send to E n g lan d fo r a tan k u n it to c o m e o ut, n o t to fig ht the B olshevik s - the tanks w o u ld have been useless in th e forests an d m arsh es - b u t to im press th eir presence on w o u ld -b e m u tin e e rs in A rc h an g e l as the in tim id a tin g p o w e r o f this n e w w e a p o n h ad been q u ick ly realised. So an x io u s w e re the B ritish to b u ild u p the R ussian forces that a lm o s t a n y o n e w as acceptable and m a n y o f th e m e ith er already had B o lsh e v ik sy m p a th ie s o r w e re easily sw ay e d b y the agitators w h o in filtrated th eir ranks. T h e re w e re also tho se w h o , k n o w in g very w ell w h a t th eir fate w o u ld be o n ce the Allies h ad w ith d ra w n , p re fe rre d to g o o v e r to th e B o lsheviks ra th e r th an h ave th eir th ro ats cut. Iro n sid e w as also s h o rt o f fig h tin g officers and m ad e up a n u m b e r 209

M u tin y and a Victoria Cross o f n o n c o m m is s io n e d officers a n d p rivates to c o m m is sio n e d ra n k to officer th e n e w re g im e n ts. O n e o f th e m e n th at Iro n sid e c o m m issio n e d w as a y o u n g C a n a ­ dian p riv a te called D y e r w h o h ad been d eco rated for g allan try w ith th e D C M an d M M . D y e r w as giv en w h a t w e re described as “ o n e th o u s a n d c rim in a ls” an d to ld to tu rn th e m in to a b attalio n o f fig h tin g soldiers. H e did. H is m e n w o rs h ip p e d h im ; th ey b ec am e the is t B attalio n , “ D y e r ’s B a tta lio n ” o f the S lavo -B ritish L eg ion an d w h e n he died, p ro b a b ly o f the flu, th ey carried a large p h o to ­ g ra p h o f h im j u s t as th e o ld T sarist re g im e n ts used to carry iko ns w h e n o n th e m arc h . H o w e v e r, his influence did n o t last lo n g after his death. O n J u ly 7th th e b attalio n , still k n o w n as D y e r ’s th o u g h n o w c o m m a n d e d b y C o lo n e l W ells, w as in reserve p ositions in the area o f T o p s a - T ro its k o y e w h e re S h e rw o o d K elly h ad c o m e to grief. A t 2 a. m . , d u rin g the s h o rt p erio d o f tw ilig h t th at passes fo r n ig h t in m i d s u m m e r in th o se latitudes, th e 3rd C o m p a n y , alo ng w ith th e m a c h in e -g u n c o m p a n y o f th e 4 th N o r t h R ussian R eg im en t, sp ra n g a carefully o rg a n ise d plot. First th ey tried to w ip e o u t their officers b y sh o o tin g and b a y o n e tin g th em . F o u r B ritish and fo u r R ussian officers w e re killed an d t w o B ritish an d tw o R ussian officers w e re w o u n d e d , o n e o f th e m escaping b y s w im m in g o u t to a g u n b o a t d espite h a v in g tw e n ty -fiv e b a y o n e t w o u n d s . T h e m u tin y w as p u t d o w n b y gu n fire fro m the riv er flotilla and b y n e a rb y B ritish tro o p s w h o ca p tu red so m e o f the ringleaders. T h e rest, s o m e 200 m en , fled in to th e w o o d s to j o i n the B olsheviks, w h o to o k ad v a n ta g e o f th e s u b se q u e n t d iso rg an isatio n to ca p tu re the village o f S elm anga. T h e 46th B attalio n o f th e R oy al Fusiliers w as d r a w n in to th e fig h tin g an d tw o co m p an ies o f th e 45 th w e re h u rrie d up to s u p p o rt th e m o n the C - i n - C ’s h o u s e -b o a t - w h ich h a d a su itab ly sh allo w d ra u g h t. “ A ” C o m p a n y , c o m m a n d e d b y A llfrey, stay ed beh ind. It h a d a d ifferent j o b to do; to keep th e d isarm e d re m n a n ts o f D y e r ’s b attalio n u n d e r g u a rd an d to arran g e the ex e cu tio n o f the rin g lea d ­ ers. Initially th ere w e re fo rty m e n c o n d e m n e d to death and th e y w e re p u t in charge o f a p la to o n arm e d w ith L ew is gu n s and o rd e rs to o p e n fire i f th e re w as any tro u b le. A llfrey m e t C o lo n e l Wells: “ H e is v e ry o v e rd o n e , p o o r fellow , an d is also a g o o d deal g o n e in the n e r v e s .” T h o s e m e m b e rs o f th e b attalio n w h o did n o t m u tin y w e re billeted in th e F usiliers’ cam p. “ I have established m a c h in e -g u n p osts all r o u n d th e c am p th e y are to o c c u p y w h e n th e y arrive, and if th ere is the slightest tro u b le I shall p u m p lead in to th e m h a rd e r th an 210

Archangel, Jun e-S ep tem b er 1919 th e y h ave ev e r seen bullets fly before. T h e m a c h in e -g u n nests are q u ite n ea tly arran g e d , and are concealed, each o n e bein g in a bell tent, w h ic h is q u ite a c o m m o n sigh t ro u n d these parts an d will n o t be s u s p e c te d .” O n e o f th e priv ates in the b attalio n w as a w o m a n w h o h ad been a c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r in th e w o m e n ’s battalio n w h ic h h ad de­ fend ed th e W in te r Palace. She had n o t taken p art in the m u tin y and w as o v e rc o m e w ith sh am e at the co n d u c t o f h er co m rad es. A llfrey also d isco v ered an E n g lish -sp ea k in g R ussian a m o n g the c o n d e m n e d m e n w h o said th at he lived in S cotland w h e re his w ife w as w o rk in g in a coalm ine. A llfrey decided th at he w as p ro b a b ly in n o c e n t o f m u r d e r an d after so m e a rg u m e n t secured his release fro m C o lo n e l Wells. J u ly 12th an d 13th w e re sp en t in try in g the “ c o n d e m n e d ” m en by B ritish c o u rt m artial. M u c h to A llfre y ’s d isgu st m o s t o f th e m g o t off. “ I th in k it w o u ld save a lo t o f tro u b le i f th ey w o u ld allow m e to s h o o t the lo t j u s t as th e y are n o w , as I h ave several tim es applied to do. H o w e v e r, th e y w o n ’t allo w m e to do th is .” O n the 14th on e o f th e p riso n ers tried to escape and w as killed b y a sentry. B y n o w th e a rra n g e m e n ts fo r th e executions w e re being c o m ­ pleted. T w e lv e w e re to die, sh o t b y th eir o w n m a c h in e -g u n n ers. Five h u n d re d n e w ly m ob ilised R ussians w e re to w itness the exe­ cu tion s, d o u b tless to d isco u ra g e th e m fro m any th o u g h t o f e m u la t­ ing th e m e n th ey w e re to see die. “J u d g in g fro m the peop le w h o h av e asked m e lately w h e n I am g o in g to sh o o t D y e r ’s m en, ” w ro te A llfrey, “ I th in k it w o u ld b e an excellent th in g to sw ell the C o m p a n y fun ds b y h a v in g a little stand p u t u p . ” T h e ex e cu tio n s w e re carried o u t at eig h t o ’clock in the ev ening o f J u ly 17th. T o m a k e sure th ere w as n o tro uble, the R ussian m ac h in e gu n n ers, o n e fo r each c o n d e m n e d m an , w e re issued w ith o n ly five ro u n d s so th a t i f th ey tu rn e d th eir g u ns o n th e B ritish th ey could do little h a rm . In ad d itio n A llfrey h ad th e w h o le area covered by L ew is g u n s and to o k his o w n m en o n to th e parade g r o u n d w ith guns lo ad ed an d b ay o n e ts fixed. S o m e th in g like 1,200 m e n w e re paraded, fo rm in g th ree sides o f a square. T w e lv e ex e cu tio n stakes co m p lete d the square an d a m a c h in e -g u n w as set u p in fro n t o f each one. T h e priso ners w ere m a rc h e d o u t, tied to th e stakes and blindfolded. T h e paraded soldiers w e re silent, b u t su d d en ly a large g ro u p o f o ff-d u ty B ritish soldiers a rriv ed to see th e s h o w . “ It se e m e d ,” said Allfrey, “ in aw fu lly b ad ta s te .” It w as an o p p re ssiv e ly h ot, still, evening . T h e m e n fid geted u n d e r th e attacks o f the m o sq u ito e s. T h e o rd e r to fire w as given and the 211

M u tin y and a Victoria Cross m a c h in e -g u n s rattled o f f th eir five ro u n d s. B u t o n ly fo u r o f the tw e lv e w e re killed o u trig h t. Seven w e re left w o u n d e d , sq u irm in g in pain at th e stakes. O n e m an , a sergeant, w as n o t even scratched. T h e m a c h in e -g u n n e r m u s t h ave deliberately aim ed to m iss. T h e ex e c u tio n sq u ad w as th en d o u b le d o f f the p arade and A llfrey and officers fro m D y e r ’s B attalio n “ h ad to go w ith o u r rev olvers and po lish th e priso n ers o f f ” . A llfrey also re co rd e d th a t w h e n th e sergeant, “ w h o b eh a v ed like a m a n a lth o u g h he is a m u r d e r e r ” , realised th at he had been m issed, “ he to o k the b an d a g e o f f his eyes and s h o u te d out: ‘L o n g live th e B o lsh e v ik s ’. I w as glad w h e n so m e b o d y fired at h im an d killed h im , fo r h e w as u n ca n n ily cool and co llec ted .” Six m o re m e n w e re d u e to be execu ted b u t th e fo llo w in g d ay Iro n sid e received a fu rio u s teleg ram fro m the W a r O ffice criticising his actio n and th e six m e n w e re reprieved. J u s t fo u r days after the executio ns on Ju ly 21st a far m o re serious m u tin y to o k place near O n e g a , th e jo in in g p o in t o f th e M u rm a n s k and A rc h an g e l c o m m a n d s , w h e n th e 5th N o r t h R ussian R e g im e n t seized th eir officers an d w e n t o v e r to the B olsheviks leaving th e w h o le o f the O n e g a fro n t in B olsh ev ik hands. T h e m u tin y w as led b y soldiers in the re g im e n t’s 2nd c o m p a n y , and p articu larly b y o n e o f its N C O s , V ik to r S hchetinin, th en aged tw e n ty -f o u r. O n th e fiftieth an n iv ersary o f w h a t th e S oviet U n io n describes as th e “ lib eratio n o f the n o r t h ” S hchetinin recalled th at his c o m p a n y , and o th ers o n the fro n t line had long been infiltrated b y B o lsh e v ik s and th ere h ad been earlier plans m ad e to m u tin y w h ic h fo r different reasons h ad failed. T h e c o m m a n d e r o f th e re g im e n t w as a C o lo n e l D an ilo v , b u t S h chetinin said th at th e m a n in overall charge w as a C o lo n el Laurie, and m ilitary o p eratio n s w e re p lan ned b y h im and a sm all g ro u p o f B ritish officers. O n J u ly 18th, the R eds b egan a pu sh and occu p ied tw o lines o f W h ite trenches. T h e 2nd C o m p a n y w e re b r o u g h t up to d efen d a key ra ilw a y track in th e line o f advance and w h e n th ey reached th eir p o sitio n s in and a ro u n d a h am let b estrid in g th e track th ey w e re to ld to dig in. T h e c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r left to visit the re g im e n ta l h e a d q u a rte rs at C h e k u y e v o and S h chetinin and o th e r B olsh ev ik ag itato rs w e n t to w o rk . T h e y decided to m u tin y th at nig ht. It w e n t s m o o th ly . T h e h an d fu l o f W h ite O fficers w e re arrested in their beds, a m m u n itio n w as loaded o n to carriages, and the c o m p a n y m a rc h e d to C h e k u y e v o . A c c o rd in g to S h ch etin in ’s v ersion n o t a sh o t w as fired. T h e b u lk 212

Archangel, Jun e-S ep tem b er 1919 o f th e re g im e n t w as scattered a ro u n d five villages, an d th e B o lshe­ v ik soldiers sim p ly m a rc h e d u p to the houses w h e re th e officers w e re sleeping and arrested th em . T h e re w as n o o p p o sitio n fro m o rd in a ry W h ite soldiers “ because th ey k n e w o u r cause w as rig h t” . It w as n o t u ntil the afte rn o o n th at th e m u tin o u s tro o p s decided to tak e th e re g im e n ta l h ea d q u arte rs, and it w as ap p a ren t th at n o n ew s o f th e re v o lt h ad y et filtered th ro u g h . S h ch etin in claim s the credit for the arrest o f C o lo n e l Laurie. H e recalled: A t th e B ritish offices th e day w as passing in its usual w ay. E v e r y th in g w as calm . T h e re w as n o fuss o r noise. C o lo n el L aurie w as sittin g in his w ell lit office, stu d y in g a wall m ap w ith w h ite an d blue flags o n it. T h e w h ite ones w e re for th e Interven tion ists. T h e blue ones w e re fo r the Reds. W e ru s h e d in an d o u r arrival w as definitely n o t expected. W e p o in te d o u r rifles at the C o lo n el. H e w as so su rp rise d he j u s t sat there, as i f he w as nailed to th e chair, and he refused to m o v e. O u r lads k n e w w h a t to do and th ey w e n t o v e r and picked h im u p still in the chair an d to o k h im o u t to w h e re w e had lined u p the rest o f th e B ritish officers. It w as all o ver. W e had g o t the lot. W e w e re n o w th ree rifle co m panies, a m ach in e g u n d eta ch m en t, a m ach in e g u n tra in in g scho ol c o m p a n y , a cavalry d e ta ch m en t, and su p p ly and m edical units. W e h ad also captu red a m m u n itio n s , food, and th ree boats. I w as elected the n e w C o m m a n d e r o f the re g im e n t. S hchetin in said th at th e re g im e n t th en linked u p w ith the n ea rb y 154th R ed A r m y re g im e n t. Soviet historians ten d to arg ue th at this m u tin y w as th e b e g in n in g o f th e en d fo r the in terv e n tio n , b u t th at w as already lo n g past. W h a t it did spell o u t in u n m ista k ab le term s w as th at th ere w as n o chance th a t the P ro vision al g o v e r n m e n t in A rc h an g e l co u ld h o ld o u t against th e B olsheviks once the Allies had left - fo r w h ile th ere w e re indiv id uals w h o w ere p re p are d to give th eir lives in th e a n ti-B o lsh ev ik cause th ere w as h a rd ly a u n it that w as n o t rid d led w ith su b v ersio n . In p ractical te rm s th e O n e g a m u tin y w as a severe e m b a rra s s m e n t to th e A llied Forces, c u ttin g th e lan d link b e tw e e n M a y n a rd and Iro n sid e an d creatin g a t w o - w a y th reat. I f the B o lsheviks stru ck to th e east th ey w o u ld th rea ten Iro n sid e ’s m en stru n g o u t along the ra ilw a y w h ile i f th ey tu rn e d w e st th ey w o u ld th rea ten S oroka, a key p o in t o n M a y n a r d ’s line o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s. O n e g a re m a in ed a 21 3

M u tin y and a Victoria Cross th re a t u n til S e p te m b e r 8th w h e n th e B olsheviks, fearing an A llied attack, set fire to the to w n an d m a rc h e d aw ay. It w as in these circu m stan ces th at Sir H e n ry R a w lin so n (“ R aw ley th e F o x ” as he w as k n o w n ), w as sent o u t to A rch an g el as C - in - C o f A rc h an g e l an d M u rm a n s k to co -o rd in a te th e w ith d ra w a l o f b o th forces. H is a p p o in tm e n t w as g reeted w ith s o m e th in g like h ysteria b y the D aily Express w h ic h arg u e d th at “ th ere will be a c o m b in e d naval an d m ilitary o p e ra tio n and the choice o f o n e o f the m o s t ex p e rien c ed B ritish generals to direct it sug gests th at it will be o n a large scale. W e are, in fact, in peril o f d riftin g in to a n e w w ar. ” A n d it added: “ T h is w ill o p e n th e eyes o f th e B ritish p ublic to th e g ra v e co nsequ en ces o f M r C h u rc h ill’s g a m b le in N o r t h Russia . . . ” W h e th e r R a w lin s o n ’s a p p o in tm e n t w as necessary is d o u b tfu l. M a y n a rd an d Iro nside w e re quite capable o f carryin g o u t the e vacuation . B u t n eith er o f th e m pub licly ob jected an d w h e n he arriv ed at A rc h an g e l o n A u g u s t 9 th Iro nside m e t h im o n the quayside. Iro n sid e h ad already set in m o tio n a series o f s tro n g raids o n the B o lsh e v ik s design ed to give th e m , in a later g en e ral’s w o rd s , a “ b lo o d y n o s e ” , to p ersu ad e th e m n o t to interfere w ith the evacu ­ atio n a n d to give the P ro v isio n al g o v e r n m e n t’s forces b re a th in g space o n ce the B ritish h ad left. T h e R o y al Fusiliers w e re in th e th ick o f it, u rg e d o n b y th e th ru s tin g Sadleir-Jackson. O n e o f the officers o f th e 4 5th R o y al Fusiliers w as E d w a rd S u tro w h o later becam e fa m o u s as a B ritish eccentric. H e d ro v e ro u n d L o n d o n after W o rld W a r II in a w h ite R olls R oyce, to o k a coffee g rin d e r and su p p ly o f beans w ith h im w h e re v e r he w e n t in the w o rld , and, re sp le n d en t in an op era cloak, a tte n d e d so m e 6,000 theatrical first n ights. B u t o u t in the forests a ro u n d A rc h an g e l he lived a different s o rt o f life and w as a w a rd e d the M C fo r gallantry. W h e n he re tu rn e d to E n g la n d he to o k w ith h im a little d o g he called D v in a an d s w o re it h ad saved his life. H is m o th e r, h o w e v e r, disliked the d o g and w h e n o n e d ay she dis­ c o v e red a p u d d le o n th e k itch en floor, she b an ish ed D v in a fro m th e ho use, w h e re u p o n S u tro, p ro te stin g the p u d d le h ad co m e fro m a leak ing re frig erato r, sto rm e d o u t o f th e h o u se w ith his d o g , an d b o o k e d passage fo r th e m b o th to N e w Z ea lan d w h e re he stay ed fo r sixteen years. W h e n he re tu rn e d to E n g la n d he w o u ld n e v e r a llo w h u n tin g o v e r his land because, he said, he h ad fo u n d o u t w h a t it w as like to be h u n te d in Russia. A m o n g S u tr o ’s papers is th e co p y o f a so n g su n g b y the 45th to th e tu n e o f a p o p u la r m u sic-h a ll song:

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Archangel, Jun e-S ep tem b er 1919 Sadleir, Sadleir, Sadleir m y bo y , W h e re are y o u tak in g us n o w ? Y o u p ro m is e d to take us h o m e after the s h o w E v e r since th en its been all p u sh and go. All th e C o m p a n y K eep o n asking m e, W h ic h day, w h a t day? I d o n ’t k n o w w h a t to say. Sadleir, Sadleir, Sadleir m y bo y, W h e re are y o u tak in g us n o w ? T h e a n s w e r to th a t q u estio n w as in to the s w a m p s and forests and m o s q u ito e s to kill as m a n y B o lsheviks as possible. O n A u g u s t 10th, th e day after R a w lin s o n ’s arrival, the R oyal Fusiliers and W h ite R ussian units attack ed the B o lsh e v ik -h eld village o f Seltsoe. T h e plan w as fo r the R ussians to m a k e a frontal attack w h ile C C o m p a n y o f th e Fusiliers attacked the flank an d A an d D co m p a n ie s w e n t o f f o n a lo n g trek to attack the villages b e h in d Seltsoe. It tu rn e d in to a confused and b lo o d y affair. T h e Fusiliers, m a k in g th eir w a y th ro u g h the forest tw o days befo re the attack, fo u n d it im p o ssib le to get th eir h eavy e q u ip m e n t th ro u g h th e m arsh es. E v e ry th in g h ad to be m an h a n d le d , the m o u n ta in b a tte ry c o u ld n o t get fo rw a rd an d packs h ad to be left b ehind. W hen th e actual attack o n Seltsoe w e n t in, it w as b ro k e n up b y B olshevik m a c h in e -g u n fire. D C o m p a n y w as th en attacked b y R ed soldiers lan d in g fro m b o ats w h ic h also o p e n e d u p o n th e m at tw o h u n d re d y ard s range. M a jo r D e M a tto s w as m o rta lly w o u n d e d and M ajo r S h ep p ard w as killed. Sm all g ro u p s o f m e n f o u g h t in dividu al battles a m o n g th e p in e trees. A llfre y ’s A C o m p a n y carried th e village o f P ip o v e ts w ith a b a y o n e t charge, d ig g in g o u t B olshevik s fro m c h im n ey s an d u n d e rn e a th m attresses. T h e y th e n w ith d r e w t h r o u g h th e forest, pickin g u p stragglers fro m o th e r un its an d w ith 400 B o lsh ev ik prison ers c a rry in g the w o u n d e d . E x h a u s te d and h u n g ry and alm o st o u t o f a m m u n itio n , th e y w e re a m b u s h e d w h ile cro ssing a single plan k b rid g e across a sm all river. T h e m e n o n th e p lan k w e re k n o ck e d in to the riv er by m a c h in e -g u n fire w h ile the ca p tu re d B o lsh ev ik s d ro p p e d the w o u n d e d an d ran. F o r a tim e th ere w as th a t to tal co n fusio n th at can be fo u n d n o w h e re else ex cep t o n a battlefield. B ullets th u d d e d in to the pine trees, m e n crashed th r o u g h th e u n d e r g r o w th and th e w o u n d e d scream ed as th ey w e re carried aw a y b y the river. T h e situ atio n w as saved b y C a p ta in S. S. H a rris o n o f th e Irish G u ard s w h o w as 215

M u tin y and a Victoria Cross serv in g w ith the M ac h in e G u n C o rp s. H e k e p t his head, rap id ly m o u n te d his g u n s o n th e riv er b a n k and d ro v e o f f the am b u sh ers. H e g o t a b ar to his M C fo r “ g allan try an d g o o d w o r k ” . F or days afte rw a rd s the w o o d s w ere full o f lost m en , b o th B o lsh ev ik s an d B ritish, as th e y stru g g le d to find their w a y to safety, occasionally m ee tin g an d clashing b efore re s u m in g th eir h u n t fo r th eir o w n p osition s. B ritish planes flew lo w o v er the forest, firing co lo u re d lights to lead stragglers in th e rig h t d irectio n w h ile b u g lers c o n sta n tly s o u n d e d “ th e ra lly ” at the edge o f th e forest to g u id e the lost m e n h o m e . E v en tu a lly m o s t o f th em , inclu d in g th e Fusiliers’ to u g h A u stralian c o m m a n d e r, C o lo n el D avis, reached safety. B u t fo u r officers h ad been killed in the o p e ra tio n along w ith o ne C o m p a n y S e rg e a n t-M a jo r and t w e n ty o th e r ranks. O n e o f the dead officers w as L o rd S e ttrin g to n w h o , i f he h ad lived, w o u ld have b e c o m e th e D u k e o f R ic h m o n d and G o rd o n . D e sp ite th e casualties and th e co nfusion, the o p e ra tio n w as ju d g e d b y th e B ritish to be a success: the B o lsh ev ik s h ad lost m a n y m o re m e n and h ad been so d iso rgan ised b y the Fusiliers’ attack o n th eir rear th at th ey m a d e o f f th r o u g h the forest, a b a n d o n in g Seltsoe w h ic h w as n o w o cc u p ied b y th e W h ite R ussians. T h e 45 th w e re in v o lv e d in a n o th e r desperate affair a fo rtn ig h t later at E m ts a o n th e railw ay. T h e village ch a n g ed h an d s several tim es d u rin g furio us fig h tin g b efo re finally b ein g held b y the Fusiliers. It w as th ere o n A u g u s t 29th th at S ergeant S am uel Pearse died w in n in g th e V icto ria C ross. It w as th e o n ly V C a w a rd e d to a so ldier t h r o u g h o u t the in te rv e n tio n alth o u g h , as w e shall see, th ree naval officers w e re also to w in th e m edal. P earse had been b o rn in W ales, b u t g re w u p in A ustralia. H e jo in e d th e A u stralian A r m y as s o o n as he w as old e n o u g h in 1915 an d b ecam e a m a c h in e -g u n n e r o n the W e ste rn F ro n t w h e re he w o n th e M ilita ry M edal. H e v o lu n ­ teered fo r the R elief Force, tran sferred to th e B ritish A rm y o n J u ly 18th, 1919, and sailed to j o i n the Fusiliers. H e w as in action alm o st im m e d ia te ly and at E m tsa, ac co rding to his citation: “ D u rin g the o p e ra tio n against th e e n e m y b a tte ry p o sitio n n o rth o f E m ts a . . . S erg ean t P earse cut his w a y th ro u g h the e n e m y b arb e d w ire u n d e r v e ry h ea v y m a c h in e -g u n an d rifle fire, and cleared a w a y fo r the tro o p s to en te r th e b a tte ry p osition. Seeing th a t a b lo ck h o u se w as h arassing o u r advance and causing us casualties, he ch arg ed the b lo c k h o u s e sin g le-h a n d ed , killing the o cc u p an ts w ith b o m b s . T h is gallant n o n -c o m m is s io n e d officer m e t his d eath m in u te s later, an d it w as d ue to h im th at th e p o sitio n w as carried w ith so few casualties. H is m ag n ifice n t b ra v ery and u tte r d isreg a rd for personal d a n g e r w o n h im the a d m ira tio n o f all tr o o p s .” 216

Archangel, June-Septem ber lg ig T h e fierceness o f th e fig h tin g for E m tsa w as re co rd e d by S am oilo. T w o B ritish battalions, he w ro te , “ w e re th r o w n in to the attack o n o u r rig h t flank and cam e at us o u t o f th e forest. T h e y reached o u r artillery po sitions and to o k th e m after six h o u rs o f fig h tin g . T h e y w e n t o n to try to cap tu re A rm o u r e d T ra in N o . 20. b u t a lth o u g h th e crew w as killed, it w as started and w e n t to the aid o f the 1st L ig h t-A rtille ry b attery and to o k it to safety. T h e In te rv e n ­ tio nists set E m ts a o n fire and d estro y e d the w a te r to w e r. B y m id n ig h t th e y h ad o v e rru n all o u r fro n tlin e po sition s b u t 500 o f o u r m e n plus ten m a c h in e -g u n s and fo u r m in e th ro w e rs m a n a g e d to b reak o u t. T h e 155th re g im e n t m a n a g e d to h o ld o n to the railw ay statio n fo r n early tw o days. B u t n o rein fo rce m en ts could get th ro u g h . T h e B ritish attack ed again and again and set th e station on fire. O u r m e n w e re ex h a u ste d and s u rre n d e re d .” T h e re w e re o f cou rse o th e r re g im e n ts in v o lv ed in the actions a ro u n d A rch an g el. T h e R o yal Scots w h o had en d u re d th e w o rs t o f the w in te r fig h tin g had g o n e h o m e in J u n e to be d em o b ilised b u t th eir place h ad b een taken b y a n u m b e r o f fam o u s re g im e n ts. T h e re w e re R oy al W a rw ic k s attached to th e O x and B ucks L igh t In fan try in G r o g a n ’s B rig ade. T h e re w e re m e n o f the W iltshires serving w ith th e H a m p s h ire s w h o h ad re tu rn e d to th e fro n t line and ac q u itte d th em selv es w ell u n d e r th eir n e w C O . T h e H ig h la n d L ig h t In fan try w e re th ere and so w e re th e D u rh a m L ig h t Infantry an d th e L iv erpo ols. T h e tw o Y o rk s h ire battalions had been reha­ bilitated and h ad w o n a n u m b e r o f aw ard s for gallantry. All the s u p p o rtin g arm s w e re rep rese n te d and th e R oyal M arines served as b o th soldiers an d sailors o n b o a rd the riv er g u n b o ats. A n d , as the B ritish A r m y had learned the lesson o f th e m a c h in e -g u n the hard w a y o n the W e ste rn F ro n t, the M ac h in e G u n C o rp s w as e v e ry ­ w h e re. T h e T a n k C o rp s d e ta c h m e n t had arrived w ith its three M a rk V h ea v y tank s and th ree M e d iu m B “ W h ip p e ts ” and its official m asco t “ N e ll” , a m essen g e r dog, w o u n d e d in action in France. G r o g a n ’s B rigad e, h o ld in g the P inega R iv er fro n t to the east o f th e D v in a, fo llo w ed th e sam e policy as S adleir-Jackson’s, deliver­ in g a series o f sharp b lo w s against the B o lsh evik s like a b o x e r ja b b in g to sap his o p p o n e n t ’s stren g th . A ircraft w e re used e x te n ­ sively in these o p eratio n s, d e v e lo p in g a system o f co -o p era tio n w ith th e g r o u n d forces w h ich , alas, h ad to be learned all o v e r again b y th e B ritish in W o rld W a r II. P o iso n gas w as used ex ten siv ely and a list o f p re cau tio n s issued to th e tro o p s fo llo w in g u p a gas attack fro m th e air:

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M u tin y and a Victoria Cross A. N o m a n to en te r th e ‘s m o k e d area’ u ntil o n e an d h a lf h o u rs after th e last b o m b is d ro p p e d . B. C ellars and cavities w ill be avoided. C . N o w a te r in these villages w ill be d ru n k . D . E a rth is c o n ta m in a te d w h e re b o m b s d ro p . Skin con tact w ill be avo ided. C lo se d h ouses w ill be specially w a tc h e d as p ad d e d d o o rs m a y keep o u t th e gas. C ig a re tte s m o k in g will give so m e relief i f gas is inhaled. O n e o f these gas attacks w as o rd e re d for S ep tem b er 4th: “ P o ch a a nd V e k h to v o will be heavily gas b o m b e d b y o u r aeroplanes. Im m e d ia te ly a fte rw a rd s these places will be raided and d e s tro y e d .” W e h av e a rare o p p o r tu n ity in this instance to read re p o rts fro m b o th sides o f th e sam e action. G r o g a n ’s H Q W a r D ia ry records: “ A e ro p lan es d ro p p e d 200 gas b o m b s o n Pocha. O n e plane forced to land N o r t h o f P rilu k an d w as afte rw a rd s d e stro y e d b y us. Gas b o m b s o n ly p a rtly su cc essfu l.” T h e R ussian ac co u n t w as sent b y telep rin te r fro m O p e ra tio n s C h i e f B u re n in an d M ilita ry C o m m is s a r P o p o v o f th e 6 th A rm y : N o r t h e r n D v in a d istrict. P in eg a p o sitio n (2nd B rigade). O n Sept 4 th th e e n e m y shelled p ositio n s o f the 481st Rifle R e g im e n t in re g io n o f U s t-P o g a (Pocha) village w ith six-inch w e ap o n s. E n e m y aircraft w e re used as sp o tters to co rrect shelling. O n e o f th e aircraft ca u g h t fire an d cam e d o w n n ear village o f P rilutskay a. D u r in g S ept 4 e n e m y aircraft d ro p p e d u p to 100 b o m b s in o u r po sitio n s o f w h ic h m o s t w e re suffocatin g gas. O n e p erso n killed. O n e w o u n d e d . Several p erso ns p o iso n ed b y th e gas. T w o h orses killed. O n e w o u n d e d . . . O n e o f th e reasons for th e lack o f effectiveness o f th e gas w as s im p ly th a t the B olsh eviks h ad been issued w ith gas m asks. T h e pilots w e re b u sy y o u n g m en . Flying a v ariety o f planes and o ften e x c h a n g in g th e m , th ey flew m issions alm o st ev ery day. T h e L og B o o k o f 2 nd Lt L. W . M a s o n sh o w s h im “ B o m b in g g u n b o a ts o n D v in a . . . R aid o n B o lo airp ort. N ie u p o r t in flames . . . B o m b in g B o lo f le e t. . . Sent g u n b o a t u p in flam es . . . T ro its k o y e , strafin g tre n c h e s .” A n o th e r pilot, M a jo r C a rr, lan ded o n a B o lsh e­ vik a e ro d ro m e and tax ied r o u n d s h o o tin g it u p b efore tak in g o f f again. O n e o f th e pilots flying fro m B erezn ik airfield w as th e W o rld W a r I A ce C a p ta in Ira “ T a f fy ” Jo n e s w h o h a d sh o t d o w n fo rty G e rm a n s o v e r th e W e ste rn F ront. B u t these w e re o n ly th e last flickers o f a d y in g battle. T h e Allies 218

Archangel, Jun e-S ep tem b er 1919 pu lled back in to A rc h an g e l w ith th e R oy al Fusiliers p ro v id in g th e re arg u a rd , a s o m e w h a t risky business, th e D v in a b ein g so lo w th at th e ir tra n s p o r t barges o ften stu ck o n sandbanks. T h e B olsheviks, w h o h ad suffered h ea v y casualties in these final actions, to o k th eir re v en g e b y sn ip in g at th e stran d e d bo ats and killed several m en. S o m e b oats w e re d e s tro y e d b y m ines floated d o w n the river. H M S G low Worm, o n e o f th e g u n b o ats, w as b lo w n u p in this fashion an d th e captain killed. H M S Sword Dance, a m in esw ee p er, w as also d estro y e d . It w as decided th at tw o o f the n e w ly arriv ed tanks, o n e H e a v y and o n e W h ip p e t, w o u ld be given to the R ussians to fo rm the N o r t h R ussian T a n k C o rp s an d a tan k school w as hastily set u p to teach th e n e w corps, c o m m a n d e d b y C o lo n e l K e n o tk e n ich , h o w to use th e m . T w o n ig h ts befo re the ev acu atio n this b ra n d n e w corps en te rtain ed th e ir B ritish tu to rs to d in n e r at the C lu b St G eorg es in th e P e tro g ra d s k i and heaped h o n o u rs an d deco ratio n s o n th em . T h e Forces n e w sp a p e r, th e Archangel G azette p rin te d its last edition. T h e tro o p s did s o m e last m in u te b arg ain in g , called “ S k o lk e rin g ” after th e R ussian w o r d Skolka m e a n in g “ h o w m u c h ? ” M o s t o f th e m w a n te d to tak e furs h o m e . T h e Y M C A closed its d oo rs. T h e S la v o -B ritish B o y s L egion faced an un ce rtain future. A n d tho se citizens w h o k n e w v e ry w ell w h a t th eir fu tu re w o u ld be u n d e r the B o lsh ev ik s applied to be taken to E n g lan d . U n its w h ic h w e re n o lo n g e r need ed h ad been sent back d u rin g late A u g u s t and early S ep tem b er. O n S ep tem b er 9th G H Q N o r t h Russia closed d o w n , o n th e 23rd all B ritish tro o p s w ith d re w to the city and th en o n the 27th u n d e r co v er o f a cu rfew a c o n v o y o f so m e fo rty -fiv e ships sailed f ro m A rchangel. A re arg u a rd o f C C o m p a n y o f th e 4 5th R o y al Fusiliers an d a Lew is G u n C o m p a n y co v ered the ev a cu atio n w h ile seaplanes p atro lled o v erh ead and coastal m o to r bo ats sealed o f f th e river. H M S F o x , steam u p and g un s trained o n th e city, sto o d b y to deal w ith any interference. R aw lin so n and Iro n sid e b o a rd e d the tra n s p o rt Tsaritza. T h e w in d b lew h a lf a gale, h o w lin g t h r o u g h the deserted, silent city. T h e Fusiliers w e re taken o n th e o c e a n -g o in g tu g War-Karma and carried d o w n riv er to b o a rd th e Kildonan Castle. T h e re b ein g n o ro o m on any o f th e ships for o ne o f th e coastal m o t o r bo ats w h ic h h ad d o n e such a g o o d j o b o n the D v in a , she w as p u m p e d full o f trac er bullets until she w as des­ tro y e d . T h a t n ig h t S adleir-Jack son ’s s ta ff o n b o a rd the Kildonan Castle g o t v ery tig h t in th e s m o k e r o o m and d eb a g g ed certain o f their colleagues w h o th ey co n sid ered b u m p tio u s . It w as a peculiarly B ritish w a y o f m o u rn in g a failed enterprise. 219

M u tin y and a Victoria Cross W h e n G eneral Iro n sid e arriv ed at L iverpo ol on O c to b e r 6th, a re p o rte r asked h im i f he w o u ld care to say a n y th in g a b o u t th e ex p e d itio n . H e replied th a t he th o u g h t to o m u c h had been said a b o u t it already, b u t ad d e d th at he th o u g h t the ex p e d itio n h ad d o n e its w o r k and th a t th e R ussian loyalist forces w o u ld n o w be able to stan d b y them selv es. B u t, inev itab ly, on ce th e B ritish had sailed aw ay, the N o r t h R ussian A r m y su c c u m b e d sw iftly to th e B olsheviks, a lth o u g h th ere w e re certainly great deeds o f in divid ual b ra v e ry b y th ose left to fight. M a jo r J. N . L. B ry a n w h o h ad c o m m a n d e d th e tan k C o rp s d e ta c h m e n t, to ld in th e T a n k Corps Journal h o w he h ad received a cable fro m C o lo n el K e n o tk e n ic h w h o h ad g o n e into action w ith his t w o tan ks s h o rtly after the evacuation. It read: “ P ro u d keep trad itio n s, E n glish T a n k C o rp s . T o o k in g lo rio u s fight five fo r­ tified p o in ts an d Plesetskaya S ta tio n .” B u t it co u ld n o t last. A n d C o lo n e l K e n o tk e n ic h ’s H e a v y M a rk V n o w stands in A rc h an g e l as a Soviet m e m o ria l to their v ic to ry o v e r th e “ forces o f capitalism an d im p e ria lism ” .

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CHAPTER 1 6

The Last Battles Murmansk, A pril-O ctober l gi g

T h r o u g h o u t th e s u m m e r o f 1919, M a y n a rd , in M u rm a n s k , a lth o u g h u n d e r o rd e rs to d o n o th in g to risk casualties, had c o n ­ d u c te d a sm all b u t professional w a r in w h ich, ap art fro m a few m in o r setbacks, he h ad alw ays c o m e o u t o n top. In A pril, M a jo r A n d e rs o n , th e officer c o m m a n d in g at Segezha, learning th at the B o lsh e v ik s w e re g a th e rin g at U ro s o z e v o , so m e tw e n ty m iles d o w n th e railw ay line, to attack h im , h ad launched a p re -e m p tiv e attack an d ro u te d th e m . T h e y left fifty dead, and fo rty p rison ers w ere tak e n to be sent back to the o n c e -p ro u d b attleship Chesma, n o w c o n v e rte d in to a p riso n ship. A n d e rs o n ’s m e n ca p tured , a m o n g m u c h else, tw o field g u n s w ith 7,000 shells and tw e n ty - tw o freight cars alo n g w ith m u c h valuable railw ay repair e q u ip m e n t. M a y n a rd later paid g en e ro u s trib u te to the F rench c rew o f an a rm o u re d train: th e success, he said, w as largely d u e to their g allantry. Allied losses w e re o n e dead an d five w o u n d e d . In th e su b seq u e n t o p eratio n s to tid y the battlefield, n e w ly train ed R ussian tro o p s, u n d e r a first class officer, C a p ta in D a v id o v , m o p p e d u p a series o f B o lsh evik p o s­ itio ns in actions w h ic h e n c o u ra g e d the W h ite R ussians to pu sh fu rth e r so uth. T h is placed M a y n a rd in s o m e th in g o f a q u an dary: a lth o u g h th e o c c u p a tio n o f the n o rth e r n tip o f Lake O n e g a n o w seem ed an attainable an d w o rth w h ile objective, he w as co n stra in ed b y o rd e rs fr o m L o n d o n to a po licy o f n o n -o ffen c e and th e R ussians w e re n o t yet sufficiently train ed in s tre n g th to u n d e rta k e w h a t in M u rm a n s k te rm s w as a m a jo r offensive. M a y n a rd , h o w e v e r, felt th at it w as w o r th asking th e W ar O ffice fo r p e rm issio n to m o u n t an attack. H e p o in te d o u t th at the estab­ lis h m e n t o f a n e w line ru n n in g fro m P o v en ets in the east to M e d v e z h y a G o ra in th e w e st w o u ld p u t h im in a m u c h stro n g e r tactical positio n. H e also felt he n o w h a d th e tro o p s to do th e jo b : he h ad b een re info rced b y tw o special com panies, o n e fro m the M id d lesex R e g im e n t and the o th e r fro m the K in g ’s R oyal Rifle C o rp s , and h ad also ac q u ired t w o co m p an ies o f A m eric an railw ay tro o p s w h o p ro v e d to be invaluable. T h e y w ere n o t o n ly ex p e rt 221

T he Last Battles ra ilw a y m e n , th e y also h a d to be restrain ed fro m seeking o u t the fig h tin g . M o re o v e r he n o w h ad sufficient artillery. S o m e w h a t to his su rp rise he w o n ap p ro v al fro m the W a r O ffice fo r th e offensive and su b se q u e n tly w e n t at his pre p ara tio n s w ith an en th u s ia s m w h ic h d re w g ro a n s f ro m his already o v e r -w o rk e d staff. H e h ad a pair o f 4.5 h o w itz e rs m o u n te d o n railw ay truck s, sent an ice -b rea k er an d traw le rs to fetch a field b a tte ry fro m ice -b o u n d P ech e n g a and g a th e re d to g e th e r a flotilla o f ancient boats to serve as a n a v y o n Lake O n e g a . T h e flagship w as a su b m arin e -ch a se r a rm e d w ith 37 m m g u n s an d re ch risten ed the Jo lly Roger, and th e w h o le fleet w as h o isted o n to flat cars read y to be taken so u th b y rail. T h e o n ly d e p a rtm e n t w ith w h ic h M a y n a rd n o w h ad s o m e difficulty w as air su p p o rt. H is six R E8s w e re in such a dread ful c o n d itio n th a t o n ly th ree o f th e m ev er flew, an d th eir pilots, u nlik e th e aces w h o h ad been sent to o th e r p arts o f Russia, w e re in ex p e ri­ enced y o u n g ste rs. M a y n a rd split his 3,000 m e n in to co lu m n s o n th ree lines o f advance: B ritish , French, Italian, Serbian and R ussian tro o p s w e re all in v o lv e d w h ile th e A m eric an s rebuilt brid ges, re-laid tracks and th e n g u a rd e d th eir w o rk . T h e offensive lasted fro m M a y 1st un til M a y 21 st w h e n M e d v e z h y a G o ra fell. It h ad been held u p b y th e on set o f th e th a w w h ic h left th e m e n s tru g g lin g th ro u g h m arshes and ru s h in g stream s b u t en d e d in co m p lete success. T h e O n e g a fleet n o w cam e s o u th d o w n the line and the Jo lly Roger w as lau n ch ed o n J u n e 4th. It p ro v e d to be an u n lu c k y ship fo r h e r engines rep eated ly b ro k e d o w n and o n J u n e 8th she b u rs t in to flam es and e x p lo d e d , killing five m en. B u t fo r th e m o m e n t she w as inv alu ab le and h er fleet, in clu d in g so m e bo ats w h ic h had been left in th e n o w m e ltin g ice b y the re treatin g R eds, n u m b e re d six m o to r bo ats and tw o steam launches. M a y n a rd w h o finished the offensive w ith j u s t o n e o f his R E 8s flying - an d th a t w as m o re an act o f faith b y its pilot th a n a irw o rth i­ ness - also acquired a n e w air force, a flight o f S h o rt seaplanes an d a flight o f Fairey IIIC seaplanes, delivered to M u rm a n s k b y the seaplane carrier Nairana w h o se aircraft h ad frig h te n ed the B o lsh e­ viks o u t o f A rc h an g e l the p re v io u s A u g u st. A rriv in g b y rail f ro m M u rm a n s k o n J u n e 4th, the first plane to o k o f f fro m M e d v e z h y a G o ra tw o days later. T h e y first s h o w e d their w o r t h o n J u n e 8th w h e n fo u r arm e d B o lsh e v ik steam ers p u t in an appearance. T h e y w e re b ig g e r and m o re heavily a rm e d th an M a y n a r d ’s flotilla w h ich , nevertheless, sailed o u t to do battle. It c o u ld have en d e d in disaster b u t th e seaplanes to o k off, su rp rise d the B o lsh e v ik ships and sent th e m sc u rry in g fo r safety u n d e r a hail o f 222

M urm ansk, A pril-O ctober lg ig b o m b s an d m a c h in e -g u n fire and w ith the m o to r b oats n ip p in g at th e ir heels. L ie u te n a n t-C o m m a n d e r J. H . M a th e r, serv in g as a m a jo r in th e R o y al E ng in eers, w o n th e D S O in this action for ta k in g his fo u r b o ats o u t to attack the B o lsh ev ik g u n b o ats. O n e o f M a y n a r d ’s stren g th s w as th at he h ad a n u m b e r o f officers w h o d elig h ted in tak in g in d e p e n d e n t action w ith sm all ban ds o f locally raised “ p a rtisa n s” . O n e o f th e m , C a p ta in M . B. B u rro w s o f th e 5th D r a g o o n G u a rd s, h ad w o n th e M C d u rin g th e M a y fig h tin g fo r lan d in g w ith a p a rty o f ten m e n o n the Sunga P eninsula o n Lake O n e g a . A c c o rd in g to his citation, he “ raised partisans, and b y his en erg etic action against the B o lshevists cov ered th e lan d in g o f a R ussian b a tta lio n .” S o m e w eeks later, n o w a m ajor, B u rro w s w o n th e D S O fo r a n o th e r m ission b eh in d the lines. “ T a k in g 120 m en across 15 m iles o f Lake O n e g a , this p art b ein g in the h an d s o f the e n e m y , (he) lan d e d th e m n ear V ate N a v o lo k , 21 versts [14 miles] in rear o f the e n e m y fro n t line an d c a p tu red th e g arriso n o f this place. H e th e n to o k his p a rty o n to the railw ay w est o f V ate N a v o lo k and b y his skilful d isp o sitio n s g reatly assisted the c o lu m n o p e ra tin g on th e r a ilw a y .” A n o th e r y o u n g officer w h o b ecam e s o m e th in g o f a legen d for his d a rin g o p e ra tio n s and w o u ld o b v io u s ly have m ad e a fine p re sen td ay o fficer o f th e elite Special A ir Service re g im e n t, w as L ieutenant E. A. Sm all o f th e G eneral List. H e g ath e red to g e th e r a g ro u p w h ich bec am e k n o w n as “ S m a ll’s P artisan s” . T h e y w e re described as bein g like “ a h u n ts m a n and his h o u n d s ” . S m all’s usual dress w as a pair o f o ilskin tro u sers an d a k h ak i cricket shirt. O n e o f his exp loits w as to b rin g back a traito r fro m six ty miles b e h in d th e B o lsh e v ik lines. T h is m a n had b etra y ed an Allied agent w h o h ad been killed b y h a v in g a sh arp en ed stake th ru s t u p h im . T h e tra ito r w as han g ed . H is m e n w e re d e v o te d to h im an d as o n e o f his colleagues ra th e r je a lo u s ly w ro te , “ th e y saw to it th at he alw ays g o t his eggs for b re a k fa s t.” O n a n o th e r occasion, w ith th irty -se v e n o f his m en , Sm all cap­ tu re d a B o lsh e v ik b rig a d e c o m m a n d e r, th e brig ad e s ta ff an d fifty o th e r p riso n ers, stole th e breech b lo ck o f a 3-inch g u n an d b ro u g h t th e m all b ack to M a y n a rd as a gift. H is m o s t d arin g an d valuable raid b e h in d th e lines d e stro y e d the vitally im p o rta n t b rid g e o v e r the S una R iv er w h ic h carried all th e B o lsh e v ik s’ supplies fro m P e tro ­ grad. T h e R A F h ad been try in g to k n o c k o u t this b rid g e fo r so m e tim e, b u t w ith o u t success as it p ro v id e d a sm all targ e t an d w as w ell d efen d ed b y h ig h -a n g le m a c h in e -g u n s. O n e day M a y n a rd , in exas­ p eratio n , said: “ I w ish so m e o n e w o u ld b u rn d o w n th at w re tc h e d 223

The Last Battles b r i d g e .” Sm all o v e rh e a rd h im , g ath e red his partisans to g e th e r and set o u t o n J u ly 18th. It to o k th e m five days, h id in g d u rin g th e day an d h ik in g across ro u g h c o u n try at n ig h t, alw ays in d a n g e r o f b ein g b e tra y e d o r ru n n in g in to a B o lsh ev ik p atrol. B u t th ey arriv ed w ith o u t being discov ered , su rp rised th e g u a rd at the station, cap­ tu re d tw o m a c h in e -g u n s and th en set fire to the b rid ge, co m p lete ly d e s tro y in g th e n o rth e r n en d and m a k in g it im passable. Sm all w as aw a rd e d th e D S O for his en d eav o u rs. D u rin g this fig h tin g , th e n e w R ussian re g im e n ts w e re bein g train e d w ith the u tm o s t speed. M a y n a rd n eed ed th e m in the line because so m a n y o f his orig inal force h ad go n e h o m e. T h e C a n a ­ dians had gone; so all to o qu ickly, had the A m erican railw ay tro o p s. A n d th e ad m ira b le Serbs w e re th in k in g it w as tim e th ey w e n t back to th e ir o w n c o u n try . M o re o v e r, the R ussians h ad to be given experience in the field b efo re th e Allies finally w ith d re w . M a y n a rd w as deligh ted, therefo re, w h e n the W h ite R ussian, G eneral S kobeltsin, a rriv e d fro m A rch an g el to take charge o f th e R u ssian tro o p s. A n attack w as p ro p o s e d o n Siding 10 s o u th o f M e d v e z h y a G o ra in w h ic h the n e w ly raised R ussian re g im e n ts w o u ld be u sed in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e O lo n e tz R e g im e n t fo rm e d o f R ussians an d K arelians fro m th e Finnish b o rd e r w h ic h h ad alread y p ro v e d its w o r th in a n u m b e r o f en g a g em en ts. T h e attack w as to be s u p p o rte d b y B ritish artillery. T h e O lo n e tz p e rfo rm e d ad m ira b ly b u t th e n e w R ussian fo r m a ­ tio ns fled o nce the B o lsheviks o p en e d fire and the attack b ro k e d o w n . M a y n a rd , for m o ra le reasons, co u ld n o t allo w this defeat to re m a in u n av e n g ed . T h e O lo n e tz w e n t back in to action w ith the s u p p o rt o f a c o m p a n y o f Serbs and th e u n w illin g R ussians had a b a c k b o n e o f Serbs in serted into th eir ranks and w e re g iven a relatively easy task w h ile the m ain attack w as u n d e rta k e n b y B ritish in fa n try an d m a c h in e -g u n d eta ch m en ts. T h e attack w e n t in o n j u n e 13th. A ccu ra te artillery fire d em o ra lise d the B o lsh eviks and th ey fled, g iv in g th e B ritish force a w a lk o v e r w ith o u t a single casualty. T h e n e w R ussians w ere, h o w e v e r, h eavily co u n te r-a tta c k e d o n th eir p u sh d o w n the sh o re o f Lake O n e g a to F ed o to v a and it is here th a t w e pick u p the trail o f C a p ta in C ra w fo rd , fo rm e r “ K in g o f R e s tik e n t” w h o s e d iary h ad p ete red o ut. H e h ad been p u t in charg e o f all th e R ussian m ac h in e -g u n s and led th e m fo rw a rd . H e beat o f f th e B olshevik s, ad v a n ced for a n o th e r th ree m iles and ca p tu red tw e n ty - f o u r p riso n ers and a m a c h in e -g u n . H e w as aw a rd e d an M C , the citation saying: “ H is gallant leadership w as o f g reat s e rv ic e .” 224

M urm ansk, A pril-O ctober lg ig T h is success w as fo llo w ed b y a w e ll-o rg an ised c o m b in e d o p era­ tio n against th re e B o lsh ev ik ships at T o lv o y a o n th e S h u n g a P eninsula w h e re th eir g un s w e re fru stratin g W h ite R ussian a tte m p ts to c a p tu re th e p o rt. M a y n a rd had received re in fo rce m en ts fro m E n g la n d fo r his fleet: six 40 -fo o t subchasers a rm e d w ith 3 -p o u n d e rs an d m ac h in e -g u n s and six 3 5-foot m o to r boats carryinjg m ac h in e -g u n s. T h ese boats w e re u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f C o m ­ m a n d e r C u rte is R N w h o had w ith h im 14 officers an d 120 ratings. T h e y w e re m u c h sm aller th an th e B o lsh e v ik ’s steam ers w h ic h w e re b ased at th e p o rt o f P e tro z a v o d sk o n th e w e ste rn sh o re o f th e lake. B u t th ey possessed th e a d v a n tag e o f speed and m a n o e u v ra b ility and th ey h ad the R A F ’s seaplanes w h ic h w e re u n o p p o s e d in the air. F o u r Fairey seaplanes o p en e d th e attack o n th e R ed ships o n A u g u s t 3rd an d th eir b o m b s p an ick ed the R ussian crew s. T w o o f th e ships h ea d ed s o u th as fast as th eir engines w o u ld take th em , w h ile th e th ird w as r u n a g ro u n d and a b a n d o n e d b y h er crew . T h e n , w h ile th e seaplanes h arried the R ed ships, C u rte is ’s subchasers s u rro u n d e d th e m like w asps ro u n d b u m b le bees, stin g in g th e m w ith 3 -p o u n d e r shells u ntil th ey s u rre n d ere d . T h e Allied b oats th en p u t a lan d in g p a rty asho re and, to g e th e r w ith the W h ite Russians, c a p tu re d T o lv o y a . It w as a h ig h ly satisfactory exercise; th e b o o ty included a 3 00-ton ste a m e r an d a sm all d e s tro y e r a rm e d w ith tw o 3-inch g u n s and it p u t th e w h o le o f th e n o rth e r n p a rt o f th e lake u n d e r Allied con trol. M a y n a rd , after conferences in A rc h an g e l w ith Iro nsid e and G eneral E u g e n e M iller (w h o h ad tak en o v e r as head o f the N o r t h R ussian g o v e r n m e n t fro m T c h a ik o v s k y an d p ro v e d to be th e first effective R ussian leader in the n o rth ), re tu rn e d to set u p a final series o f attacks b efo re th e Allies w ith d re w . As in the A rchan gel sector, th e p u rp o s e w as to h u rt th e B o lsh ev iks as m u c h as possible an d to giv e th e W h ite R ussians tim e an d space to ensu re their survival. T h e attacks w e re to b e m ad e b y s o m e 9,000 tro o p s o f w h o m 6,000 w e re R ussians o rg a n ise d in th ree co lu m n s. So little tim e w as left before the Allies re tu rn e d to M u rm a n s k and b o a rd e d their ships for h o m e th a t th eir soldiers w e re c o n c e n tra te d in th e tw o central co lu m n s to m a k e th eir re tu rn j o u r n e y easier. It is here th a t w e m u s t tell th e s to ry o f the 6th B attalio n o f the R o y al M arin e s L ig ht In fan try. It has n ev e r been to ld before. T h e strictest ce n so rsh ip w as im p o s e d b y the B ritish W ar O ffice and A d m ira lty an d th e m e n in v o lv e d w e re so th rea ten ed th at o n e old m an , p o ssibly the last s u rv iv o r o f this u n fo rtu n a te battalion , re­ m ains to o frig h te n ed to tell his sto ry . 225

T he Last Battles T h e b attalio n h a d b ee n raised, n o t to g o to fight in N o r t h Russia, b u t fo r m a in ly ce rem o n ial duties d u rin g th e plebiscite b ein g h eld in S c h le sw ig -H o lste in w h ic h w o u ld d e te rm in e w h e th e r it w o u ld re m a in p a rt o f G e rm a n y o r re tu rn to D e n m a rk . F or th a t reason th e b a tta lio n in clu d ed y o u n g m en , m o s tly recruits, and m e n w h o d u rin g th e w a r h a d b ee n sent to sea after o n ly a b rie f p e rio d o f train in g . It also in clu d ed m e n w h o h ad re tu rn e d fro m th e m en tal a n d p hysical h ard sh ip s o f im p ris o n m e n t in G e rm a n p riso n er o f w a r c am ps, and, incred ibly, h a d n o t been g iv en leave before bein g sent a b ro a d again. O n e c o m p a n y each h ad been p ro v id e d b y the C h a th a m , P o rts ­ m o u t h and P ly m o u th division s o f the R o yal M arines along w ith a c o m p a n y o f the R o y al M a rin e A rtillery . T h e y h ad jo in e d u p at B e d e n h a m , n ear G o s p o rt, fo r train in g - b u t th eir train in g w as in ce rem o n ial drill ra th e r th a n in w a rfare u n d e r difficult co nd ition s. H o w e v e r, w h ile th e y w e re p re p a rin g for w h a t sh o u ld h ave b een a pleasan t d u ty in a frien d ly c o u n try , th e A d m ira lty w as asked to p ro v id e a m a rin e b a tta lio n to b o lster th e forces available to R a w lin s o n to c o v e r th e evacuation . T h e 6th seem ed to fit the bill a d m ir­ ably, fo r it w as n o t ex p e cted th at it w o u ld hav e to do any fig htin g. So, u n d e r L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l A. de W . K itcat, th ey w e re sh ip p ed to R ussia, lan d in g at M u r m a n s k o n A u g u s t 8th. T h e y en tra in ed th at sam e ev e n in g fo r K e m w h e re th e y a rriv ed o n th e io th to find th em selv es far fro m b ein g rear echelon soldiers. T h e m e n w e re on th e ir w a y u p to th e fro n t line to take p art in M a y n a r d ’s last push. A n d th e y w e re n o t v e ry h a p p y a b o u t it. In th e first place th ey h ad n o t been g iven th e chance to v o lu n te e r fo r th e R ussian m ission. T h e R o yal M a rin e s ’ A d ju ta n t-G e n e ra l h ad sim p ly “ v o u c h e d ” for th e m at the W ar O ffice. S econdly K itcat h ad t h o u g h t it w iser n o t to p ay th e m th e day befo re th ey left B e d e n h a m so th a t he w o u ld n o t leave any d ru n k s behin d. A n d th ird ly , w ith th e w a r o v er, n o b o d y w a n te d to risk his life o n b e h a lf o f Russia. I f it h ad b een E n g la n d th e y w o u ld h ave fo u g h t w illingly , b u t Russia w as a diffe ren t m a tte r. T h e m arin es saw th eir first action o n A u g u s t 17th w h e n C C o m p a n y , s u p p o rte d b y an a r m o u r e d train, d ro v e the B o lshevik s fu rth e r d o w n th e railw ay line. T h e n o n the n ig h t o f 2 9 th /3 0 th C C o m p a n y , u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f K itcat, attack ed th e village o f K o ik o ri. T h is w as s u p p o se d to be a p re lim in a ry to th e m ain th ru s t s o u th an d th e B olsh ev ik s w e re ex p e cted to ru n aw ay w h e n th e artillery o p e n e d u p an d th e seaplanes started to d ro p th eir b o m b s . B u t th e village w as defen d ed b y the to u g h an d experienced R ed F inns an d the m arines w e re m e t w ith c o n c e n tra te d m a c h in e -g u n 226

M urm ansk, A p ril-O ctober lg ig fire fro m p re p a re d positio ns. K itcat w as w o u n d e d in th e foot, th ree m e n w e re killed, eig h teen w o u n d e d an d the m arines fell back, e v e n tu ally h a ltin g at S v y atn av o lo k , so m e ten m iles aw ay , at nine in th e ev en in g . T h e y h ad h ad n o fo o d since m id n ig h t th e d ay befo re and w e re e x h a u ste d . W h e n th e y w e re relieved b y th e E ast Surreys, th e y left all th eir gear b eh in d w h ile th ey m o v e d fu rth e r back to T iv d iy a , w h ic h in v o lv e d a te n -m ile r o w across Lake L im o zero . It w as an u n d istin g u is h e d action w h ic h fo re s h a d o w e d th e tro u b le to com e. O n S e p te m b e r 8th B C o m p a n y re tu rn e d to the a ttack o n K o ik o ri w h ile D C o m p a n y attacked U ssu n a. T h e m e n o f B C o m p a n y had already m a d e it clear to th eir officers th at th ey sh o u ld n o t try to w in any m edals. T h e y ran in to tro u b le im m e d iately . W h e n B C o m ­ p a n y ’s R u ssian g u id e disap peared it sw iftly becam e ev id e n t th at he w as a B o lsh e v ik ag en t fo r th e m arines w e re so o n c o m in g u n d e r h ea v y fire fro m th eir rear. M a n y o f th e m w e re sh o t in th e back. O n e o f th e m w as P riv a te D a v e y w h o , w h e n he w as shot, sim p ly said “ I’ve c o p p e d i t ” and died. P riv ate P y le w h o w as w o u n d e d and c a p tu re d d u rin g this actio n said later th at he h ad seen th e g u id e in th e R ussian cam p. P yle w as later a w a rd e d the D C M fo r his “ g allan try a n d d e te rm in a tio n an d lo y a lty ” s h o w n w h ile he w as a captive o f th e B o lsh e v ik s fo r a year. B u t th e re w e re few m edals a w a rd e d to the m arin es th at day. M a jo r A. C . B a rn b y , th e c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r, w as w o u n d e d . So w as C a p ta in N o y e s. C a p ta in W atts, w h o sh o u ld have tak en o v e r c o m m a n d , collapsed an d th e c o m p a n y fell back in disarray. M u c h th e sam e th in g h a p p e n e d to D C o m p a n y and soon , instead o f ad v an cin g , th e B ritish w e re re tre a tin g in so m e h aste in th e face o f a c o u n te r-a tta c k b y R ed Finns. T h e flav o u r o f th e situ atio n m a y be ju d g e d fro m th e citations for th e m edals w h ic h w e re w o n th a t day. L ieu ten an t W . A. M . L anson o f the m arines w o n th e M C “ w h e n , a lth o u g h w o u n d e d he refused to leave the line th e re b y stead y in g his p la to o n ” . C a p ta in W . M o rris o f the M ac h in e G u n C o rp s w as a w a rd e d th e M C fo r h an d lin g “ his g u n s m o s t ably and, u n d e r h ea v y fire, successfully en g a g ed the e n e m y w h ile th e in fa n try w i t h d r e w ” . L ieuten an t W . G. Irv in eF o rtesq u e o f the R o yal E n g in ee rs g o t a b ar to his M C “ fo r consp i­ c u o u sly g o o d leadership in v ery try in g circum stances. O n th e 8th w h e n th e attac k in g tro o p s failed in th eir a tte m p t an d becam e d iso rg an ised , he to o k u p his section w ith o th e r re in fo rce m en ts and successfully held th e lin e .” T h e se citations tell th e s to ry o f b ra v e m e n acting coolly in th e face o f disaster. 227

T h e Last Battles L ie u ten a n t P. R. S m ith -H ill n o w fo u n d h im s e lf in charge o f B C o m p a n y and, as he later re p o rte d , I re o rg an ised th e c o m p a n y and m a n n e d o u tp o s ts o n th e K o ik o ri -S v y a t n a v o l o k road . O n m y re tu rn fro m speaking to M a jo r S tro v e r (M ach ine G u n C o rp s) I fo u n d the c o m p a n y collected in th e road. O n askin g w h y th ey h ad left th eir p o sitions th ey in fo rm e d m e th a t a M a jo r in the M G C h ad to ld th e m to leave th eir Lew is g u n s and “ G et to hell o u t o f i t ” as th ey w e re n o t n ee d ed an d th a t he w o u ld find s o m e o n e “ w h o w as s o m e use to th e p o s itio n .” I w as to ld b y the m e n th at M a jo r S tro v e r h ad telep h o n e d H Q in fo rm in g th e m th a t he w as sen d in g th e M arin es o u t o f it as he h ad n o use fo r th e m an d asking th at th ey sh o u ld be n eith er clo th ed o r fed. T h e w o r d h ad been passed to the m e n th at th o se w h o did n o t w ish to fig h t could m a rc h back. T h e m e n fell in and o b ey e d ord e rs. K o ik o ri an d U s s u n a w e re n ev e r taken, b u t the rest o f M a y n a r d ’s attack, lau n c h ed o n S e p te m b e r 14th, succeeded brilliantly. T h e B o lsh e v ik s suffered h ea v y casualties, in clu d in g a th o u s a n d m e n tak e n p riso n er. T h e ir largest ship o n th e O n e g a , a fo u r-fu n n elled d e s tro y e r, w as b o m b e d and d a m a g e d b y the seaplanes, and the w h o le fro n t ad v a n ced s o m e tw e n ty m iles so th at M a y n a rd w as able to h a n d o v e r to G eneral S k ob eltsin alo n g th e line o f the R iv er N u rm is . G eneral R a w lin s o n h ad g iven o rd e rs th at M a y n a rd s h o u ld n o t ad v an ce b e y o n d th e N u r m is in case his m e n w o u ld be to o far fo r w a rd to c o m p ly w ith th e tim e -tab le fo r th e evacuation. B y S e p te m b e r 25th S kob eltsin and his n e w R ussian A r m y h ad tak e n o v e r an d all th e A llied forces w e re m o v in g back to M u r ­ m an sk . F o r th e m th e w a r w as over. It w as also o v e r for G eneral M a y n a rd , fo r after a year o f u n re m ittin g w a r and sta ff w o r k carried o u t in the m o s t ex actin g co n ditio ns, his m edical b o a rd finally p ro v e d to h av e been co rrect in its o p in io n o f his health. W o rn o u t b y his p hysical exertion s, he b ro k e d o w n an d w as fo rb id d e n to play a ny fu rth e r p a rt in the w a r w h ic h he h ad co n d u c te d so ably. B u t fo r the 6 th B attalion , R o yal M arin es, it w as far fro m over. W h e n th e y g o t back to M u rm a n s k o v e r o n e h u n d re d o f th e m w e re c o u rt-m a rtia lle d . “ A few days la te r,” w ro te S m ith -H ill, th e b attalio n w as d ra w n up in a h o llo w squ are w ith the m e n w h o h a d been c o u rt-m a rtia lle d facing the o p e n side o f the square. T h e 228

M urm ansk, A pril-O ctober lg ig C o m m a n d in g O fficer read o u t th e charge against th e m , c o w a r­ dice, th e fin d in g o f guilty, an d th e sentence - death. I w as o n ly a few y ard s a w a y and saw th at th e y m erely lo o k e d bashful at the pu b licity , n o t sho cked . T h e C .O . c o n tin u e d to read th at the sentence h a d been c o m m u te d to seven years penal serv itu d e w ith h a rd lab o u r. C a p ta in W a tts w as also tried. H e w as ch arg ed w ith co w ard ice and “ u sin g w o rd s calculated to create alarm and d esp o n d e n c y in th at he d id say ‘th e w h o le b lo o d y c o m p a n y is lo s t’ o r w o rd s to th at effect. ” P o o r W atts. A lth o u g h it w as p o in te d o u t th at he h ad been w o u n d e d at G allipoli an d o ne o f his arm s p e rm a n e n tly disabled, th at he h ad a re c o rd o f accidents and illness and o n th at fateful day h ad used u p m o re th an six field dressings b an d a g in g th e w o u n d e d , he w as fo u n d g u ilty and cashiered. H e w as g iv en a suit o f civilian clothes and sent h o m e o n a collier. H e later j o in e d th e B lack and T a n s an d w o rk e d in an u n d e rc o v e r u n it against th e IR A , n o j o b fo r a co w ard . W h e n th e sen ten cin g w as o v e r G eneral R aw lin so n addressed the officers o f th e b attalio n and to ld th e m th at th ere w e re n o bad m en , o n ly b ad officers. A fte r he h ad left, K itcat said th at as c o m m a n d in g officer he accepted th e m ain resp on sib ility. H is career w as in ruins. H e w as placed o n h a lf p ay and th e n o n the retired list. All th e o th e r officers, ex c ep t fo r o n e captain and o n e lieuten an t received “ an ex p ressio n o f th eir L o rd s h ip s ’ g ra v e displeasu re” . S m ith -H ill s u rv iv e d this re p rim a n d to b ec o m e a B rig ad ier an d be d ec o rate d w ith th e C B E . H e later reflected th a t “ the O th e r R an k s suffered m o s t and d eserv ed it the least. T h e y w e re tra n s­ p o rte d tw o th o u s a n d m iles b y sea and 450 miles b y rail; th ey fo u g h t a m in o r actio n lasting 2V2 h o u rs - and re tu rn e d h o m e . T h e y achieved n o th in g . T h e y w e re like d isg ru n tled children in a stran g e land far fro m h o m e . ” T h e u n fo rtu n a te 6 th B attalio n left M u rm a n s k o n O c to b e r 8th on b o a rd th e SS S t Elena an d a rriv ed at G la sg o w three days later w h e re th e co m p a n ie s disp ersed to th eir p a re n t divisions and th e con victed m e n w e re tak en to serve th eir sentences in th e naval p riso n at B o d m in in C o rn w a ll. N o t a h in t o f th e affair h ad so far reached the B ritish p ub lic b u t ru m o u rs b eg a n to spread in g o v e r n m e n t circles an d th e families o f the co n v ic te d m e n h ad to be to ld th at th ey had been im p ris o n e d - a lth o u g h the families w ere given n o details o f th e offences th ey h ad c o m m itte d . E n o u g h n ew s seeped o u t for s o m e M e m b e rs o f P arliam en t to start asking q uestion s in the H o u se. A t first th ey w e re fo b b e d o f f b u t on D e c e m b e r 22nd the 229

T h e Last Battles C o n s e rv a tiv e M P , L ie u te n a n t-C o m m a n d e r K e n w o rth y , asked the First L o rd o f th e A d m ira lty i f he w as n o w in a p o sitio n to a n n o u n c e th e decisions o f the A d m ira lty o n the cases o f th e R o yal M arin es in B o d m in P riso n “ fo r offences alleged to hav e been c o m m itte d in R u ssia” . In a carefully p h ra sed re p ly M r W alter L ong, First L o rd o f th e A d m ira lty , a n n o u n c e d a re m a rk a b le m ea su re o f clem en cy for the m en , s o m e o f w h o m h a d b een j u d g e d g u ilty o f crim es deserv in g th e sentence o f death. H e first praised th e sp len d id an d d e v o te d service o f th e R o y al M arin e s t h r o u g h o u t th e G re at W ar, th en said: W e h av e g iv en these cases o u r m o s t careful and an xiou s co n ­ sid eratio n , an d h av e d ecided to deal w ith th e m in w h a t w e believe th e H o u s e w ill re g a rd as a spirit o f clem ency. A b o u t n in e ty m e n o f th e R oy al M arines in N o r t h Russia w e re fo u n d g u ilty o f in s u b o rd in a tio n an d refusal to o b ey o rd ers w h ile en g a g e d in active op eratio n s. T h e y w e re serv ing w ith the A r m y in th e field and w e re sentenced b y m ilitary co u rts-m a rtial. Subject in all cases to g o o d co n d u c t in priso n, w e hav e decided o n th e fo llo w in g re d u ctio n s in the sentences: O f th irte e n m e n sen ten ced to d eath c o m m u te d b y the G eneral O fficer C o m m a n d i n g - i n - C h ie f to five y ea rs’ penal serv itu d e tw e lv e to be released after o n e year; o n e to be released after tw o years. T w e n ty m e n sentenced to five y ea rs’ penal serv itu de, to be released after six m o n th s . F ifty -o n e m e n sentenced to tw o y ea rs’ im p ris o n m e n t w ith h a rd lab o u r, to be released after six m o n th s . Special co n sid eratio n has been g iv en to th e cases o f m e n u n d e r n in etee n years o f age at the tim e o f th e c o m m is s io n o f th e offence in q u estio n , in v iew o f the A r m y in stru ctio n , th at y o u n g soldiers w e re n o t, i f possible, to be e m p lo y e d in fro n t-lin e op erations. T w o o f th o se w h o c o n tin u e d in a refusal o f d u ty w h e n o th ers o b ey e d , w ill, in v ie w o f th eir y o u th , be released after serv in g six m o n th s . T h e re m a in d e r - six o u t o f e ig h t - h av e been released. T h e e x te n t to w h ic h it co u ld be u rg e d th a t b ad leadership o n th e p a rt o f th e officers c o n trib u te d to these incidents has been fully co nsidered, and, w h e re m erited , disciplinary action is bein g taken. R e m a rk a b ly , n o fu rth e r qu estio ns w e re asked an d n o n e w sp a p e r a tte m p te d to disco v er w h a t lay b e h in d this act o f clem ency. T h e 230

M urm ansk, A pril-O ctober lg ig affair w as k e p t so secret th at n o n e o f the generals in v o lv ed , Iro n ­ side, M a y n a rd a n d R aw lin so n , m e n tio n it in th eir m e m o irs . It w as o f cou rse q u ite sh am efu l th at th e 6 th B attalio n s h o u ld ever have been sent to R ussia an d even m o re sh am efu l th at its u n d e r-a g e soldiers an d p riso n c a m p v eterans sh o u ld hav e been t h r o w n in to th e fig h tin g . T h e su sp icio n m u s t be th at L o n g ’s a n n o u n c e m e n t w as as m u c h an ad m issio n o f g o v e rn m e n ta l respon sibility as an act o f clem ency. W h e n th e last tro o p s h ip fro m M u rm a n s k left o n the ev en in g o f O c to b e r 12th, a n o th e r episode in B ritish m ilitary h is to ry cam e to an end. T h e total casualties sustained b y the B ritish forces in b o th the A rc h an g e l and M u r m a n s k sectors fro m th e b e g in n in g o f th e ca m ­ p aig n in th e sp rin g o f 1918 to the final ev acuation in O c to b e r 1919 w e re 41 officers and 286 o th e r ran ks killed, 65 officers an d 591 o th e r ran ks w o u n d e d . T h e total cost w as calculated b y th e A r m y at £18,219,860. T h e R ussian g o v e rn m e n t, fo r w h ic h th e B ritish soldiers fo u g h t an d died, d id n o t last lo n g after the tro o p sh ip s h ad sailed aw ay. M u r m a n s k fell to the R ed A r m y in M a rc h 1920 and th o u san d s o f its in h a b itan ts w e re killed in the terrib le rev en g e th e B olsh ev iks ex ­ acted fro m th o se w h o h ad w o rk e d fo r th e Allies and th e N o r t h R ussian g o v e rn m e n t. T h e ir th irst for v engeance w as insatiable and th eir a rm w as lo n g . G eneral M iller escaped fro m A rc h an g e l in an ice -b rea k er in F eb ru a ry 1920, j u s t before it fell to th e B olsheviks. H e fled to Paris w h e re he b ec am e leader o f th e W h ite O fficers’ E m ig re O rg a n is a tio n . In S e p te m b e r 1937 he w as k id n a p p e d b y S oviet agents an d n ev e r seen again. B u t th at w as in th e fu tu re an d w h e n M a y n a rd ’s tro o p sh ip s sailed fro m M u rm a n s k , leav in g th e N o r t h R ussian g o v e r n m e n t to its fate, th ere w as still a g o o d chance th at th e B olsh evik s w o u ld be defeated b y W h ite R u ssian A rm ies fig h tin g w ith A llied assistance o n th ree o th e r fro nts. A d m ira l K o lchak, th o u g h h ard pressed, still c o m ­ m a n d e d larg e forces in Siberia, G eneral N ik o lai Y u d e n ic h ’s N o r t h W e ste rn A rm y , strik in g o u t o f E sto n ia u n d e r the co v e r o f the R oyal N a v y , w as less th an fo rty m iles fro m P e tro g ra d and, o n the day after th e last B ritish soldier sailed aw ay th ro u g h th e K ola inlet, G eneral D e n ik in to o k O re l and p re p a re d to m arc h o n M o s c o w .

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CHAPTER 17

Defeat and Betrayal Siberia, December 1918-February 1920

T h e situ atio n o f the a n ti-B o lsh e v ik forces w o u ld h ave been b e tte r still h a d th ere b een a n y d e te rm in a tio n a m o n g th e Allies to c rush the R ed A rm y . W h e n th e H a m p s h ire s h ad arriv ed at V lad iv o sto k in N o v e m b e r 1918 th e y h ad increased th e total o f Allied tro o p s in Siberia to n early 180,000 w e ll-a rm e d m en , a fo rm id a b le fig h tin g force in the R ussian c o n te x t at th at tim e. It w as a force w h ich , p ro p e rly u sed u n d e r a u n ite d c o m m a n d , cou ld have defeated the R ed A r m y in Siberia, jo in e d u p w ith Iro nsid e in the n o rth an d D e n ik in in th e s o u th an d enabled G eneral Y u denich, the fo rm e r T sa rist g eneral n o w c o m m a n d in g the W h ite R ussians’ N o r t h W e ste rn A rm y , to m a k e his th ru s t at P e tro g ra d against w eak en e d o p p o sitio n . W h a t m ig h t h av e been achieved m a y be j u d g e d fro m the fact th at K o lc h a k ’s b ad ly trained, d iso rg an ised an d largely u n w illin g sol­ diers ad v a n ced across th e vast exp anse o f Siberia to w ith in 500 m iles o f M o s c o w creating panic a m o n g the B olsheviks. A n d th ey d id this w ith v irtu ally n o help in the field fro m th e Allies. T h e Soviets h av e alw ay s p resen ted th e Allied in te rv e n tio n in Siberia as a u n ite d a tte m p t b y th e capitalist p o w e rs to d e stro y th eir re v o lu tio n , an a tte m p t w h ic h w as foiled b y the gallant R ed A rm y . In tru th , ap art fro m th e initial flurry o f action o n the R iv er U s s u ri an d th e activities o f g u n team s land ed b y th e R oy al N a v y , n o n e o f th e allied forces in Siberia fired a sh o t d esign ed to b rin g a b o u t the d o w n fa ll o f B o lsh e v ism . T h e m o s t th e Allies did w as to keep K o lch a k su p p lied an d to defen d th em selves against B o lsh ev ik partisans and m a ra u d in g b an ds o f o u tlaw s. T h e B ritish sent tw o c o n s ig n m e n ts o f m ateriel, each sufficient to eq u ip 100,000 m en , and the A m eric an s o f th e R ailw ay Service C o rp s rep aired the T ra n s S iberian and k e p t the supplies rolling. As w e h av e seen, th e A m eric an G eneral G ro v e s w as sent to Siberia w ith o n ly tw o objectives: to ensu re th e safe passage o f th e C zech s to V la d iv o sto k an d to p ro tec t th e su p p ly d u m p s. G rov es, n o lo v e r o f K olch ak , in terp reted his o rd e rs to the letter. N o A m e ric a n soldiers w e re e m p lo y e d o n offensive o p eratio n s against 232

Siberia, December 1918-February 1920 th e B o lsh ev ik s. A n d th e C zechs, m a k in g local “ d o n ’t s h o o t us and w e w o n ’t s h o o t y o u ” a rra n g e m e n ts w ith the R ed A rm y , w e re c o n c ern e d o n ly w ith g ettin g h o m e . H e ld u p for m o n th s alon g the T ra n s -S ib e ria n b y lack o f ro lling stock and ship p in g , th ey h ad settled d o w n in an elo n g a te d c o m m u n ity stretc h in g fo r th o u san d s o f m iles, ru n n in g th eir o w n co m m ercial enterprises, in clu d in g a b a n k and a n e w sp a p e r. T h e Japanese, w h ile n o t averse to fig h tin g the B olsh eviks, w o u ld o n ly do so i f th e ir o w n ex p a n sio n ist plans to o cc u p y the M a ritim e P ro v in ces o f R ussia and M a n c h u ria w e re threaten ed. T h e y certainly had n o in te n tio n o f ad v a n cin g fu rth e r w e st th an Irk u tsk - a re­ m ark a b le situ a tio n w h e n th eir v e ry p resence in Siberia w as b ro u g h t a b o u t b y th e A llied h o p e th at th ey w o u ld be ru sh e d w e stw a rd s to fo rm a n e w fro n t against th e G e rm an s. T h u s , w ith th e A m erican s, C zechs an d Japan ese o u t o f the g am e 151,000 m e n w e re effectively re m o v e d fro m th e A llied A rm y . M o re o v e r, o n ce th e A rm istice w ith G e rm a n y h ad been signed, the C an ad ian s, the Serbs, the Poles, the R u m an ian s an d th e Italians saw n o reason to be in Siberia. W hat, o n paper, w as a p o w e rfu l a rm y w as, in reality, a p h a n to m . T h e o n ly A llied tro o p s in Siberia c o m m itte d to s u p p o rtin g the a n ti-B o lsh e v ik forces w e re th e tw o B ritish in fan try battalion s an d the R o y al N a v y ’s g u n team s, th e Fren ch C o lo n ial battalio n, and the m ilita ry m issio ns fro m France an d B ritain. O f these, th e F rench b a ttalio n c o m p o s e d o f “ T o n k in e s e ” fro m S o u th -E a st Asia, b ew il­ d ered little m e n in an alien clim ate, w as useless; and th e B ritish in fa n try m e n , m o s tly tim e -e x p ire d , w e re b e c o m in g increasingly restive at b ein g k e p t in th e A r m y w h ile all the j o b s w e re being sn ap p e d u p at h o m e b y m e n already dem o b ilised w ith far less service. T h e y co uld see n o p o in t in bein g h alfw ay ro u n d the w o rld fro m th eir h o m e s an d d o in g n o th in g . It m ig h t h ave been d ifferent i f th e y w e re in action, b u t th ey n e v e r on ce w e n t up to the fro n t line. T h e o n ly B rito n s w h o saw action after th e M id d le s e x ’s b ap tism o f shellfire s o o n after th eir arrival, w e re a few adviso rs attached to K o lc h a k ’s forces an d th e naval d e ta c h m e n t o f 29 m e n fro m the cruisers Suffolk an d Kent. T h e y m o u n te d a 6-inch g u n and fo u r tw e lv e p o u n d e rs o n an a rm o u r e d train an d did g o o d w o r k along the ra ilw a y line b e tw e e n O m s k and U fa u n til the en d o f N o v e m b e r w h e n the recoil cy lin d er froze o n th e 6-inch. H o w e v e r, w h e n K o lch a k c a p tu red P e rm in D e c e m b e r he also ca p tu red a n u m b e r o f boats, t w o o f w h ic h w e re h a n d e d o v e r to the naval d eta c h m e n t and, re n a m e d K ent and S u ffolk, w e re arm e d w ith th e naval d e ta c h m e n t’s guns. T h u s B ritish seam en and R oyal M arin es fo u n d

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Defeat and Betrayal th em selv es fig h tin g s h ip -to -s h ip battles o n rivers in th e h ea rt o f Siberia. T h is d e ta c h m e n t w as led b y a R oy al M a rin e officer called T o m J a m e s o n w h o w as aw a rd e d th e D S O . H e later b ec am e a M a jo r-G e n e ra l an d w as m a d e a C B E fo r his w o r k in W o rld W a r Tw o. S u rp risin g ly , it w as th e A m eric an s w h o to o k m o s t casualties despite th eir o rd e rs to a v o id conflict w ith th e B o lsheviks. In re p airin g an d g u a rd in g th e railw ay in sm all d eta ch m en ts th ey b ec am e targ ets n o t o n ly for R ed guerrillas o p e ra tin g b e h in d the lines b u t fo r the v ariou s freelance g ro u p s o f ban dits and dissidents w h o w a n d e re d th eir b lo o d y w a y across Siberia. In a n u m b e r o f brisk b u t sm all actions th e y lost 112 m en. W h e n the H a m p sh ire s reached O m s k at th e end o f th eir lo n g j o u r n e y o n th e T ra n s -S ib e ria n th e y m o v e d in to a g irls’ school. It w as b itte rly cold, j u s t a b o v e freezing inside and 60 degrees o f fro st ou tsid e. T h e r e w e re n o bath s an d j u s t o n e s m o k y k itchen. B u t th e y c o n sid ered th em selv es lu ck y for O m s k w as c ro w d e d w ith refugees and soldiers, m a n y o f w h o m h ad n o shelter. C o lo n e l R o b e rt J o h n s o n o f the H a m p s h ire s w as h o rrifie d to find th at the girls his b a tta lio n h ad dispossessed h a d n o w h e re to stay and w e re v ery bad ly off. H e insisted th a t th e y sh o u ld be giv en o n e w in g o f th e b u ild in g and he w r o te to his wife: “ I f y o u w e re n ea rer I w o u ld ask y o u to get y o u r friends to collect g irls’ u n d e rc lo th in g and sto ck ings an d send th e m o u t to these p o o r creatures; th eir c o n d itio n in this w a y is really d e p lo ra b le .” C o l o n e l j o h n s o n w as th e v ery e p ito m e o f th e late V icto rian u p p e r m id d le class, suspicious o f the aristocracy, co n d e scen d in g to w a rd s b u t at th e sam e tim e resp o n sib le fo r th o se w o rs e o f f th an him self. A fe rv en t c h u rc h m a n , n o d o u b t co n v in ced th at G o d w as an E n g lish ­ m an , he certainly believed th a t th e E n g lish soldier, especially the 9 th H a n ts, w as th e best in the w o rld , and he believed th at his first d u ty w as to lo o k after th e w elfare o f his m en. H e w as also s o m e th in g o f a p rig an d to o k great e x c ep tio n w h e n K o lch ak to o k a m istress and “ d isplayed h er in p u b lic ” . J o h n s o n w as also afraid o f the future: h e h ad tak e n o v er c o m m a n d o f th e H a n ts as a T e rrito ria l A r m y O fficer in 1911 and n o w , eig h t years later, h ad m ad e n o ad v a n cem e n t, w h ile his co n te m p o ra rie s h a d m a d e b rilliant careers in politics and w a rtim e service o n the battlefro n ts. H is letters are full o f env io u s surp rise th at “ th o se ro g u e s ” , C h u rch ill, L lo y d G e o rg e an d F. E. S m ith , w e re ru n n in g th e c o u n try . H e, as m u c h as his m en , w as fearful th at all the best jo b s w o u ld be g o n e b y th e tim e he g o t h o m e . E v en tu a lly he w as to b e c o m e Sir R o b e rt J o h n s o n , D e p u ty M a s te r an d C o m p tr o lle r o f th e 234

Siberia, December 1918-February 1920 R o y al M in t, a re g u la r atten d e r at th e H a m p s h ire s ’ annual d in n er w h e re he alw ay s raised a sh o u t o f la u g h te r b y telling th e m th at th ey w e re “ a re m a rk a b le b o d y o f m e n ” . B u t all th a t w as m a n y years and m a n y th o u san d s o f m iles a w ay fro m th e fearful city o f O m s k w h e re a m eal for fo u r in a re sta u ran t cost £75 - a fab u lo u s a m o u n t in th o se days - w h ile th ere w as such a s h o rta g e o f ban dages, m edicine an d am b ulan ces th a t few o f the m e n w o u n d e d at th e fro n t surviv ed . T h e W h ite R ussian tro o p s w e re so s h o rt o f clothes th a t th ey strip p ed any priso ners th ey to o k an d tu rn e d th e m lo ose n ak e d to freeze to death. O n e o f J o h n s o n ’s great p ro b le m s w as to keep his m e n occupied. T h e w e a th e r m e a n t th at train in g w as cut to a m in im u m and th e W ar O ffice refused to allo w h im to take his battalio n in to action a lth o u g h he d id send a sm all p a rty o n sledges to try to help at O r e n b u r g w h ic h h ad ju s t been lost to th e B olsheviks. H e in tro ­ d u ce d ic e -h o ck e y - “ i t ’s all th e ra g e ” - dances w e re held each w eek , tw o fo r the m e n an d o n e fo r the officers, and he even tu rn e d to a m a te u r theatricals, g ettin g his m e n to give a co n c ert to A d m iral K o lch a k and his g o v e rn m e n t. J o h n s o n w r o te to his w ife, K athleen, th at “ it is a v ery great success in e v e ry w a y and has d o n e a great deal to en han ce th e p o p u la rity o f th e B ritish in O m s k . . . T h e m o s t successful th in g o f all w as a scene fr o m th e Merry Wives o f Windsor, v ery d ecen tly acted in d eed an d th e E lizab eth an dresses all m ad e o u t o f sim p le m aterial b y th e re g im e n ta l ta ilo r.” T w o o f th e w o m e n w e re p layed b y y o u n g m e n o f th e re g im e n t “ q u ite as S hakespeare h ad p lan ned i t ” . J o h n s o n p lan n e d to p u t o n scenes fro m The Merchant o f Venice at a su b se q u e n t co n c ert - h a rd ly a h a p p y choice g iv en the v iru len t a n ti-S e m itism w h ic h flou rished in th e W h ite A rm ies. T h e Times c o rre s p o n d e n t w ith th e B ritish A r m y in Siberia re p o rte d th at th ey h a d also g iv en an e x h ib itio n o f P hysical T ra in in g w h ic h “ b ro u g h t th e h o u se d o w n ” and th at a th re e -ro u n d b a n ta m w e ig h t e x h ib itio n o f b o x in g w h ic h few o f the R ussians h ad ever seen before b r o u g h t th e iron ic c o m m e n t fro m the local n ew sp a p er, “ a little to o stro n g fo r o u r n e rv e s ” . T h e Times c o rre sp o n d e n t, R o b e rt W ilton , w as fiercely p ro ­ in te rv e n tio n an d p ro -K o lc h a k an d he used his despatches n o t for r e p o rtin g th e s itu atio n b u t fo r p ro p a g a n d a . A fter an in te rv ie w w ith K olchak, the “ S u p re m e R u le r” , W ilto n re p o rte d th at he h ad be­ c o m e m o re im p ressed w ith th e indication s o f the “ g ro w in g co n ­ fidence an d a u th o rity o f [his] g o v e rn m e n t. Also it h ad been b o rn e in u p o n m e th at A d m ira l K o lch a k w as the cen tre o f th in g s and th at p eop le lo o k to h im alone. W h e n a m a n w h o h ad ev er played an 235

Defeat and Betrayal u n a s s u m in g role in affairs lo o m s this large in the p ublic m in d w e m a y assu m e th a t th a t m a n h ad co m e at the h o u r . ” T h e m o s t e x tre m e criticism W ilto n co uld m an a g e was: “ It seem s a th o u s a n d pities th at the m o s t c o m p e te n t brains o f Russia sh o u ld n o t be available at O m s k . ” H o w e v e r, it w as o n ly th r o u g h such w o e fu lly in ad e q u ate and biased re p o rta g e th a t th e w o rld learn t a n y th in g o f w h a t w as g o in g o n in Siberia. J o h n s o n g av e the g a m e a w a y in a letter to his father d a te d ja n u a ry 28th, 1919: “ W h e n y o u read The Times C o rre s p o n d e n t fro m O m s k y o u m u s t read b e tw e e n the lines - w e are o f co urse in close to u c h - b u t th in k it in ad visable even to h in t th at K olchak is in ­ secure as th a t w o u ld giv e im p e tu s to th e policy o f w ith d ra w a l w h ic h w e are co n v in c ed w o u ld be fatal. ” It is th e re fo re to J o h n s o n ’s o w n letters th at w e m u s t tu rn fo r an in sig h t in to w h a t w as really h a p p e n in g in Siberia: I a m g e ttin g to re g a rd th e situ atio n here as p re tty hopeless . . . th eir a r m y is useless . . . I n ev e r saw such an incapable l o t . . . the a r m y has n o discipline. T h e re g im e n ta l officers are useless. K o lch a k is, I th in k , a d e te rm in e d m a n b u t he stands qu ite alone an d m a y be m u rd e r e d o r u p set at any m o m e n t an d th at w o u ld be th e en d. In d e ed b u t fo r o u r o w n p resence here he w o u ld already hav e g one, b u t w h a t a hopeless situ atio n i f the head o f the g o v e r n m e n t h ere rests solely o n 1,000 B ritish bayo nets. J o h n s o n g o t w in d o f a p lo t b y d isc o n ten ted W h ite officers to o v e r th r o w K olchak. H e p r o m p tly an d o ste n ta tio u sly p re p are d for a fight, letting it be k n o w n th a t I s h o u ld n o t tolerate an y d istu rb an c e o f th e peace o r an y a rm e d attack o n K o lch ak an d this squ ash ed the w h o le thing . K o lch a k has n o w g o n e o f f to visit his generals . . . all m u tin o u s an d w ith h im h ave g o n e C a p ta in B arin g , m y adjutan t, an d a g u a rd o f 9 th H a n ts . . . T h e m e n o f the 9 th H a n ts escort fo u n d a full general dead d r u n k in th eir ra ilw a y carriage o ne a fte rn o o n an d as he w o u l d n ’t o r c o u ld n ’t g o a w a y w h e n th ey asked h im , th ey h ad to lift h im u p an d th r o w h im in to the sn o w . T h e n e x t d ay he tu rn e d o u t o n p arad e w ith his div ision to be insp ected b y K olchak . H e w as still d ru n k . In all sorts o f w a y s the R ussians are hopeless, unbusinesslike, u n p u n c tu a l, c o rru p t, in trig u in g and w ith o u t internal discipline 236

Siberia , December 1918-February 1920 o f any sort, th e latter th e result o f the R ev o lu tio n . T h e n th ey are fearfully lazy and expect th e Allies to do all th e w o r k fo r th e m w h ile th e y sit tig h t and en jo y th em selv es - o r try to m ak e m oney. I fancy th a t [the B olsheviks] are b e tte r o rg a n ise d and hav e m o re en th u s ia s m . . . and I s h o u ld be su rp rised if th ey d id n ’t give these p eo p le h ere a g o o d h id in g . . . I am afraid th e R ussians are co m p le te ly hopeless an d th at w e are w a stin g tim e and en e rg y and m o n e y in try in g to help th em . J o h n s o n ’s o p in io n o f his ostensible C o m m a n d e r- in - C h ie f, G eneral Ja n in o f th e F ren ch A r m y w as h a rd ly m u c h higher: H e sits in his railw ay carriage here, a solitary th o u g h dignified fig u re . . . n o m in a lly C - in - C o f th e allies in clu d in g th e C zechs w h o refuse to fig h t u n d e r an y circum stances, an d ourselves. B u t he gives n o o rd e rs an d takes n o responsibility, is th o ro u g h ly sick o f th e w h o le business and is p in in g to be back in France. Also th ere is th e F rench je a lo u s y o f the B ritish so he ca n n o t even be tak e n in to con fid en ce especially as he is all fo r w i t h d r a w a l . . . A rid iculo us and path etic figure, w ith his personal escort o f 20 m e n - all the F ren ch tro o p s he has except a b attalio n o f T o n k ­ inese w h o ru n o n all possible occasions. J a n in in fact w as C - in - C in n a m e on ly . It w as G eneral K n o x w h o exercised p o w e r o n b e h a lf o f th e Allies in Siberia. B y the early s u m m e r J o h n s o n w as h av in g tro u b le w ith his b elo v e d H a m p sh ire s, n o t th at th ey w o u ld have ru n , and n o t w ith his original “ te rrie rs ” , b u t w ith co n scrip ted m e n w h o h ad jo in e d th e b attalio n j u s t b efore it left India. O n M a rc h 30th he to ld his m o th e r th a t th ey w e re n o t p art o f th e fam ily and also th at, in the e ig h th year o f his c o m m a n d , he w as n o lo n g er a n e w b ro o m . “ T h e re g im e n t has g o t used to m e and I am n o t th e p o w e r I w as. Last w e ek I h a d a v e ry an x io u s tim e. P ilfering o f g o v e r n m e n t stores and I h ad to tak e s tro n g action. As a result th ere w as v ery n early a m u tin y in cited b y th e d raft m en. It w as to u c h an d g o fo r a sh o rt w h ile b u t w e succeeded in a v e rtin g a n y th in g really serious - a b o u t a d o ze n p o o r fools w h o h av e been severely p u n is h e d .” T h e n again, early in J u n e he w ro te : “ W e have h ad a ra th e r nasty tim e - an a tte m p t o n th e p art o f ten d raft m e n to incite the rest to a k in d o f m u tin y . It w as an a n x io u s m o m e n t b u t th e discipline held and o n ly a d o zen m e n b ro k e o u t o f barracks and even th ey re tu rn e d q u ietly in a v ery s h o rt t i m e .” 237

Defeat and Betrayal T h e fact o f th e m a tte r w as th a t the m e n w e re receiving lo n g d elayed letters - th e y h ad to be fu m ig a te d because the trains w e re infested w ith ty p h u s - telling th e m th at fam ily businesses w e re failing because th eir p aren ts w e re g ettin g to o old to carry o n an d th a t e m p lo y e rs w h o h a d h eld th eir jo b s o p en for five years co u ld n o lo n g e r d o so. It w as a p o o r re w a rd for p a trio tism and service a n d the m e n w e re ju s tly a n g ry at b ein g k e p t in Siberia p e rfo rm in g n o useful fu n c tio n . “ W e play ed a lo t o f c a rd s ,” said A r th u r W aide. J o h n s o n , a d e v o u t A ng lican, h ad a n o th e r p ro b le m , a m a tte r o f religion: “ M y C h ap lain , b ein g a C anadian, has been recalled. T h e y actually sent a B ap tist to replace him : I am n ot, as y o u k n o w , a n a r r o w sectarian - least o f all v e ry ‘h ig h ’ - b u t I really could n o t stan d that. A n d it w o u ld hav e m ad e m y c o -o p e ra tio n w ith the R ussian ch u rc h im p ossib le. So I h av e sent h im back and asked fo r a C o fE .” Im a g in e h o w th at p o o r chaplain m u s t h av e felt. H e had trav elled h a lf w a y r o u n d th e w o rld to reach V lad iv o sto k , th en sp ent a m o n th o n a ty p h u s -in fe c te d train co n stan tly u n d e r d a n g e r o f attack in o rd e r to care fo r th e souls o f the H a m p s h ire re g im e n t o n ly to be p u t o n th e train again an d sent back to V la d iv o sto k - because the H a m p s h ire s ’ colonel did n o t like his b ra n d o f religion. J o h n s o n to o k o n a n e w lease o f life w h e n he m o v e d his m e n fo r w a rd to E k a te rin b u rg “ to have 8,000 R ussians th r o w n at th eir heads to tu rn in to a R ussian b rig ad e o f 2 R eg im en ts, each o f 4 B attalion s. T h e B rig ad e w ill be officered entirely b y B ritish officers an d N C O s . T h e b u lk o f the officers w ill be train in g officers sent o u t to K n o x ; the N C O s fro m th e H a n ts .” T h e train in g officers w e re m a in ly regulars seek in g a d v a n c e m e n t an d ad v en tu re. O n e o f th e m w as C a p ta in B rian H o rr o c k s w h o h ad been severely w o u n d e d an d c a p tu re d in O c to b e r 1914 an d w as o n ly j u s t re s u m in g th e m ilitary career w h ic h w o u ld flo w e r so b rilliantly in N o r t h A frica in W o rld W a r II an d lead to h im b e c o m in g L ieu ten a n t-G en e ral Sir B rian H o rro c k s . “ T h e H a m p s h ire R ussian B rig a d e ,” w ro te J o h n s o n , “ w ill be dressed in B ritish u n ifo rm , a rm e d w ith B ritish w e a p o n s and drilled in B ritish style w ith B ritish w o rd s o f c o m m a n d . . . W e h o p e to m a rc h in to M o s c o w as c o n q u e ro rs. H a n ts and R ussian H a n ts to g e t h e r .” A t th e en d o f A p ril he w as still w ritin g op tim istically. “ It is difficult to be certain and foolish to p ro p h e s y b u t w e all th in k here th a t M o s c o w m a y v e ry w ell be tak e n b y this a rm y before the a u tu m n and th at B o lsh e v ik ism o n ly w a n ts o n e s tro n g p u s h to collapse a lto g e th e r.” 238

Siberia, December 1918-February 1920 A w e e k later a n d his eu p h o ria h ad disappeared: Serious reverses h ave taken place in th e S o u th o n th e left o f o u r lo n g line. O r e n b u r g again, an d a place b e tw e e n S am ara an d U fa, re ta k en b y th e B olshev ik s. A w h o le b rig ad e o f U k ra in ia n tro o p s d eserted b o d ily to the B olshevik s h a v in g m u rd e re d th eir officers . . . A n d th in g s are n o t to o c o m fo rta b le o n the line to V lad iv o s­ to k , c o n sta n t risings, trains w re c k e d etc. T h e A m erican s d o in g n o th in g at all an d th e Jap an ese an d S em en o v p lay in g their o w n d irty g am es. T h e latest is th a t S em en o v has p ro c la im e d h im s e lf “ P rin ce o f M o n g o lia ” n o d o u b t at Japanese in stigatio n. T h e A m eric an s are w o rs e th an useless bein g po sitiv ely B o lsh ev ik in s y m p a th y an d th e C an ad ian s h ave left V lad iv o sto k for h o m e . M e a n w h ile it is an o rg y o f b lo o d sh e d an d suffering e v e ry ­ w h e re - h id eo u s cruelties o n b o th sides. H e w as w o r k in g fu rio u sly to g et th e n e w b rig ad e eq u ip p e d and trained . “ It is u p to us all to set an e x a m p le to these p o o r helpless R ussians a n d s h o w w h a t j u s t a h an d fu l o f B ritish can do. ” In the m id d le o f M a y he w ro te to his wife, “ T o o ts ie ” : “ O u r first 750 R usskis c o m in g in to m o r r o w and the n ex t 1000 o n the fo llo w ­ ing day. T h e first th in g w e h ave to do is to w ash th e m - th ey are perfectly filthy an d craw lin g w ith v e rm in - th en en tirely reclo the fr o m h ea d to fo o t and b u rn th eir p ersonal rags. M a n y o f th e m are M o n g o lia n M o h a m m e d a n s n o t speaking a w o rd o f R u ss ia n .” W hile h e pitied th e recruits an d w as p re p are d to help th e m to the best o f his ability this v ery co rrec t G o d -fe a rin g m a n lo o k e d o n the m idd le-class p eop le o f E k a te rin b u rg w ith s o m e th in g ap p ro ach in g hatred: T h e b o u rg e o isie , are to o c o w a rd ly to fight even th o u g h o f cou rse th e y k n o w th a t th e tr iu m p h o f th e B o lsh ev ik s w o u ld m ea n the to rtu re an d m u r d e r o f ev e ry m a n ja c k o f th e m and ev ery w o m a n ja c k to o . R eally, th e b o u rg e o isie m akes o n e alm o st a B o lshevik oneself. H e re is a rich to w n , full o f q u ite rich people, th e o rd in a ry p o p u la tio n is s h o rt o f e v e ry th in g in clu d in g fo o d because o f the fearful prices and the practical cessation o f the railw ay fo r c o m ­ m ercial p u rp o se s a n y w a y , th e a rm y lacks e v e ry th in g , literally e v e ry th in g an a r m y needs - th e h o spital stin k in g w ith ty p h u s an d c r a m m e d w ith w o u n d e d b u t w ith h ard ly a n y th in g at all - no beds, shirts, m attresses, to w els, b andages, sw abs, surgical in­ s tru m e n ts , anaesthetics, m edicines, literally w ith o u t any o f these 239

Defeat and Betrayal th in g s - a frig h tfu l state o f affairs. Y et n o t o ne w o m a n o f th e b o u rg e o is ie ev en goes n ear the h ospital o r dre am s o f sparin g j u s t an h o u r o r ev en so m u c h as m e e tin g th e train loads o f w o u n d e d an d o fferin g th e m a cu p o f tea . . . th e b o u rg e o isie goes n ig h tly to th e o p era an d th en o n to dance o r w h a t n o t until fo u r o r five e v e n .” In a lm o s t e v e ry letter to his wife, J o h n s o n u rg e d h er to co n tact his old friends n o w in p o w e rfu l places, to plead the cause o f h im s e lf and his m en . In p artic u la r he asked h e r to “ w rite to Jack Seely an d tell h im fr o m m e th at I ex p e ct h im to g o an d see his friend W in s to n [C h urchill] and tell h im n o t to fo rg e t us. T h is he sh o u ld do n o t o n ly as a friend w h o has p ro fessed g ra titu d e to m e - b u t as L o rd L ieu ten a n t o f H a m p s h ire . . . ” “ G a llo p in g J a c k ” Seely w as a re m a rk ab le m an. A Liberal M P fro m 1900 to 1922, he w as Secretary o f State for W ar fro m 1912 to 1914 b u t resig n ed fo llo w in g the C u rra g h incident. B y 1918 he w as c o m m a n d in g th e C a n a d ia n C a v a lry B rig ad e and it w as he w h o led th e m o n th eir epic ch arg e in to G e rm a n m a c h in e -g u n fire to retake the M o re u il R id ge, o n e o f the k ey p o in ts in L u d e n d o r f f ’s a tte m p ts to cru sh th e Allies in th e sp rin g o f 1918. T h e B rig ad e lost 300 dead an d w o u n d e d and 800 horses in less th an h a lf an h o u r b u t it saved the d ay an d sto p p e d the G e rm an s. Seely w as gassed later in the year and re tu rn e d to politics to serve as C h u rc h ill’s U n d e r Secretary o f State. It appears th a t M rs J o h n s o n ’s a p p ro a c h to h im w o rk e d . In the first w e e k o f J u n e J o h n s o n received a teleg ram fro m Seely telling h im th a t th e M in istry o f L a b o u r h ad applied fo r h im to be released to tak e u p a p o st at th e M in istry , and th at he “ s tro n g ly a d v ised ” J o h n s o n to accept. A t first he w as disinclined to d o so; he w as fed up w ith b ein g a civil serv an t and w o rk in g fo r politicians he despised an d he d id n o t w a n t to leave his b elo v e d H a m p s h ire s in the lurch. B u t it seem s th a t th e w h o le b attalio n w a n te d h im to go h o m e to plead th e ir cause. A n d so b eg a n an e x tra o rd in a ry jo u r n e y o f w h ich , alas, w e have o n ly a fra g m e n ta ry acco un t. Instead o f tak in g th e train back to V la d iv o sto k , C o lo n e l J o h n s o n set o u t fo r A rc h an g e l w ith tw e lv e m a rrie d m e n w h o w e re bein g d em o b ilised o n c o m p a ssio n a te g ro u n d s . T h e y left E k a te rin b u rg o n J u n e 4th, to o k a ste a m b o a t fro m P e rm u p th e K a m a , a trib u ta ry o f th e V olga, th en tran sferred to r o w b o a ts to p u sh n o rth -w e s t u p a trib u ta ry o f the K am a. N e x t th e y to o k to the forest to w a lk eig h ty m iles to th e h ea d w aters o f the P e c h o ra river. T h e re th e y picked u p a n o th e r r o w b o a t b efore tra n s ­ fe rrin g to a riv er steam e r for 460 miles an d then , because the m o u th s 240

Siberia, December 1918-February 1920 o f th e P e ch o ra w e re still b lo ck ed b y ice w h e re th ey ran o u t in to the B are n ts Sea, th e y tre k k e d for a n o th e r 200 miles th ro u g h th e forest befo re h ittin g a riv er alo ng w h ic h th e y ro w e d to th e sea. T h e re th ey w e re p ick e d u p b y the N a v y and taken r o u n d the coast to A rch an g el. It w as a h a z a rd o u s jo u rn e y . W ritin g f ro m the R ussian ice-breaker w h ic h w as ta k in g h im to L erw ick o n J u ly 1st, he to ld his father “ I o n ly j u s t g o t t h r o u g h in tim e. T h e B olshevik s are already o v er p art o f m y ro u te a n d m a y so o n be o v e r the w h o le o f it. ” J o h n s o n w as luck ier th an he k n e w . It w as w h ile he w as m ak in g his w a y th r o u g h the n o rth e r n w ild erness th at G eneral Gajda, ad v a n cin g to w a r d s V iatka and K otlas to link u p w ith the A rchan gel forces, w as decisively beaten and th e last chance o f effecting a viable m ilita ry link w ith Ironsid e w as lost. K o lch ak dism issed G ajda a few w eek s later. H e w as o n e o f the e x tra o rd in a ry galere o f characters th r o w n u p b y th e R e v o lu tio n and C ivil W ar. A p h arm a cist by train in g , he w as c o n sc rip ted in to the C zech A rm y and w as ca p tu red b y th e R ussians in 1917. H e b ec am e o n e o f the leaders o f the C zech u p risin g in Siberia and K o lch a k p r o m o te d h im to L ieu ten an tG en eral in c o m m a n d o f th e N o r t h e r n A rm y . F u rio us at his d ism is­ sal b y K o lch ak , he tried b u t failed to seize p o w e r in V lad iv o sto k in N o v e m b e r 1919. H e re tu rn e d to C zecho slov ak ia in 1920 and w as m a d e C h i e f o f th e G eneral S ta ff six years later b u t w as dism issed an d cashiered for ta k in g p a rt in an a tte m p te d co u p b y the fascists. H e co llab o rated w ith the G e rm a n s d u rin g the w a r and w as executed in 1945. G a jd a ’s attack o n V iatka h ad been p art o f K o lc h a k ’s g ra n d plan fo r lin k in g w ith Iro n sid e in th e n o r th a n d D e n ik in in the s o u th for a general adv ance o n M o s c o w . K olchak, w h o had scored a great success in D e c e m b e r b y c a p tu rin g P erm , lau nched his offensive in M a rc h w ith 130,000 m en , 210 g u n s and 1,300 m ac h in e -g u n s o rg ­ anised in to fo u r arm ies. A t first th ey d id su rp risin g ly well. T h e y p u sh e d s o u th an d n o r th and in the centre th ey c a p tu red K azan and p ressed o n u n til th e y w e re o n ly s o m e 450 miles east o f M o s c o w . It w as this adv an ce w h ic h g ave rise to J o h n s o n ’s eu p h o ric letterw ritin g in A pril. H e w as n o t th e o n ly one w h o at th at tim e th o u g h t th a t K o lch a k co u ld be in M o s c o w b y th e a u tu m n . C h u rch ill w as delig h ted b y K o lc h a k ’s successes an d p u t pressure o n L lo yd G e o rg e to recog nise K o lc h a k ’s re g im e as th e legitim ate g o v e rn m e n t o f Russia. B u t th ere w e re g ra v e d o u b ts a b o u t K olchak, n o t o n ly a m o n g th e B ritish p ub lic b u t in th e C ab in et. T h e re w as to o m u c h o f th e T s a r a b o u t h im fo r B ritish tastes and all C h u rch ill c ould gain for h im w as re c o g n itio n as “ T h e P ro v isio n a l G o v e rn m e n t o f S iberia” . 241

Defeat and Betrayal N o t fo r the first tim e and certainly n o t for the last C h u rc h ill w as fig h tin g a lo ne ca m p aig n . M o s t o f his C a b in e t colleagues, all the p a rlia m e n ta ry o p p o s itio n an d th e m a jo rity o f the p ub lic w a n te d to have d o n e w ith in te rv e n tio n . C h u rch ill, h o w e v e r, fo u g h t his co rn er w ith skill, c u n n in g and forceful lan gu ag e, so forceful in fact th a t he ev en tually p r o m p te d a w ritte n re p ly fro m L lo y d G e o rg e w h ich m u s t ra n k as o n e o f th e m o s t savage th at any P rim e M in iste r can ever h ave inflicted o n o n e o f his sen io r colleagues. “ I w o n d e r , ” w ro te L lo y d G eorg e, o f C h u rc h ill’s c o n tin u in g desire fo r th e Allies to d riv e B o lsh e v ism fro m Russia, “ w h e th e r it is any use m y m a k in g o n e last effo rt to in du ce y o u to th r o w o f f this o b sessio n w h ich , i f y o u w ill fo rg iv e m e fo r saying so, is u p s e ttin g y o u r balance . . . y o u w o n ’t find a n o th e r resp onsible p erso n in the w h o le land w h o will take y o u r view , w h y w a ste y o u r e n e rg y and y o u r usefulness o n this vain frettin g w h ic h c o m p lete ly paralyses y o u fo r o th e r w o r k ? ” C h u rc h ill’s h o p es w e re co n stan tly b ein g raised as o n e o r a n o th e r o f th e W h ite c o m m a n d e rs w o n splen did victories. B u t th ey flattered o n ly to deceive and defeat fo llo w ed v ic to ry w ith an in ev itab ility and sw iftness th a t c o n stan tly d ashed C h u rc h ill’s h op es and alienated h im fu rth e r and fu rth e r fro m his colleagues. So it w as w ith K o lch ak . H is arm ies ran o u t o f steam . V ic to ry in A p ril w as fo llo w e d b y defeat in M ay . S to p p e d cold b y th e R ed A r m y o n th e ro a d to N iz h n y N o v g o r o d (n o w G o rk y ), K o lc h a k ’s forces w e re th re a te n e d w ith b ein g o u tflan k ed w h e n O re n b u r g fell. A t th e b e g in n in g o f J u n e he w as forced to re treat o v er a h u n d re d m iles. T h e n , o n J u n e 17th cam e G a jd a’s defeat. In the first w e ek o f J u ly th e R ed forces u n d e r G eneral T u k h a c h e v s k y , th e B o lsh e v ik h ero sh o t b y Stalin in th e 1937 pu rges, b ro k e th ro u g h th e U ra ls and, ta k in g th e W h ite A r m y b y surprise, w ip e d o u t its 12th D ivision . T h e Siberian c a m p a ig n w as g o in g disastro u sly w r o n g and o n J u ly 25 th th e W a r C a b in e t decided th e H a m p s h ire s an d th e M id d lesex sh o u ld be w ith d r a w n as so o n as possible. T h e naval d e ta c h m e n t sc u ttled th eir g u n b o ats, and, tak in g th eir g u n s w ith th em , m a d e th eir w a y back to V lad iv o sto k . K o lch a k w as n o w b ein g d riv en b ack east o f th e U ra ls b y th e 3rd an d 5th R ed A rm ies. H e lost E k a te rin b u rg an d C h e ly a b in sk and re treate d to w a rd s O m s k . H o w e v e r, he succeeded in s to p p in g the B o lsh e v ik ad vance in S ep te m b e r and in a m o n th p u sh ed th e R ed A r m y back s o m e h u n d re d miles. B u t it co uld n o t last. H is a rm y suffered fro m th e sam e in h ere n t w eaknesses as all th e o th e r W h ite arm ies; lack o f o rg a n isa tio n an d 242

Siberia, December 1918—February 1920 m o tiv a tio n . T h e selfishness th at J o h n s o n had n o te d a m o n g the b o u rg e o isie o f E k a te rin b u rg alo ng w ith the appalling tre a tm e n t o f th e o rd in a ry soldiers an d th e sch e m in g and inefficiency o f the generals an d th e politicians g ave th e a r m y n o reason to fight. W h y s h o u ld th e y g o to b attle for peop le w h o w o u ld leave th e m to die w ith o u t even o fferin g th e m a cup o f tea? K o lch a k left O m s k o n N o v e m b e r 14th h o p in g to set u p a n e w line o f resistance at Irk u tsk 1,500 m iles to the east. It w as a ro u t m o re th at an o rd e rly retreat as the b attle fro n t d isin teg rated w ith th o u s a n d s o f refugees - th o se sam e people w h o h ad sp u rn e d the soldiers - all try in g to escape th e R ed T e r ro r w h ic h th ey w e re sure w o u ld be visited o n th em . N e ith e r th e H a m p s h ire s n o r the M idd lesex w e re inv olv ed. B o th h ad been p u lled back to V la d iv o sto k , and the M id d lesex had sailed fo r C a n a d a an d E n g la n d o n S e p te m b e r 7th, w ith th e H a m p sh ire s w h o h ad lo st o n e m a n killed and th ree w o u n d e d in Siberia fo llo w in g th e m o n N o v e m b e r 1st. As th eir train steam ed across C an ad a , th e M id d lesex e n c o u n te re d the P rince o f W ales in A lberta. H e h ad j u s t been p ro c la im e d C h i e f M o rn in g Star b y his “ loyal trib e s m e n th e S to n e y In d ian s” and the M iddlesex w e re tu rn e d o u t to be insp ected b y th e C hief. B u t n o t all the B ritish h ad left. S o m e o f the train in g officers w h o s e idea o f train in g in v aria b ly to o k th e m in to the thick o f the fig h tin g - re m a in ed . O n e o f these w as B rian H o rro c k s w h o w as c a u g h t u p in th e retreat. H e w as w o u n d e d for the second tim e - the th ird tim e, in N o r t h A frica in 1943, w o u ld be alm o st fatal - and c a p tu re d b y the 5th R ed A r m y at K ra sn o y arsk , 2,000 m iles w e st o f V lad iv o sto k . T y p h u s h ad tig h te n e d its g rip o n Russia and H o rro c k s re c o rd e d in his b o o k , A Full L ife, th at “ there w e re re p u te d to be 30,000 cases in K ra s n o y a rs k alone. F or lo n g w e h ad been living w ith dead. N a k e d corpses stacked o n the railw ay p latfo rm s, sleighs pac k ed w ith fro zen bo dies - these w e re c o m m o n s ig h ts .” H o r ­ rocks h im s e lf c a u g h t ty p h u s b u t su rv iv ed to co m e th ro u g h his secon d p e rio d o f cap tiv ity w ith the d ry h u m o u r and infinite p atien ce w h ic h w e re later to en d e ar h im to th e m e n he led to v icto ry in W o rld W a r II. T h e re w as panic all a lo n g the line as the R ed A rm y , itself in tatters an d rid d led w ith disease, ad v a n ced - b rin g in g the C h e k a w ith it. R efugees, g a th e re d in th eir th o u sa n d s at th e railw ay stations, seized trains reserv ed for the g o v e r n m e n t and th e A rm y and there w e re trains ru n n in g ea stw ard s o n b o th lines so th at n o supplies o r a m m u n itio n co u ld reach th o se W h ite soldiers w h o w e re still try in g to fig h t a re a rg u a rd action. N o fuel could get th ro u g h and once the 243

Defeat and Betrayal trees a lo n g the line h ad b een used u p the trains sto p p ed r u n n in g . B y n o w the Siberian w in te r h a d set in and the refugees w h o s u rv iv ed the ty p h u s froze to d eath so th at th ere w ere w h o le trains m o tio n le ss and silent in the m id d le o f n o w h e re ca rry in g o n ly the dead o n th eir a b o rtiv e jo u rn e y . T h e trains w e re also easy targets for R ed g uerrilla band s an d S e m e n o v ’s b rig an d s as well as local villagers in ten t o n rape an d pillage. K o lch a k arriv ed in Irk u ts k b y train at the end o f his lo n g re treat on J a n u a ry 14th, 1920. H is p riv ate carriage flew th e flags o f G reat B ritain, France, Jap an , th e U n ite d States and C zecho slo vak ia an d a lo cked and g u a rd e d w a g o n c o n ta in e d the c a p tu red treasure o f the T sar, th e n w o r t h s o m e £100 m illion. B o th he an d the treasu re w e re u n d e r th e p ro te c tio n o f th e C zech 6th R eg im en t. B u t he fo u n d h im s e lf w ith o u t friends. G eneral K n o x , w h o h ad s u p p o rte d h im so a rd en tly , h ad already left the city, re treatin g to V lad iv o sto k w ith th e B ritish and F rench m ilitary m issions, forced to accept th e p ro te c tio n o f th e Japanese, th e o n ly viable m ilitary force in the area. B efo re K n o x sailed fro m V lad iv o sto k o n D e c e m b e r 26th, he h ad tried to im p ress o n G eneral Ja n S y ro v y , th e fo rm e r b an k clerk w h o b ec am e c o m m a n d e r o f the C zech L egion, the im p o rta n c e o f e n s u r­ ing K o lc h a k ’s safety. H e sailed aw ay sure th at th e “ S u p rem e R u le r” w o u ld b e p ro te c te d b y th e C zechs. B u t the C zechs th em selves w e re in a difficult position: the Poles w h o w e re su p p o sed to fo rm th e re arg u a rd had, except for o n e re g im e n t, laid d o w n th eir arm s and su rre n d e re d to the B olsheviks. A n d b y n o w th e last th in g the C zechs w a n te d w as to re o p en hostilities w ith the B olsheviks. T h e y had alm o st reached V lad iv o s­ to k after th eir lo n g an d painful o d y ssey and w ere d e te rm in e d to b o a rd th e ships th at w o u ld take th e m h o m e to th eir n e w n a tio n w ith o u t losing a n o th e r m an. T h e re w as n o reason fo r th e m to fig ht the R ed A r m y and, a lth o u g h th ey held p riso n er several h ig h ra n k in g B olshevik s w h o could have been used as hostages in a deal w ith the B o lsh ev iks o n K o lc h a k ’s behalf, th ey p referred n o t to get e m b ro ile d any fu rther. T h e y did n o t interfere w h e n a rm e d m e m b e rs o f the Political C e n tre - an alliance o f Socialist R ev o lu tio n aries an d M en sh e v ik s s u rro u n d e d K o lc h a k ’s train and refused to allo w a n y o n e to go w ith in fifty yards o f it. A t 9.30 o n the m o rn in g o f J a n u a ry 15 th the “ S u p re m e R u le r” w as re m o v e d to Irk u tsk p rison. T h e C zechs are o ften accused o f su rre n d e rin g K olchak to the B olsh ev iks. P erhap s th ey w o u ld h ave done, b u t the occasion did n o t in fact arise - fo r it w as the Political C e n tre and n o t the B o lsh ev ik s w h o w e re in c o n tro l o f th e area su rro u n d in g the station. 244

Siberia, December 1918-February 1920 It w as n o t un til th e local B olsh ev ik C o m m itte e to o k o v e r Irk u tsk an d th e P olitical C e n tre disapp eared (leaving K o lch ak lock ed u p in jail) th a t th e B o lsh ev ik s g o t th eir h an ds o n h im an d the T s a r ’s treasure. T h e R ed A r m y had still to arrive o n th e scene. O n M a rc h 7th, 1920 the ex h a u ste d and ty p h u s -ra c k e d 26th D iv isio n o f the 5th R ed A rm y , w h ic h h ad been m o p p in g u p W h ite resistance and a m a lg a m a tin g local partisan g ro u p s in to its ranks, finally en te red Irk u tsk . B y th a t tim e K olchak, deserted b y all his friends and allies - the m e n w h o h a d o n ce called h im th e sav io u r o f Russia - h ad been tried an d e x e cu ted b y the B o lsh e v ik C o m m itte e . H e w as taken o u t o f his cell b efo re d ay b re a k o n F eb ru a ry 7th, 1920 and sh o t b y the R iv er U s h a k o v k a . H is b o d y w as th en p u sh ed th ro u g h a hole in the ice to d isap p ear fo r ever. H e b o re him self, said an eye-w itness, “ like an E n g lis h m a n ” : in th o se days th at w as praise indeed. K o lch a k h ad certainly been dictatorial. A m a n o f fairly lim ited intellect, he h ad nevertheless been h o n e st and h o n o u ra b le . T h e re w as n o n eed fo r h im to have died. T h e C zechs co uld h ave barg ain ed fo r his life u sin g th eir h ig h -ra n k in g B o lshev ik p riso ners as hostages fo r his safety. G eneral K n o x , w h o sailed aw ay fro m V la d iv o sto k th in k in g he h ad e n su red the A d m ira l’s safety, co uld have m ad e sure o f it: the A m eric an s co u ld h ave tak en h im in to th eir care. A n d the Japanese, th e ru lin g m ilitary p o w e r in the area, cou ld h ave p ro ­ tected h im . B u t n o b o d y m o v e d to save the m an o n w h o m the Allies h ad rested th eir h o p es an d to w h o s e arm ies th ey h ad sent m illions o f p o u n d s w o r th o f m ateriel. A m o n g A d m ira l P h illim o re ’s papers there is a re p o rt fro m a B ritish colonel w h ic h lays the b lam e o n G eneral Janin: “ W h e n the situ atio n w o rse n e d , su rely th a t w as the tim e fo r Jan in to co m e o u t o f his re treat at Irk u tsk and w ith all the a u th o rity vested in h im b y th e allies to have co m p e lle d S y ro v y to effect K o c h a k ’s s e c u rity .” T h e re p o rt added: “ F o r Jan in and S y ro v y to stand aside and d o n o th in g for fear o f im perilling th e evacu atio n, w as c rim in a l.” T h e B o lsheviks h ad n o in te n tio n o f in terferin g w ith the Allies’ evacu ation . As lo n g as K o lc h a k ’s forces w ere d e stro y e d and the th re a t fro m Siberia re m o v e d , th ey w e re h a p p y to let the Allies m o v e o u t in th eir o w n tim e. In any case th eir arm ies - w h ich had chased K o lch a k all th e w a y across Siberia - w e re in n o fit state to tak e o n the A m eric an s an d Japanese. T h e A m eric an s, w h o h ad lost 192 m e n to bullets and disease, s tarte d to pull o u t o n J a n u a ry n t h and th e last d o u g h b o y s left o n b o a rd th e Great Northern o n A pril 1st. As th ey sailed aw ay the 24$

Defeat and Betrayal Jap an ese A r m y b an d o n th e d ockside played: “ H a rd T im e s C o m e A g ain N o M o r e . ” T h e ja p a n e s e stayed on, h o w e v e r, reacting to B olsh ev ik p artisan attacks w ith g reat ferocity. W h e n th ey c a u g h t Sergei Lazo, c o m ­ m a n d e r o f th e partisan forces in th e M a ritim e P rov in ces, th ey h a n d e d h im o v e r to W h ite soldiers serv in g u n d e r their c o m m a n d to be th r o w n , alive, in to th e furnace o f a lo co m o tiv e. It to o k tw o an d a h a lf years before th e ja p a n e s e w e re forced to evacuate V la d iv o sto k and even then, despite th e R ed A r m y ’s d e stru c tio n o f S e m e n o v ’s a r m y an d the re m a in in g W hite forces in the M a ritim e P ro v in ces and M o n g o lia, it w as A m eric an political pre ssu re w h ic h forced th e Japanese to give u p ra th e r th an the m ilitary pre ssu re o f th e B olsheviks. A t the W a s h in g to n C o n fe re n c e in J u ly 19 2 1, called b y th e U n ite d States to discuss the p ro b le m s o f th e Pacific, th e A m eric an s m a d e it plain to th e Japan ese th at th e U n ite d States w o u ld n o lo n g e r tolerate th eir o ccu p atio n o f the S iberian seabo ard. H ere, then, w e re the p o rte n ts o f an o th e r, g re ater s tru g g le w h e n th o se h a rd tim es w o u ld co m e again.

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CHAPTER 18

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks The Baltic, November igi8-D ecem ber l gi g

T h r o u g h o u t th e in te rv e n tio n th e R o y al N a v y lived u p to its re p u ­ ta tio n fo r d a rin g and efficiency. M e n an d m achines p e rfo rm e d ag ainst th e w o r s t odds: th e A ttentive w h ich o p e n e d th e w a y to A rch an g el; th e g u n b o a ts w h ic h fo u g h t the riv er battles o n the D v in a; th e h o tc h p o tc h flotillas w h ic h w o n c o m m a n d o f the C asp ian an d L ake O n e g a ; th e naval g u n c re w s in Siberia; an d the sailors w h o carried o u t th e slo g g in g h ard w o r k o f tra n s p o rtin g an d escortin g m e n and m aterie l across a d o ze n seas to th e R ussian battlefields had b eh a v ed in th e h ig h est tra d itio n o f the R oy al N a v y . It w as o n ly in th e B altic, h o w e v e r, th at th e N a v y o p erated as a fleet at w a r o p p o s e d b y an e n e m y fleet o f big ships arm e d w ith big guns. T h e B altic h ad been den ied to th e R o yal N a v y d u rin g the First W o rld W a r w ith o n ly th e d ash in g C ro m ie b ein g able to break t h r o u g h th e G e rm a n defences to reach P e tro g ra d and th en w re ak h a v o c a m o n g G e rm a n sh ip p in g in his su b m arin e . E v e n after the w a r th e B altic w as a p erilous place, full o f th o u san d s o f m ines, and w h e n A d m ira l Sir E d w y n A lex an d er-S in clair w as sent there w ith a sm all force o f lig h t cruisers an d d estro y e rs in N o v e m b e r 1918, his first task w as to sw ee p a safe c o rrid o r - “ th e R ed R o u te ” - th ro u g h th e m inefields. A lth o u g h th e N a v y w as able to use G e rm an , R ussian an d S w ed ish m ap s o f the m inefields, so m a n y m ines had been s o w n an d so m a n y h ad b ro k e n free th at it re m a in ed a h ig h ly h az ard o u s exercise an d the lig h t cruiser Cassandra an d several sm aller b o ats w e re s u n k d u rin g th e clearing. A lex a n d er-S in cla ir w as succeeded in Ja n u a ry 1919 b y R earA d m ira l Sir W a lte r C o w a n , w h o lo v ed horses alm o st as m u c h as he lo v ed his ships. A sh o rt, s tu rd y m an , he could be seen w a lk in g the q u a rte rd e c k o f his flagship, the cruiser Delhi w e arin g rid in g b o o ts a n d a red h u n tin g w a istco a t u n d e r his u n ifo rm jac k et. H is task w as to p ro te c t th e B altic states o f F inland, E stonia, Latvia and L ithuania w h ic h th e G e rm a n s h a d w re s te d f ro m Russia u n d e r th e te rm s o f the B re s t-L ito v s k T re a ty an d w h ic h th e B olsheviks w e re d e te rm in e d to b rin g back in to th e n e w S oviet E m p ire. In ad d itio n he w as also su p p o s e d to m a k e sure th a t the G e rm an s, w h o h ad occu pied these 247

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks n e w states, o b e y e d th e te rm s o f th e A rm istice w h ile the Peace T re a ty w as bein g ratified in Paris. C o w a n w as a fig h tin g sailor o f great personal co u rag e b u t rarely had a B ritish sead og fo u n d h im s e lf in a situ atio n o f such political co m p le x ity . H e fo u n d th e Finns, th o se sam e W h ite Finns against w h o m M a y n a rd h ad g o n e to w ar, b arg ain in g fo r s u p p o rt and re c o g n itio n fro m the Allies in re tu rn for h elpin g the W hite R ussians to attack P e tro g ra d . H e fo u n d th e E stonians fig h tin g o f f B o lsh ev ik incu rsio ns. H e fo u n d Latvia virtu ally occu pied b y the B olsheviks. H e fo u n d G eneral V o n d er G oltz, w h o h ad led the G e rm a n inv asion o f Finland, in ch arg e o f a G e rm a n g arriso n in th e Latvian p o rt o f L ibau. T h is w as in accord an ce w ith the A rm istice w h ic h allo w ed the G e rm a n s to m a in ta in o rd e r, b u t V o n d er G o ltz h ad o th e r ideas: w h e n G e rm a n re in fo rce m en ts arriv ed - a m o n g th e m the re­ n o w n e d Iro n D iv isio n - he set a b o u t clearing the B olsheviks o u t o f Latvia. C o w a n also fo u n d the W h ite R ussian N o r th e r n C o rp s. T h is h ad o rig in ally b een fo rm e d b y the G e rm an s fro m priso ners o f w a r and refugees fro m B o lsh e v ism and w as c o m m a n d e d b y T sarist officers. T h e G e rm a n plan h ad been to use it to replace m en w ith d ra w n fro m the E aste rn F ro n t to b o lster th eir c ru m b lin g W e ste rn A rm ies. B u t the w a r en d ed to o s o o n and th e N o r th e r n C o rp s , w h ic h at th a t tim e n u m b e re d less th an fo u r th o u s a n d m en , w as tak en o v e r b y the E sto n ian s w h o need ed w h a te v e r m e n th e y co uld get to fig ht o f f the B olsh eviks. In a d d itio n , th ere w e re vario us “ F re ik o rp s ” and “ L a n d e s w e h r” o f Poles and B altic G e rm a n s an d Finns. O n e o f the ro u g h e s t o f these fig h tin g b and s w as c o m p o s e d o f R ed Finns fro m M a y n a rd ’s a rm y w h o h ad n o t been allo w e d to re tu rn to Finland because o f th e p art th e y h ad played in th e civil w a r in w h ic h th ey had been defeated by th e W h ite Finns. P u t u n d e r a y o u n g B ritish L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l attac h ed to the P olish R elief M ission, w h o w h ip p e d th e m into shape, th ey becam e d e v o te d to h im and a m o n g the best disciplined soldiers in the area. H is n a m e w as A lex a n d er and he becam e F ield -M arsh al Earl A lex a n d er o f T u n is, th at great leader in th e S eco n d W o rld W ar. H e later to ld h o w , in th o se e x tra o rd in a ry days in th e B altic, B ritish an d G e rm a n officers, victo rs an d v an q u ish ed , all w ith pistols at th eir belts, w o u ld freq u en t th e sam e restaurants. B u t dislike w as m u tu a l and hands n ev e r stray ed far fro m holsters. T h e G e rm an s, w h o w e re re g ard e d in s o m e B ritish q u arters as a useful b u lw a r k against the B olsheviks, rapidly becam e a m u rd e ro u s e m b a rra s s m e n t. T h e y to o k th e v iew th at a lth o u g h forced to a d m it defeat in th e W est th ey certainly had n o t b een defeated in th e East, 248

The Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 an d th e in fan t states o f Latvia an d L ithuania lo o k e d easy m ea t to these h a rd e n e d veterans. T h e ir acq uisition w o u ld g o so m e w a y to co m p e n sa te fo r G e r m a n y ’s defeat. T h e y o ccup ied M ita u in M arch, th en Libau, M e m e l in Lithuania, W in d a u and, finally, Riga, the capital o f Latvia, in M ay. T h e y b eh a v ed atro c io u sly - c o n q u e ro rs ra th e r th an a d efeated a r m y - and so m e three th o u s a n d peo ple w e re killed d u rin g th eir o cc u p atio n o f Riga. C o w a n , th re a te n in g to use his cruisers’ guns, w r u n g a p ro m ise fro m V o n d e r G o ltz to give back the ca p tu red to w n s to their inh ab itan ts. B u t V o n d er G o ltz w as a m aster o f p ro c rastin atio n and w h e n the th a w cam e and R ussian w arsh ip s started to raid the E sto n ian coast, C o w a n h ad to sail his ships aw ay to face th e R ed Fleet, w h ile V o n d er G oltz, d efy in g ev e ry b o d y , ev en his o w n g o v e r n m e n t, clu n g to his gains. M e a n w h ile G eneral Y u d e n ic h h ad pro c la im e d h im s e lf c o m m a n ­ d er o f th e W h ite R ussians in th e n a m e o f A d m iral K olchak. A b urly , m o u s ta c h io e d , professional soldier, Y u d e n ic h h ad e m e rg e d as o ne o f th e few h ero es o f the R u s s o -J a p a n e s e w a r in 1905 an d had risen to c o m m a n d th e R ussian forces in the C au casus w h e re he p e rfo rm e d w ell against th e T u rk s . H e n o t o n ly c o m m a n d e d a g ro w in g arm y , b u t also set u p a Political C o u n c il c o m p o s e d o f T sarist refugees read y to fo rm th e civil g o v e r n m e n t o f P e tro g ra d w h e n , as he co n ­ fid en tly exp ected, he m a rc h e d in. Y u d e n ic h suffered h o w e v e r, like all th e W h ite C o m m a n d e rs , and, indeed, th e R ed C o m m a n ­ ders, fro m indecision and q u arrellin g a m o n g his staff. H e also had to cope w ith th e ta n tru m s and sch e m in g o f th e em igres; at tim es it seem ed th a t th ey w e re m o re in te n t o n d o in g each o th e r d o w n th an in w in n in g back Russia. O p e ra tin g w ith the E sto nian s, Y u d e n ic h lau nched an offensive in M a y w h ic h , w h ile failing to reach P etro g ra d , w o n h im a sizeable area fo r re c ru itm e n t and established fo r the first tim e a solid d efensive line w h ic h ran fro m N a rv a o n th e coast to P sk o v at the s o u th e rn tip o f Lake Peipus. H is offensive also b r o u g h t a b o u t the dese rtio n o f large n u m b e rs o f m e n w h o had been u n w illin g ly c o n sc rip ted in to the R ed A rm y . H e p r o m p tly in c o rp o ra te d th e m in his o w n a r m y an d b y the early s u m m e r he had the n o t in co n sid er­ able force o f 25,000 m en. T h a t sam e m o n th th e B ritish sent o u t a m ilitary m issio n o f 44 officers and 45 o th e r ran ks to force V o n der G oltz to o b ey his g o v e r n m e n t’s in stru c tio n to w ith d r a w fro m th e Baltic an d to “ g alv an ise” Y u d e n ic h in to g re ater efforts. L ieu ten an t-G eneral Sir H u b e rt G o u g h , a m a n n o t in exp erienced in political and m ilitary c o n tro v e rs y , w as a p p o in te d to lead it. As a brig ad ie r-g e n era l 249

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks c o m m a n d in g th e T h ir d C a v a lry B rig ad e in Ireland he h ad b een th e p rim e m o v e r in th e “ C u r r a g h In c id e n t” w h e n he and 57 o f his officers stated th a t th e y w o u ld ra th e r be dism issed fro m the A r m y th an be used against U ls te rm e n w h o w e re th rea ten in g civil w a r o v e r th e g o v e r n m e n t’s plans to give Ireland H o m e R ule. T h e n in M a rc h 1918 w h e n in c o m m a n d o f the Fifth A r m y in France, he h ad the m is fo rtu n e to receive the full w e ig h t o f L u d e n d o r ff’s attack. T h e Fifth A r m y d isin te g rate d and he w as sacked. B u t even in disgrace he h ad his s u p p o rte rs w h o arg u ed th at he h ad fo u g h t as w ell as he co u ld an d th a t his dism issal h ad been b ro u g h t a b o u t b y politicians still a n g ry o v e r his stand at the C u rra g h . N o w he w as b ein g g iv en a n o th e r chance. H e based h im s e lf in H elsin k i w h e re Y u d e n ic h an d V o n der G o ltz also h ad h ea d q u arte rs. T h e th ree generals each occup ied o n e o f H e ls in k i’s best hotels an d flew th eir nation al flags fro m th eir roofs. T h e Finns called th e m “ T h e T h re e F o rtresses” . M e a n w h ile C o w a n w as co n c en tra tin g o n th e b o ttlin g -u p o f the R ed Fleet in K ro n s ta d t - the im m e n se ly p o w e rfu l island fortress w h ic h g u ard s th e ap p roaches to P e tro g ra d . In 1919 K ro n s ta d t w as p ro te c te d b y forts and u n d e r w a te r b re ak w a te rs bu ilt across th e bay, w ith fu rth e r forts o n th e m ain land . It seem ed to be im p reg n a b le . N o h ostile ship co uld a p p ro a c h it w ith o u t b eing b lo w n o u t o f the w a te r. In ad d itio n , its w ell e q u ip p e d h a r b o u r held a fleet w h ich , o n paper, w as far su p e rio r to C o w a n ’s. H e h ad cruisers and d estroy ers, alo n g w ith m in esw ee p ers and m o n ito rs , and w as later jo in e d b y tw o o f th e N a v y ’s n e w class o f ship, th e aircraft carrier. B u t th e R ussians h a d t w o battleship s arm e d w ith 12-inch guns, the Andrei P ervozvanny and the Petropavlovsk, the cruiser Oleg w ith 6-inch g un s, th e s u b m a rin e d e p o t ship D v in a , n o w giv en back its old r e v o lu tio n a ry n a m e o f Pamiat A z o v a - th e ship w h o se crew h ad g iv en C r o m ie so m u c h tro u b le - as w ell as seven su b m arin es, a s q u a d ro n o f destro y e rs, so m e auxiliaries and the m inelayer N arova, w h ic h h ad s o w n fresh m inefields r o u n d K ro n sta d t. H o w e v e r, the effectiveness o f this p o w e rfu l fleet w as u n d e r­ m in e d b y sho rtages, especially o f fuel a n d a m m u n itio n . A nd , as the sailors - the m u scle o f the R ev o lu tio n - h ad m u rd e re d so m a n y o f th eir officers th ere w as n o discipline; o rd e rs w e re a n sw e red b y d eb a te ra th e r th an action. T h e c o m m a n d stru c tu re w as so w eak th at the B olsh ev ik s h ad been forced to p u t officers o f the T sarist N a v y back in c o m m a n d o f s o m e ships. B u t th ey w e re captains in n a m e o n ly , w o rk in g u n d e r th re a t o f death to them selv es and th eir families an d w ith political co m m issars w a tc h in g th eir e v ery m o ve. T h a t the fleet existed at all w as d u e to th e brilliant s taff w o r k o f an 250

T he Baltic, November igi8-D ecem ber lg ig Im perial N a v y officer, A d m iral A. M . S hchastny, w h o tw ice saved th e ships fr o m ca p tu re b y the G e rm an s, m o v in g th e m fro m Reval to H elsin k i in F eb ru a ry 1918 an d th en to K ro n s ta d t w h e n the G e rm a n s in v a d e d Finland tw o m o n th s later. B y u sing ice-breakers and m in esw ee p ers, he w as able to deliver a lm o st th e entire R ussian B altic Fleet to th e B olsheviks. S h ch astn y b ec am e a h e ro a m o n g th e B olsheviks, despite re m a in ­ in g v e ry m u c h an Im perial officer. T his, o f course, w as un b earab le fo r the B o lsh e v ik fanatics. T h e y lu red h im to M o s c o w to be “ d e c o ra te d ” fo r his w o rk , arrested h im o n tru m p e d - u p charges o f usin g his p o p u la rity to w o r k against th e R e v o lu tio n an d sh o t him . T h e ships th at he saved w e re th o se th a t C ro m ie h ad p lo tte d to sab o tag e to p re v e n t th e m falling in to G e rm a n hands. H o w stran g e th a t the m a n w h o saved th e m and th e m a n w h o p lo tte d to sink th e m sh o u ld b o th be m u rd e r e d b y th e B olsheviks. W ith th e c o m in g o f sp rin g an d th e b re ak in g o f the B altic ice these big R ussian ships started to s h o w signs o f life. T h e B olsheviks w o u ld send o u t th eir d estro y e rs, occasionally p ro te c te d b y the O leg, to raid a lo n g th e E sto n ian coast. W h e n C o w a n ’s ships chased th e m back to K ro n s ta d t, th e tw o battleships w o u ld p o k e th eir noses o u t fro m th e m inefields an d b a n g aw ay w ith their big guns. T h is p ro v e d to be a w a ste o f a m m u n itio n and after the end o f M a y the battlesh ips stay ed at h o m e , h o p in g th a t the e m b o ld e n e d B ritish w o u ld ru n th eir ships in to the m inefields. T h is did n o t m ea n th ere w as a lack o f action as B olsh ev ik d estro y e rs e m e rg e d to b o m b a r d th e E sto n ian coast and W hite R ussian positio ns. O n o n e o f these raids tw o d estro y ers, the Lennuk an d the Yombola, set o u t to attack R eval, b u t w e re cut o f f b y B ritish ships an d b o a rd e d fro m a tra w le r b y J o h n Pitka, the flam b o y a n t c o m m a n d e r o f E s to n ia ’s infant n a v y w h o later becam e Sir J o h n Pitka. H e and his m e n c a p tu red th e m b o th in an o ld -fash io n ed h a n d - to - h a n d e n c o u n te r and th ey becam e the nucleus o f the E sto ­ nian N a v y . O n e o f the m e n c a p tu red b y P itka w as the C o m m is s a r o f the B altic Fleet, F. F. R a sk o ln ik o v , a fo rm e r ch ie f p etty -o fficer w h o had p layed a leading role in th e o v e r th r o w o f th e P ro visio nal g o v e r n m e n t an d w as o n e o f T r o t s k y ’s m o s t loyal su p p o rters. H e w as a m o n g a sm all n u m b e r o f h ig h -ra n k in g B olsheviks w h o w e re ta k e n to E n g la n d to be u sed as ho stag es to force th e S oviet g o v e rn ­ m e n t in to an ex c h an g e o f p riso ners. O n F eb ru a ry 1st, 1920, he sent a radio m essag e fro m E n g la n d - o b v io u sly at B ritish in stig a tio n to T r o ts k y telling h im th at he an d a m e m b e r o f th e P e tro g ra d S oviet w e re bein g held as ho stag es for “ all B ritish civilian and 251

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks m ilitary p ris o n e rs ” held b y the B olsheviks. Eleven days later an a g re e m e n t w as sign ed b y b o th cou ntries for the ex ch an g e o f all priso ners. R a s k o ln ik o v w e n t h o m e o n M a y 26th. W e shall m ee t h im again later. T h e su b m arin e s w e re also active. T w o B ritish destro yers, H M S Valorous and H M S Vancouver, severely d am a g ed the Ersh w h ic h barely succeeded in lim p in g back to K ro n sta d t. T h e trade w as tw o - w a y , w ith th e B o lsh e v ik d e s tro y e r A za rd sinking th e B ritish su b m a rin e L55. T h e R ussians raised th e L55 in 1928, accorded the dead c r e w m e n full naval h o n o u rs and th en used h er as the p ro to ty p e fo r th e ir h ig h ly successful L eninetz class o f su bm arine. It is so b erin g to th in k th at the n u clear su b m arin e s w h ic h n o w have th eir missiles train e d o n L o n d o n an d N e w Y o rk h ad th eir origin s in a B ritish b o at su n k so lo n g ago. C o w a n h ad o n e w e a p o n o f w h ich the B olsheviks k n e w n o th in g . It w as the C o astal M o t o r B oat, d ev e lo p ed d u rin g the w a r for h it-a n d - ru n raids a lo n g th e G e rm a n and B elgian shores. T h ese b oats, fo rty and fifty-five footers, h ad h y d ro p la n e hulls an d w ith eng ines o f u p to 500 h p w e re capable o f o v e r fo rty k n ots. T h e y w e re a rm e d w ith L ew is g u n s, d e p th charges and either o n e o r tw o to rp ed o e s. T h e y c o u ld also carry specially design ed m ines instead o f th e to rp ed o e s. D u rin g th e raid o n Z e e b ru g g e o n A pril 22nd, 1918 th e y p e rfo rm e d w ell and, because o f th eir ability to sk im o v e r m inefields, w e re b ein g p re p are d fo r attacks o n G e rm a n heavy ships inside th eir h a rb o u rs w h e n th e w a r ended. L ieu ten a n t A u g u stu s A gar, w h o m w e m e t earlier th ro u g h his d e sc rip tio n o f the A skold at M u rm a n s k , w as th en serv in g w ith th e C M B s at O sea Island o n th e R iv er B lack w a ter in Essex. H e w a tc h e d im p a tie n tly as bo ats w e re sent o f f to fight th e B o lsheviks o n th e C aspian , the D v in a an d Lake O n e g a and his chance cam e fo llo w in g a s u m m o n s to L o n d o n to m ee t “ C ” , the head o f the Secret Service. “ C ” w as b u sy re b u ild in g his R ussian n e tw o r k . A fter th e d eath o f C ro m ie , R eilly ’s flight, th e ex p u lsio n o f L o ck h a rt, H icks an d B o y ce and th e d e p a rtu re o f H ill, “ C ” h ad o n ly o n e asset left in P etro g ra d . J o h n M e r re tt w h o , ac co rd in g to Soviet accounts, ran his o w n tra d in g business, M e r re tt Jo n es and C o m p a n y , as co ver fo r his illegal activities, used th e n a m e o f Ivan Ivano vich. D escrib ed as a “ b lo n d g ia n t” in a C h e k a re p o rt, he w as an o b v io u s targ e t for C h e k a agents w h o fo llo w ed h im and searched his office. A l­ t h o u g h he k e p t a flicker o f secret service activ ity alive in P e tro g ra d th e C h e k a w as closing in o n h im and, acco rd in g to the S oviet v ersio n , “ he av o id ed arrest o n ly b y ac cid en t” . It w as essential, 252

The Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 th erefo re, to g et h im o u t and replace h im w ith an u n d e rc o v e r agent. “ C ” h ad ch o sen o n e o f th e m o s t re m a rk ab le o f his agents for this task, Paul D u k e s, a slig h tly -b u ilt tw e n ty -e ig h t-y e a r-o ld , w h o had first g o n e to R ussia in 1909 to s tu d y m u sic at the C o n se rv a to ire . W h ile attac h ed to th e M a rin sk y T h e a tre he h ad jo in e d th e A n g lo R ussian C o m m is s io n and w ith a K in g ’s M e s s e n g e r’s p assp o rt h ad trav elled th r o u g h o u t R ussia fo r six m o n th s s tu d y in g re lief w o rk . In J u n e 1918 he w as s u m m o n e d to L o n d o n and - believing his w o rk to be u n sa tisfac to ry to the F oreign O ffice - p re sen ted h im s e lf at a b u ild in g n ear T ra falg a r S quare w h e re, to his surprise, he w as offered a j o b w ith the SIS. D u k e s ’ task w o u ld be to re tu rn to Russia to re p o rt o n B o lshevik policy, the a ttitu d e o f th e p o p u la tio n to w a rd s the g o v e rn m e n t, the possibilities fo r a chang e in the regim es, and th e e x te n t o f G e rm a n influence. H e w as also asked to p ro v id e m ilitary an d naval intelli­ gence. H e ag reed and, a rm e d w ith the n am es o f a “ few E n glish p e o p le ” to con tact, lan d ed at A rch an g el in S ep tem b er 1918. D u k e s th en m a d e his w a y in disguise to P e tro g ra d w h e re M e rre tt h an d e d o v e r his s k im p y n e tw o r k to h im and vanish ed fro m Russia in the guise o f a co ach m an . It w as to be L ieu ten a n t A g a r ’s j o b to establish a secret base for tw o C M B s o n the F innish coast, close to P e tro g ra d , and ru n in cou riers an d m o n e y to D u k e s, a j o b w h ic h had b e c o m e u rg e n t since a n u m b e r o f his cou riers travelling o v e rla n d had been picked u p by th e B olsh ev iks and shot. A g a r w as to be k n o w n as A g e n t S T 34 and he an d his b o ats w e re to serve M I6 ra th e r th an A d m ira l C o w a n . O n J u n e 10th, 1919, he arriv ed at T e rrio k i, j u s t th ree m iles fro m th e R ussian b o rd e r. T h e re w ith six m en , tw o boats and th e help o f B ritish agents based in Finland an d the c o -o p e ra tio n o f th e local F innish c o m m a n d a n t, he set u p his base in a disused y ach t club. H e w e n t to w o r k im m e d iately . O n J u n e 13th, g u id ed b y a s m u g g le r, he th re a d e d his w a y th r o u g h K ro n s ta d t’s forts and the u n d e r w a te r b re ak w a te rs, w a itin g for th e searchlights and th e b u rs t o f g u n fire w h ic h w o u ld signal th e en d o f his m ission. B u t he slipped th r o u g h u nseen, an d lan ded his co u rie r “ P e te r” o n an island v irtu ­ ally in th e s u b u rb s o f P e tro g ra d . H e tu rn e d fo r h o m e and on ce m o re easing p ast p a tro l boats, m inefields an d forts, m ad e his w a y safely back to T e rrio k i h a v in g arra n g e d to fetch “ P e te r” o u t o f P e tro g ra d th e fo llo w in g n ig h t. A g a r’s situ atio n h ad b e c o m e co m p lica te d because the F ortress o f K ra sn ay a G o rk a o n the coast to th e w e st o f P e tro g ra d h ad rebelled against th e B olsh ev ik s o n J u n e 10th and tw o battleships h ad been 253

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks sent o u t fro m K ro n s ta d t to b o m b a rd it in to sub m ission . H e co u ld see th e battleship s b o m b a rd in g the fo rt th r o u g h o u t J u n e 14th, b u t nev erth eless m a d e his pre p ara tio n s. T h a t n ig h t he w e n t o u t again a n d e v e ry th in g w e n t like c lo c k w o rk . T h e co u rier w as pick ed u p w ith despatches fro m D u k e s, in clu d in g the m essage th at D u k e s did n o t w a n t to be lifted o u t fo r a n o th e r m o n th . T h is b r o u g h t an en d to A g a r ’s secret service w o r k fo r th e tim e b ein g a nd he tu rn e d his m in d to o th e r th ings. H e had b o r r o w e d tw o to rp e d o e s fro m C o w a n an d n o w p ro p o se d to use th e m against th e battlesh ips b o m b a rd in g K ra sn ay a G o rka. B u t his req u est to L o n ­ d o n b r o u g h t th e in stru ctio n : “ B oats to be used for intelligence p u rp o se s o nly. T a k e n o action unless specially directed b y S enior N a v a l O fficer B a ltic .” T o m o s t y o u n g officers th at w o u ld h ave been an explicit o rd e r b u t A g a r saw it as giv in g h im p erm issio n to g o ahead as lo n g as he c o u ld o b tain C o w a n ’s approval. F u rth e r­ m o re , a lth o u g h he h a d n o w a y o f c o n ta ctin g C o w a n , he w as sure th e A d m ira l w o u ld ap p ro v e. So w ith th at piece o f N e lso n ia n logic A g a r m a d e p re p ara tio n s to attack th e battleships. B o th b oats, A g a r c o m m a n d in g N o . 4 an d L ieu tenant J. Sindall c o m m a n d in g N o . 7, load ed th eir to rp e d o e s and, ch a n g in g their civilian sp y clothes fo r R oyal N a v y u n ifo rm s, set o u t, W h ite E n sig n s flying, at m id n ig h t o n J u n e 16th. A lm o s t im m e d ia te ly S in d all’s b o a t hit a floating m ine. It failed to e x p lo d e b u t b ro k e his p ro p e lle r shaft. A g a r to w e d h im to safety b u t Sindall and his b o at w e re n o w o u t o f th e gam e. T h e fo llo w in g day, J u n e 17th, the B o lsh e v ik b attleships re tu rn e d to h a r b o u r and th eir place w as tak en b y th e Oleg. T h a t n ig h t, in a h ea v y sea, A g a r set o u t to attack the Oleg w ith S u b -L ie u te n a n t J o h n H a m p s h e ir and C h ie f M o t o r M ec h an ic H u g h B eeley as his crew o n C M B 7. T h e y w e re sliding s lo w ly th r o u g h th e d estro y e rs screening the Oleg w h e n su d d en ly th e b o a t starte d to j u d d e r violently. T h e ch arg e used to eject th e to rp e d o h ad fired. L uckily it w as held firm ly b y tw o iro n clam ps. H a m p s h e ir th en fo u g h t to fit a n e w ch arg e w h ile th e b o at lay rollin g b e tw e e n tw o B o lsh e v ik d estro yers. E v en tu a lly he succeeded and A g a r h ead ed, en g in e ro a rin g , at full speed to w a rd s th e O leg, fired his to rp e d o a n d s w u n g aw ay. T h e y n o w cam e u n d e r fire fro m the cruiser, the d estro y e rs an d th e forts b u t, m iracu lo u sly , th ey w e re u n to u c h e d . T h e ir to rp e d o ran tru e and b u rs t against the O leg9s side. She ro lled o v e r an d sank an d fo rty c re w m e n died. A g a r w as a w a rd e d th e V icto ria C ro ss for this ex ploit, b u t as the c irc u m ­ stances could n o t be revealed it b ecam e k n o w n as th e “ M y s te ry VC”. T h e r e still rem ain s so m e th in g o f a m y s te ry a b o u t this action for 254

T he Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 in his b o o k , Baltic Episode, A g a r w rites o n ly a b o u t these tw o a tte m p ts to attack th e B o lsh ev ik ships, w hile his official re p o rt w h ic h is p rin te d as an ap p e n d ix to the b o o k reveals th at he had in fact m a d e th re e a tte m p ts, th e first o n e b eing m a d e n o t o n the Oleg b u t o n the battlesh ips as he re tu rn e d fro m land ing “ P e te r” on his first ru n to P e tro g ra d . H is re p o rt says: “ O n the m o rn in g o f Friday, J u n e 13 th, after c o m p le tin g a special m ission in th e B ay o f P e tro ­ grad, I recro ssed th e E astern line o f forts g u a rd in g K ro n s ta d t in C M B N o . 7 and p ro c eed e d to m ak e a reconnaissance near T o lb o u h in L ig h th o u se. T h e re I saw a n c h o re d tw o B o lsh ev ik D re a d ­ n o u g h ts , th e Petropavlovsk and th e Andrei P ervozvanny, w ith a de­ s tro y e r g u a rd b o th to th e E ast and W est o f th em . I d ecided to attack, th e tim e b ein g 2.00 a .m . (Finnish T im e ), b u t, w h e n o n ly 4 m iles a w ay , the en g in e failed and rev o lu tio n s d ro p p e d b e lo w to rp e d o firing speed, so I h ad to tu rn 16 p o in ts an d re tu rn to m y base, arriv in g th ere at 3.15 a. m . ” It w o u ld ap p e ar fro m this re p o rt th at A g a r h ad a rm e d his b o at w ith a to rp e d o an d u n d e rta k e n an attack w hile w e a rin g civilian clothes b efo re he h ad even sent his signal to L o n d o n asking for p e rm issio n to attack. I f th e m issio n had g o n e w r o n g it co uld have h a d a disastro us effect o n his intelligence m ission an d he w o u ld p ro b a b ly h av e ea rn ed a c o u rt m artial ra th e r th an a V ictoria C ro ss. In th e n e x t few w eeks A gar, w ith b o th boats n o w operational, re s u m e d his intelligence activities, ru n n in g couriers to D ukes. It w as a p erilou s o c c u p a tio n especially as the B olsheviks n o w realised th a t th e C M B s w e re o p e ra tin g v irtu ally in th eir o w n fro n t p arlo ur. It also b ec am e necessary to try to g et D u k e s o u t earlier th an p lan ned as th e C h e k a w as closing in. O p e ra tin g in a v ariety o f guises D u k e s n o t o n ly p ro v id e d m ap s o f the m inefields g u a rd in g K ro n s ta d t, b u t also financed an u n d e r g r o u n d o rg a n isa tio n fo rm e d b y T sarist officers, b u sin essm en an d fo rm e r lan d o w n e rs. C alled the N a tio n a l C e n tre , it w as ded icated to th e o v e r th r o w o f B o lsh ev ism . D u k e s also ac q u ired m u c h valuable in fo rm a tio n a b o u t social an d political co n d itio n s inside Russia. R ecent S o viet acco un ts refer to th e existence o f a “ B ritish File” d r a w n u p at th e tim e b y E d u a rd O tto , o f th e C h e k a ’s Special D e p a rtm e n t O O . O t to , n ic k n a m e d “ T h e P ro fe ss o r” , sp en t all his tim e try in g to catch D u k e s w h o w as described in th e C h e k a files as: “ Y o u n g , tall, slig h tly sto o p in g , w ith a th in cleanshaven face and usually w e a rin g a R ed A r m y g re atco a t and sh ab b y b o o t s .” O t t o and D u k e s cam e face to face w h e n the C h e k a w as tip p ed o f f th a t D u k e s h ad g o n e to a d o c to r fo r tre a tm e n t o f frostbite. T h e C h e k a d e ta c h m e n t b u rs t in to th e r o o m w h e re D u k e s lay o n a 255

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks couch. A m a n stared in to D u k e s ’ face. It w as O tto . B u t D u k e s had been ta u g h t b y the d o c to r - an an ti-B o lsh ev ist - h o w to t h r o w a fit. H e did so m o s t im p ressiv ely and th e C h ek ists left. B u t m a n y o f D u k e s ’ contacts w e re arrested and shot. In J u ly tw o o f his N a tio n a l C e n tre co uriers w e re ca u g h t crossing th e b o rd e r in to Finland. O n e w as killed and a capsule co n ta in in g tw o slips o f rice p ap er w e re fo u n d in the heel o f his b o o t. T h e y co ntained intelligence a b o u t R ed A r m y defences and secret B o lsh ev ik political decisions, and th ey w e re sign ed S T 25. T h e n et b eg an to close. W h en D u k e s w e n t to M o s c o w to seek in fo rm a tio n fro m the R ev eren d F rank N o r th , the B ritish chaplain an d th e o n ly rep resen tativ e E n g lish m a n left in th e city (his ch u rch , St A n d re w s , is n o w the reco rd in g studios o f the M e lo d iy a re co rd c o m p a n y ), N o r t h w as picked u p b y the C h e k a and sp en t several m o n th s in prison . W h e n he w as even tually released D u k e s m e t h im at W a te rlo o Station. N o r t h co uld be fo rg iv e n for s h o w in g his pique. H is first w o rd s w ere: “ B y jo v e , D u k e s, th at in te rv ie w w ith y o u all b u t p u t m e u p against the w a ll.” It w as in these circum stances th at A g a r and Sindall m ad e several a tte m p ts to g et D u k e o u t. T h e y failed in a succession o f hair-raising episodes w h ic h D u k e s and A g a r later re c o u n te d in th eir b o o k s, The Story o f S T 23 and Baltic Episode. A g a r m a d e a n o th e r ru n o n A u g u s t 8th, h av in g sent w o r d to D u k e s th at this w o u ld be th e last a tte m p t for so m e tim e because o f “ naval o p e ra tio n s ” . T h is to o failed because the sm all b o at stolen b y D u k e s an d his c o m p a n io n to r o w o u t to th e C M B sank b en eath th e m and th ey h ad to s w im for the sh o re w h e re th ey w a tc h e d th e C M B tu rn ro u n d an d d epart. A g a r ’s “ naval o p e ra tio n s ” sp ra n g fro m his success at sin k in g the Oleg and th e plans m a d e to attack G e rm a n battleships at th eir m o o rin g s th e p re v io u s year. C o w a n h ad m ad e u p his m in d to re m o v e the th re a t o f th e tw o battleships, w h ic h h ad forced K ras­ n ay a G o rk a to su rre n d er, and to d o so he p lanned to use a flotilla o f C M B s to m a k e a h ig h speed to rp e d o ru n in to th e h a r b o u r u n d e r co v e r o f darkness. In th e m e a n tim e he h ad been reinfo rced b y a n o th e r s q u a d ro n o f d estro y e rs an d b y H M S Vindictive, a lig ht cruiser w h ic h h ad been c o n v e rte d in to an aircraft carrier and carried a fig h tin g force o f C am els, Griffins, 1V2 S tru tte rs and S h o rt Sea­ planes to th e Baltic. C o m m a n d e d b y C a p ta in E d g a r “ D a s h e r” G race, son o f the g reat cricketer “ W . G . ” she disgraced h e rse lf o n arrival b y ru n n in g a g ro u n d . It to o k m u c h effort o v e r eig h t days to g et h e r off. T h e aircraft w e re u n lo ad e d an d flo w n fro m a p rim itiv e aero ­ d r o m e carv ed o u t o f th e scrub at B io rk o in Finland. T w o o r th ree 256

T he Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 a n ti-s u b m a rin e patro ls w e re m ad e ev ery day and o n J u ly 30th, eleven aircraft carried o u t a d a w n raid o n K ro n s ta d t and S q u a d ro n Leader D . G. D o n a ld - later A ir M arshal Sir G ra h a m e D o n a ld re p o rte d th a t “ a d e s tro y e r d e p o t ship disap peared and w as n o t seen a g a in ” . D o n a ld w as n o t to o h a p p y w ith the situation: “ A n ti-aircraft fire im p ro v e d daily. In ad equ ate a e ro d ro m e a rra n g e m e n ts h a m ­ p ered o p eratio n s; fu rth e r, the aircraft w ere, w ith o u t exceptio n, old a nd u n su itab le fo r the duties th ey w e re re q u ired to carry o u t . ” N e v erth ele ss, th e y w e re to play a vital role in th e K ro n s ta d t Raid. Seven C M B s arriv ed at B io rk o - o n e had been lost in the N o r t h Sea - o n A u g u s t 2nd. C o m m a n d o f the enterprise w as given to C o m m a n d e r C . C . “ D o b b ie ” D o b s o n and A g a r w as asked to lead th e m t h r o u g h th e chain o f forts. It w as plann ed th at th ey w o u ld go in at full sp eed in tw o g ro u p s o f th ree u n d e r co v er o f b o m b s and bullets fro m D o n a ld ’s planes. T h e sev e n th b o at w o u ld deal w ith the g u a rd ship an d A g a r w o u ld lu rk o u tsid e ready to cop e w ith any ships w h ic h m ig h t c o m e o u t to fight. T h e C M B s w e n t in at 0140 o n A u g u s t 18th. H e lp e d b y a s tro n g w e ste rly w in d w h ic h raised th e level o f th e w a te r in P e tro g ra d B ay, th ey w e re able to pass o v e r the b re a k w a te rs w ith o u t d am age. T h e first b o a t to ro a r t h r o u g h the n a r ro w en tran ce w as N o . 79 c o m m a n ­ d ed b y L ieu ten a n t B re m n e r. H e achieved co m p lete su rprise w ith th e noise o f his engines being lost a m o n g th e racket m ad e by D o n a ld ’s aircraft. B re m n e r sco red a direct h it o n the Pamiat A zo v a . It w as o n ly th e n th at th e defences cam e to life. D o b s o n , in N o . 31 w as the n e x t to strike, h ittin g th e Andrei Pervozvanny w ith b o th his to rp ed o e s. B y n o w the air w as full o f sh o t and shell; searchlights c o m b e d th e h a rb o u r, and tracers a rro w e d th ro u g h th e nigh t. L ieu ten a n t D a y rell-R ee d w as hit as he m ad e his attack an d s lu m p e d across th e w heel. S u b -L ieu ten a n t Steel left his Lew is g u n and pulled his m o rta lly w o u n d e d sk ip p er fro m th e controls. H e w as j u s t able to fire his to rp e d o e s an d sw in g aw ay; any later and he w o u ld have ra m m e d th e Petropavlovsk. O n e o f his to rp ed o e s w as w a ste d o n the a n c h o r chain b u t the o th e r hit th e b attlesh ip full u n d e r its fo rw a rd tu rre t. T h e seco n d w a v e w as n o t so fo rtu n a te, h o w e v e r. N o . 86, c o m m a n d e d b y L ieu ten a n t H o w a r d , b ro k e d o w n b efo re reaching th e forts. T h e n L ieu ten a n t B rad e in N o . 62 w as b lin d ed b y a searchlig ht as he s w u n g in to the h a r b o u r and collided w ith B re m n e r ’s N o . 79 as it w as c o m in g o u t. B r e m n e r ’s b o at w as a lm o st cut in half, so, o rd e rin g his c re w to clim b a b o a rd B ra d e ’s boat, he b lew up his o w n craft w ith g u n co tto n . All hell had n o w b ro k e n loose. D o n a ld ’s planes w e re straffing the

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Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks g u n p o sitio n s a n d search lig hts, the C M B s w e re jo in in g in w ith th eir L ew is g u n s an d the B o lsh e v ik s w e re firing e v e ry th in g at th e m . L ieu ten a n t N a p ie r in N o . 24 h ad tried to fo llo w his in stru ctio n s to sink th e g u a rd ship, th e d e s tro y e r G avriel, b u t his to rp e d o m issed an d th e Gavriel b le w his b o a t o u t o f the w ater. B rade, n o w u n ab le to g et in to the h a rb o u r, d ecid ed to use his tw o to rp e d o e s o n the Gavriel. B u t b o th o f th e m m issed and the d estro y e r retaliated once again w ith accurate s h o o tin g , w re c k in g N o . 62’s engines and sin k in g h e r w ith in m in u te s. A g a r, in N o . 7, fired his to rp e d o in to a m ilita ry h a r b o u r co n ta in in g p atro l boats and d id con siderab le d am a g e. B y the tim e th e last b o at, L ieu ten an t B o d le y ’s N o . 72, headed in to th e h a r b o u r to to rp e d o th e d ry do ck, it seem ed th at n o th in g c o u ld live in th e hail o f bullets and shells sw ee p in g across the w ater. B o d le y g o t a b o u t h a lfw a y b efo re th e co c k p it w as hit b y a shell splinter. N o o n e w as h u r t b u t th e to rp e d o firing m ec h an ism w as ja m m e d , so B o d le y g o t o u t o f the h a r b o u r as qu ickly as possible. F o rtu n a te ly fo r L ie u ten a n t H o w a r d an d his crew , B o d ley cam e across th e disabled N o . 86 and w as able to to w h er to safety. T h e s u rv iv o rs h ea d ed at speed to C o w a n ’s w a itin g line o f cruisers an d d e stro y e rs w h ile D o n a ld ’s aircraft co n tin u e d to h a rry the B o lsh e v ik defences. L ater th a t m o rn in g th e y tallied the balance sheet. T h re e C M B s had been lost: fo u r officers an d fo u r ratin gs h ad been killed, w h ile th re e officers a n d six ra tin g s h ad been tak e n p riso n er - a m o n g th e m th e severely w o u n d e d B re m n e r. O n the o th e r side o f th e ledger, aircraft recon naissan ce s h o w e d b o th battlesh ips settled o n the b o t to m , o u t o f action, w h ile th e Pamiat A z o v a h ad rolled o n to h er side. A t o n e s tro k e th e naval th rea t to C o w a n ’s fleet an d the n e w B altic states h a d b een re m o v e d . D o b s o n an d Steele w e re b o th a w a rd e d the V ictoria C ro ss an d a n u m b e r o f o th e r sailors an d airm e n d ec o rate d fo r gallantry. T w o re lu c ta n t heroes, F innish s m u g g lers w h o h ad been persu ad ed to go a lo n g as pilots in D o b s o n ’s and A g a r’s b oats, w e re also re w ard e d . T h e y g o t d o u b le p ay - £2$ - fo r th e trip and tw o q u arts o f r u m in stead o f one. It w as a b rillian t co u p in the full tra d itio n o f sm all ship actions w ith th e ad d e d d im e n s io n o f aerial s u p p o rt. E v e n those w h o w e re b itte rly o p p o s e d to in te rv e n tio n cou ld scarce fo rb ear to cheer. T h e N a v y w as rig h tly p r o u d o f its success a n d th e b ra v e ry and skill o f its m en . H o w e v e r it w o u ld be w r o n g to th in k th a t th e R oy al N a v y did n o t suffer fro m th e sam e malaises as th e A rm y . In m a n y w a y s the sailors h ad m o re cause for g riev ance th a n th e soldiers. T h e y still 258

The Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 suffered fr o m a h a n g o v e r o f V icto ria n c o n d itio n s and pay. Life o n b o a rd ship w as still harsh and sh o re based living costs had soared w h ile the sailo rs’ pay lagged b eh ind. T h e m arried sailors’ families w e re ek ein g o u t m iserable existences. It w as these grievances w h ic h w e re to e ru p t in th e In v e rg o rd o n M u tin y in ships o f the R oyal N a v y in 1931. M a n y o f th e sailors also ob jected to bein g sent to Russia. T h e re w e re a n u m b e r o f cases o f m e n refusing to sail th eir ships to the Baltic, an d A d m ira l Sir S y d n ey F rem an tle refers in his m e m o irs to a m u tin y a m o n g a sq u a d ro n o f ligh t cruisers w h ic h refused to sail fro m th e F irth o f F o rth to th e Baltic. T h e B o lsh ev ik s a tte m p te d to capitalise o n the sailo rs’ grievances b y a im in g w ireless b ro ad casts at th e m w h ic h u rg e d th e m to refuse d u ty and hasten the cause o f W o rld R ev o lu tio n . T h is w as th e first tim e radio h ad been used for p ro p a g a n d a pu rp o se s. N o n e o f this b ec am e k n o w n to th e B ritish public. Strict censor­ ship p re v e n te d any m e n tio n o f disaffection and m u tin y . B u t the e x te n t o f th e p ro b le m m a y be j u d g e d fro m the second p art o f Sir W a lte r L o n g ’s s ta te m e n t in the C o m m o n s w h ich h ad referred for the first tim e to the m u tin y o f th e R o y al M arines in N o r t h Russia. T u r n in g fr o m th e m arines to the Fleet, he listed a n u m b e r o f cases w h e re m e n “ h ad b ro k e n o u t o f th e ships w h ic h had received o rd ers un e x p e c te d b y th e m to p ro c eed to th e Baltic, w ith a result th at the sailing o f th e flotilla w as je o p a rd is e d . . . ” In each case he a n n o u n c e d the re d u c tio n o f th eir sentences. A n d th en he tu rn e d to w h a t h a d o b v io u s ly been a serious a tte m p t to sab otage the aircraft carrier Vindictive w h ile she w as in th e Baltic: “ T h e m e n co n cern ed w e re dealt w ith s u m m a rily ex cep t tw o o f th e ring leaders w h o a tte m p te d to sto p the fan engines, th u s e n d a n g e rin g the lives o f th eir sh ip m ates b elo w . T h e y w e re sen ten ced to five y e a rs’ penal servitu de; an d th e A d m ira lty w ill re v ie w th e cases o f these m e n after tw o years an d o n e year re s p e c tiv e ly .” O n A u g u s t 23rd A g a r m a d e o n e final a tte m p t to b rin g D u k e s o u t o f P e tro g ra d . It en d e d in disaster. T h e a p p ro ach in g C M B w as seen b y th e defences w h o w e re n o w fully aw are o f th e p resence o f the boats and it w as lit u p b y search lig hts u ntil, as A g a r w ro te , it w as like “ a ra b b it tra p p e d b e tw e e n the h ea d lig h ts o f a m o to r c a r” . T h e forts o p e n e d fire, th e b o a t’s steerin g w as d a m a g e d and it ro a red o f f at full speed, o u t o f co n tro l, un til it h it on e o f the b re a k w a te rs an d cam e to a crashin g halt. Luckily, the searchlights h ad lost it and, w h ile the e n g in e w as useless, she still floated. K ro n s ta d t w as o n ly a few h u n d re d y ards aw ay; th e F in nish coast, an d safety, w as fifteen 259

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks m iles, an d th e y h ad j u s t a few h o u rs o f darkness to reach it. T h e y rig g e d a m a s t and a piece o f canvas as a sail. T h e w in d w as in th e r ig h t d irec tio n an d g ra d u a lly th ey beg an to d ra w clear o f the forts. A m ist at d a w n gav e th e m ad d ed p ro te c tio n and th en th ey cam e across a b o a t in w h ic h t w o R ed soldiers fro m o ne o f the forts w e re en jo y in g a m o r n i n g ’s fishing. T ra in in g the Lew is g u n o n th e m A g a r fo rced th e m to to w th e C M B to T errio k i. T h e y reached safety w ith th e b o a t sin k in g u n d e r th e m so m e tw e lv e h o u rs after th ey h ad set o u t. T h e y th e n gav e th e b e w ild e re d soldiers so m e spare rations and set th e m free. A g a r w as in v o lv e d in o n e m o re o p e ra tio n in w h ic h th e C M B s laid th eir special m ines in th e cleared channel leading in to K r o n ­ stadt. It h ad an u n e x p e c te d result. T h e Gavriel w h ic h had been m issed b y th ree to rp e d o e s an d h ad su n k tw o o f th e C M B s d u rin g the raid cam e o u t o n e n ig h t w ith an A zard class d estro y er. T h e ir m issio n w as to p atro l th e area, b u t th eir T sarist captains in te n d e d to h a n d th eir ships o v e r to the B ritish. H o w e v e r, before th ey cou ld d o so th e y ran o n to the m ines and sank w ith h eav y loss o f life. As fo r D u k e s, he m a d e his w a y o u t o v erla n d th ro u g h E sto nia and w as k n ig h te d fo r his w o rk . H e and A g a r at last m et in S e p te m b e r 1919 at “ C ” ’s office in L o n d o n . T h a t n ig h t th ey d in ed at the Savoy. O n e m e m e n to o f these stirrin g occasions survives - A g a r ’s C M B 4 in w h ic h he sank th e Oleg. R efu rb ish ed by T h o rn y c ro fts , it is n o w o n ex h ib itio n at the Im perial W ar M u s e u m in D u x fo rd , C a m b rid g e sh ire . W hile the R o y al N a v y w as co n so lid atin g its h o ld o n the G u l f o f Finland, th e political scene h ad b ec o m e even m o re com p lex . V o n d er G oltz, fru stra te d in his a tte m p t to establish G e rm a n rule in the Baltic, h ad o rg a n ise d a R u s s o -G e rm a n a r m y o f 42,000 m en, 12,000 o f w h o m w e re fo rm e r R ussian prison ers o f w a r w h o h ad been sent fro m G e rm a n y . H e set u p a G e o rgian, C o lo n e l B e rm o n d t, as its c o m m a n d e r and w as p ro p o s in g to m a rc h in to Russia in an a tte m p t to seize M o s c o w . M a n n e rh e im had been v o te d o u t o f p o w e r in Finland and th e n e w F in nish g o v e r n m e n t h ad ad o p te d a far less w a rlik e a ttitu d e to w a rd s th e B olshev ik s. T h e o th e r Baltic states w e re d e m a n d in g an u n d e r­ ta k in g o f de jure re c o g n itio n to g e th e r w ith m ilitary and financial assistance fro m the B ritish before agreeing to s u p p o rt Y u d e n ic h ’s m a rc h o n P e tro g ra d . Sir H u b e rt G o u g h had b lo tte d his c o p y b o o k o n ce again b y settin g u p a R ussian g o v e r n m e n t in exile in E ston ia fr o m w h ic h he h o p e d to g et a g u aran tee o f E sto n ian in dependence. B o th D e n ik in and K o lchak , c o m m itte d to the resto ratio n o f R u s­ 260

The Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 sia’s p re -w a r b o rd e rs, ang rily refused to recognise an y such g u a ra n ­ tee fro m a n y such g o v e rn m e n t. T h e Baltic states, seeing n o p ro s ­ pect o f s u p p o rt fro m the Allies and fearing w h a t w o u ld h ap p e n if th ey b ec am e in v o lv e d in a losing w ar, b egan to talk peace w ith the B olshevik s w h o w e re o n ly to o an x io u s to close o f f th e th rea t to P e tro g ra d w h ile dealing w ith K olchak and D en ik in. G eneral L aido ner, C o m m a n d e r - in - C h ie f o f th e E sto n ian A rm y , exp lain ed his c o u n t r y ’s p o sitio n to the Berlingske Tidende in these term s: “ A d m ira l K o lch ak did n o t recognise the in d ep e n d en ce o f the B altic b o rd e r states. T h e E sto n ian peasant soldier cou ld n o t, conse­ q u en tly , u n d e rs ta n d w h y he sh o u ld fight the B olshevists w h o pro c la im e d th eir readiness to recog nise E ston ian in d e p e n d e n c e .” In L o n d o n th e re w as deep divisio n b e tw e e n C h u rch ill and the rest o f th e C ab in et. L lo y d G e o rg e h ad already m ad e his view s painfully clear to h im , b u t C h u rc h ill persisted in w a n tin g to s u p p o rt ev ery aspect o f resistance to the B olsheviks. It w as essential fo r B ritain to s u p p o rt Y u d e n ic h , he arg u ed , because, at w o rs t, Y u d e n ic h ’s activities o u tsid e P e tro g ra d w o u ld d ra w o f f tro o p s w h ic h w o u ld o th e rw is e be used against D e n ik in an d K olchak and, at best, could deliver a s tu n n in g b lo w to the B olshev iks b y ca p tu rin g P e tro g ra d and K ro n s ta d t. L o rd C u rz o n , the F oreig n M in ister, w as co m p letely o p p o s e d to this view , insisting th at Y u d e n ic h w as a reactio nary w h o s e o cc u p a tio n o f P e tro g ra d w o u ld be disastrous for th e w h o le o f the Baltic. C h u rc h ill even faced s tro n g o p p o s itio n w ith in his o w n M in istry , w ith a G eneral S ta ff P ap er dated O c to b e r 3rd p ro p o s in g th at in v ie w o f th e peace talks b e tw e e n th e Baltic states and th e B olsheviks, Y u d e n ic h ’s a r m y sh o u ld be w ith d r a w n and sent to help D en ik in . T h is a r g u m e n t b ec am e academ ic w h e n Y u d e n ic h laun ch ed his offensive o n P e tro g ra d o n O c to b e r 1 ith . W h a tev er his failings it is difficult n o t to sy m p a th ise w ith th e R ussian for w h ile alm o st e v e ry b o d y in th e re g io n w a n te d th e B olsheviks to be m ad e h a r m ­ less, few w e re p re p are d to help h im . In S ep tem b er he to ld H u g h M u ir o f th e D aily Express: M y a rm y is ra g g ed an d practically b arefo o t w h ile th e B o lsheviks have a g o o d a rm y o f 45,000 m e n co m p a rativ ely w ell e q u ip p e d w ith a b u n d a n t artillery an d m ac h in e gu n s an d sufficient a m m u n itio n . W e ca n n o t take P e tro g ra d in o u r p resen t cond ition . M y a r m y has b een c o n s titu te d w ith m aterial c a p tu red fro m the B olsheviks. It is h u n g r y an d tobaccoless as well as ragged.

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Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks In fact th e B ritish G o v e r n m e n t h ad agreed in M a y to send an initial c o n s ig n m e n t o f m ateriel sufficient to equip 7,500 m e n alon g w ith e ig h t 6 -in ch h o w itz e rs, sixteen 18 -p o u n d e r guns, tw e n ty lorries and m edical supplies fo r 10,000 tro o p s. T h e re w e re fu rth e r sh ip ­ m e n ts - m o s tly fro m su rp lu s stores left o v e r fro m the w a r - u p till S e p te m b e r w h e n Y u d e n ic h w ro te to C h u rch ill th a n k in g h im fo r th e supplies and ex p ressin g the h o p e th at th ey w o u ld co ntin ue. A m o n g the m o s t im p o r ta n t e q u ip m e n t sent to h im w e re six M a rk V c o m p o s ite tan k s w ith a d e ta c h m e n t o f tw e n ty - tw o officers and t w e n ty -n in e o th e r rank s fro m th e T a n k C o rp s c o m m a n d e d b y L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l E. H o p e -C a rs o n . H e arrived w ith th ree o f the tanks in a cargo o f w a r m ateriel o n b o a rd the SS D avia, a fo rm e r G e rm a n m in e -la y e r escort, at Reval o n the n ig h t o f A u g u s t 5th. Y u d e n ic h cam e to in spect the tanks and H o p e -C a rs o n su g g ested th a t o n e s h o u ld be n a m e d after h im . H e insisted h o w e v e r it sh o u ld be called “ First A id ” . T h e o th ers w e re called “ B r o w n B e a r” and “ C a p ta in C r o m i e ” . T h e in te n tio n w as th a t th e d e ta c h m e n t w o u ld teach the W h ite R ussians h o w to use the tank s and th en h a n d th e m over. O f course, it d id n o t tu rn o u t like that. H o p e -C a rs o n w as sent in to action o n S u n d ay A u g u s t 21st, after atten d in g a m e m o ria l service for th e B ritish sailors killed in th e K ro n s ta d t R aid. T w o o f the tanks w e re lo ad e d o n to a train and sent u p to the fro n t s o u th o f P sk o v w h e re th e B o lsh ev ik s h ad a ttack ed the E ston ians. B u t w hile H o p e -C a rs o n w as s c o u tin g th e g ro u n d u n d e r shell fire the E sto n ian s pulled back an d th e train w ith th e tank s still o n b o a rd h ad to steam h u rrie d ly back to N a rv a to av o id b ein g cut off. T h e tanks first sh o w e d w h a t th e y co u ld d o o n S e p te m b e r 13 th o u tsid e G d o v so m e fifty m iles s o u th o f N a rv a w h e re, firing th eir six -p o u n d e rs and m ac h in e g u n s an d s u p p o rte d b y a n e w ly fo rm e d “ T a n k P u sh B a tta lio n ” th e y ro u te d a B o lsh e v ik force established in a series o f fortified villages. F ro m th en u n til th e en d o f th e ca m p aig n th e tanks w e re in alm o st co n tin u al action, b ein g ru sh e d to places w h e re the B olsheviks w e re th re a te n in g to b reak th r o u g h an d to lead attacks. T h e y achieved a tre m e n d o u s re p u ta tio n fo r invincib ility an d the B olsh eviks usually ran w h e n th e y appeared. B u t th ere w e re n o t e n o u g h o f th em . O f the d e ta c h m e n t’s th ree o th e r m achines o n e h ad b ro k e n its gear b o x a n d th e re m a in in g t w o h ad been sabotag ed, either in H u ll fro m w h e re th e y h a d been sh ip p ed o r after their arrival in Reval. H o p e -C a rs o n , w h o s e co lourful and detailed acco u n t o f th e D e ­ t a c h m e n t’s ca m p aig n w as p rin te d in th e Royal T ank Corps Journal in 1927, w as th ere fo re u n ab le to m ee t all th e d em a n d s m ad e o n h im 262

The Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 an d the W h ite R ussians w e re later to b lam e th e tan ks for their ev en tu al failure to take P etro g ra d . O n e fu rth e r d ra m a had still to be played o u t before Y u d e n ic h lau n c h ed his attack. O n O c to b e r 6th, C o lo n el B e rm o n d t, n o w c o m m a n d in g a force o f so m e 50,000 R u s s o -G e rm a n s and w ith a m b itio n s to m a rc h n o t o n ly o n P e tro g ra d b u t also o n M o s c o w , decid ed first to o c c u p y Riga. O n c e again A n g lo -W h ite R ussian relations w e re confused. T h e Latvians w h o h a d been a rm e d b y C o w a n , resisted sto u tly an d C o w a n sent the B ritish cruisers Dragon and Cleopatra alo n g w ith a division o f destro y e rs to help th em . T h e ships, u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f th e F rench C o m m o d o r e B risson, b o m b a rd e d B e r m o n d t w h o replied w ith artillery fire fro m V o n d er G o ltz ’s Iro n D iv isio n causing 15 casualties o n th e B ritish ships. B u t th e N a v y ’s g u n s p ro v e d to o m u c h fo r th e G e rm an s an d th ey fled w ith th e L atvian A r m y chasing th e m all the w a y b ack th ro u g h L ithu an ia to E ast P russia w h e re th ey finally split u p in defeat and ig n o m in y . N o o n e re g re tte d th eir g o ing . O n e re p o rt p rin te d in L o n d o n said: “ Latest teleg ram received b y L ith uan ian D e le g atio n in L o n d o n states th at th e R u s s o -G e rm a n forces in L ithuania fig h tin g th e B olsh ev ists are d ev a sta tin g the L ithu anian c o u n try , b u rn in g villages an d p lu n d e rin g th e p ro p e rty o f the people. T h e y are thus an n ih ilatin g all s y m p a th y a m o n g th e L ithu anian p o p u la tio n for the R ussian c a u se .” Y u d e n ic h o p e n e d his offensive w ith a series o f victories. H o p e C a r s o n ’s tank s w e re in th e fo re fro n t and, acco rd in g to the D aily Express's special co rre sp o n d e n t: T h e T a n k C o rp s co n tin u es to w in a g o ld en re p u ta tio n , in deed it appears to be co n sid ered im p o ssib le to take a step w ith o u t th eir aid. R eliance is placed to such an ex te n t o n th e T a n k s th at the crew s find it difficult to o b ta in th e necessary rest. A re m a rk ab le feat reflecting credit u p o n C o lo n e l C a rs o n and his m e n w as p e r fo rm e d in crossin g the R iv er L uga w h ic h w as consid ered im practicable. C o lo n e l C a rs o n has received the O r d e r o f St. A n ne. T h e N a v y w as also in action, b o m b a rd in g K rasn aya G o rk a . T h e fortress, n o w m a n n e d b y loyal B o lsheviks, w as h o ld in g u p an E sto n ia n force w h ich , d esp ite th e p ro p o s e d peace n eg o tiatio n s, w as s u p p o rtin g the coastal flank o f Y u d e n ic h ’s drive. T h e M o n ito r H M S Erebus, m o u n tin g tw o 12-inch guns, w as b r o u g h t u p to do th e j o b , b u t, u n ab le to tak e the fo rtress in its u n d efen d ed rear as the 263

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks B o lsh e v ik b attleships h ad d on e, Erebus n o t o nly failed to p u t the fortress o u t o f the fig h t b u t w as forced to m o v e because o f so m e v ery accurate s h o o tin g fro m the defenders. T h e fo r t’s g u n s w e re direc ted b y o b serv ers in a kite b allo o n w h ich , said on e re p o rt, “ w as ev id e n tly filled w ith n o n -in fla m m a b le gas since it w as freq u en tly rid d led b y o u r airm e n b u t c o n tin u e d w o r k i n g ” . S q u a d ro n L eader D o n a ld and his m e n w e re h a rd at w o rk , d ro p p in g o v e r 300 b o m b s o n K rasnaya G o rk a and a n o th e r fortress h o ld in g u p the E sto n ian s in the first five days o f the offensive. D o n a ld h ad b een m o s t relieved to hear in S ep tem b er th at H M S Furious - th e first tru e aircraft carrier - w as c o m in g o u t w ith fresh p ilots an d planes, for b o th his m e n and his m achines w e re g e ttin g v e ry tired, h a v in g been in action alm o st con tinu ally since th eir arrival in Ju ly . B u t w h e n th e n e w m ach in es arriv ed he fo u n d th at n early ev e ry o n e o f th e tw e n ty aircraft “ w e re in a bad co n d itio n and h a rd ly o n e w as fit fo r active service fly in g ” . C o n tin u o u s seaplane patrols w e re flo w n in spite o f b ad w e a th e r w ith “ o n e p articu larly g o o d action bein g fo u g h t b y tw o seaplanes ag ain st a B o lsh e v ik d e s tro y e r in a s n o w s t o r m ” . H e w as fo rced to use C a m e l figh ters fo r d ay lig h t b o m b in g raids and even at 15,000 feet th e y w e re b ein g h it b y anti-aircraft fire. B y the tim e it w as all o v e r th irty -th re e o f his fifty-five aircraft w e re “ e x p e n d e d ” . T h re e w e re s h o t d o w n , nin e fo rce-lan d ed in th e sea, seven m o re crashed o w in g to th e u n e v e n surface o f th e a e ro d ro m e and fo u rte en d ete rio ­ ra te d o w in g to clim atic con ditio ns. F o u r pilots w ere killed a n d tw o w e re w o u n d e d . It w as an u n s u n g b u t gallant little ca m p aig n in the early h is to ry o f th e R A F. Y u d e n ic h ’s tro o p s m a d e g o o d g ro u n d at th e start o f th eir attack. T h e y w e re led b y th e d ash in g cavalry general, R o d zian k o , w h o , a cco rd in g to H o p e -C a rs o n “ w as w e ll-k n o w n in sp o rtin g circles in E n g la n d , h a v in g tak e n prizes in h o rse j u m p in g co m p e titio n s at O l y m p i a ” . T h e y to o k Y a m b u r g and th en G atch ina and pressed o n to th e su b u rb s o f P e tro g ra d . A m o n g th e m w as a u n it o f S w edish tro o p s w e a rin g th eir nation al u n ifo rm fig h tin g in th e fro n t line an d w o r k in g w ith the tanks. In o n e sm all battle tw e lv e o u t o f a p a rty o f fo u rte e n S w edes s u p p o rtin g th e tan ks becam e casualties. T h e y w e re fo rtu n a te h o w e v e r in bein g lo o k e d after b y th eir o w n n u rsin g sister, M a ta rt K u rk in e n . A c co rd in g to H o p e -C a rso n : “ W h e re the S w ed ish tro o p s w e n t she w e n t. I f th ey w e re fro n t line in fan try , as o n this occasion, she w a lk e d w ith th e fro n t line. She carried a h eav y load o f hosp ital stores an d m u s t have been the sav io u r o f m a n y a m a n . . . I am glad to say th at later she w as g iv en a B ritish d e c o ra tio n .” H o w stran g e th at S w ed en , so careful to av o id in ­ 264

The Baltic, November 1918-December 1919 v o lv e m e n t in tw o W o rld W ars, sh o u ld get itself in v o lv ed in this im b ro g lio . B y the en d o f th e second w e ek o f O c to b e r th e latest W h ite R ussian offensives seem ed to be o n th e p o in t o f success. T ru e , K o lch a k h ad b een p u sh ed back across th e U rals b u t D e n ik in w as a d v a n cin g o n M o s c o w w hile P e tro g ra d seem ed to be at Y u d e ­ n ic h ’s m ercy . B u t it w as all an illusion. J u st as w ith H itle r’s a rm y years later, P e tro g ra d w as n o t for th e taking. K ra sn ay a G o rk a h ad sto p p e d the ad vance along th e coast, and the ind efatig ab le T r o ts k y h ad arriv ed o n his m o b ile hea d q u arte rs, the train w h ic h he described as “ th e vital shovelful o f coal th at keeps a d y in g fire alive” . H e b ro u g h t u p re in fo rcem en ts along railw ay lines th a t Y u d e n ic h ’s cavalry had failed to cut and alth o u g h , b y O c to b e r 20th, Y u d e n ic h ’s m e n w e re fig h tin g a m o n g the factories o n the o u ts k irts o f the city, the W h ite A r m y w as ru n n in g o u t o f m e n and tim e. A n d th e B olsh ev iks started to co u n te r-attac k . B y n o w th e strain w as b eg in n in g to tell o n th e tanks an d their crew s. H o p e - C a r s o n w as altern atin g his B ritish w ith R ussian crew s b u t his tan k s w e re d ro p p in g o u t w ith m echanical defects h a v in g been fo u g h t h a rd for ten days. H e h ad also c o m e u p against a p o w e rfu l a rm o u r e d train w h ic h w as m o re th an a m a tc h fo r his tanks. B u t still Y u d e n ic h ’s officers w a n te d h im to press on: It w as n o w o b v io u s th a t the s ta ff w e re rely in g o n th ree lam e tanks to get th e c o lu m n th ro u g h . T h e in fan try w e re th o ro u g h ly w o rn o u t an d n o t w illin g to ad vance w ith o u t th em . M a n y o f th e senior officers w e re incapable o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th a t the tan k w as a m ac h in e and h ad its lim itatio n s. It w as seriously su g g ested . . . th a t b y p lacing a tan k o n e ith er side o f the line it w o u ld be an easy m a tte r to catch the a rm o u r e d train. T h e retreat began. Y u d e n ic h lost G atch ina o n N o v e m b e r 3rd and Y a m b u r g n in e days later. H o p e -C a rs o n to o k his tank s and tw o F rench lig h t tanks back to N a rv a . B y N o v e m b e r 25th it w as all ov er. T h e W h ite R ussian A r m y strea m ed back o v e r the E sto n ian fro n tie r w h e re it w as d isa rm e d w h ile th e E sto nian s closed their b o rd e r again st the a d v a n cin g B olsheviks. A terrib le o u tb re a k o f s p o tte d ty p h u s n o w s w e p t th e defeated a r m y an d its soldiers died in th e m o s t dreadfu l co nd ition s, w ith o u t sh elter o r m edical atten tio n . B y th e end o f th e year n o th in g re m a in e d o f the W h ite R ussian A rm y . Y u d e n ic h s o u g h t asy lu m in B ritain. A n d the B ritish w e n t h o m e . A d m ira l C o w a n w a ite d to leave un til the last possible m o m e n t on 265

Spies, Torpedoes and Three Lame Tanks D e c e m b e r 28th, the d ay th e sea froze. In all, the R oy al N a v y lost seven ships in th e B altic a n d G u l f o f Finland, a m o n g th e m o n e lig h t cru iser - w ith a n o th e r b ad ly d a m a g e d - tw o d estro y e rs and a su b ­ m arin e . O n e h u n d re d an d th irte e n sailors died, f o r ty - tw o w e re w o u n d e d and n ine w e re m issing. W h e n C o w a n s team ed h o m e , the n e w B altic states w e re e n g a g e d in n eg o tiatin g their fre e d o m fro m R ussia. Jo y fu l in th eir in d ep e n d en ce , th e y w o u ld perhaps h ave been w iser to h ave u n ite d to d e s tro y the C o m m u n is t threat, for B o lsh e v ­ ism g a th e re d th e m back in to the R ussian E m p ire o n ly tw e n ty years later w h ile Finland, h a v in g fo u g h t valiantly against the R ed A r m y in 1939, w as fo rced to accept R u ssia’s term s and give u p h er strate g ic te rr ito r y to th e n o r th o f P etro g ra d . T h e Soviets n e v e r fo r g o t n o r fo rg av e th e fact th at it w as fro m T e rrio k i th at A g a r led th e C M B s in to K ro n s ta d t. T e rrio k i is n o w Russian.

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CHAPTER 19

The Bolsheviks Triumph South Russia and the Caspian, December 1919-M ay 1920

W e m u s t r e tu r n to “ Z ” Flight. J o e A rc h e r and his b y n o w s o m e ­ w h a t less th a n m e rr y m e n h ad m ad e g o o d th eir escape fro m the battlefield a n d h ad sp en t C h ris tm a s 1919, at th eir o ld base o f V alu yki. T h e y d id n o t stay th ere long . W ith D e n ik in ’s arm ies d isin te g ra tin g an d B u d e n n y ’s R ed C a v a lry raid ing deep in to his te rrito ry , th e R A F lo aded u p its trains again an d set o u t for safety, a im in g to cross th e D o n at R o sto v . It w as n o t th e easiest o f jo u rn e y s . As th ey ro lled th r o u g h th e s o u th e rn steppes and lo o k ed o u t o f th e w in d o w s th e y co u ld see D e n ik in ’s C ossack s re treatin g along sid e th e line, horses and riders w ith th eir heads s lu m p e d in u tte r w eariness, like a c u t-o u t frieze against the s n o w . B eh in d th e m w e re B u d e n n y ’s ra id in g parties o f h o rs e m e n and, o n the line, a B o lsh e v ik a r m o u r e d train m o u n tin g a 9 .2 -in ch gu n. “ A ” and “ Z ” F lig h ts’ trains h ad tak e n o n as m a n y refugees and w o u n d e d as th ey c o u ld carry. T y p h u s b ro k e o u t. Fuel w as sho rt. T h e line w as cr a m m e d w ith trains p u ffin g th e ir w a y to safety. T h e d riv e r o f Vic C l o w ’s train h a d to h av e a pistol p u t to his head to p ersu ad e h im to ca rry on. P artisans sn iped at th e trains as th ey passed in the n igh t. W h e n a statio n m a ste r c o m p la in e d a b o u t su p p ly in g lo co m o tiv es C o llis h a w passed o n a m essage fro m th at coldly efficient W hite general, B a ro n W ran g el, in fo rm in g h im th at th e B a ro n h ad h an g e d nin eteen statio n m asters o n a n o th e r fro n t and th a t i f it becam e necessary he w o u ld h a n g o n e h u n d re d an d n ineteen here. It is n o t s u rp risin g th a t b y n o w C lo w and his fellow pilots w e re b e g in n in g to h ave seco nd th o u g h ts a b o u t the w is d o m o f their presence in this vast, c o n fu sin g an d h ig h ly d an g e ro u s co u n try . “ T o p u t it b l u n tly ,” recalled C lo w , “ w e b eg an to w o n d e r w h a t the hell w e w e re d o in g th e r e .” It h ad starte d w ith th e A n g lo -F re n c h a g reem e n t o f D e c e m b e r 23 rd, 1917, in w h ic h the F rench w e re g iv en respon sib ility for “ activities against th e e n e m y ” in R ussian territo ries w e st o f th e D o n w h ile th e B ritish w o u ld c o n tro l o p e ra tio n s east o f th e D o n an d in T ra n s 267

T he Bolsheviks Triumph

caucasia to the so u th . W h e n this a g re e m e n t w as con clu ded it w as a ssu m e d th a t the “ activities against th e e n e m y ” w o u ld be u n d e r­ tak e n against th e G e rm a n s and th e T u rk s . B u t b y th e end o f 1918, th e situ atio n had, o f course, ch an ged drastically. G e rm a n y and T u r k e y h a d been defeated an d w e re n o lo n g e r “ th e e n e m y ” . In th e B ritish areas, th e T ran scau casian states h ad declared th eir in d ep e n d en ce and possessed g o v e rn m e n ts o f sorts w hile n o r th o f th e C aucasus, G eneral D e n ik in w as raising his W h ite R ussian forces to fig h t th e B olsheviks an d w as recog nised as the defacto ru ler o f the area. B u t in the F ren ch area w h ic h h ad been occu pied b y th e G e rm a n s and A u strian s there w as n o th in g b u t chaos w ith N a tio n a l­ ist, A n a rch ist and B o lsh e v ik bands all fig h tin g o n e a n o th e r in a free-for-all, c u t-th r o a t w ar. O n D e c e m b e r 18th, o n th e heels o f th e ev a cu atin g G e rm an s, th e F rench started to land tro o p s at O d e ssa w ith th e exp ressed in te n tio n o f saving the area fro m anarchy. In the 268

South Russia and the Caspian, December 1919-M ay 1920 S oviet view , h o w e v e r, th ey w e re sent to create a p ro te c tiv e shield b e h in d w h ic h D e n ik in could fo rm his arm y . A lto g e th e r the F rench lan d e d a d iv isio n o f 10,000 m en, m a n y o f w h o m w e re A lgerian and Senegalese. T h e G reek s sent tw o divisions n u m b e rin g 30,000 and th e Poles a 3 ,o o o -stro n g brigade. In ad d itio n the R u m an ian s p u t 32,000 o v e r th eir b o rd e rs and D e n ik in sent in 15,000. A lto g e th e r s o m e 90,000 m e n o ccup ied a fifty-m ile deep strip o f te rrito ry along th e B lack Sea coast fro m the R u m a n ia n b o rd e r to K h e rs o n o n the D n iep e r. It sh o u ld h av e been a fo rm id a b le A rm y , w ell able to lo o k after itself. B u t its m o ra le w as p o o r, and it w as hit b y fierce cavalry raids fro m all sides. T h e C o ssack A ta m a n G rig o rie v forced th e m to give u p K h e rs o n an d th en attacked th e m at O dessa. T h e ir soldiers h ad n o h e a rt an d th e ir politicians n o w ill to c o n tin u e th e fight. T h e F rench h ad h ad e n o u g h . T h e y sued fo r peace an d o n A p ril 5th the last F ren ch ship sailed fro m O d essa. T h e y h ad ev acu ated 30,000 R u s­ sian civilians an d 10,000 o f D e n ik in ’s soldiers, b u t th ey had left b e h in d six R en au lt tan ks (w h ich w e re later used against D enikin) an d h ad d e s tro y e d h u g e quantities o f stores w h ic h w o u ld have p ro v e d in v alu ab le to th e W h ite leader. N o t th at th ey co uld have sh ip p ed these stores to h im , for th at sam e m o n th the F rench Black Sea Fleet m u tin ie d . T h e m u tin y w as led b y A n d re M a rty , fo u n d e r o f th e F ren ch C o m m u n i s t P arty . T h e B ritish in v o lv e m e n t in th e U k ra in e w as o f qu ite different co m p le x io n : u n lik e the F rench sph ere o f interest the B ritish area had n e v e r been o cc u p ied and D e n ik in h im s e lf had sufficient force to be re g a rd e d as th e re p rese n ta tiv e o f a R ussian g o v e rn m e n t. So the need fo r a B ritish o cc u p y in g force n e v e r m aterialised. C o n s e q u e n tly , C o llis h a w ’s sq u a d ro n , “ Z ” Flight and the R oyal T a n k C o rp s tra in in g d e ta c h m e n t w e re th e o n ly B ritish units to b e c o m e in v o lv e d in th e fig h tin g in S o u th Russia. T h e ir c o m p a ra ­ tively m arg in a l activities w e re heavily criticised b y the O p p o s itio n in the H o u s e o f C o m m o n s an d p ro v id e d th e sou rce o f m isg iv in g w ith in the C ab in et. W h a t D e n ik in n ee d ed fro m th e B ritish w as re co g n itio n , m o n e y , a train in g m issio n an d supplies. A n d he g o t all o f these. D ra w in g on th e arm s d u m p s in the M id d le E ast left o v er fro m the w ar, the B ritish sent h im sh iplo ads o f m ateriel. All told, he received e n o u g h to a rm an d e q u ip a q u a rte r o f a m illio n m en. T h e sh ip m en ts, w h ic h starte d to arriv e o n A p ril 15th, 1919, inclu ded so m e 1,200 guns, a m o n g th e m 6-in ch h o w itz e rs, 6 o -p o u n d e rs an d a large n u m b e r o f 18 -p o u n d e rs. T h e a m m u n itio n fo r these guns in clud ed a liberal p r o p o r tio n o f gas shells. T h e supplies fo rm e d a co m p lete q u a rte r­ 269

T he Bolsheviks Triumph m a s te r’s list: T w o to n s o f asso rted nails, 1,500 c u rry c o m b s, o n e m illio n p o u n d s o f p re se rv e d m eat, o ne m illion p o u n d s o f biscuits, 25,000 tins o f tea, sufficient m u le shoes for six m o n th s. T h e re w as even “ s ta tio n e ry o n a 50 p e r cent basis fo r 1 A r m y H Q , 3 C o rp s H Q , o n e C a v a lry D iv is io n an d five In fan try D iv is io n s ” . Six h e a v y and six lig h t tank s w e re sent as a first sh ip m e n t and, ev e n tu ally , m o re m o d e r n aircraft fo llo w ed to s u p p le m e n t th e 100 R E8s. U n ifo r m s , rifles, m ac h in e -g u n s, a m m u n itio n , tra n sp o rt, hospitals, en g in e erin g e q u ip m e n t; the cost price o f this g reat m ili­ ta ry co rn u c o p ia spilled o u t o n the do ckside at N o v o ro s s iy s k ev e n ­ tually a m o u n te d to £35.9 m illion. M u c h o f it w as, as C h u rc h ill a rg u e d in th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , largely unsaleable. N e v e rth e ­ less, it w as a g reat deal o f m o n e y and it p ro v id e d D e n ik in w ith sufficient “ sinew s o f w a r ” to beat the B olsheviks. B u t, w h ile he h ad th e sinew s he h ad n eith er th e m a n p o w e r, the o rg a n is a tio n n o r th e qualities o f leadership to d o the jo b . H e d id n o t h av e e n o u g h m e n to secure his rear and his lines o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s w h e n he b eg a n his m a rc h n o r th - p artisan b and s w e re raidin g in to th e o u ts k irts o f N o v o ro s s iy s k itself - his su p p ly lines w e re v irtu ­ ally n o n -e x is te n t an d he h ad n o rein fo rcem en ts. T h e W h ite R ussian G en eral W ran g el an d the B ritish G eneral H o lm a n advised h im against his h e a d lo n g dash b u t he w as b lin d ed b y the th o u g h t o f ta k in g M o s c o w . In typical R ussian fashion he g a m b le d e v e ry th in g o n o n e t h r o w o f th e dice. T h e d iso rg an isatio n an d c o rru p tio n b eh in d th e lines h o rrifie d H o lm a n an d his officers at th e M ilita ry M ission. W hile th e fig h tin g soldiers w e re b a re fo o t an d ra g g e d in the field, B ritish u n ifo rm s w e re b ein g sold o n the civilian black m ark e t. N o v o ro s s iy s k p ro s ti­ tu tes plied th e ir trad e dressed in B ritish n u rs e s ’ u n ifo rm s. C o r r u p ­ tio n is alw ay s p re v alen t in w a rtim e b u t in S o u th Russia in 1919 it w as especially blatant. A s fo r th e leadership, th e p o rtly , bald, b ea rd ed D e n ik in relied o n th e T sa rist m e th o d s o f d riv in g m e n ra th e r th a n leading th e m . H e c o u ld n o t see th at th e w o rld h ad ch a n g ed since 1917. H e believed p assion ately in a G re a te r R ussia re sto re d to its p re -w a r fron tiers and w o u ld n o t co u n te n an ce th e in d ep e n d en ce o f th e B altic o r the T ra n scau c asian states. H e w as also v io len tly anti-S em itic. Like m o s t o f the W h ite R ussian leaders an d th eir B ritish a rm y friends he e q u a te d B o lsh e v ism w ith Jew ish n e ss and his rule o f S o u th R ussia w as m a rk e d b y a series o f p o g ro m s in w h ic h so m e 100,000 J e w s w e re killed. T h e y w e re n o t, h o w e v e r, all victim s o f his A rm y . T h e A n a rch ists an d U k ra in ia n nationalists killed th eir q u o ta to o. B u t the m u rd e r s created a feeling o f d isg u st in B ritain a nd th e b elief g re w in 270

South Russia and the Caspian, December 1919-M ay 1920 th e face o f this cru elty th at th ere w as little to ch oose b e tw e e n the B olsh ev ik s an d the W h ite R ussians. G iv en th ese basic w eaknesses, it w as n o t su rp risin g th at D e n ik in ’s cause collapsed once the B o lsh ev ik s sto p p e d his d riv e o n M o s c o w . H e h a d b ra v e m e n - g o o d soldiers - serving u n d e r him . B u t th ere w as little th e y co uld d o except die as th e y w e re h arried back to R o sto v . T h e tra n s itio n fro m im m in e n t v ic to ry to disaster to o k j u s t tw o w eeks. O n O c to b e r 15th D e n ik in w as p re p arin g to m a rc h in to M o s c o w fro m O re l. A w eek later he w as forced to ab a n d o n O rel. T w o days after th at, o n the 24th, B u d e n n y ’s R ed C a v a lry defeated the W h ite C a v a lry u n d e r G eneral K. K. M a m o n to v and occup ied V o ro n e z h . M a k h n o ’s anarchists w r o u g h t h av o c in th e W h ite rear an d o n O c to b e r 26th th e D o n C ossack s tu rn e d against D enikin . In th o se tw o s h o rt w eeks the W h ite cause w as lost. As D e n ik in ’s tired and disp irited m e n pulled back, w ith ty p h u s an d h u n g e r b e g in n in g to th in th eir ranks m o re effectively th an the B o lsh e v ik s ’ bullets, th e B ritish T a n k C o rp s d e ta c h m e n t a b a n d o n e d th eir base at T a g a n ro g . T h e y h ad e n jo y e d th eir tim e in this pleasant to w n o n th e Sea o f A zov. W h e n th e great tan k ex p o n e n t, G eneral Fuller, w e n t o u t to visit th e m he describ ed th e co nditions: T h e p erso n n el o f o u r T a n k D e ta c h m e n t in T a g a n ro g is v ery c o m fo rta b ly q u a rte re d an d cared for. T o all inten ts an d purp o ses th ere is n o w o r k to be d o n e in th e aftern oo ns, and th ere is b o th tim e a n d facilities fo r sp o rt and am u sem e n ts. F o otball is v ery p o p u la r, even u n d e r th e a lm o st tropical heat w h ic h prevailed w h ilst I w as in th e c o u n try , and I w as lu ck y e n o u g h to be able to w itn ess a coup le o f g am es b e tw e e n th e B ritish “ T a n k s ” and the local T a g a n ro g team . T h ese p eo p le play a perfectly g o o d g am e o f football, b u t th eir in te rp re ta tio n o f so m e o f the m o re e le m e n tary rules is so v ery g ro te s q u e th a t it b eco m es a practical im p o ssib ility fo r th e m to leave th e field o th e r th a n as victors. T h e re is also p le n ty o f s w im m in g , b o x in g and b o a tin g to keep o u r fellow s fit and h ap p y . T h e officers are h o n o ra ry m e m b e rs o f th e local Y a ch t C lu b , at w h ic h th ere is plen ty o f sailing to be had, and, in to a hull p re sen ted to th e m b y an ad m ire r, th e ing en ious W o rk s h o p s h av e fitted an en g in e - I d id n o t care to en q u ire to o closely in to th e an tecedents o f said engine, b u t, h av in g been “ W o r k s h o p s ” m y s e lf once, I h av e m y o w n theories o n the subject. A n y w a y , th e result is a r o o m y , com fo rtab le, and v ery fast m o to r-b o a t, th e sole p ro p e rty o f “ T a n k s ” , and the en v y o f all T a g a n ro g . 271

The Bolsheviks Triumph F o r th e d electatio n o f th e tro o p s in th e evenings th ere is a v e ry ex cellent g ard en , w h e re plays a b an d and w h e re m a y be fo u n d m o s t o f the y o u th an d b e a u ty o f th e n e ig h b o u rh o o d . T h e re are several cinem as also in T a g a n ro g , and, g reatest j o y o f all, a th e a tre in w h ic h D e n ik in ’s o w n string o rch estra plays tw o o r th re e tim es a w eek. H e re th e m u sic is perfectly w o n d e rfu l, and it is an in sp iratio n to o b se rv e the re v ere n t atten tio n w h ic h the en tire aud ien ce b e s to w s u p o n the w h o le p erfo rm an c e.

A lth o u g h the tan k d e ta c h m e n t h ad been sent to T a g a n ro g o n ly to train th e W h ite R ussians, inevitab ly th ey co uld n o t resist tak in g th eir b elo v e d tanks in to th e fig h tin g o n the excuse that th ey w e re g iv in g th eir stu d en ts “ battle tra in in g ” . Like th e R A F th ey w e n t to b attle w ith th eir m ach in es lo ad ed o n to trains, u n lo ad in g th e m w h e n th e y g o t to the fig h tin g and th en tru n d lin g o f f along the ra ilw a y line to lo o k fo r a n o th e r scrap. T h e ir field o f o p e ratio n s w as perfect tan k c o u n try , th e rollin g steppes w h e re H itle r’s P anzers w e re to fig h t a n o th e r w ar. W h e re v e r th ey appeared th ey seem ed to b rin g success an d F uller re p o rte d , “ in m o re th an one instance, it has b een u n n ecessary to d etra in the tanks, since the B olsh eviks b o lte d at th e m e re re p o rt th at a tan k train w as ap p ro a c h in g their p o s itio n s .” B u t th a t w as before the great retreat started. T h e T a n k D e ta c h ­ m e n t a b a n d o n e d th eir idyllic existence at T a g a n ro g an d jo in e d th e s cram b le fo r safety across th e brid ges at R o sto v . C ap tain M a rio n A ten , an A m e ric a n flying w ith N o . 47 S q u ad ro n , gave a gra p h ic a c c o u n t o f th e desp erate train ride to safety b y p art o f th e S q u a d ro n in his b o o k Last Train over Rostov Bridge. V ic C lo w , o n “ Z ” F lig h t’s train w ith G eneral H o lm a n o n b o ard , also g o t safely across, passing th e h at r o u n d for th e d riv e r w h o s e c o -o p e ra tio n h ad been en su red b y a co c k ed re v o lv e r placed to his ear. U n fo r tu n a te ly “ C ” F lig h t’s train w ith C o llish a w o n b o a rd did n o t m a k e it across the b rid g e and h ad to ru n for safety to th e C rim e a . It w as chased all the w a y b y a B o lsh e v ik a r m o u re d train w h ic h co u ld so m e tim e s be seen in the distance. O n e n ig h t so m e local B olsh ev ik s sent an u n m a n n e d engin e careering d o w n th e line to sm a sh in to th e rear o f “ C ” F lig h t’s train. T h e last eig ht coaches w e re sm ash ed to m a tc h w o o d . Luckily, th ey held o n ly stores. T h e rest o f th e train, lo aded w ith sick and w o u n d e d , w as full o f h o rro rs an d litte red w ith dead. It eventu ally reached safety in th e C rim e a o n J a n u a ry 4th, 1920. T h e respite w as sh ort. T h e pilots re su m e d o p e ra tio n s b u t th ey h ad lost a n u m b e r o f aircraft in th e retreat and the pilots th em selv es w e re g ettin g w o r n out. C lo w w h o h ad g o n e 272

South Russia and the Caspian, December 1919-M ay 1920 d o w n w ith m alaria, o p te d to go h o m e and w as sh ip p ed o u t to C o n s ta n tin o p le . T h e D aily R o u tin e O rd e rs o f th e K u b a n G ro u p (as it w as n o w called) re co rd s th a t o n J a n u a ry 19th, 1920, C lo w w as a w ard e d the O r d e r o f St Stanislaus w ith S w o rd s and B o w . B u t it w as nev er c o n firm e d an d he n ev e r received th e m edal. T h e re m a in in g pilots c o n tin u e d to fly. T h e y d ro p p e d leaflets in an a tte m p t to in d u ce the K u b a n C o ssacks to fig ht for D e n ik in b u t their p ro p a g a n d a h ad n o effect. O n J a n u a ry 30th G eneral “ C iss y ” M a u n d left th e m w ith th e fo llo w in g m o n u m e n ta lly daft farewell m essage: “ A lth o u g h the fo rtu n es o f R ussia are te m p o ra rily clo ud ed I h o p e y o u w ill c o n tin u e to s h o w the sam e excellent qualities and h ig h e n d e a v o u r u n d e r m y successor an d thus c o n tin u e to set the ex a m p le necessary to resto re the spirit o f v ic to ry in o u r R ussian allies.” Far m o re to th e p o in t w as the o rd e r issued o n F eb ru a ry 21st, th at “ All officers and O R s m u s t be in p ossession o f a Rifle, B a y o n e t and 150 ro u n d s o f a m m u n itio n . T h ese m u s t in all cases be carried w h e n tra v e llin g .” A t th e b e g in n in g o f M a rc h B u d e n n y stru ck again, crossing the D o n an d o u tflan k in g D e n ik in ’s s tro n g p o in t at B ataisk. O n the 9th he o cc u p ied the ra ilw a y j u n c tio n at T ik h o re ts k and th en all that was left w as a m a d scram b le to safety o n the boats at N o v o ro ssiy sk . D u rin g this p e rio d th e B ritish m ilitary m ission, th e T a n k D e ta ch ­ m e n t, an d 47 S q u a d ro n did sterlin g w o rk in keep ing o rd e r as the b eaten a r m y an d the terrified refugees funnelled d o w n to the coast b e h in d a th in screen o f th o se D o n C ossacks w h o , to their great credit, h ad re m a in e d loyal to D e n ik in w h e n so m a n y had ch an ged sides. N o v o ro s s iy s k itself w as like a foretaste o f hell. T h e all pervasive ty p h u s killed th o u sa n d s o f the refugees w h o c ro w d e d the streets fig h tin g to g et to th e d o ck s to b o a rd a ship, any ship go in g a n y w h e re to escape th e B olshev iks. T h e b itte r w in d k n o w n as the “ B u r a ” sco u red th e streets. O n th e d o cksid e the B ritish, reinforced b y a b attalio n sent fro m C o n s ta n tin o p le , stru g g led to o rganise the e v a cu atio n an d to d e s tro y th e vast quantities o f supplies - the last ship h ad u n lo a d e d o n ly th ree m o n th s pre v io u sly - w h ic h D e n ik in ’s m e n w o u ld n ev e r be able to use. N o . 47 S q u a d ro n ’s C am els w ere tak e n o f f th eir flat cars and cru sh ed b y b ra n d n e w tanks. T h e tanks th e n rolled o v e r D H 9S still in th eir factory packing cases and then th e tank s th em selv es, th eir engines ro arin g , w ere sent o n th eir last m ission , o f f the d o ck sid e in to th e sea to jo in the can n o n w h ic h had already been p itch ed o v e r the side.

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T he Bolsheviks Triumph Inevitably, h u g e stocks o f g u ns and a m m u n itio n an d clothes and b o o ts fell in to B o lsh e v ik h an ds, as o n e v ery o th e r fron t. Indeed, b y th e en d o f th e in te rv e n tio n a large p art o f the R ed A r m y h ad b een o u tfitte d b y th e B ritish ta x p a y e r and it w as arm e d w ith the latest o f B ritish w e ap o n s. T h e last ships sailed a w a y o n th e n ig h t o f M a rc h 26th. Shells d ro p p e d in to th e h a r b o u r fro m B o lsh ev ik gu n s in th e hills a ro u n d th e p o rt w h ile th e B ritish b attlesh ip Emperor o f India and the cruiser Calypso alon g w ith th e F ren ch cruiser Waldeck Rousseau k e p t th e R ed C a v a lry at b ay w ith th e ir big guns. T h e y left b e h in d a m ass o f refugees w ith n o w h e re to g o and the D o n C ossacks w h o fo u g h t it ou t, sabre to sabre, w ith th e R ed h o rse m e n . D e n ik in h ad been o u s te d as c o m m a n d e r. H e w e n t to live in exile first in France, th en in A m erica, an d th e far m o re able W rangel to o k o v e r to m ak e a last stan d in the C rim ea. C o llis h a w h a d already b een m a k in g his o w n last stan d in the C rim e a , flying as o ften as h e could. O n o n e o f his m issions, flying a D H 9 b o m b e r, he w as h it b y anti-aircraft fire and forced to land. B u t as his en g in e w as still ru n n in g he taxied tw e n ty m iles back to his base across th e h a rd p ack ed sn o w . H e m ad e his last flight “ in a n g e r” o n M a rc h 26th, crossin g to th e m ain lan d w h e re he b o m b e d an d straffed a cavalry tro o p an d a field b a tte ry an d scored direct hits w ith b o m b s o n an a r m o u r e d train. T h e fo llo w in g day he flew a lo n g reconnaissance, really a s o rt o f farew ell to R ussia fo r o n his re tu rn o rd e rs w e re w a itin g fo r h im to leave. H e tu rn e d his aircraft o v e r to th e W h ite R ussians. T h e B ritish w e n t h o m e. T h e g au n t, sh av e n -h ea d ed B a ro n W ran g el d id a tre m e n d o u s j o b o f tu rn in g th e defeated m o b he h ad in h erited in to a disciplined a rm y . B u t he h ad assu m ed c o m m a n d to o late; the B ritish g o v e r n ­ m e n t h ad d ecided to end the R ussian a d v e n tu re an d h ad started trad e talks w ith the B olsh ev iks so th a t even th e role played b y the B ritish forces in the ev a cu atio n w as an e m b a rra ss m e n t to the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t. A t the W a r O ffice C h u rc h ill h ad at last ab a n d o n e d all h o p e th a t the B o lshevik s cou ld be o v e r th r o w n . T h u s, w h e n , in early Ju n e , W ran g el lau n ch ed a successful offensive w h ic h left h im in po ssessio n o f a large arc o f te rrito ry o n the m ainland , the B ritish g o v e r n m e n t w as h orrified, fearing th at th eir n e w and fragile co n ­ tacts w ith the B olshevik s w o u ld be en d a n g ere d . T h e sm all B ritish m ilita ry m issio n to W ran g el w as pulled o u t and th e R oy al N a v y w ith d r e w its p ro te c tio n . W rangel, h o w e v e r, m ain tain ed his p o si­ tio n o n the m ainlan d, refusing offers b y th e B ritish to m ed iate w ith th e B olsh ev ik s o n his behalf. T h e B olsh ev iks th em selves w e re p re o ccu p ie d w ith th eir ca m p aig n against the U k ra in ia n s and th e 274

South Russia and the Caspian, December 1919-M ay 1920 Poles and it w as n o t u n til th at w as settled th at th ey w e re able to tu rn th eir a tte n tio n to W rangel. In O c to b e r th ey d ro v e h im back in to the C rim e a an d th en , in the seco nd w e ek o f N o v e m b e r, th ey crossed in to th e C rim e a itself. R eco g n isin g the in ev itab ility o f defeat, W ran g el o rd e re d his m e n to m a k e their w ay to the p orts. T h ere, u n d e r F rench p ro te c tio n , th e y e m b a rk e d o n th e re m n a n ts o f the B lack Sea Fleet a n d civilian ships w h ic h even tually carried a total o f 146,200 d is a rm e d soldiers and refugees aw ay to B izerte in T u nisia w h e re th e y a n d the ships w e re interned. T h e C iv il W a r w as over. T h e W h ite Russians had been defeated. B o lsh e v ism h a d triu m p h e d in Russia. M e a n w h ile th e last act o f th e In te rv e n tio n w as played o u t at a scene o u tsid e Russia. It to o k place in M a y 1920 at Enzeli, the Persian to w n o n th e C asp ian w h ic h h ad served as D u n s te rv ille ’s base for th e defence o f B ak u. A fte r th e A rm istice in 1918 B ritish tro o p s h ad re tu rn e d to T ranscaucasia to o versee th e T u rk is h w ith d ra w a l b u t th ey stayed o n ly u n til A u g u s t 1919 and w ith th e collapse o f D e n ik in the R ed A r m y starte d to m o v e across th e C aucasus. O n A p ril 27th, 1920 the B o lsh e v ik s o f B ak u , th e capital o f A zerbaijan, gave an u ltim a tu m to th e A zerbaijani p arlia m e n t d e m a n d in g th at p o w e r be h an d e d o v er to the C o m m u n is ts . T h a t n ig h t th e R ed A rm y p o u re d o v er the fro n tie r a n d b y th e n e x t day B a k u w as C o m m u n is t. It w as an event o f a sin g u lar m is fo rtu n e fo r a p a rty o f five R oyal N a v y officers and tw e n ty -s e v e n ratin gs o n their w a y to take charge o f the rem ains o f D e n ik in ’s fleet w h ic h h ad s o u g h t refug e at Enzeli - fo r th ey stepp ed o f f th e train at B ak u straig h t in to the arm s o f the B olsheviks. T h e m e n w e re arrested and, alon g w ith o th e r B ritish prisoners, in clu d ­ ing w o m e n and children, w e re carted o f f to B a k u ’s C en tra l P rison w h ic h b ec am e n o to rio u s as th e “ B lack H o le o f B a k u ” . A m o n g th e m w as a y o u n g naval officer w h o afterw ard s b ecam e A d m iral o f th e Fleet, L o rd Fraser o f Inchcape. H e lived for m o n th s w ith the ra tin g s o f his p arty , sharing th eir m isery a m o n g the lice and rats and h u n g e r and th e ind ign ities im p o s e d o n th e m b y their captors. It was d u rin g this p e rio d that, like H o rr o c k s in sim ilar circum stances, he d ev e lo p ed th e re g a rd fo r th o se w h o served u n d e r h im th at becam e su ch a h a llm a rk o f his career. T h e B o lsh e v ik o c c u p a tio n o f A zerbaijan m ea n t th at the C aspian w as n o w c o m p le te ly u n d e r th eir c o n tro l and the B ritish g arriso n at E nzeli, a lth o u g h o n P ersian te rrito ry , w as in a v ery u n c o m fo rta b le p o sitio n . W hile the B ritish h ad m ain tain ed th eir C oastal M o to r B o ats o n the C asp ian th e B o lsh e v ik Fleet h ad been w o rs te d m o re o ften th a n n o t an d fo r a tim e after th e B ritish w ith d re w the W hite 275

The Bolsheviks Triumph Fleet m a in ta in e d this su p e rio rity . B u t b y early 1920 th e B olsh ev iks h ad increased th eir fleet to eleven d estro y e rs and to rp e d o b oats and fo u r sm all su b m arin e s an d a n u m b e r o f sm aller vessels. T h e c o m m a n d e r o f this fo rm id a b le fleet w as n o n e o th e r th an C o m m is s a r F. F. R ask o ln ik o v , the B altic sailo rs’ leader w h o h ad been c a p tu re d w ith his d e s tro y e r and taken to E n g la n d as a hostage. O n c e he h ad been ex c h a n g e d he h ad p lu n g e d back in to the fight. W ith P e tro v s k and B a k u in his h an ds R a sk o ln ik o v saw th e o p p o r tu n ity to strike. O n M a y 18th M a jo r G eneral H . B. C h a m pain, c o m m a n d e r o f B ritish forces in N o r t h Persia, w as at Enzeli to w a tc h th e test-firin g o f s o m e g un s w h ic h h ad been tak en o f f th e W h ite R ussian ships an d m o u n te d to p ro tec t the p o rt. It w as these sam e g u n s th at Fraser and his m e n had been o n th eir w a y to serve w h e n th ey w e re a rrested in B aku. T h e g arriso n o f so m e 500 m e n o f th e j o i n t B ritish and In dian A rm y N o r t h Persia Force at Enzeli h ad its p o sitio n s o n a neck o f land encircling th e h a rb o u r. It h ad n ev e r b een ex p e cted th at this sm all d e ta c h m e n t cou ld w ith s ta n d a d e te r­ m in e d B o lsh e v ik attack b u t it w as th o u g h t th at w ith the g uns it c o u ld ru n a b lu ff to frig h te n o f f the R ed N a v y . H o w e v e r th at s o rt o f b lu ff d id n o t w o r k w ith R ask o ln ik o v . H e p u t his fleet in to the h a r b o u r and lan ded tro o p s to cut o f f th e garrison . T h e re w as little fig h tin g . C h a m p a in w as in an im po ssib le p o sitio n and h ad n o o p tio n b u t to n eg o tiate u n d e r a flag o f truce. R ask o ln ik o v , n o d o u b t relishin g the iro n y o f the situation, agreed to allo w th e B ritish to leave for th e m ain lan d as lon g as th ey s u rre n d ere d all D e n ik in ’s ships an d left b e h in d th eir h eav y e q u ip m e n t. T h a t n ig h t the g arriso n m arc h ed o u t in com plian ce w ith R ask o l­ n i k o v ’s te rm s and thus, the in te rv e n tio n - w h ic h h ad started w ith a sim ilar sm all m o v e m e n t o f B ritish tro o p s tw o years before - en d ed in h u m ilia tio n . B u t, w h ile it m a rk e d an end, th e Enzeli incid ent also signified a b e g in n in g . As the first in cu rsio n b y th e R ed A rm y in to te rr ito r y w h ic h h ad n o t b elo n g e d to T sarist Russia, it herald ed the b e g in n in g o f the S oviet E m p ire.

276

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278

Index Page-references for maps, in italics , precede other page-references. References to illustrations are given as plate-numbers: PI 1A etc. Place-names and spellings are those principally used in the book; com m on variants are indicated. Main references are given in bold type. A f g h a n i s t a n , 83, 85, 92 A g ar, C a p t A u g u s tu s , 45, 2 5 2 - 8 , 2 5 9 -6 0 a ir c r a f t , A l l ie d s u p p li e s t o R u s s i a , 17, 2 7 0 B a l ti c a re a , 2 5 6 - 8 , 2 6 4 g a s a tt a c k s , 2 0 4, 2 1 7 - 1 8 N . R u ssia, 1 4 2 -4 , 2 0 2 - 3 , 209 R u s s i a n , 17, 2 6 , n o , 1 4 2 - 3 s e a p l a n e s , 6 3, 127, 2 1 9 , 22 5; B a l ti c 264; L. O n e g a 222-3 S. R u s s i a , 1 5 - 3 4 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 2 - 4 t y p e s : A l b a t r o s , 20; B E 2 C , 16; C a m e l , 1 9 - 2 1 , 2 0 2 - 3 , 2 5 6 , 2 6 4 , 27 3 ; C a u d r o n G U I, 143; D H 4 , 143; D H 9 , 16, 19, 20 , 2 0 2 , 2 7 3 - 4 ; F a i r e y C a m p a n i a , 63 ; F a i r e y I I I C , 2 22; G r i f f in , 2 5 6 ; Ily a M u r o m e t z , 26; M a r t i n s y d e S c o u t , 88; M o r a n e S a u l n ie r , 142; N i e u p o r t , 143, 20 9; 1 ’/ 2 - S t r u t t e r , 143; R E 8 , 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 7 - 1 8 , 2 2, 2 4, 2 2 2 , 2 7 0, PI 2 B , 2 C ; S h o r t 2 2 2 - 3 , 256 ; S n i p e , 202; S p a d A 2 17 A i t k e n , M a x , 181 A l e x a n d e r , L t - C o l (later F i e l d - M r s h l ; E a r l) H a r o l d , 248 A l e x a n d e r - S i n c l a i r , A d m l S ir E v e l y n , 2 4 7 A le x a n d ra F e o d o ro v n a , T sa rin a , 28, 7 9 - 8 0 A l l e y , M a j S t e p h e n , 9 8 , 101, 1 0 5 - 6 A l l f r e y , M a j o r , 1 9 8 - 9 , 2 0 2 , 20 4 , 2 1 0 - 1 2 , 215 A llie s , 39, 4 5 . 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 - 3 A r m i s t i c e , 1 7 8 - 9 , 182 B o l s h e v i k h o s t i l i t y , 52 ‘c o r d o n s a n i t a i r e ’, 182 d i s a f f e c t io n , 193 K o l c h a k , 245 N . R u ssia, 3 6 - 8 , 4 3 - 4 , 4 0 - 1 , 5 2 - 3 ‘R u s s i a n F r o n t ’, 2 7, 2 9, 3 4 - 6 S i b e ri a , 7 1 - 5 , 77 , 8 0 - 1 , 1 4 6 - 8 , 152 S. R u s s i a , 268', 2 6 7 - 8 s u p p l i e s t o V l a d i v o s t o k , 6 7 , 68 S u p r e m e W a r C o u n c i l , 5 2 - 3 , 75 A l l - R u s s i a n P r o v i s i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t , 149 A l t h a m , C a p t a i n , 63 A m ir a l A u b e ( c r u i s e r ) , 4 3, 57, 63 A n a r c h i s t s , 1 6 8 - 7 0 , 2 68 , 2 7 0 M a k h n o , 21, 271 A n d e r s o n , C a p t W a lte r, 20 A n d r e i P e r v o z v a n n y ( b a t t le s h ip ) , 2 5 0 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 7 - 8 a n ti-S e m itis m , 2 7 0 -1 B r i t i s h , 9 9 , I 3 7 ~ 9 , 162, 2 7 0 R u s s i a n , 2 3, 2 3 5 , 2 7 0 A r a l, L a k e , 71 A r c h a n g e l , 40, ig 6\ 6 0 - 4 , 1 2 6 - 4 4 , 1 8 6 - 9 2 B o lsh e v ik u n d e rg r o u n d , 1 9 1 -2 C z e c h s , 52, 75 d ip lo m a ts, 6 1 - 2 e v a c u a t i o n , 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 - 2 0 , 231 f o o d -sh o rta g e , 1 3 5 -6 I r o n s i d e , 124, 1 3 7 - 4 1

279

K e m s h o o t i n g s , 56, 6 2 m u tin y , 1 4 1 -2 P r o v i s i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t , 6 3 - 4 , 124, 129, 1 3 6 - 7 , 2 1 3 - 1 4 , 231 R e lie f F o rce, 1 9 9 -2 2 0 R o y a l N a v y b a s e , 39, 4 1 - 2 , 4 3 , 4 8 s o v i e t , 56, 6 0 - 4 , 127 w i n t e r , 185, 1 8 6 - 9 2 A rch a n gel: A m e r ic a ’s W a r A g a in s t R u s s ia , 2 0 0 A rc h a n g e l 1918-1 9 19 , 189 A rc h a n g e l P ra v d a, 56 A r c h a n g e l R e g t , 141 A rc h e r, S q d n L d r jo e , 1 5 -1 6 , 2 3 - 4 , 267 A r c t i c O c e a n , 41 , 42 A r m e n i a , 36, 8 3 - 9 2 i n d e p e n d e n c e , 16, 85 A r m i s t i c e see W o r l d W a r I A shkhabad, 9 2 -7 A s k o ld ( c r u i s e r ) ( G lo r y I V ) , 4 4 - 5 , 5 7 - 8 , 116 A s t r a k h a n , 196, 268; 1 6 - 1 7 , 87, 93 A s tu ria n ( f r e ig h t e r ) , 53, 57 A te n , C a p t M a rio n , 272 A tte n t iv e ( c r u i s e r ) , 55, 57, 63 A u r o r a ( c r u i s e r ) , 32, 33 A u stra lia , 67 A u s t r i a / A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y , 27, 70, 74, 268 p r i s o n e r s o f w a r , 6 8 , 70 , 77, 9 2 , 112 see also H u n g a r y A z a r d ( d e s t r o y e r ) , 2 52 A z e r b a i j a n , 16, 85, 275 A z o v , Sea o f , 268; 15, 271 B a i k a l, L a k e , 71; 67 , 77 B a k e r , N e w t o n ( U S Se c f o r W a r ) , 147 B a k u , 196, 268; 8 3 - 9 2 , 2 7 5 - 6 o il, 35, 8 3 - 4 , 87, 161 ‘2 6 C o m m i s s a r s ’, 9 3 - 7 B a l f o u r , A r t h u r (later E a r l) ( F o r e i g n Se c 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 ) , h i , 114, 166, 174 b a llo o n s , o b s e rv a tio n , 209, 264 B a ltic E piso d e, 2 5 5 , 2 5 6 B a l ti c S e a /S ta t e s , 6 7 , 182, 2 4 7 - 6 6 , 2 7 0 R o y a l N a v y , 102, 2 4 7 - 6 0 , 2 6 3 - 4 , 2 6 5 - 6 S t a te s i n v a d e d , 156, 2 4 7 B a r e n t s S ea, 40; 191, 241 B a rin g , C a p ta in , 236 B a rn b y , M aj A . C ., 227 B a r r a t t , M a j T . , 186 B a t u m ( B a t u m i ) , 268, 17, 37, 84 B e a v e r b r o o k , B a r o n ( M a x A i t k e n ) , 181 B eeley , C h i e f M o t o r M e c h a n ic H u g h , 254 B e l o r u s s i a , 37 B e n n e t t , S ir G o r d o n , 4 4 B e r e z n i k , 4 0; 132, 133, 199, 2 18 B e r ia , L a v r e n t i P a v l o v i c h , 9 6 - 7 , 128 B e r m o n d t , C o l o n e l , 2 60 , 263 B e r z in , C o l o n e l , 158, 1 5 9 - 6 1 , 1 7 5 - 6

Index B e s s a r a b i a , 36, 182 B i c h e r a k h o v , C o l L a z a r, 85, 90 B io rk o , 2 5 6 -7 B i r s e , E d w a r d , 100, 101 B l a c k Sea, 196, 268, 161, 182, 2 6 9 B liss , G e n T a s k e r , 53 B l u m k i n , Y a c o v , 114 b o a ts , 247 b a r g e s , 131, PI 5 A c o a s t a l m o t o r b o a t s ( C M B s ) , 2 0 2, 21 9 , 2 5 2 - 8 , 2 5 9 - 6 0 , 275 D v i n a , 128, 131, 1 3 3 - 5 , 1 3 9 - 4 1 , 2 0 2 , 2 0 4 L a k e O n e g a , 2 2 2 - 3 , 225 M o n i t o r s , 133, 2 0 2 , 2 0 4, 2 6 3 - 4 M u r m a n s k , 116, 120 N e v a , 162-3 S i b e ri a , 2 3 3 - 4 V o l g a , 19, 20, 21 y a c h t , 44 , 63 B o c h k a r e v a , M a r i a , 32 B o d l e y , L i e u t e n a n t , 258 B o l o , see B o l s h e v i k ‘B o l o L i q u i d a t i o n C l u b ’, 98 B o l s h e v i k s / B o l o s / R e d R u s s i a n s , 13, 23, 3 1 - 3 , 39,

174; in te l li g e n c e , 1 1 1 - 1 2 ; N . R u s s i a , 52, 195, 2 0 1 - 2 ; S i b e ri a , 77; S. R u s s i a , 16, 2 3 - 4 ; see also A llie s ; L l o y d G e o r g e etc h o s t a g e s , 9 4, 2 5 1 - 2 in te l li g e n c e , 6 5 , 9 8 - 1 1 5 , 1 5 6 - 7 7 ; A r c h a n g e l , 61 , 64; C e n t r a l A s ia , 39; S. R u s s i a , 35 K o lc h a k , 2 4 1 - 2 n a v y , see R o y a l N a v y N . R u s s i a , 3 9 - 6 6 , 104, 1 1 6 - 4 4 , 1 8 5 - 2 3 1 ; e v a c u a t i o n , 183, 194, 195, 2 1 8 - 2 0 , 2 25 , 2 31; R u ssian R e lie fF o rc e , 1 9 5 -2 1 8 , 2 2 1 - 2 p u b lic o p in io n : E m b a s s y raid, 1 6 5 -6 , 1 7 6 -7 ; p o s t - w a r , 1 8 0 - 1 , 195, 2 0 6 - 7 , 2 14 ; R M c o u r t s m a r t i a l , 2 2 9 - 3 1 ; S. R u s s ia , 17, 18, 21, 24, 2 6 9 - 7 1 S ib e ria , 7 1 - 8 2 , I 45 ~ 55 , 2 3 2 - 4 6 s o c ia lis t s y m p a t h i s e r s , 34, 1 8 0 - 1 , 2 0 2 , 2 0 7 S. R u s s i a , 1 5 - 2 4 , 8 3 - 9 7 , 2 6 7 - 7 6 ; B a k u C o m m i s s a r s , 9 3 - 4 ; e v a c u a t i o n , 17, 24,

274-6 ‘s u r r o g a t e w a r f a r e ’, 73 W o r l d W a r I: m a n p o w e r s h o r t a g e , 4 3 , 195; s u p p li e s t o R u s s i a , 2 7 - 8 , 2 9 - 3 0 , 126 Y u d en ich , 2 6 1 -5 B r o t n o v s k y , B r o n i s l a v , 164 B ro w n , C a p t V ., 4 6 - 7 B r y a n , M a j J . N . L ., 2 2 0 B u c h a n , J o h n , 9 8 , 137 B u c h a n a n , S i r G e o r g e , 3 2 - 3 , 35, 9 9 , 101, 1 8 2 - 3 B u c k n a ll, N a ta lie , 1 6 3 -4 B u d b erg , M o u ra , 171-2 B u d e n n y , G e n S e m y o n , 2 2, 2 6 7 , 2 71 , 273 B u r g e s s , G u y , 172 B u r r o w s , C a p t (later M a j) M . B . , 223 B u r t o n , M a j o r , 121

275 A llie s: s u p p o r t i n g , 4 0 - 1 , 4 5, 6 5 , n o ; o p p o s e d , 37, 55 , 8 6 - 7 , 1 2 1 , 2 38 B a l ti c S ta te s , 2 47 , 2 66 c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n s, 113-15, 156 -7 0 , 1 7 5 -6 D e n ik in tu rn e d , 2 1 - 2 , 2 7 0 -1 d i p l o m a t i c r e l a ti o n s , 1 0 0 - 1 , 156, 1 7 2 - 3 i m p e r i a l i s m , 35, 178, 182, 2 76 ‘J u l y D a y s ’, 2 8 - 3 1 K o lc h a k tak en , 2 4 4 -5 R e d A i r F o r c e , n o , 143 R e d A r m y , 22, 30, 65 , n o , 2 0 9 , 2 18; I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a t t a l i o n s , 113; P O W a r m i e s , 1 1 2 -1 3 ; P 1 8B R e d G u a r d s , see R e d G u a r d s R e d N a v y , 58, 2 5 0 - 1 , 2 7 5 - 6 ; see also b o a t s R e d T e r r o r , 1 7 0 - 3 , 177 R e v o l u t i o n (19 1 8 ), 3 1 - 3 T s a r k i ll e d , 79 W o rld W a r I ends, 3 7 -8 W ran g el tu rn ed , 2 7 4 -5 B o n n e l l , J a y H . , 135 B o w e n , S e r g e a n t , 58 B o w e n , L t I. H . , 20 8 B o y c e , C m d r E r n e s t , 98 , 101, 106 ‘c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n ’, 115, 161, 1 6 3 - 4 , 1 6 6 - 7 B o y d , C a p t a i n , 140, 144 B o y l e , C o l J o e (‘K l o n d y k e B i l l ’), 109 B o y o v , M akar, 191-2 B o y u z h o v s k a y a , Y e l e n a , 106 B r a d e , L i e u t e n a n t , 2 5 7, 258 B r e m n e r , L i e u t e n a n t , 2 5 7, 258 B r e s t - L i t o v s k , T r e a t y o f , 13, 3 7 - 8 , 57, 72 B a l ti c S ta te s , 2 47 o u t c o m e d o u b t f u l , 41 , 101, m - 1 2 B r i s s o n , C o m m o d o r e , 263 B rita in a n t i - B o l s h e v i s m , 159, 1 8 1 - 3 a r m y : d i s a f f e c t io n , 1 7 9 - 8 1 , 184, 1 8 8 - 9 , 193; V C s , 21 6; see also i n d i v i d u a l r e g i m e n t s etc B a l ti c , 2 4 7 - 6 6 E m b a s s y r a id , 1 6 5 - 6 , 174 e x p a t r i a t e s , 60, 156 F r a n c o - B r i t i s h C o n v e n t i o n (1 91 7), 36, 26 7 G o v e r n m e n t a im s , 3 4 - 8 ; E m b a s s y r a id , 1 6 5 - 6 ,

‘C ’ ( h e a d M I 6 ) , see S m i t h - C u m m i n g C a m p b e ll, C m d r V ic to r, 1 1 7 -1 8 C a n a d a , 1 4 0 , 179 N . R u s s i a , 120, 1 4 0 - 4 1 , 142, 186, 192; ev a c u ate d , 200, 224 S ib e ria , 81, 1 4 8 , 153, 233 ; e v a c u a t e d , 2 39 C a r p a t h i a n m o u n t a i n s , 27 , 71 C a r r , M a j o r , 2 18 C a s p i a n S e a , 71, 196, 268; B a k u s o v i e t , 87 B o l s h e v i k s , 275 B r i t i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n , 1 6 - 1 7 , 8 3 - 9 7 , 2^ l f f C e n t r a l A s ia , 92 T u r k e y , 87, 93 Cassandra ( c r u i s e r ) , 2 4 7 C a u c a s u s , 16, 3 6 , 108, 275 T u r k e y , 16, 37, 84 c a v a lry 1st A r m y , 21 I n d i a n A r m y , 93 S. R u s s i a , 19, 2 6 7 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 4, PI 8 A \ a ir a tta c k s, 2 0 - 2 1 Y u d en ich , 2 6 4 -5 C e c i l, L o r d R o b e r t ( M i n i s t e r o f B l o c k a d e , 1 9 1 6 - 1 8 ) , 68 C e n t r a l A s ia , 39, 9 2 , 9 4 , 108 C e n t r a l - C a s p i a n D i c t a t o r s h i p , 87, 89, 91 , 93 C h a ik in , V a d im , 9 5 - 6 C h a m p a in , M a j- G e n H . B ., 276 C h a p l i n , G e o r g i , 6 1 , 6 4 , 129, 136, 149 C h a v c h a v a d z e , P a il, 7 9 - 8 0 C h e k a ( C h r e z v y c h a y n a y a K o m m i s s i y a ) , 98, 1 5 6 -7 0

280

Index B u lle tin , 171 D ukes, 255-6 K e d r o v , 128 Left S R c o u p , 1 1 3 -1 4 M e r r e t t , 252 P e t e r s , 175 ‘R e d T e r r o r ’, 1 7 0 - 3 R e illy , 106 S ib e ria , 243 T s a r ’s m u r d e r , 79 C h e l y a b i n s k , 71; 7 5 - 6 , 80, 2 4 2 C h e s m a ( b a t t le s h ip ; later p r i s o n s h ip ) , 4 1 , 4 4, 4 5, 221 C h i c h e r i n , G c o r g i , 166, 170 C h i t a , 71; 153 C h u r c h i l l , (later S ir) W i n s t o n S p e n c e r ( H o m e S e c 1 9 1 0 - 1 1 ; 1st L o r d o f A d m i r a l t y 191 1—15; M in is te r o f M u n itio n s 1 917-19; M in is te r o f W a r 1 9 1 9 - 2 1 ) , 1 8 3 - 4 , 195. 2 0 6 - 7 , 2 0 8, 2 1 4 a n t i - B o l s h e v i s m , 3 7 , 1 8 3 - 4 , 2 74 C zechs, 7 7 -8 D e n i k i n , 27 0 E m b a s s y r a i d , 165, 1 7 6 - 7 g a s , 37, 203 J o h n s o n , 234, 240 K o lc h a k , 2 4 1 - 2 M o s c o w b o m b in g , 2 3 -4 S i d n e y S t s ie g e , 169 S o u t h R u s s i a M i s s i o n , 18 s p e e c h t o t r o o p s , 197 Y u d e n i c h , 261 C i t y o f M arseilles ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 4 9 - 5 0 C l e m e n c e a u , P r e s G e o r g e s (‘T i g e r ’), 78, 183 C leo pa tra ( c r u i s e r ) , 263 C l o w , L t V ic , 1 6 - 1 7 , 2 3 - 4 , 2 6 7 , 2 7 2 - 3 , PI 2 A R u s s i a n p i lo t s , 22 T e a g u e -jo n e s, 97 C ochrane ( c r u i s e r ) , 4 3, 4 5, 4 6 C o l e , F e lix , 129 C o l l i s h a w , S q d n L d r (later A i r V i c e - M r s h l ) R a y m o n d , 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 0, 2 6 9 , 2 72 , 2 7 4 ‘C o m m i s s a r s , T w e n t y - S i x ’, 9 3 - 7 C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y , 107 , 149, 182 C o s s a c k s , 2 0 - 2 1 , 2 3, 36 A r c h a n g e l , 188 D e n i k i n , 2 6 7, 2 7 1 , 2 7 3 , 2 7 4 D o n , 161, 2 7 3 , 2 7 4 K e r e n s k y , 32, 33 S ib e ria , 70, 145, 147 C o w a n , R e a r - A d m l S ir W a l t e r , 2 4 7 - 5 8 , 2 63, 265-6 C r a w f o r d , L t (later C a p t ) P e t e r , 4 8 - 5 1 , 5 3 - 4 , 5 7 -9 , 224 ‘K i n g o f R e s t i k e n t ’, 60 , 1 1 6 - 1 8 C r i m e a , 36 , 156, 2 7 2 , 2 7 4 - 5 W a r ( 1 8 5 3 - 6 ) , 136 C r o m i e , C a p t F r a n c is , 28, 98 , 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 156 c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n , 160, 161, 1 6 3 - 7 , *77 n a v a l e x p l o i t s , 1 0 2 - 5 , 106, 251 C u d a h y , J o h n , 200 C u r r a g h i n c i d e n t , 2 4 0, 2 5 0 C u r t e i s , C o m m a n d e r , 225 C u r z o n , (M a rq u e ss) G e o r g e N a th a n ie l (F o re ig n S e c 1 9 1 9 - 2 4 ) , 261 C y c lo p s ( r e p a i r s h ip ) , 2 04 C z e c h o slo v a k ia d i s a f f e c t io n , 176, 237, 244 F r e n c h , 107 G a j d a , 2 0 1, 241

281

K o lc h a k , 2 4 4 -5 N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l , 76 N . R u s s i a , 43 , 48 , 5 2 , 6 1 , 133; d e f e a t , 201; P O W a r m y , 39 R e v o lu ti o n a ry A r m y , 76 S ib e ria , 7 4 - 8 2 , 1 4 5 - 9 , 153, 2 3 2 - 3 ; C z e c h L e g io n , 7 0 - 7 1 ; E k a te r i n b u rg , 79 D a ily E x p re ss, 18, 24, 181, 184 D a i l y H e r a ld , 181, 195 D a i l y M a il, 197 D a r d a n e l l e s / G a l li p o l i, 4 4, 4 5 , 183 D a v e y , P riv a te , 227 D a v ia ( e s c o r t s h ip ) , 2 6 2 D a v i d o v , C a p t a i n , 221 D av ies, M aj T . H . 204 D av is, C o lo n e l, 216 D a y re ll-R e e d , L ie u te n a n t, 257 D e lh i ( c r u i s e r ) , 24 7 D e M a t t o s , M a j o r , 215 D e n i k i n , G e n e r a l A n t o n I v a n o v i c h , 196, 268; 15, 17, 18, 2 6 8 - 7 4 E k a t e r i n o d a r , 156 E sto n ia , 2 6 0 -1 fle e t, 2 7 5 - 6 H i l l, 174 o r c h e s t r a , 272 O r e l , 21 , 231 r e t r e a t , 2 6 7 , PI 8 A D e w e y , A d m l G e o r g e , 48 D n i e p e r r i v e r , 196, 268; 2 6 9 D o b s o n , C m d r C . C . ( ‘D o b b i e ’), 2 5 7, 258 D o n r iv e r , 196, 268; 156, 2 6 7 , 273 C o s s a c k s , 161, 2 7 1, 273 D o n a l d , S q d n L d r (later A i r M r s h l Sir) G r a h a m e , 2 5 7 - 8 , 264 D o n o p , C o l o n e l , 129, 137 D o u m a , C p l F r a n k , 132, 1 3 4 - 5 , *44. 1 8 7 - 8 , 200 D u b lin ( d e s t r o y e r ) , 124, 125 D u b o v k a , 268; 21 D u k e s , P au l, 2 5 3 - 4 , 2 5 5 - 6 , 2 5 9 - 6 0 D u k h o n i n , G e n e r a l , 36, 109 D u m e n k o (R e d f re e b o o te r), 20 D u n s t e r v i l l e , M a j - G e n L. C . / ‘D u n s t e r f o r c e ’, 85, , 8 7 - 9 2 , 93. 94 D u r h a m L ig h t In fa n try , 217 D v i n a r iv e r , 40; 6 1 , 6 3, 2 0 9, 2 1 9 , P I $ A a ir a tt a c k s , 1 4 3 - 4 I r o n s i d e , 1 3 9 - 4 1 , 2 0 2 , 2 04 , 2 08 P o o l e , 129, 1 3 1 - 2 , 1 3 3 - 5 S a m o ilo , 209 V i k o r i s t , 128 D v i n a ( d e p o t s h ip ) see P a m ia t A z o v a D y e r ( C a n a d i a n o f f i c e r ) / ‘D y e r ’s B a t t a l i o n ’, 2 1 0-12 D z e r z h i n s k y , F e lix , 31, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 171, P 16B c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n , 162, 164, 176

86

E ast S u rre y R e g im e n t, 227 E d w a r d ( P r i n c e o f W a le s ; later E d w a r d V III), 243 E k a t e r i n b u r g ( S v e r d l o v s k ) , 71; 60, 7 9 - 8 0 , 2 3 8 - 4 0 , 2 42 E k a t e r i n o d a r ( K r a s n o d a r ) , 196, 268; 156 E l li o t t, C a p t W il l ia m , 20 E m d en ( c r u i s e r ) , 6 7 E m e r s o n , C o l H . , 69 Em p ero r o f India ( b a t t le s h ip ) , 2 7 4 E m ts a , 4 0 , 2 1 6 -1 7 E 19 ( s u b m a r i n e ) , 102

Index E n z e li ( P a h le v i ) , 8 8, 91 , 9 3 , 2 7 5 - 6 Erebus ( M o n i t o r ) , 2 6 3 - 4 E rsh ( s u b m a r i n e ) , 2 52 E s t o n i a , ig6\ G o u g h , 260 R o y a l N a v y , 2 4 7 - 9 , 251 Y u d e n ic h , 231, 262, 2 6 3 - 5 see also R e v e l etc F i n la n d , 19&, 2 6 6 B o ls h e v ik s , 247, 260 ‘d i p l o m a t s ’, 6 1 - 2 G e r m a n y , 104 M u r m a n s k p o p u la tio n , 60 R e d F i n n s : after A r m i s t i c e , 125, 1 9 3 , 2 2 6 - 7 ; a ided by B r i t a i n , 45; w ith E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e , 119, 120; F i n n is h L e g i o n , 120, 121; F r e i k o r p s , 24 8; beaten b y M a n n e r h e i m , 41 R o y a l N a v y , 2 4 7 - 8 , 25 0 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 6 , 2 5 8; s u b m a r i n e s , 39 t h r e a t t o N . R u s s i a , 4 3 , $2, 6 0 , 117, 1 1 8 - 1 9 W h i t e F i n n s : s u p p o r t e d b y A llie s , 24 8 ; t h r e a t e n M u r m a n s k , 4 0 - 4 1 , 4 5 - 7 , 119, 1 2 0 - 2 1 F i n la n d , G u l f o f , 104, 2 6 0 , 2 6 6 see also B a l ti c F in la y so n , B rig a d ie r-G e n e ra l, 1 3 9 -4 0 ‘F l y i n g C i r c u s ’, 1 8 - 1 g j f F o c h , G e n F e r d i n a n d , 35 France A r m i s t i c e , 179 c o lo n i a l f o rc e s , 131, 2 3 3 , 2 3 7 d i s a f f e c t i o n , 179, 190, 193, 2 6 9 F r a n c o - B r i t i s h C o n v e n t i o n (1 9 1 7 ), 36, 2 6 7 - 8 i n te l li g e n c e , 3 5 - 6 , 107, 114 N . R u s s i a : 1918, 43 , 4 5 , 4 8 , 5 3 , 119, 120, 121; A r c h a n g e l , 6 1 , 63 , 129, 131, 13 3 , 142; w i n t e r , 186, 190, 192, 193; 1919, 22 1 , 2 2 2 p a c t (1 9 0 2 ), 34 S i b e r i a , 7 1 - 2 , 77, 81 , 146, 148 S. R u s s i a , 2 6 7 - 9 , 275 s u p p l i e s t o R u s s i a , 17, 27 2 3 8 t h M o r t a r B a t t e r y , 199 F r a n c i s , D a v i d , 6 2 , 137 F r a s e r ( n a v a l o f f i c e r ; later A d m l L o r d ) B r u c e , 2 75 , 276 F r e e m a n , M a y , 169, 175 F r e m a n t l e , A d m l S ir S y d n e y , 2 5 9 F u l le r , G e n e r a l , 2 7 1 - 2 F u n tik o v , F y o d o r, 9 4 - 7 G a j d a , G e n e r a l R u d o l f , 2 01 , 2 4 1 , 2 42 G a l ic i a , 3 9, 71 G a l l a c h e r , W illie , 180 G a l l i p o l i / D a r d a n e l l e s , 4 4 , 4 5 , 183 G a r s t i n , C a p t D e n y s , 6 4 - 6 , 98 , 101 gas, p o iso n o u s B rita in , 2 0 3 - 4 , 205, 2 1 7 - 1 8 G e r m a n y , 37, 203 G a v r ie l ( d e s t r o y e r ) , 2 5 8 , 2 6 0 G e d d e s , S ir E r ic (1 st L o r d o f A d m i r a l t y 1917), $9 G e o r g e V , K i n g , 33, 174, 189 G e rm a n y , 57 ‘a n t i - B o l s h e v i k b u l w a r k ’, 183 A r m i s t i c e t e r m s , 16, 248 B a l ti c S t a te s , 2 4 7 - 5 1 , 2 60 , 263 ‘B l a c k D a y ’, 91 B o l s h e v i k s a i d e d b y , 29, 31, 37 B r e a d T r e a t y , 57 B re s t-L ito v s k T re a ty , 3 7 - 8

i n te l li g e n c e , 107, 1 0 8 - 9 I r o n D i v i s i o n , 2 4 8 , 263 L u d e n d o r f f o f f e n s iv e , 4 3 M u r m a n s k th re a te n e d b y , 4 0 - 3 , 1 18-21 P O W ’s, 6 8 , 7 0 , 77 , 9 2 , 112; M u r m a n s k railw a y , 42 R u s s o - G e r m a n a r m y , 2 6 0 , 263 T r a d e A g r e e m e n t ( 1 9 1 8 ), 161 U k r a i n e , 57, 7 4, 109, 156 G h e i k e , L i e u t e n a n t , 58 G i b b s , P h i li p , 178 G i l b e r t , M a r t i n , 7 7, 183 G lo r y ( b a t t l e s h i p ) , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 4 , 72 b o a t a t t a c k e d , 58 R e i ll y , 105 G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e R e g t , 91 G o l d e n H o r n , B a y o f , 6 7 , 68 G o l t z , G e n B a r o n R u d i g e r v o n d e r , 121, 2 4 8 - 5 0 , 2 6 0 , 263 G o u g h , L t - G e n S ir H u b e r t , 2 4 9 - 5 0 , 2 6 0 G r a c e , C a p t E d g a r (‘D a s h e r ’), 2 5 6 G r a m m a t i k o v , A l e x a n d e r , 166, 167 G r a n d D u c h e s s e s ( T s a r ’s d a u g h t e r s ) , 79, 182 G r a v e s , M a j - G e n W i l l i a m S ., 1 4 7 - 8 , 151 G re a t N o r th e rn ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 245 G r e n a r d ( F r e n c h C o n s u l - G e n e r a l ) , 158 G rig o rie v , A ta m a n , 269 G r o g a n , B r i g G . W . S t G e o r g e / G r o g a n ’s B r i g a d e , 198, 2 0 1, 2 1 7 , 2 18 G ro v e s , G e n e ra l, 232 G u r k h a R e g t , 91 H a l l, A d m l S i r R e g i n a l d ( ‘B l i n k e r ’), 1 0 3 - 4 , 105 H a m p s h ire , S u b - L t jo h n , 254 H a m p s h ir e ( c r u i s e r ) , 123 H a m p s h ire R e g t A r c h a n g e l , 199, 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , 2 0 4 - 6 , 2 1 7 B a k u , 91 d isa ffe c tio n , 2 3 7 - 8 E k a t e r i n b u r g , 2 38 O m sk , 234-8 V l a d i v o s t o k , 149, 1 5 1 - 4 , 2 32 w i t h d r a w a l , 242, 243 H a r r i s o n , C a p t a i n ( R A M C ) , 54 H a r r i s o n , C a p t S. S. ( I r is h G u a r d s ) , 2 1 5 - 1 6 H a r t , B . H . L i d d e ll , 27 , 203 H i c k s , C a p t W . L ., 9 8 , 10 0 , 1 68, 170 H i l l ’s e s c a p e , 173 P O W s , 112 H ig h la n d L ig h t In fa n try , 217 H i l l, (later B r i g a d i e r ) G e o r g e (‘P o p ’), 9 8 , 1 0 8 - 1 0 , 115, 1 5 6 - 6 7 , 1 7 5 - 6 p i lo t s , 143 s a b o ta g e , 1 7 2 -4 S a v i n k o v , 114 W o r l d W a r II, 174 H i r s t , P t e F ., 1 2 2 - 3 H o l m a n , M a j - G e n H e r b e r t 18, 24 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 2 H o p e - C a r s o n , L t - C o l E . , 2 6 2 , 2 63 , 2 6 4 , 26 5 H o r r o c k s , C a p t (later L t - G e n S ir) B r i a n , 2 3 8 , 2 4 3,

275 H o w a r d , L i e u t e n a n t , 2 57 , 2 58 I m a n d r a , 40; 54 I m p e ria l W a r M u s e u m , 260 I n d ia , 35, 3 6 - 7 , 8 3, 9 4 I n d ia n A r m y , 9 2 - 3 , 276 I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a t t a l i o n ( R e d A r m y ) , 113 i n t e r v e n t i o n ( b y A llie s in R u s s i a 1 9 1 7 - 2 0 ) , see A llie s ; B r i t a i n etc

282

Index I n v e r g o r d o n m u t i n y , 2 59 I ri s h G u a r d s , 21$ I r k u t s k , 71; 7 0 a r m e d p o w ’s, 112 C z e c h s , 77 , 7 8 , 1 4 5 - 6 H a m p s h i r e s , 153 J a n i n , 245 J a p a n , 233 K o lc h a k , 243, 244 R e d A r m y , 243, 245, P i 8B I r o n s i d e , M a j - G e n (later F l d - M r s h l L o r d ) , 20 2, 220, P l $ B c a m p a i g n s : 1918, 1 2 4 , 125, 1 3 7 - 4 1 , 144; w i n t e r , 185, 1 8 6 - 9 2 ; 1919, 2 0 0 - 2 0 8 , 209JJ c o u r t s - m a r t i a l , 231 e x e c u t i o n s , 2 12 R u s s i a n m u t i n y , 201 S h e r w o o d K e l ly , 2 0 6 Irv in e -F o rte sq u e , Lt W . G ., 227 I ta l y N . R u s s i a , 5 3 , 120, 121, 186, 22 2 S i b e ri a , 7 2 , 81, 148, 233 T r e n ti n i, 27 J a m e s o n , (later M a j - G e n ) , 2 3 4 J a n i n , G e n M a u r i c e , 8 1 , 150, 2 37 , 245 Japan A r m i s t i c e , 179 C z e c h s , 78 i m p e r i a l i s m , 72 , 80 , 147, 179, 233 i n te l li g e n c e , 108 K o l c h a k , 24 5 n a v y , 39, 6 7 R u s s o - J a p a n e s e W a r , 26 , 6 7 , 7 1 , 105, 2 4 9 S ib e ria : 1918, 7 1 - 3 , 7 7, 8 0 - 1 , 111, 1 4 6 - 8 ; 1 9 1 9 - 2 0 , 2 3 3 , 23 8 , 2 4 5 - 6 J e w is h C h ron icle, 1 3 8 - 9 J o h n s o n , C o l (later S ir) R o b e r t , 151, 1 5 2 - 5 ,

234-41 J o ll y R o g e r ( s u b - c h a s e r ) , 2 2 2 J o n e s , C a p t Ira (‘T a f f y ’), 218 ‘J o y ’ ( d o g ) , 7 9 - 8 0 K a l a m a t i a n o , X e n o p h o n , 107, 168, 173, 1 7 4 - 5 K a n d a l a k s h a , 40; 4 5 , 5 4 - 5 , 1 1 9 g a r r i s o n , 52, 6 2 , 120, 124 K a n e g i s s e r , L e o n i d , 162 K a p l a n , F a n n y , 162, 167, 170 K a r e li a , 60 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 - 2 1 , 1 9 2 - 3 K a t o , A d m i r a l , 73 K a z a k o v , A le x a n d e r, 1 4 2 -4 , 2 0 2 -3 K a z a n , 71, 196; 1 4 6 , 149, 241 K a z e m z a d e h , F iru z, 94 K e d r o v , M ik h a il, 1 2 7 -8 K e l ly , L t - C o l J o h n S h e r w o o d , 199, 2 0 0 , 2 0 4 - 8 K e m , 40; 4 6 , 57, 6 2, 2 2 6 g a r r i s o n , 52, 120, 124 R o y a l N a v y , 137 s h o o t i n g s , 5 4 - 6 , 156 T h o r n h il l raid , 64 K e m p , R e a r - A d m l T h o m a s , 4 2 - 7 , 56, 105 K e n o tk e n ic h , C o lo n e l, 219, 220 K e n w o rth y , L ie u te n a n t- C o m m a n d c r , 230 K e r e n s k y , A l e x a n d e r , 28, 29, 3 3, 36 B r u c e L o c k h a rt, 99 L en in , 3 0 -3 1 T s a r , 33 K G B ( K o m i t e t G o s u d a r s t v r n n o i h c 7 o |u % m m i ) . 9 8 , 175

K h a r k o v , 196, 268; 15, 21 K i e v , 196, 268; 7 4 K ild o n a n C a stle ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 2 19 K i n g ’s R o y a l R ifle C o r p s , 122, 221 K i n k e a d , F l t - L t S. M . (‘K i n k y ’), 1 8 - 1 9 , 20 K itcat, L t-C o l A . d e W ., 2 2 6 - 9 K i t c h e n e r , F l d - M a r s h l E a r l H o r a t i o H e r b e r t , 123 K n o x , G e n A lfre d P e t r o g r a d , 3 2 - 3 , 35, 36 V l a d i v o s t o k , 8 1 , 112, 150, 2 3 7 , 2 4 4 - 5 K o i k o r i , 2 2 6 , 2 2 7 , 228 K o l a r i v e r / i n l e t , 40', 4 2 , 125, 231 K o l c h a k , A d m i r a l A l e x a n d e r V a s i l y e v i c h , 196',

149 - 51 . 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 4 1 - 5 d isa ffe c te d fo rces, 236 E s to n ia , 2 6 0 -6 1 G a j d a , 241 J o h n s o n , 236 P e r m , 2 3 3 , 241 ‘P r o v i s i o n a l g o v t ’, 241 S em en o v , 153-4 T im e s , 1 4 9 - 5 0 , 2 3 5 - 6 T s a r i t s y n , 19 T s a r k i ll e d , 79 u n i f i c a t i o n o f f o r c e s , 195, 201 K o lo ( s h i p ) , 6 6 K o re a , 42, 60 K o m i l o v , G e n L a v r , 28 , 31 K o t l a s , 1 9 6 , 6 1, 141, 146, 19 5 Iro n s id e , 202, 208 u n i f i c a t i o n f a i l u re , 2 0 1 , 2 0 9 , 241 K r a s n a y a G o r k a , 2 5 3 - 4 , 2 5 6 , 2 6 3 - 4 , 265 K ra s n o v o d sk , 92, 9 3 - 7 K r a s n o y a r s k , 71; 243 K r o n s t a d t , 102, 119, 2 5 0 - 6 0 fle e t s c u t t l e d , 1 0 4 - 5 m u t i n y , 28 , 1 0 2 - 3 R a i d , 2 5 7 - 8 , 26 2 K u h n ( C o s s a c k ) , 9 4 , 95 K u r k i n e n , S i s te r M a t a r t , 2 6 4 K u r s k , 196, 268; 21 L a i d l a w , L t H . S ., 2 0 L a i d o n e r , G e n e r a l , 261 L a m p s o n , C m d r O l i v e r L o c k e r , 39, 85 L a n s i n g , R o b e r t , 175 L a n s o n , L t W . A . M . , 2 27 L ap lan d , 116 -1 8 L a s c a rs , 4 9 - 5 0 , 53 L a t v ia , 19&, 2 4 7 - 9 , 263 L e t t R ifle s, 107, 1 13, 127, 1 5 7 - 6 1 , 1 6 6 - 7 , *69 L o n d o n ,168-9 L a u r ie , C o l o n e l , 2 1 2 - 1 3 Lazo, S ergei, 246 L e i c e s t e r s h i r e R e g t , 129 L e n i n ( V l a d i m i r I ly ic h U l y a n o v ) , 13 , 4 5 , 18 2 , PI lB a s s a s s i n a t i o n p l o t s , 160, 1 6 2 , 170, 172, 176 e x ile /h id in g , 29, 3 0 -1 fall r u m o u r e d , , 115 H i l l, 109 I n d ia , 3 6 - 7 p e a c e u r g e d , 33, 36, 3 8 R e d T e r r o r , 171 R e v o lu tio n , 3 1 - 2 S i b e ri a , 7 0 L e t ts sev L a tv ia ( s u b m a r i n e ) , 252 L i b a u , 24H, 2 49

283

Index L im o z e ro , L ake, 227 L i n d l e y , F r a n c i s , 6 2 - 3 , 64, 100 L i t h u a n i a , 3 7, 140, 2 4 7 - 9 , 263 L i t v i n o v , M a x i m , 100, 105, i l l , 181 i m p r i s o n m e n t , 166, 172 L i v e r p o o l R e g t , 121, 2 17 L l o y d G e o r g e , (later E a rl) D a v i d ( P r i m e M i n i s t e r 1 9 1 6 - 2 2 ) , 24, 181, 183, 2 0 1 - 2 , 20 8 a r m y d i s a f f e c t i o n , 180 i n t e l l i g e n c e , 100, 115 K olch ak , 2 4 1 -2 L o c k h a rt, R o b e rt B ru ce, 9 8 -1 0 1 , 1 1 0 -1 5 , 1 5 6 - 7 4 , PI 7 B a rre st, 1 6 8 -7 0 , 1 7 2 -4 G a rs tin , 65, 66 R e i ll y , 1 0 5 - 6 L o n d o n R e g t , 119 L o n g , S i r W a lt e r , 2 3 0 - 1 , 2 59 L u d e n d o r f f , G e n E r i c h v o n , 4 3 , 50, 57, 72, n o L v o v , P r i n c e G e o r g e , 28, 34, 9 9 M a c D o n a l d , R a m s a y , 44 M c D o n e l l , R o n a l d , 86, 87 m ac h in e -g u n s/C o rp s A r c h a n g e l , 63 , 199, 2 1 6 , 2 17 M e r v , 93 M u r m a n s k , 49 , 53, 119, 22 7 M a cle o d , L t-C o l D . M ., 206 M a i s k y , I v a n , 4 4 , 180 M a k h n o , N e s t o r , 21, 271 M a i k o v , P a v e l, 168, 170 M a lle so n , M a j- G e n W ilfre d , 9 2 - 3 , 9 4 - 6 M a m o n t o v , G e n K . K . , 271 M a n c h u r i a , 72 , 147, 233 M a n n e r h e i m , M r s h l C a r l v o n , 196; 4 1, 125, 2 6 0 M a r c h a n d , R e n e , 168 m arin es B r i t i s h , see R o y a l M a r i n e s F r e n c h , 5 7 - 8 , 63 J a p a n e s e , 72, 73 , 77 U S , $ 7 - 8 , 63, 72, 77 M a rty , A n d re , 269 M a s a r y k , T h o m a s , 70 M a s o n , L t L. W . , 21 8 M a t h e r , L t - C m d r J . H . 223 M a tis o n , A n n a , 1 9 1 -2 M a u g h a m , W illia m S o m e rs e t, 2 9 - 3 0 M a u n d , L t - C o l A . C . ( ‘C i s s y ’), 17, 22 , 273 M a y n a r d , M a j - G e n S ir C h a r l e s , 4 8 , 5 2 - 7 , 6 0 - 6 1 , 1 1 8 - 2 5 , 2 2 1 - 3 1 , PI 4 B A r c h a n g e l , 63 c o m m a n d s a t M u r m a n s k , 124 c o u r t s - m a r t i a l , 231 e v a c u a t i o n , 2 1 4 , 22 8 f in a n c e , 1 2 3 - 4 K e m s h o o tin g s , 5 5 - 7 O n e g a m u t i n y , 213 rail s tr i k e , 1 2 3 - 4 , I 2 9 S u n a b rid g e , 2 2 3 - 4 w i n t e r , 18$, 186, 188, 1 9 2 - 4 M e d v e z h y a G o r a , 40; 2 2 1 - 2 , 2 2 4 M e n s h e v i k s , 13, 2911 A r c h a n g e l , 127, C a s p i a n a re a , 87, 9 2 I r k u t s k , 24 4 P e t r o g r a d , 29 M e r c e r , L t H o w a r d , 21 M e rre tt, Jo h n , 2 5 2 -3 M e r v ( M a r y ) , 92 , 9 3 , 96

M e sh e d , 92, 94 M id d le sex R e g t M u r m a n s k , 122, 221 V l a d i v o s t o k , 8 1 , 145, 148, 24 2 , 2 4 3 M i d l a n d B r i g a d e , 88 M i k o y a n , A n a s t a s , 8 8 - 9 , 9 3 , 9 5, 9 6 - 1 0 2 M i l l e r , G e n E u g e n e , 2 2 5 , 231 M il l s , L i e u t e n a n t , 144 M i l n e r , ( V i s c o u n t ) A l f r e d (S e c f o r W a r 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 ) , 99, 100, 137 m i n e s w e e p e r s , 4 4 , 6 3 , 2 19 , 2 4 7 M i r b a c h , C o u n t W i l h e l m v o n , 57, 107, 113, 114 M I 6 ( S e c r e t S e r v ic e ) , 9 9 , 159, 253 M i t c h e l l , L t j o h n , 20 M o g i l e v ( o n D n i e p e r ) , 196, 268; 1 0 8 - 9 M o n g o l i a , 71; 147, 2 3 9, 2 4 6 M o r r i s , C a p t W . , 22 7 1s ty ff M o s c o w , 71, 196, 268\ A l l ie d t h r e a t , 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 8, 24 1; b o m b i n g p la n , 15, 2 3 - 4 ; D e n i k i n , 2 1 , 2 3 1 , 2 7 0 A m e r i c a n R e d C r o s s , 107 B o l s h o i T h e a t r e , 160 E l it e H o t e l , 114 G e r m a n t h r e a t : W W I , 38; G o l t z , 2 6 0 H o u se G racheva, 169-70 K r e m l i n , 106, n o , 156, 172 L o c k h a r t P l o t , 167 L u b y a n k a , 113, 114, 16 8 , 170, 1 7 1 - 2 S t A n d r e w ’s C h u r c h , 2 5 6 u n r e s t (1 9 1 7 ), 28 M u i r , H u g h , 261 M u n r o , G e n S i r C . C . , 92 M u r m a n s k , 40, 196; 3 9 - 6 1 , 1 1 6 - 2 5 , 1 8 5 - 9 4 , 22 1 -3 1 A l l ie d E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e , 4 8 ; M a r i n e s a r r i v e , 39, 72; w i t h d r a w a l , 2 1 4 , 2 2 8 , 231 B o l s h e v i k s u b v e r s i o n , 194 d escrib ed , 4 1 - 3 , 5 9 -6 0 ra ilw a y s trik e, 1 2 3 -4 refu g e e s, 5 8 - 9 , 60 S h a c k le to n , 1 1 7 -1 8 s o v ie t , 4 5 , 56, 57, 123; d i s s o l v e d , 124; i n v it e s B ritish , 4 0 w in ter, l ^ s f f N a b o k o v , K o n s ta n tin , 27 N a ir a n a ( s e a p l a n e c a r r i e r ) , 63 , 128, 2 2 2 N a p i e r , L i e u t e n a n t , 258 N arova (m in e la y e r), 250 N a r v a , 2 4 9 , 26 2 , 265 N a tio n a l C e n tre , 2 5 5 - 6 ‘N a v v i e s ’ M P ’, 81 N e v a r iv e r , 1 6 2 - 3 N e w Y o r k E v e n in g Post, 7 6 - 7 N e w Y o r k T i m e s , 35, 37 N i c h o l a s , G r a n d D u k e , 119 N i c h o l a s II, T s a r , 25, PI t A a b d i c a t i o n , 28 , 102; W e s t a n d , 3 3 - 4 ; m u r d e r e d w i t h f a m i l y , 6 0, 7 9 - 8 0 , 182 t r e a s u r e , 2 4 4 , 245 N ix o n , P res R ic h a rd , 200 N i z h n y U d i n s k , 71 N i z h n y N o v g o r o d ( G o r k y ) , 24 2 N o b e l f a m i l y , 84 N o r th , R e v F ra n k , 256 N o r t h R u ssian r e g im e n ts K o tlas, 2 0 4 - 5 m u t i n y , 199, 2 0 1 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 0 - 1 3 see also S l a v o - B r i t i s h L e g i o n ; W h i t e R u s s i a n s etc

284

Index N o r t h S t a f f o r d s h i r e R e g t , 91 N o u l e n s , J o s e p h , 114 N o v o c h e r k a s s k , 196, 268 N o v o r o s s i y s k , 196, 268; 17, 18, 91 , 270 , 2 7 3 - 4 N o y e s , C a p ta in , 227

P h e l a n , E d w a r d , 100, 101 P h i l l i m o r e , A d m i r a l (‘F i l t h y P h i l ’), 102, 103, 245 P i n e g a , 4 0; 2 0 1 , 218 P in g S u e y ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 81, 145 P i p o v e t s , 215 P i tk a , S ir J o h n , 251 P l e s e t s k a y a , 40; 2 2 0 P o c h e n k o v ( R e s t i k e n t h e a d m a n ) , 117, 118 P o l a n d , 3 7 , 182 A r c h a n g e l , 6 3 , 131, 133, 140, 142 B a l ti c S t a te s , 248 M u r m a n s k , 60 , 63 S i b e ri a , 81, 148, 2 3 3, 2 4 4 S. R u s s i a , 2 69 , 275 P o l it ic a l C e n t r e , 2 4 4 - 5 P o o l e , M a j - G e n F r e d e r i c k , 4 7 - 8 , 6 1 - 4 , 121, 124,

O b r i v e r , 71 O b o z e r s k a y a , 40, 6 4 , 132, 133, 190 O d e s s a , 196, 268; 39, 174, 2 6 8 - 9 , PI 3 A O le g ( c r u i s e r ) , 2 5 0 - 5 1 , 2 5 4 , 2 55 , 2 56 , 2 6 0 O l u c h a k o v ( e x - T s a r i s t o f fi c e r) , 65 O l y m p i a ( c r u is e r ) , 4 3 - 4 , 4 8 , 57, 6 3, 133 O m s k , 71 a r m o u r e d t r a i n , 233 C z e c h s , 75 ‘D i e - H a r d s ’, 146 g o v e rn m e n t, 149 H a m p s h i r e s , 151, 2 3 4 - 8 K o l c h a k , 150, 2 4 2 - 3 P O W s , 112 O n e g a , 40, 196; 6 5 - 6 , 188, 2 1 2 - 1 4 O n e g a , L a k e ( O n e z h s k o y e ) , 2 2 1 - 3 , 2 2 4 - 5 , 228 O r e l ( O r l o v ) , 196, 268; 21, 2 3 1 , 271 O r e n b u r g , 71, 196; 2 3 5 , 2 39 , 24 2 O tto , E d uard, 2 5 5 -6 O u d e n d i j k , W . J . , 165 O x f o r d s h ir e an d B u c k in g h a m s h ire L ight In fa n try , 217

129-37

P a c if ic O c e a n , 67 , 148, 179, 2 4 6 P a l e o l o g u e , M a u r i c e , 25 , 34^1 P a m ia t A z o v a (D v in a ) ( d e p o t s h ip ) , 102, 2 5 0 , 2 5 7 , 2 58 P a r r i s h , S g t S i lv e r , 1 3 3 - 4 , 1 4 0 - 1 , *44. 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 199 P a terso n , L t-C o l R. C ., 47 P a y n e , C a p t a i n , 73 , 77 P earse, S g t S a m u el, 216 P e c h e n g a ( P e t s a m o ) , 40, 4 6 - 7 , 117, 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 223 P e c h o r a r iv e r , 2 4 0 - 1 P e n z a , 71, 196', 74, 7 6 P e r m , 71, 196; 2 3 3 , 2 4 0 P e r s i a (Ir a n ), 83, 8 6, 9 2 , 2 7 5 - 6 ‘P e t e r ’ ( B r i t i s h c o u r i e r ) , 2 5 3 - 4 , 2 55 P e t e r s , J a c o b , 1 6 8 - 7 0 , 171, 172, 1 7 5 - 6 P e t l y u r a , S e m y o n , 23 P e t r o g r a d (earlier S t P e t e r s b u r g ; n o w L e n i n g r a d ) , 40, 196; 2 8, 4 2 , 156//* A n g l o - R u s s i a n H o s p i t a l , 39 a n t i - B o l s h e v i s t g r o u p s , 107 A s t o r i a H o t e l , 102 B a i k o v c afe, 107, 166 b l o c k a d e (1 9 1 5 ), 102 B r i ti s h E m b a s s y , 101, 1 6 2 - 5 B r i t i s h M i l i t a r y M i s s i o n , 39 d i p l o m a t s (1 9 1 8 ), 61 E n g l i s h C l u b , 162 G o r o k h o v a y a , 161, 164 N i k o l a i B r i d g e , 165 P a l a c c Q u a y , 101 P a l a t e S q u a r e , 25 P e t e r h o f , 114 S m o l n y Institute*. 32, 109 s o v ie t , 29, 3 1 u nrest (n ;i7 ), Y u i l c m d i , 23 i. J U . *M9 . a 6 i - 3 lU'trojmvlovsk ( l u u l c O i i p ) . J \<>. ; s \ . J i s y I V tm v s k (M .ik li.ii Ilk.1I.1), 8, K>, J /(>

I V i r o /u v i i iU k .

40,

): \

N

A s k o ld m u t i n e e r s , 58 H i l l, 109 L e t t R ifle s, 160 T s a r ’s a b d i c a t i o n , 102 P o r t A r t h u r , 6 7 , 150 Porto ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 47 , 1 9 8 - 9 P o u r t a l e s , C o u n t F r i e d r i c h v o n , 25 P o v o l z h e , 175 P ra v d a , 30 President K ru g e r ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 88, 91 P r i l u t s k a y a , 218 E d w a r d ( P r i n c e o f W a le s ; later E d w a r d V I II), 243 P r i s o n e r o f W a r C o n g r e s s , 113 Proletarian o f B a k u , 84 P s k o v , 2 4 9 , 2 62 P u n j a b i R e g t , 93 P y l e , P r i v a t e , 2 27 R a d c l if fe , G e n P. d e B . , 121 ra ilw a y s /tra in s A l l ie d a s s i s ta n c e , 109 A r c h a n g e l , 4 0; 113, 126, 205 ; F r e n c h , 1 3 1 - 2 ; P o o l e , 129; S a m o i l o , 128; T h o r n h i l l , 6 4 - 6 a r m o u r e d t r a i n s , 127, 1 9 2 - 3 , 2 17 , 2 33 , 26 5, 2 67 , 2 72 B a k u - B a t u m , 84 b o a t s o n , 2 22 47 S q u a d ro n , 20 H a m p s h ire s, 1 2 3 -4 M u r m a n s k , 4 0 ,4 2 , 52, 1 1 8 - 1 9 , 1 9 2 - 3 ; a n ti-B o lsh e v ik m ea su re s, 5 4 -7 ; a rm e d e x p e d n , 4 5 ; ‘F o r d ’ t r a i n , 124; s t r i k e , 1 2 3 - 4 , 129 o v e r l o a d e d , 6 8, 126 s a b o t a g e d b y H ill, 173 t a n k s o n , 26 2 , 27 2 T r a n s c a s p i a n , 92 T r a n s - S i b e r i a n , 71; 2 6, 6 7 - 8 , 7 2, 2 32 ; C z e c h s , 7 4 - 9 , 1 46, 2 33 ; R e d A r m y , 2 4 3 - 4 ; S e m e n o v , 15 3

T r o t s k y ’s t r a i n , 265 U S a s s i s ta n c e , 69 , 23 2 Z f li g h t, 15, 2 2 , 2 4, 2 67 , PI 2A , 2 B R a s k o l n i k o v , F. F ., 2 5 1 - 2 , 2 7 6 R a s p u t i n , G r i g o r i y E f i m o v i c h , 28 R a w l i n s o n , G e n S ir H e n r y , 2 0 6, 2 1 4 , 2 2 8, 22 9,

231 R e a g a n , P r e s R o n a l d , 2 00 R e a r d o n , P r iv a t e , 1 4 5 - 6 R e d C r o s s , 107, 112, 148 R e d ( •ti.trds, 32, 3 3 A n l u n ^ e l , 6 1 , 1 2 N -9

.>.Hs

Index R e d G u a r d s - cont. C z e c h s , 76 M u rm a n sk , 4 5 -6 , 5 5 -6 R e d T e r r o r , 1 7 0 - 3 , 176 R e e d , J o h n , 33 r e f u g e e s , 161 M u r m a n s k , 5 8 - 9 , 60 Sib eria, 2 4 3 - 4 S. R u s s i a , 2 6 7 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 3 , 27 5 R e i ll y , C a p t S i d n e y , 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 0 5 - 7 , 1 5 6 - 6 7 , 168, 173, 175. P I7 A D e n i k i n , 174 L o c k h a r t p l o t , 115, 1 7 4 - 6 S a v i n k o v , 107, 114 R e s t i k e n t , 4 0; 6 0, 1 1 6 - 1 8 ‘K i n g o f ’, see C r a w f o r d R e v e l ( T a ll in n ) , ig 6 \ 104, 2 5 1, 2 6 2 R i d d e l l , S ir G e o r g e , 183 R i g a , 196- 37, 2 49 , 263 R o b e r t s , L t C h a r l e s , 21 R o b i n s , C o l R a y m o n d , 107, i n , 169 R o d z i a n k o , C o l (later G e n ) P a u l , 80, 2 6 4 R o s t o v - o n - D o n , 196, 268; 17, 18, 2 6 7 , 2 7 1 , 27 2 R o t h s t e i n , A n d r e w , 56 R o y a l A i r F o r c e ( R A F ) (till 1918 R o y a l F l y i n g C o r p s and R o y a l N a v a l A i r S e r v ic e ) A r c h a n g e l , 1 4 3 - 4 , 2 01 , 2 0 2 - 3 , 2 1 7 - 1 8 “ A ” S q u a d r o n /4 7 S q u a d r o n , 1 8 -2 1 , 267, 272,

S i b e ri a , 148, 233 R u s s i a (front 1923 U S S R ) , 13, 2 3, 2 5 - 3 8 A i r F o r c e , I m p e r i a l , 17, 26, n o , 1 4 2 - 3 A r m y , I m p e r i a l , 2 6 - 7 , 6 0 , 6 4 , 127; d i s a f f e c t io n , 2 8, 30, 32, 36; P O W s , 77; w o m e n ’s b a t t a l i o n ,

32-3 B a ltic area, 2 4 7 - 6 6 C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y , 107 d i p l o m a t s , 6 1 - 2 , i o o - ^ 156, 1 7 2 - 3 D u m a f o rm e d , 26 E v a c u a t i o n C o m m i t t e e , 110 e x p a t r i a t e s , 100 J u l y D a y s , 30 K o r n i l o v p l o t , 31 L eft S R c o u p , 1 1 3 -1 5 M a r itim e P ro v in c e s , 233, 246 N a v y , I m p e r i a l , 2 6, 5 7 - 8 , 6 3 , 1 0 4 - 5 ; m u t i n y , 2 8, 32, 4 1, 4 4 - 5 N o r t h , 3 9 - 6 6 , 104, 1 1 6 - 4 4 , 184, 1 8 5 - 2 3 1 P r o v i s i o n a l G o v t , 2 8 - 3 3 , 9 9, 108 R e d f o r c e s , see B o l s h e v i k s r e v o l u t i o n (1 9 0 5 ), 2 6, 84, 102 r e v o l u t i o n (1 9 1 7 ), 3 1 - 3 Sib eria, 6 7 - 8 2 , 1 4 5 -5 5 , 2 3 2 -4 6 S o u th , 1 5 -2 4 , 36, 8 3 -9 7 , 2 6 7 -7 6 T s a r a b d i c a t e s , 28 W h i t e f o r c e s , see W h i t e R u s s i a n s W o r l d W a r I, 25, 2 7 - 9 , 3 7 - 8 R u s s i a n R a i l w a y S e r v ic e C o r p s , 6 9 R u s s o - G e r m a n A r m y , 2 6 0 , 263 R u s s o - J a p a n e s e W a r (1 9 0 5 ), 26, 67 , 7 1 , 105, 150, 249

273

B a l ti c , 2 6 4 ‘C ’ F l ig h t , 272 4 7 S q d n , see “ A ” S q d n above H i g h S p e e d F l ig h t , 19 H i l l, 108 K u b a n G r o u p , 273 M u rm a n sk , 222-3 221 S q u a d r o n , 1 6 - 1 7 w i n t e r , 186 “ Z ” F l ig h t , 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 2 - 4 , 26 7 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 2, P I 2 A , 2B R o y a l A r m y M e d i c a l C o r p s ( R A M C ) , 54, P / 5 B R o y a l A r m y O r d n a n c e C o r p s , 186 R o y a l E n g i n e e r s ( R E ) , 134, 2 0 5 , 223 gas b o m b s , 204 M u r m a n s k , 4 7 - 8 , 119, 123, 2 2 7 R o y a l F l y i n g C o r p s , see R o y a l A i r F o r c e R o y a l F u s ilie rs , 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 2 1 0, 2 1 4 - 1 7 , 2 1 9 R o y al M arin es A r c h a n g e l , 63 , 121, 2 1 7 M u r m a n s k , 3 9 - 4 1 , 43, 4 5 - 8 , 5 7 - 8 ; 6 th B a ttn L ig h t In fa n try , 2 2 5 -3 1 R o y a l N a v y , PI j A a r m o u r e d c a rs , 39, 8 4 - 5 B a ltic , 39, 102, 2 4 7 - 6 0 , 2 6 3 - 4 , 2 6 5 - 6 B a r e n t s / W h i t e S e a s, 39, 4 2 - 7 , 55, 6 3 , 119 b l o c k a d e ( o f G e r m a n y ) , 35, 4 3, 84 d i s a f f e c t io n , 180, 2 5 8 - 9 in te l li g e n c e , 1 0 3 - 4 R ussian c re w s, 102-3 S i b e r i a , 39, 23 2 , 2 3 3 - 4 , 2 4 2 S. R u s s i a , 9 3 , 2 7 4 , 275 V C s , 2 1 6, 2 5 4 , 25 8 Y u d e n i c h , 231 R o y a l S c o t s , 1 3 1 - 2 , 139, 140, 1 4 1 , 2 1 7 R o y a l S u s s e x R e g t , 122 R o y a l W a rw ic k s h ire R e g t, 217 R u m a n ia F r e n c h s u p p o r t , 3 5 - 6 , 39 R e d A r m y , 113

S a d l e i r - J a c k s o n , B r i g L. W . d e V . , 198, 2 0 7, 2 1 4 -1 5 S t P e t e r s b u r g , see P e t r o g r a d S a m a r a ( K u i b y s h e v ) , 71, 196; 113, 146, 1 4 9 , 175,

239 S a m o i l o , G e n A l e x a n d e r , 1 27, 128, 131, 2 0 9 , 2 1 7 S a r a t o v , 196, 268; 173 S a r d a r a b , b a t t l e o f , 85 Sarp edo n ( t r a w l e r ) , 65 S a v i n k o v , B o r i s , 107, 1 1 3 , 114, 175 s c u r v y , 119, 133 S e c r e t I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v ic e (SIS ), 9 8 ^ , 101, 106, 253

S e e le y , J a c k (‘G a l l o p i n g J a c k ’), 2 4 0 S e g e z h a , 40; 1 9 2 - 3 , 221 S e m e n o v , C a p t G r e g o r i ( f r e e b o o t e r ) , 7 3 , 75, 112, 147, 2 4 4 , 2 4 6 J o h n s o n , 1 5 3 -5 , 239 ‘P r i n c e o f M o n g o l i a ’, 2 3 9 S e r b ia , 39 , 5 3 , 2 2 4 N . R u s s i a , 4 8 , 119, 120, 121, 1 3 3 , 192; g a r r i s o n s , 4 7 , 55, 56, 57; O n e g a , 2 2 2 ; r a i l w a y s a b o ta g e , 64 S i b e ri a , 148, 233 S e ttr in g h a m , L o rd , 216 S e v e n t h L i g h t C a v a l r y , 93 S h a c k l e t o n , S ir E r n e s t , 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 121, 125, 185, 188 S h a u m ia n , S te p an , 8 5 - 7 , S h c h e tin in , V ik to r, 2 1 2 -1 3 S h e n k u r s k , 4 0, 196; 1 8 7 - 8 S h e p p a r d , C a p t a i n ( M u r m a n s k ) , 120 S h e p p a r d , M a j o r ( R o y a l F u s ilie rs ) , 21 5 S h i n w e l l , (later L o r d ) E m m a n u e l (‘M a n n y ’), 180 S i b e r i a , 71; 6 7 - 8 2 , 108, 1 4 5 - 5 5 , 2 31 , 2 3 2 - 4 6 C z e c h d e f e a t , 201 ‘g o v e r n m e n t ’, 1 4 8 - 5 1 , 241

286

Index ‘m y t h i c a l a r m i e s ’, 112 S i d n e y S t s ie g e , 1 6 8 - 9 S i k o r s k y , I g o r , 26 S i n d a ll , L t J . , 2 54 , 2 5 6 s k ie r s , 186 , 193 S k o b e l t s i n , G e n e r a l , 2 24 , 228 S l a v o - B r i t i s h L e g i o n , 6 4 , 119, 133, 192, 2 19 d i s a f f e c t io n , 121, 141, 2 0 9, 2 1 0 - 1 2 D y e r ’s B a t t a l i o n , 2 1 0 - 1 2 S h en k u rsk , 1 87-8 S l o v a k s , 70, 113 S m a ll , L t E . A . / ‘S m a l l ’s P a r t i s a n s ’, 2 2 3 - 4 S m i d c h e n ( C h e k a a g e n t? ) , 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 7 5 - 6 S m i r n o v , S. F ., 2 0 9 S m i t h , F. E . (later L o r d B i r k e n h e a d ) , 2 3 4 S m i t h - C u m m i n g , C m d r M a n s f i e l d (‘C ’), 9 9 , 100,

113,

159

D u k e s, 2 5 2 -3 , 260 R e i ll y , 105 S m i t h - H i l l , L t P. R . , 2 2 8 - 9 S o c ia l D e m o c r a t i c W o r k e r s ’ P a r t y , 13, 29H, 85 S o c i a l i s t R e v o l u t i o n a r y P a r t y , 13 A r c h a n g e l , 127, 129 A shkhabad, 9 2 -7 B a k u , 87, 89, 95 C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y , 107 L e f t S R ’s, 13; c o u p ( Ju ly 1918), 1 1 3 - 1 5 , 170, 175

L e n i n s h o o t i n g , 170, 176 P e t r o g r a d , 29 , 107 R i g h t S R ’s, 6 4 , 162 S i b e ri a , 149; I r k u t s k , 2 44 S o k o l o v , N i c h o l a s , 79 S o l o v e t s k i i s l a n d s , 4 0; 6 5 , 1 3 6 - 7 S o r o k a , 40; 57, 188, 192, 213 S o u t h S la v b a t t a l i o n s , 113 s o v i e t s ( p e o p l e ’s a s s e m b li e s ) , 3 0, 3 1 - 3 , 37, 160, PI l B S p a n i s h in f l u e n z a , 50, 5 3 - 4 , 119, 132 S ta lin , J o s e p h ( I o s i f V i s s a r i o n o v i c h D z u g a s h v i l i ) , 29, 3 i B a k u , 8 4 , 87, 9 6 I n d ia , 3 6 - 7 p u r g e s , 80, 175, 2 4 2 S i b e ri a , 7 0 T r o t s k y , 175 T s a r i t s y n , 19 S t a n d o l i n , J o s e p h , 164 S t a v r o p o l , 268 S te e l, S u b - L i e u t e n a n t , 2 57 , 258 S te p h e n ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 199 S t e v e n s , J o h n F ., 6 9 S t e w a r t , C o l G e o r g e E . , 132 S t r o v e r , M a j o r , 22 8 S t u r d y , M a j A m b r o s e , 129, 1 3 0 - 1 , 139, 187, 195-7

C i t y o f M arseilles, 50 gas, 2 0 3 - 4 O n e g a , 190-1 su b m a rin e s o v e r l a n d , 6H, 102 R o y a l N a v y . 39. 102, 104, 252 R u s s i a n , 102, 103, 104, I r n i n r t ? , 252 U - b o a t s , 42 i, 4 6 7, so S u ffo lk ( c r u i s a ), 72. Jt H S u t r o , I ' d w j i d , Jt 1 4 I S S v c r d l o v , |.i< ol>, /*), 1 /<> 71 S v e r d l o v s k , we I kjIcm iiIm iiy, SvyatiMvolok.

i) /. JJH

Sw eden, 264-5 Sw o rd D ance (m in e sw e e p e r), 219 S y d n e y (cru iser), 67 Syrovy, G e n ja n , 244-5 T a g a n r o g , 196, 268', 15, 17, 2 2 , 2 7 1 - 2 ta n k s /T a n k C o rp s B a l ti c , 2 6 2 - 5 H e a v y M a r k V , 18, 21 7 , 2 2 0 , 2 6 2 - 3 J o u r n a l, 2 2 0 , 2 62 N . R u s s i a , 2 0 9 , 2 17 , 2 1 9 N o r t h R u ssian T a n k C o r p s , 2 1 9 -2 0 R e n a u lt, 269 S. R u s s i a , 18, 2 69 , 27 0 , 2 7 1 - 2 , 273 W h i p p e t s , 18, 2 1 7, PI 4 A T c h a i k o v s k y , N i k o l a i , 6 4, 1 29, 1 3 6 - 7 , 225 T e a g u e -J o n e s , C a p t R e g in a ld , 9 4 - 7 T e n D a y s that S h o o k the W orld, 33 T e r r i o k i , 2 5 3 , 2 6 0, 2 6 6 T e r r i t o r i a l A r m y , 151, 152 T h o m s o n , S ir B a s il, 2 0 7 T h o r n h i l l , C o l C . J. M . , 6 4 - 6 , 119, 120 T i k h o n ( P a t r i a r c h ) , 160 T im e s , T h e a n t i - B o l s h e v i s m , 37 K olch ak , 149-50, 2 3 5 -6 O m sk , 235-6 T h o r n h ill raid, 6 5 - 6 v o l u n t e e r s , 195 T o p s a , 2 0 4 -5 , 210 T r a n s - B a i k a l , 73 T r a n s c a s p i a , 84, 9 2 - 3 T r a n s c a u c a s i a , 2 7 0 , 275 A n g l o - F r e n c h p a c t, 2 6 7 - 8 i n d e p e n d e n t , 85, 26 8 T r a z -o s - M o n te s ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 1 2 2 - 3 T r o i t s k o y e , 40; 140, 2 d i , 2 0 4 - 5 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 0 T r o t s k y , L e o n ( L e v D a v i d o v i c h B r o n s t e i n ) , 29, 3 1 - 2 , PI 6A a s s a s s i n a t i o n p l o t , 160, 175 B r i t i s h , 4 0 - 1 , 6 5 , n o , 114 C z e c h s , 75 , 76 , 146 L o c k h a r t , n o - 11, 112 p e a c e w i t h G e r m a n y , 36 R a sk o ln ik o v , 2 5 1 - 2 T s a r , see N i c h o l a s II T s a r e v i c h ( A le x e i) , 7 9 - 8 0 T s a r itz a ( t r o o p s h i p ) , 2 1 9 T s a r i t s y n ( S t a l i n g r a d ; V o l g o g r a d ) , 71, 196, 268; 1 9 - 2 0 , 87 T s u s h i m a , b a t t l e o f , 26, 71 T u k h a c h e v s k y , G e n e ra l, 242 T u l a , 196, 268 T u l g a s , 4 0; 134, 141, 199, 2 0 0 T u r k e y , 16, 17, 35, 268 B a k u ,8 3 -9 2 B r e s t - L i t o v s k t r e a t y , 37 C a u c a s u s , 16, 8 4 -7 T ran scasp ia, 9 2 -3 T r a n s c a u c a s i a , 275 T u r k m a n ( sh ip ) , 9 3 - 4 , 9 6 T u r n e r , B r i g a d i e r - G e n e r a l , 190, 2 0 5 - 6 T w e n t y - S i x B a k i n s k i k h K o m m i s s a r o v , 95 ty p h u s B a ltic , 265 S ib e ria , 23H, 2 3 9 - 4 0 , 24 3 S. R u s s ia , 267, 27 1 , 273

II I mjis, 42 l.

iH7

4
Index U f a , 71, J p 6 ; 2 3 3 , 2 39 U k r a i n e , 196; 2 3 9 , 2 6 9 , 275 C z e c h s , 39 F re n c h , 36 G e r m a n y , 5 7 , 109, 156 ‘i n d e p e n d e n c e ’, 37 N a t i o n a l i s t s , 2 3, 35, 2 7 0 r e s o u r c e s , 35, 3 7, 72 U n io n fo r th e D efen ce o f F a th erlan d an d F r e e d o m , 107, 113 U n i t e d S t a te s o f A m e r i c a e x p a t r i a t e s , 156 in te l li g e n c e , 1 0 7 - 8 , 102 J a p a n , 246 n a v y , 39, 43 N . R u s s i a , 4 3 - 4 , 5 3 . 63 , 1 3 2 - 5 . 1 8 7 - 8 ; e v a c u a t e d , 2 00 ; ‘n o m o r e t r o o p s ’, 136; p o s t ­ w a r , 142, 1 7 9 # 1 8 9 - 9 0 ; T u l g a s , 134, 1 4 0 - 1 , 199; P I 4 B railw a y s, 69, 2 2 1 - 2 , 224, 232 R e d C r o s s , 107, 112 S ib e ria , 7 1 - 2 , 77. *47. 2 3 2 - 3 , 2 3 4 , 2 39; e v a c u a t e d , 245 T s a r ’s a b d i c a t i o n , 34 u n i ts : E i g h t h D i v i s i o n , 147; 2 7 t h I n f a n t r y , 147; 3 1 s t I n f a n t r y , 147; 3 1 0 t h E n g i n e e r s , 132, 135; 3 3 7 t h A m b u l a n c e C o m p a n y , 132; 3 3 7 t h F ie ld H o s p i t a l , 132; 3 3 9 t h I n f a n t r y , 132, 140, 199-200 W a sh in g to n C o n fe re n c e , 246 enters W o r l d W a r I, 34, 71 U r a l m o u n t a i n s , 71; 146, 2 4 2 U r i t s k y , M o i s e , 160, 1 6 2 , 164, 1 7 0 - 1 , 176 U r o s o z e v o , 221 U s s u n a , 2 2 7 , 228 U s s u r i r iv e r , 1 4 5 - 6 , 2 3 2 V a g a r iv e r , 40, 187 Valorous ( d e s t r o y e r ) , 2 5 2 V a l u y k i , 196, 268-, 22, 2 6 7 V ancouver ( d e s t r o y e r ) , 2 52 V e r d u n , 19, 2 7 V e r k h n y U d i n s k , 71 V e r t e m e n t , C o l o n e l d e , 107, 168 V i a tk a , 241 V i k o r i s t , R e a r - A d m l Y a . E . , 127 Vin d ic tiv e ( a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r ) , 2 5 6 , 2 5 9 V i r e n , A d m i r a l , 28, 1 0 2 - 3 , i ° 5 V l a d i v o s t o k , 7 /; 52, 6 7 - 8 2 , 115, 145—55, 232_/f A llie s: m i s s i o n s , 8 0 - 8 2 , 1 4 5 - 8 ; n a v ie s , 39; w ith d raw al, 2 4 3 -6 C z e c h s , 76; G a j d a , 241 s o v ie t , 7 6 - 7 V o l g a r iv e r , 71, 196, 268, 19, 21, 87, 149 V o l o g d a , 40, 1 9 6 , 6 1 - 2 , 129, 157 V o r o n e z h , 196, 268; 173, 271 W a i d e , C p l A r t h u r , 1 5 1 - 2 , 153, 238 W aldeck R ousseau ( c r u i s e r ) , 2 7 4 W a lp o le , H u g h , 99 W a r d , L t - C o l j o h n (‘N a v v i e s ’ M P ’), 81, 146, 1 50-51 W a r d r o p , O l i v e r , 157, 1 7 2 - 3 W a rw ic k s h ire R e g t, 217 W a sh in g to n C o n fe re n c e , 246 W a t t s , C a p t a i n , 2 27 , 2 2 9 W e b s t e r , C a p t W . B ., 112 W e lls , C o l o n e l , 2 1 0 - 1 1

W e lls , H . G . , 172 W h ite R u ssian s, 231, 2 4 2 - 3 , 275 a i r f o r c e s , 1 7 - 1 8 , 21, 2 2, 7 9 “ 8o, 1 4 2 - 4 . 2 0 2 - 3 a n t i - S e m i t i s m , 23, 2 3 5 , 2 7 0 E k a te r in b u rg b rig a d e , 2 3 8 - 9 h o s p i t a l , PI $ B N . R u ssia, 203, 2 2 4 - 5 , 228, 231, P l j B ; N o r t h e r n C o r p s , 2 48 ; see also S l a v o - B r i t i s h L egion; N o r t h R ussian re g im e n ts N o r t h - W e s t e r n A r m y , 231, 232 R u s s o - G e r m a n A r m y , 2 6 0 , 263 S i b e ri a , 145, 1 4 8 - 5 1 , 2 4 1 - 6 S. R u s s i a , 15, 17, 18, 2 1 , 2 3 - 4 , 2 3 1 , 2 6 7 - 7 5 Y u d en ich , 2 4 9 -6 5 W h i t e S e a , 40, 19&, 119, 136, 188 W illia m s, A lb e rt R h y s , 7 6 - 7 W i l s o n , G e n S ir H e n r y ( C I G S ) , 5 2 , 53, 1 7 8 - 9 . 182-3 W ilso n , P res W o o d r o w A r c h a n g e l , 133, 137 C z e c h s , 71 , 7 8 - 9 , 8 0 - 8 1 J a p a n , 72, 1 4 7 - 8 p o s t - w a r , 183 P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t , 34 W ilto n , R o b e rt, 2 3 5 - 6 W il t s h i r e R e g t , 2 1 7 W ith the D ie -H a r d s in Siberia, 151 W i t t e , C o u n t S e r g e i , 26, 6 7 , 126 w o m e n ’s b a t t a l i o n , 3 2 - 3 , 211 W o o d s , L ie u te n a n t-C o lo n e l, 120-1 W o r c e s t e r s h i r e R e g t , 91 W o r l d W a r I, 25 A r m i s t i c e , 16, 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 121, 123, 140, 1 4 1 - 2 , 152, 178 b l o c k a d e , 35, 4 3 , 84, 2 4 7 B r e s t - L i t o v s k T r e a t y , 3 6 - 8 ; b r o k e n , 156 E a s te rn F r o n t w e a k e n e d , 30 L u d e n d o r f f o f f e n s iv e , 43 W o r l d W a r II H i l l, 174 K u r s k , 21 P a c if ic , 148, 2 4 6 P e c h e n g a , 47 S t a l i n g r a d , 19 W r a n g e l , G e n B a r o n , P e t e r , 2 0, 21, 2 7 4 - 5 M o s c o w , 270 s ta tio n - m a s te rs , 267 Y a m b u r g , 2 6 4 , 265 Y a n s o n ( C h e k i s t ) , 166 Y a r o s l a v l , 1 13, 114, 156, 158, 176 Y e r m o l o v ( M u r m a n s k g o v e r n o r ) , 124, 125 Y M C A ( Y o u n g M e n ’s C h r i s t i a n A s s o c ia t io n ) A r c h a n g e l , 136, 144, 2 1 9 S i b e r i a , 148 Y o r k s h i r e R e g t , 1 2 2 - 3 , 178, 1 8 8 - 9 , 2 1 7 Y o u n g , D o u g l a s , 126, 129, 130 C h a p lin , 61, 63, 64 K e m s h o o tin g s , 56 Y u d e n i c h , G e n N i k o l a i , 196; 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 4 9, 2 6 0 -5 Y u r e k ( o f M u r m a n s k s o v ie t ) , 4 0 - 1 Y u s u p o v , P r i n c e , 28 Z a n k , R i c h a r d J . , 118 “ Z ” F l i g h t , see R o y a l A i r F o r c e Z o r o a s t r i a n s , 83

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The Day We Almost Bombed Moscow: The Allied War in Russia 1918-1920 An undercover RAF squadron prepares to bomb Moscow from a makeshift landing ground in the Steppes two hundred miles from the Russian capital.. .TWo British regiments land at Vladivostok.. .The Japanese invade Siberia with 70,000 troops. . . American infantrymen fight the Bolsheviks in a bitter winter war south of Archangel... British spies in Moscow plot the overthrow of the Russian government... Thriller fiction? No. These events actually happened in a little known and much misunderstood war conducted at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Allied intervention began in 1918 as a desperate attempt to maintain the Eastern Front against the Germans after Russia’s decision to withdraw from the Great War. But by 1920 it had developed into a haphazard and often chaotic offensive against Bolshevism itself and set the pattern for East-W est relations which persists with all its dangers today — nearly seventy years after British troops landed at Murmansk to protect the Soviet government of the town from the Germans and invading White Finns. Christopher Dobson and John Miller have based their account of this extraordinary and neglected episode on extensive research conducted in London and in Moscow. The authors are experienced foreign correspondents, with access to archives never opened before, into diaries and letters written by the men who were players in the drama. They have also managed to conduct interviews with the now diminishing band of survivors. Among them is one of the men who was eventually refused permission to bomb Moscow because Winston Churchill, then Minister ofWar, had ruled that there was "no military value? in thisoperation”

photo: Dod Miller

John Miller

Christopher Dobson

Christopher Dobson is an author and foreign correspondent who now specialises in writing about terrorism. Awarded the IPC prize as “International journalist of the Year, 1968” for coverage of the Middle East and Vietnam, his previous books include THE CARLOS COMPLEX (with Ronald Payne) and THE CRUELLEST NIGHT (written in collaboration with John Miller and Ronald Payne). Married with four children, he lives in Sussex and enjoys fishing. A foreign correspondent for more than twenty years, John Miller is now a specialist in Soviet affairs and foreign leader-writer of the Daily Telegraph. He is the author of THE CHAMDO RAID, a thriller set in Tibet. He is married with three children and has settled in Dulwich, London, where he golfs enthusiastically.